l^ 

c^ 




IL®m® MWM'B'M. 




londoa]^blished bjr3.'hani(is Jfelfjr. IV Pstemostiec Bbw, 



THE 



NEW TABLET OF MEMORY : 



OB, 



CHEONICLE OF REMARKABLE EVENTS 



WITH THE DATES OF 



INVENTIONS AND DISCO VEEIES 



ARTS AND SCIENCES ; 



BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF THE MOST DISTINGUISHED PERSONS 
OF EVERY AGE AND NATION. 



A 00r.IPI-.TE EPITOME OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 



THOMAS BARTLETT, ESQ. 



EMBELLISHED WITH ILLUSTRATIVE ENGRAVINGS. 



LONDON : 



THOMAS KELLY, PATERNOSTER ROV^. 



3)^ 

^3 



LONDON : 
THOMS, TRINTEB, WARWICK SGUARW. 



*7 '7 -D? 

'? My -ys" 



P H E F A C E. 



The principal object contemplated by the author in the following work 
is utility. To a large number of individuals a chronological arrangement 
of facts and events is often indispensable. This circumstance gave rise 
to the publication of the original " Tablet of Memory," which appeared 
some time before the close of the last century. In that work, the author 
arranged the events under certain heads, as Accidents, Occurrences, &c., 
under separate alphabets ; but it was found very defective, in con- 
sequence of the meagre information it contained, and the difficulty, when 
searching for a fact, of ascertaining under what alphabet it might be 
found. The subsequent editions have also been very inaccurate. 

In the following work, which includes general histoiy, biography, 
science, and art, as well as much miscellaneous information, the whole 
appears on a greatly enlarged scale, under one general alphabetical ar- 
rangement, in which the events are introduced in chronological order. 
At the same time, the author trusts that the information under each 
article is sufficient to render it of utility to readers of all classes. 

In relation to general History, the most memorable events are con- 
cisely noticed, from the creation of the world to the present time, in 
alphabetical order, under the geographical name of all the principal 
divisions of the world. In this department, besides a sketch of the 
chronology of every coimtry, both ancient and modem, is introduced the 
name of every colony, city, town, public body, &c., respecting which 
there is any event worthy of notice. 

On the subject of Biography, the work contains a sketch of the life 
of the most eminent individuals in every age and country, and if they 
have borne a conspicuous place in the history of any particular state or 
city, reference is made to it, under its alphabetical order. 

The facts connected with Science and Art, and the discoveries and 
improvements in every department, are arranged under the most obvious 
word, with references to all others under which they might with any 

A 2 



iv PREFACE. 

degree of probability be sought for. This department includes, among 
other things, a concise chronological account of the origin and progress 
of all the principal sciences, as Astronomy, Chemistry, Electricity, 
Galvanism, &c. ; the introduction, and nlost recent improvements con- 
nected with Gas, Steam, Railways, &c., and the dates of all the principal 
geographical discoveries, &.c. 

The author suggests that the following pages will be found useful as a 
book pf frequent reference ; among others, to the following classes in 
society : — The man of science and literature, although he will not expect 
from it any novelty, will often be able to avail himself of the information 
above alluded to, where memory fails, or the means of refreshing it are 
not at hand. 

To commercial aiid professional men a ready reference to dates, kc. 
of acts of parliament and other public documents will either prevent the 
necessity of laborious research, or give such assistance as shall render 
that research more easy and effectual. 

To those who may be suddenly called to conduct or address public 
assemblies, either of a political, commercial, or religious character, a 
fimd of information will be found of various characters, and condensed 
in a small compass, by which the memory may be hastily qualified for the 
occasion. The reader is referred under this head to the articles, Bible, 
Bible SociETr, Corn Laws, Church, Slavery, &c. 

To the general reader of the literature of the day, or to persons pos- 
sessing a desire for knowledge, with few opportunities of obtaining it, 
the vvork will recommend itself, as containing (besides the general history 
and compendium of science before noticed) a great mass of miscellaneous 
information connected with the common events in life, which cannot fail 
to be eminently useful. 

In conclusion, the author's design is, that the work should render 
effectual assistance to that important faculty, the memory, by forming a 
complete, though concise, epitome of universal history — uniting the advan- 
tages of facts, dates, and alphabetical arrangement — and on a scale that he 
is not aware has ever before been presented to the public. In attempt- 
ing til is, it will be evident to those qualified to judge, that an immense 
labour of reference and research has been employed. How far the Author 
has succeeded in the accomplishment of the task he has assigned to 
himself, must be left to the candid judgment of the reader. 

Oxford, April 1, 1841. 



INTRODUCTION. 



In order to understand the plan of the following work, some introductory remarlca 
on the nature and uses of chronology may not be inappropriate. 

Chronology has been defined by a modern popular writer, " the story of time" — 
©r " the narrative of the succession of recorded events, in their proper order, noticing 
the portions of time that elapse between them." Even to merely historical knowledge, 
chronology is important ; because, without it, our knowledge is not correct. But, when 
we wish to turn our historical knowledge to a practical use, by reflecting upon the 
causes and results of human actions, chronology becomes indispensable. 

Before the "story of time" can be known, we must know something of time itself j 
we must know how to compare two portions or periods of it, so as to be able to say either 
that they are of equal length, or that the one is longer than the other, and how much 
longer it is. In order to do this, we must fix i^on some standard of which the length is 
known. We must have recourse to some event which we have reason to believe does 
not take up a longer pexiod at one time than at another, — such as the rotation of the 
earth upon its axis, the revolution of the moon round the earth, or that of the earth 
round the sun. On these principles are formed the common divisions of time. 

Days and Hours. — A natural day consists of 24 hours, or of that space of time in 
which the earth makes one complete rotation about its axis ; and, consequently, it is the 
time which the sun takes to perform 15 degrees of his apparent diurnal course from east 
to west. The hour is divided into 60 equal parts, called minutes, the minute into 60 
equal parts, called seconds, and so on, continuing the subdivisions by 60 at pleasure. 
The most ancieat hour consisted of not the 24th, but the 12th part of the day. The 
Egyptians and ancient Greeks divided their day into four equal pcrts of three hours 
each. The night also they divided into four equal watches. The beginning of the day 
has been variously reckoned by different nations. The Chaldseans, Syrians, Persians, 
and Indians, reckoned the day to commence at sunrise. The Jews also used this 
method for their civil, but began the sacred day at sunset ; this latter mode was used 
also by the Athenians, the Arabs, the ancient Gauls, and some other European nations. 
The ancient inhabitants of Italy computed the day from midnight, and in this they liave 
been followed by the English, French, Dutch, Germans, Spaniards, and Portuguese. 
Modern astronomers, after the Arabians, count the day from noon. 

The Week. — The earlier Greeks divided their month into three portions of ten 
days each : the northern Chinese had a week of 15 days, and the Mexicans one of 13. 
But the Chaldseans and most other Oriental nations, have, from time immemorial, used 
the Jewish week of seven days, which has been adopted by the Mohammedans, and 
introduced, with Christianity, to most of the civilized nations of the world. 



VI INTRODUCTION 

The Month is, properly, that portion of time in which the moon perforins her 
circuit about the earth, and this month is of the kind with whicli chronology is chiefly 
concerned. Lunar months are either periodical or synodical. A periodical lunar month 
is the time which elapses between the departure of the moon from any point in her 
orbit, and her return to the same point, which is 27 days, seven hours, 43 minutes, 
and eight seconds. The synodical lunar month is the time that elapses between one 
conjunction of the sun and moon, and another, which is 29 days, 12 hours, 4-1 minutes, 
and 3 11-60 seconds. The civil month is that artificial space of time, by means of 
which the solar year is divided into 12 parts ; tliese months, which were first ordained 
by Julius CKsar, consist of 30, or 31 days each, with the exception of February, which 
commonly contains 20, and in every fourth year, 29 days. See the article Bissextile. 

The Yeah is the largest revolution of time ; it is the period that elapses while the 
earth is performing one complete revolution about the sun, which is about 365J days. 
The ordinary years (to prevent embarrassment in computations) are reckoned to contain 
only 365 days, and the quarter of a day, which in these years is omitted, is brought to 
account every fourth year. The three quarters of days omitted, together with a quarter 
of a day belonging to the current year, make up one whole day, this is added to the end 
of February in that said fourth year, which, by this means, consists of 366 days, and is 
known by the name of bissextile, or leap-year. Julius Ctesar instituted this method 
of regulating the year, a.c. 46, whence it is called the Julian year. But the true 
length of the year is not 365^^ days; it falls short of this number by H minutes, 
12 seconds, according to the most accurate observations ; that is, the exact length 
of the year is 365 days, five hours, 48 minutes, and 48 seconds. By this difference 
the Julian computation advances one day in 130 years before the true solar time, so 
that in the course of a few ages, the solar time, and that estimated according to the 
Julian plan, will be widely different ; and, in process of time, the seasons will have 
gradually changed places. This inconvenience had been long felt, but no effectual 
remedy was applied till 1582, when Pope Gregoiy XIII. ordered the ten days which the 
Julian time had then advanced before the solar, to be thrown out ; and what is called 
the new style to be introduced. — See the article Calendar, p. 179. 

Historical chronology, or that part of the science which assigns dates of time to the 
events of history, the use of which is to afford a ready apprehension of the distance of 
those events from the present or any other stated time, requires some more important 
divisions. When a nation came to such a degree of information and importance, as that 
it felt a desire to record the events of its own history, it generally began with some 
great event, as a fixed point or epoch, from which it counted the era, or succession of 
portions of time, all presumed to be equal, and each equal to that which the nation 
happened to take for a standard. — See the articles Epoch and Era. 

A Cycle is an interval of years included between two fixed periods, and which con- 
tinually recurs. The first cycle we read of is that of Cleostrates, a philosopher of 
Tenedos ; it comprised a period of eight years, and was intended to remedy the defects 
of the Greek calendar. 

The Lunar, or Metonic Cycle, is a period of 19 years, at the end of which the sun 
and moon return to nearly the same part of the heavens. This cycle was invented by Meton, 
an Athenian astronomer who flourished a.c 432, and was adopted with universal appro- 
bation. It was afterwards corrected by Eudoxus, and subsequently by Calippus, whose 
improvements the moderns have adopted. The council of Nice wishing to establish 
some method for adjusting the new and fuU moons to the course of the sun, with the 
view of determining the time of Easter, eriployed this cycle as the best adapted to answer 
the purpose ; and from its great utilfty they caused the numbers of it to be written on 
the calendar in golden letters, which has obtained for it the name of the golden numbers. 



INTRODUCTION. Vii 

The Golden Number for any year is found as follows : — The first year of the Christian 
era corresponds to the second of this cycle ; if then to a given year of this era one be 
added, and the sum be divided by 19, the quotient will denote the number of cycles 
•which have revolved since the commencement of the Christian era, and the remainder 
will be the golden number for the given year. 

The SoLAB Cycle consists of 28 years, at the expiration of which the sun returns to 
the sign and degree of the ecliptic which he had occupied at the conclusion of the pre- 
ceding period, and the days of the week correspond to the same days of the month as at 
that time. It is used to determine the Sunday or dominical letter, which we shall briefly 
explain. In the calendars the days of the week are distinguished by the first seven 
letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G ; and the rule for applying these 
letters is invariably to put A for the first day of the year, whatever it be ; B for the 
second, and so in succession to the seventh; If every year were common, the process 
would continue regular, and a cycle of seven j^ars would suffice to restore the same 
letters to the same days as before. But the intercalation of a day every bissextile, or 
fourth year, has occasioned a variation in this respect. The bissextile year containing 
366, instead of 365 days, will throw the dominical letter of the following year back two 
letters. This alteration is effected by changing the dominical letter at the end of Feb- 
ruary, where the intercalation of a day takes place. In consequence of this change every 
fourth year, 28 years must elapse before a complete revolution can take place in the 
dominical letter, and it is on this circumstance that the period of the solar cycle is 
founded. The dominical letter is used to find the moveable feasts in every year. 

The Cycle of Indiction consists of 15 years, and is derived from the Romans. The 
first yeai' of this cyde is made to correspond to the year a.c. 3. If therefore to any 
given year of the Christian era three be added, and the sum be divided by 15, the 
remainder will be the year of this cycle. There is, however, another mode of calculating 
it. This cycle was established by Constantine, a.d. 312 ; if therefore from the given 
year of the Christian era 31 2 be subtracted, and the remainder be divided by 15, the 
year of this cycle will be obtained. In either of these ways, if there be no remainder, 
the indiction will be 15. 

Having thus given a sketch of general and historical chronology, it only remains 
briefly to allude to the differences which have arisen respecting the chronology of ancient 
nations. Sir Isaac Newton in his well-known work on the subject, has shown, that the 
ancient chronology is involved in the greatest uncertainty ; and that the Europeans had 
no chronology before the existence of che Persian empire, or a.c. 536 ; that the antiqui- 
ties of the Greeks are full of fables till this period, and that after this time several Greek 
historians introduced the computation by generations. The chronology of the Latins 
was still more uncertain ; their old records having been burnt by the Gauls 120 years 
after the expulsion of their kings in a.c. 388. The chronologies of Gaul, Spain, Ger- 
many, Scythia, Sweden, Britain, and Ireland, are of a still later date, and equally 
imperfect. 

Sir Isaac Newton, after a general account of the obscurity and defects of the ancient 
chronology, proceeds by the concurring aids of scripture and reason to rectify the 
chronology of the Greeks, Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, and Persians. 
He observes, that though many of the ancients computed by successions and generations, 
yet the Egyptians, Greeks, and Latins, reckoned the reigns of kings equal to gene- 
rations of men, and three of them to 100, and sometimes to 120 years ; and this was the 
foundation of their technical chronology. He then proceeds from the ordinary course 
of nature, and a detail of historical facts, to show the difference between reigns and 
generations ; and that, though a generation, from father to son may, at an average, be 
reckoned aboQt 33 years, or three of them equal to 100 years, yet when they are taken 



Viii INTRODUCTION. 

by the eldest sons, tliree of them cannot be estimated at more than about 75 or 80 years : 
and the reigns of kings are still shorter ; so that 18 or 20 years may be allowed as a 
iust medium. Sir Isaac Newton then fixes on four remarkable periods, viz., the return 
of the Heraclidse into the Peloponnesus, — the taking of Troy, — the Argonautic expedi- 
tion, — and the return of Sesostris uito Egypt, after his wars in Thrace ; and he settles 
the epoch of each by the true value of a generation. To instance only his estimate of 
that of the Argonautic expedition : having fixed the return of the Heraclidae to about 
the 159th year after the death of Solomon, and the destruction of Troy to about the 
7Gth year after that period, he observes, that Hercules, the Argonaut, was the father of 
Hyllus, the father of Clerdius, the father of Andromachus, the father of Aristodemus, 
who conducted the Heraclidae into Peloponnesus ; so that, reckoning by the chiefs of their 
family, their return was four generations later than the Argonautic expedition, which, 
therefore, happened about 43 years after the death of Solomon, or a.c. 937. Blair, 
following the ancient chronology, naokes this event to have taken place a.c. 1263, and 
Playfair a.c. 1225. 

Notwithstanding the apparent correctness of his reasoning, the system of Newton, 
has been seldom followed by modern chronologers. And it Las been justly remarked as 
surprising, that the manifest inconsistencies of the commonly received chronology with 
the course of nature, should not have prevented the establishment of a system which, in 
those turbulent unsettled times, supposes kings to have reigned from 35 to 40 years ; 
and which generally allows about 60 years to a generation. But the attachment to ancient 
usages has prevented the adoption of any other. 

The systems of sacred chronology have been very various. The Hebrew teat reckons 
about 4000 years from Adam to Christ, and to the flood 1656 years ; the Samaritan makes 
this interval longer, and reckons from Adam to the flood only 1307 lears ; and the 
version of the Septuagint removes the creation of the world to 6000 years before Christ. 
The interval between the creation and flood, according to Eusebius and the Septuagint, 
is 2242 years ; according to Josephus and the Septuagint, 2256 ; and according to Julius 
Africanus, Epiphanius, Petavius, and the Septuagint, it is reckoned at 2262 years. Many 
attempts have been made to reconcile these differences, but none are perfectly satis- 
factory. 

In the following work, in regard to ancient history, both sacred and profane, the 
popular and generally received chronology has been in most instances followed, as that 
which will be best understood by the general readers of history. In the chronology of 
more modem events a difficulty has frequently arisen from the discrepancy of dates in 
the different authorities. This is partly owing to the variety of sources from which 
information has been obtained, and partly to the errors which have crept into the works 
in passing through a number of editions. 

In these cases the Author has endeavoured, by a collation of authorities, where it 
was practicable, to arrive at the truth, and trusts that, in most instances, he has suc- 
ceeded. After all, however, it must be admitted, some of the events transpired under 
fiuch peculiar circumstances, that in endeavouring to fix the dates, it is only possible to 
arrive at an approximation, 



THE 



NEW TABLET OF MEMORY, 



CHRONICLE OF REMARKABLE EVENTS, 



&c. &c. 



AARON, the first high priest of the 
Jews, brother of Moses, and grandson of 
Levi. Born a.c, 1575, and died upon 
Mount Hor, 1452, aged 123. His off- 
spring were called Aaronites. 

AARON-BE^-ASER, a celebrated 
Jewish Rabbi, flourished in 475. 

AARSENS, Francis, a Dutch diplo- 
matist of the seventeenth century. He 
was the first of the three extraordinary 
ambassadors sent to England in 1620. 
and the second of those who were de- 
puted in 1641, to negociate the marriage 
of Prince William, son of the Prince of 
Orange. He died at an advanced age, 
leaving on record memoirs of all the 
embassies in which he had been engaged. 

AARSENS, Petek, a Dutch painter, 
born at Amsterdam, in 1519. He ex- 
• celled in painting a kitchen with its fur- 
niture. His altar-pieces were particu- 
larly admired. He died in 1 575. 

ABAS, ScHAH, the Great, thii-d son 
of Codabendi, and seventh sophi, or 
emperor of Persia: born in 1558. After 
a victorious reign of 43 years, during 
which time he consolidated the divided 
provinces of the Persian empire, and 
considerably enlarged its extent, he died 
in 1628. 

ABBEVILLE, a town of France, 



department of Somme, was nearly de- 
stroyed by an explosion of gunpowder, 
Nov. 1773 : 100 houses were ruined, 
150 souls perished; the damage was 
estimated at 472,917 hvres. 

ABBEYS, monasteries, or religious 
hoiises, distinguished from others by 
larger privileges. The abbeys of Eng- 
land were pillaged by William the Con- 
queror, 1069 ; compelled by the same 
monarch to alter their tenures 1070; 100 
were suppressed by order of council, 
1414. The abbeys and other religious 
houses in England, were dissolved by 
Henry VIH., between 1536 and 1540. 
See Monasteries. 

ABBO, monk of St. Germain's, an his- 
torian, flourished 889- 

ABBOT, Charles, Lord Tenterden, 
chief justice of the King's Bench, born 
Oct. 7, 1762, died Nov. 4, 1832. 

ABBOTS OF Reading, Glastonbury, 
St. John's, and Colchester, hanged and 
quartered for denying the king's su- 
premacy, and refusing to surrender their 
Abbeys, 1539. 

ABBOTSBURY Abbey, Dorset- 
shire, founded in the reign of Canute, 
1026 ; the town of, injured by fire, and 
22 houses destroyed, 1784. 

ABBOTSHALL Farm, Great Wig- 



^g" Abbreviations used in this work: A.M. the year of the -world, a .c. before Christ, a.h. the year of 
the Hegira or flight of Mahomet, a.u.o. from the building of Rome. When the date is inserted zeii/iotit ang 
abbreviation Anno Domini, ov the year of our Lord, is always to be understood. 



ABE 2 

borough, the property of Mr. Cline, sur- 
geon, the whole of the farm, standing on 
nearly two acres of ground, destroyed by 
fire, April 12, 1817- 

ABDALLA, son of Abdalmothleb, 
and father of the prophet Mahomet, lived 
575. 

ABDALLAH, Caliph of Bagdad, son 
of Haroun-al-Raschid, patron of learn- 
ing, died 833. 

ABDICATION of Sovereignty, 
first instance of, by the Roman emperor 
Dioclesian, 303. 

ABDOLLATIPH, an Arabian phy- 
sician and writer, born at Bagdad, 
1161. He visited Damascus and Egypt 
about 1207; he died 1231. Only one 
of his numerous treatises has survived 
the ravages of time. It is in the Bod- 
leian Library, Oxford, and is entitled 
" Historiae ^Egypti Compendium." 

ABEL, murdered by Cain, about a.c. 
3875. 

ABELARD, Peter, anemment scho- 
lastic philosopher of France, and the 
lover of Heloise, born at Palais, in Bre- 
tagne, 1079. He died in 1142, aged 63. 
Heloise survived her husband 21 years. 

ABERCONWAY Castle, Caernar- 
vonshire, built by Edward I., 1204. 

ABERCONWAY, suspension bridge 
of, constrvicted 1824. 

ABERCROMBIE, Sir Ralph, a 
British general, born 1738. After serv- 
ing his country more than forty years, 
he was mortally wounded in an action 
in Egypt, and died at the moment of 
victory, March, 1801. 

ABERGAVENNY, East Indiaman, 
lost oflf Weymouth, Feb. 1, 1805. 

ABERNETHY, John, a celebrated 
surgeon of London, born of Scotch 
parents, 1765. In his early career he 
exhibited many of those eccentricities for 
which he was afterwards remarkable. 
His bold and successful operations of 
tying the external iliac artery for aneu- 
rism, estabUshed his fame. The follow- 
ing anecdote is illustrative of his bene- 
volence : " In the year 1818, Lieutenant 

D , fell from his horse in a street in 

London, and fractured his skull and 
arm. Abernethy was sent for, and at- 
tended daily for some months, until the 
young man being at length convalescent, 
was ordered by him to go to Margate, 
and adopt shell-fish diet. Previously to 
his departure, the grateful patient en- 
quired the amount of his pecuniary obli- 
gation. Abernethy smiled, and said. 



ABO 

' Who is that young woman?' — "She is 
my wife." * And pray what is your rank 
in the army ?' " I am a half-pay lieuten- 
ant." — 'Oh ! very well, wait till you are 
a general, then come and see me, and 
we'll talk about it.' He was the author 
of several works on Surgery, which are 
comprised in 6 vols. 8vo. He died 
April 20, 1831, aged 66. 

ABERRATION of the Fixed 
Stars, discovered by Dr. Bradley, of 
Sherborne, Dorset, 1727- 

ABERRATION of Light, the de- 
viation or dispersion of the rays of 
light, when reflected by a speculum, or 
refracted by a lens, which prevents them 
from uniting in the same point, called 
the geometrical focus ; thus producing 
a confusion of images. The defect in 
the object glass of a common refracting 
telescope, produced by this aberration, 
is remedied by Mr. DoUond's celebrated 
invention of the achromatic glasses, 
effected about 1758. See Achromatic 
Glasses. 

ABERYSTWYTH, S. Wales, castle 
of, burnt 1124, re-edified by Edward 
I. 1283. 

ABGILLUS, John, surnamed Pres- 
ler John, son of a king of the Friscii ; 
from the austerity of his life, he obtained 
the name of Prester, or Priest, and at- 
tended Charlemagne in his expedition to 
the Holy Land, about 800. 

A BIB, the first month of the Jewish 
ecclesiastical year, afterwards called Ni- 
san, answers to part of March and April. 

ABINGDON, Berkshire, founded 
517, abbey of, built in, 941. 

ABINGDON, Earl of, a peer, com- 
mitted to the King's Bench Prison, foj 
publishing a libel upon Mr. Sermon, an 
attorney, Feb. 9, 1795. 

ABJURATION, Oath of, first re- 
quired, 1701. 

ABO, Finland, uniwrsity of, found- 
ed by Queen Christina, 1640. 

ABOLITION of hereditary peerage, 
and the law of entails in France, 1834. 

ABOLITION of monastic establish- y 
ments in Portugal, May 28, 1834 j in^ 
Madrid, 1836. 

ABOLITION of slavery. See Sla- 
very. 

ABORIGINES, a people of Latium, 
who founded the most ancient kingdom 
of Italy, a.c. 1330; from their great 
antiquity the word has been applied ge- 
nerally to the first inhabitants of other 
countries. 



ABU 2 

ABORIGINES Protection So- 
ciety, a society formed in England, 
in 1837, for the protection of the native 
population all over the globe ; but chiefly 
among the British colonies. At the second 
anniversary of this society, held at Exeter 
Hall, May 21, 1839, the design of the 
society was fully explained by the reso- 
lutions passed, among which was the 
following. " That in order to protect 
aboriginal tribes from degradation, they 
should, obtain for them a participation in 
equal rights, that such laws as bear injuri- 
ously on them should be amended, and 
the administration of government as to 
their affairs should be improved both at 
home and in the colonies." 

ABOUKIR, in Egypt, surren dared to 
the Enghsh forces, March 18, 1801. 

ABOUKIR Bay, battle of, 1st Au- 
gust, 1798. See Nelson. 

ABRAHAM, born A. c. 1996; leaves 
Ur of the Chaldees, and dwells in Haran, 
1926 ; his call and journey into Canaan, 
which begins the 430 years of sojourn, 
1921 ; goes into Egypt, 1920, defeats 
the Elamites, 1912; receives the right of 
circumcision, and entertains three an- 
gels, 1897; offers up Isaac, 1871, and 
dies 1821, aged 175 years. 

ABRAHAMITES, a sect who re- 
newed the error of the Paulicians ; arose 
under Abraham of Antioch, 790, and 
were suppressed by Cyriacus, patriarch 
of Antioch. 

ABSOLOM, rebelled against his fa- 
ther David ; was defeated and killed by 
Joab, A.c. 1023. 

ABSTINENCE, (pretended), of Ann 
Moor, of Tutbury, Staffordshire, living 
sixteen days without food, Nov. 1808 ; 
imposture discovered. May 4, 1813; im- 
prisoned as such, Feb. 18 16. 

ABSTINENTS, a religious sect, re- 
sembling Gnostics, abstaining from mar- 
riage and wine, begun 170, and flou- 
rished till the third century. 

ABU-BEKR, the father-in-law,and im- 
mediate successor of Mahomet, elected 
caliph in 632, and died 634, aged 63, 
reigning only two years and three months. 

ABULFEDA, the geographer, born 
)273. He was Prince of Hamah, a city 
of Syria, the sixth in lineal descent 
from Ayub, or Job, the father of the 
famous Saladin. Abulfeda is said to 
have discovered the true longitude of the 
Caspian Sea, concerning which Ptolemy 
was mistaken. He was the author of se- 
veral works on geography. He died 1332. 



AC A 

ABYSSINIA, an empire of Africa, si- 
tuated in the torrid zone, comprehended 
between 6° and 20° N. lat. and 26° and 
44° E. long. The most authentic ancient 
history of this country, is the Chronicle 
of Axum . See Axu m . 

About 303, Christianity was intro- 
duced by Frumentius. In 533, the em- 
peror Justinian sent an embassy into this 
country to persuade its sovereign to em- 
ploy his forces, then in Arabia, against 
the Persian monarch. In 1468, John II., 
king of Portugal, sent two ambassadors 
to explore the sources of the Indian trade, 
and to discover a passage to the East In- 
dies, round Africa. One died on his 
journey, the other was promoted to posts 
of honour, but never allowed to return. 

1589- Peter Paez, a Spaniard, was the 
first European who visited what the Abys- 
sinians deem the sources of the Nile. 
He died 1662. In 1624, Alphonso Men- 
dez was sent as patriarch into Abyssinia. 
In 1750, three Franciscans penetrated 
as far as Gondar : an account of their 
travels is given in the Appendix to Mr. 
Salt's voyage to Abyssinia. In 1769, Mr. 
Bruce went to Abyssinia to discover the 
source of the Nile. His travels were pub- 
lished 1790. See Bruce. In 1805, Mr. 
Salt took his first journey. In 1830, 
Samuel Gobat visited this country, and 
resided there three years. Dr. Ruppel, 
who recently undertook journeys to this 
country returned 1838. 

ACADEMY, The term derived its 
origin from Cadmea, or Thebes, built by 
Cadmus, king of Phoenicia, about a. c, 
1490; others say, from Academus, the 
person in whose groves Plato taught at 
Athens : which school of Plato was called 
the old academy ; the new one was 
founded by Arcessilas, and ably main- 
tained by Carneades. 

There are comparatively but few aca- 
demies in this country ; and those which 
are chiefly celebrated are called socie- 
ties. The principal in England is the 
Royal Academy of Arts, in London ; it 
was instituted for the encouragement of 
painting, sculpture, &c, 176S. See 
RoY^AL Academy. 

The American Academy of Sciences, 
was established in 1780, by the coun- 
cil of the House of Representatives, in 
the province of Massachusett's Bay, for 
promoting the knowledge of the antiqui- 
ties and natural history of the country ; 
and for cultivating every art and science 
which may tend to advance the interest 



ACA 



ACH 



of an independent and virtuous people. 
The members of this academy are never 
more than 200, nor less than 40. See 
further, American Colleges. 

ACADEMIES on the continent, 
&c. The following is an alphabetical 
.Hst, with the date of incorporation : — 
Berlin, 1700; a literary society incor- 
porated with it, 1769. 

Prussians, sons of nobility, 

1769. 

architecture, 1799. 

Bologne, for physics and mathematics, 
1690. 

arts and sciences, 1714. 

Brescia, 1626. 

Brest, military, 1682. 
Caen, belles lettres, 1705. 
Copenhagen, polite arts, 1753. 
Cortona, Etruscan, 1726. 
Cremona, 1560; renewed, 1607, un- 
der the title of Disuniti. 
Dromingholra, polite arts, 1753. 
Erfurt, sciences, 1755. 
Florence, beUes lettres, 1272. 

DelaCrusca, 1582. 

Geneva, medical, 1715. 

Genoa, for painting, sculpture, &c. 
1751. 

Germany, natural history, 1652. 

military, 1752. 

medical, 1617. 

Haerlem, sciences, 1760. 

Ionian, instituted at Corfu, 1809. 

of arts, (royal), 1708. 

of music, (royal), 1807- 

Lisbon, royal historical, 1722. 

Lyons, sciences, belles lettres, 1 700. 

royal, of physic, mathematics, 

and arts, united in 1758. 

Madrid, painting, sculpture, and ar- 
chitecture, 1753. 

Mantua, Viliganti, for sciences, 1704. 

Marseilles, belles lettres, history, and 
criticism, 1726. 

Milan, sciences, 1719. 

Naples, arts and sciences, 1540. 

Nismes, (royal), 1682. 

Padua, Recovrati, for poetry, 1610. 

Palermo, medical, 1645. 

Paris, Sorbonne, for divinity, 1 256. 

painting, 1391. 

music, 1543. 

eloquence and poetry, 1635. 

(royal), of inscriptions and belles 

lettres, 1663. 

painting and sculptiu-e, 1664. 

architecture, 1671. 

(royal), of surgery, 1731. 

agriculture, 1761. 



Paris, royal miUtary, 1751. 

natural philosophy, 1796. 

Parma, Innominati, 1550. 

Cremona, 1560, renewed as 

Disuniti, 1609. 

Perousa, of the Insensati,156l. 

of Filirgiti, or the lovers of in- 



dustry, 1574. 

improved, 1652. 



Petersburgh, sciences, 1724. 

military, 1732. 

school of arts, 1764. 

friends of Russian litera- 
ture, 1811. 
Prussian academies reformed, 1750 
Rome, Umoristi, for poetry, loll. 

Fantiscici, 1625. 

Infecondi, 1653. 

painting, 1665. 

English, 1752. 

Spain, royal military, 1751. 
Stockholm, (royal), of sciences, 1739. 

beUes lettres, 1758. 

agriculture, 1781. 

Turkey, military, 1775. 
Toulon, military, 1682. 
Upsal, sciences, 1720. 
Venice, medical, 1701. 
Verona, at first music, 1543. 
Vienna, orientalists, 1810. 
Warsaw, languages, history, and chro- 
nology, 1753. 

ACCOLADE, a ceremony used be- 
fore the Conquest, given in conferring 
knighthood ; it was a blow on the neck 
with the fist, now converted into laying 
the sword upon tlie shoulders. See 
Knighthood. 

ACHJ5AN League, a Grecian con- 
federacy, so called from Achoeus, king 
of Thessaly. Begun a.c. 284, and 
continued upwards of 130 years. Its 
arms were directed against the ^Etolians 
for three years, with the assistance of 
Philip of Macedon. It grew powerful 
by the accession of neighbouring states. 
The confedracy freed their country from 
foreign slavery. It was attacked by the 
Romans and totally destroyed, a. c. 147. 

ACHAIA, formerly applied to the 
whole of Greece ; peopled by Achaeus, 
A.c. 1080. See Greece. 

ACHILLES, the son of Peleus and 
Thetis, one of the most celebrated heroes 
of Greece, born at Phythia, in Thessaly. 
At the siege of Troy he distinguished 
himself ; but being disgusted with Aga- 
memnon, he retired from the camp. 
Achilles is supposed to have died about 
A.c 1184. 



ACR 5 

ACHMET. he name of several Tur- 
kish sultans. 

AcHMET III. the most remarkable, 
was the son of Mahomet IV. He came 
to the throne, l703, and recovered the 
Morea from the Venetians. In 171 6, his 
army was defeated by Prince Eugene, 
at the battle of Petervvaradin : he was 
dethroned 1730, and died 1736, aged 74. 

ACHROMATIC Glasses, a parti- 
cular kind of object glass for teles- 
copes, designed to correct aberration. In 
1729, Mr. Hall, of Chesterhall, Worces- 
tershire, discovered the proper composi- 
tion of flint and crown glass; in 1733, he 
had a telescope made under his own ob- 
servation in London, which was found to 
answer the purpose, but no notice was 
taken of it at the time. After many ex- 
periments, Mr. Dolland succeeded in 
completing the discovery in 1758. The 
Royal Society voted him the Copley 
Medal. He took a patent, and died in 
1761. His son improved it in 1765. . 

ACOUSTICS. The doctrine of the 
different sounds of vibrating strings of 
different length, and the communication 
of sounds to the ear by the vibration of 
the atmosphere were probably first ex- 
plained by Pythagoras, about a.c. 500. 
The same mentioned by Aristotle, about 
A.c. 300. 

The conjecture of Aristotle was first 
explained, or rather, perhaps, the theory 
of sound re-discovered by Galileo, a.d, 
1600. The velocity of sound was first 
investigated by Newton, before 1700, 
and the theory perfected by Euler and 
La Grange; theory and practice were 
reconciled by La Place and Bast. Gali- 
leo's theory of the harmonic curve, was 
demonstrated by Dr. Brooke Taylor, 
1714. The same was farther perfected 
by D'Alembert, Euler, Bernoulli, and La 
Grange, at various periods of the 18th 
century. 

The speaking trumpet was said to 
have been used by Alexander the Great, 
a.c. 335 ; in modern times it was recon- 
structed from Kircher's description, by 
Saland, 1654; philosophically explained 
and brought into notice by M or eland, 
1671. 

ACRE or ACRA, a sea-port town in 
Syria, formerly called Ptolemais, famous 
in the time of the crusades : taken from 
the Saracens by Richard I., of England, 
and Philip of France, 1191 : afterwards 
given to the knights of Jerusalem, who 
called it St. John d'Acre, and kept pos- 



AD A 

session of it 100 years. In 1750, Da- 
harv an Arabian scheik fortified it, and 
maintained his independence against the 
Ottoman power. "Within the last forty 
years Djezzar Pacha erected works and 
made it a fortress. In 1799, it was de- 
fended by Sir Sydney Smith against all 
the efforts of Buonaparte. After three ^ 

desperate assaults, the French, were l./"^ 
beaten off and the siege was raised May 
20. 

ACROPOLIS, the citadel of Athens, 
was the original city founded by Cecrops ; 
when he collected the } eople of Attica, 
after the deluge of Ogyges, and founded 
the city of Athens, a.c. 1556, It was 
71 miles round. Some of its ruins stiE 
exist. 

ACT OF Uniformity, by which 
2,000 ministers were ejected from the 
pale of the Established Church of Eng- 
land, 1662. 

ACTS OF THE Apostles, written 
by St. Luke, 63 or 64. 

ACTION, son of Autonoe and 
Aristaeus, destroyed by his own hounds. 
A.c. 1342. 

ADAM, first of the human race, cre- 
ated, A.c. 4004, died A.c. 3074, aged 
930 years. 

ADAM, Alexander, of Moray, 
Scotland, a distinguished classical scholar 
born June 6, 1741, died Dec. 18, 
1809. 

ADAM, Robert, an eminent archi- 
tect, bom at Edinburgh, 1728, travelled 
for improvement, 1754; appointed archi- 
tect to the king, 1762 ; the follow- 
ing year, presented to the public the 
fruit of his travels, in a splendid work- 
He died March 3, 1792, aged 64. 

ADAMITES, a sect established by 
Prodicus, in 130, who taught that ori- 
ginal sin being washed away by bap- 
tism, men ought to go naked, as a proof 
. of innocence. This obscure and ridicu- 
lous sect, did not at first last long ; but 
it was revived, with additional absurdi- 
ties, in the twelfth century by one Tanda- 
mus, and in the fifteenth, by one Picard. 

ADAMS, John, late President of 
the United States of America, born in 
1736. In 1770, he M^as returned as 
a representative for Boston. From 
the year 1770 till 1776, he was con- 
stantly engaged in all the measures 
which were adopted in defence of the 
colonies, against the efforts of the Eng- 
hsh Parhament. In 1774, when the 
colonies determined to hold congress at 



ADE C 

Philadelphia, he was elected, as also in 
the second congress. In the memorable 
discussions of 1776, Adams and Dick- 
enson took distinguished parts ; the for- 
mer for, the latter against, the declara- 
tion of independence. On the adoption 
of the constitution in 1789, Adams was 
elected first vice-president of the United 
States. On the death of Washington, 
he was elected his successor. In 1787, 
he published a defence of the Constitu- 
tion and Government and the United 
States, in three vols. 8vo. He died July 
/ 4, 1826. 

ADAMS, Joseph, an eminent phy- 
sician, one of the founders of vaccina- 
tion, born 1756, died June 20, 1818. 

ADANSON, Michael, a celebrated 
naturalist, born at Aix, in Provence, 
1727- He was a pupil of the cele- 
brated Reaumur : went to Senegal in 
1738, where he spent six years in 
examining the natural productions of 
that country. In 1759, he was elected 
member of the Royal Academy at Paris, 
and about the same time admitted an 
honorary member of the Royal Society 
of London. He died 1806. 

ADDISON, Joseph, born at Mil- 
ston, near Ambrosbury, in Wiltshire, 
May 1, 1672. He made a tour in Italy, 
the latter end of 1699. In 1701. he 
wrote an epistolary poem to Montague, 
Lord Halifax. In 1705, published an 
account of travels, dedicated to Lord 
Somers. The Spectator chiefly con- 
ducted by him, commenced March Ist, 
1711, closed Sept. 6, 1712. The 
Guardian entertained the town in the 
the years 1713 and 1714. In 1713, 
appeared his tragedy of Cato. In April, 
1717, his majesty George I. appointed 
him one of his principal secretaries of 
state. He died at Holland House, near 
Kensington, June, 1719- 

ADELAIDE, a neiv town in the 
colony of S. Australia, founded 1835. 
This town has increased so rapidly, that 
at the present time (1840) land is said 
to be of as much value as in many of the 
principal towns in England. 

ADELAIDE Gallery, an institu- 
tion formed in London in 1834. The 
society connected with this gallery was 
incorporated in Oct. 1833, and called the 
Society for the Encouragement of Prac- 
tical Science. The society is patronised 
by the queen, and is under the direc- 
tion of a superintendent, a secretary, 
two lecturers, and a council of nine in- 



ADE 

fluential gentlemen. It receives for ex- 
hibition, models, specimens of new in- 
ventions, and works of general interest, 
relating to science or the fine arts, 
whether intended for sale or otherwise. 
It affords every facility for the illustra- 
tion of discoveries in chemistry, or in 
natural and experimental philosophy, 
and for the exhibition of mechanical 
contrivances of general utility. The 
rooms open at ten daily, and remain 
open tin six in the afternoon during the 
months of May, June, and July. Dur- 
ing the months of November, December, 
and January, they close at four o'clock. 
During the intermediate months they 
close at half-past four, five, and half past 
five according to the season. In the 
course of each day among others the fol- 
lowing subjects are illustrated or objects 
shown : 

Electrical and Magneiical Apparatus. 

A series of interesting experiments to 
illustrate the electrical action obtained 
by friction, by means of the well known 
" electrical machine." The leading facts 
of volcanic electricity, or of that agent 
excited by chemical action, are explained 
by means of compound batteries on dif- 
ferent principles of various constructions. 
The striking discoveries of the connection 
between electricity and magnetism made 
within the last twenty years, are illustrated 
by a variety of apparatus ; the principal 
of which are a powerful magnet of tem- 
pered steel, for illustrating magneto-elec- 
trical phenomena. An electro-magnet, 
illustrating electro-magnetic induction, 
or magnetic power induced upon soft 
iron by electrical currents when in ap- 
proximation. Magnet of steel, of seven 
plates. A thermo-electrical battery, con- 
sisting of 53 pairs of cylinders of bis- 
muth and antimony, the ends being so 
connected that the 112 elements form a 
continued chain, the links of which are 
alternately of the two metals. 

Oxy-hydrogen Microscope, with a lec- 
ture delivered daily. It has three sets of 
glasses, increasing progressively from a 
magnifj'ing power of about 400 times in 
linear dimensions. The objects con- 
sist of cuttings from the stems of plants, 
leaves, flowers, &c., &c., from the vege- 
table creation ; by means of which the 
characteristics of the leading divisions of 
that kingdom may be easily distinguished: 
larvae and perfect insects ahve ; those 
which are aquatic being shown swimming 
in their native element. 



ADR : 

Mr. Jacob Perkin's Steam Gun. The 
tremendous power of steam, generated 
in confined space, is shown in a novel 
and striking point of view by this ma- 
chine. Steam of an electric power of 
from 300 to 500lbs. on the square inch, 
being admitted into the chamber of a 
musket barrel, constructed for the pur- 
pose, propels balls either singly or in 
volleys, at the rate of from 5 to 500 per 
minute, against an iron target 100 feet 
distant, with a force far exceeding that of 
gunpowder. 

ADELPHI Buildings, Strand, Lon- 
don, erected, 1770. 

ADELPHI Lottery, act passed 1773. 

ADELUNG, John Christopher, a 
German philologist, born 1734, died 1806. 

ADMETUS, king of Thessaly, flou- 
rished, A.C. 1344. 

ADMIRAL, the first appointed in Eng- 
land, WiUiam de Leybourne, 1297. 

ADMIRAL, Lord High, first ap- 
pointed in England, 13875 held by com- 
mission since Nov. 1709, except a short 
interval by the Duke of Clarence, late 
William IV. 

ADMIRALTY, Court of, erected 
1357, incorporated June 22, 1768. 

ADO, the historian, archbishop of 
"Vienna, flourished 867, died 874. 

ADOLPHUS, OF Nassau, made em- 
peror of the West, 1291j deposed and 
slain, 1298. 

ADOLPHUS, Gustavus, king of 
Sweden. See Gustavus. 

ADRIAN, IV., born in Langley, Hert- 
fordshire, England, afterwards pope of 
Rome, died 1159. 

ADRIAN, OR Hadrian, Publius 
iELius, 5th emperor of Rome, born 
a.d. 76, A.u.c. 829. He distinguished 
himself under Trajan in the second 
war against the Dacians. He was 
adopted by Trajan and declared em- 
peror in 117. On attaining the imperial 
dignity he made peace with the Per- 
sians, remitted the debts of the Romans 
andpeople, which amountedto 22,500,000 
golden crowns, and burnt all the bonds 
relating to those debts There was 
scarcely a province in his empire, which 
Adrian did not visit. In 1 20, he went 
into Gaul, and from thence to Britain, in 
order to subdue the Caledonians, he 
was diverted from his purpose, but built 
the wall which still bears his name. It 
extended from Solway Frith, to the river 
Tyne. He visited all the provinces of 
Asia, and returned to Rome, 129. He 



MP 1 

visited Egypt, 132, Syria, 133, Athens 
134, returned to Rome, 135. He died, 
138, aged 62, having reigned 21 years. 

ADRIAN'S Mole, at Rome, con- 
structed, 120. 

ADRIANOPLE, city of Turkey in 
Europe, province of Romania, deriving 
its name from the emperor Adrian. It 
has a very fine bazaar, or market, half- 
a-mile long, a vast arched building, with 
six gates and 365 well furnished shops, 
kept by Turks, Armenians, and Jews. 
Adrianople was taken by Amurath, the 
Turkish sultan, 1360; the 'court removed 
from it to Constantinople, 1458. In- 
jured by fire, 1754 and 1778. Occupied 
by the Russians, Aug. 10, 1830. 

ADULTERY, punished by cutting off 
nose and ears, 1031 : made capital, 1650. 

ADVENT SUNDAY, first observed 
433 : the number determined, 1000. 

iEDILES, Roman magistrates, whose 
chief business was to superintend build- 
ings of all kinds, but more especially 
those for public use; such as temples, 
aqueducts, bridges, &c. The plebian 
sediles were only two in number, and 
were first created, A. u. c. 260. ; but 
having refused, on a certain occasion, to 
treat the people with shows, pleading 
themselves unable to support the ex- 
pense, the patricians made an offer to do 
it, provided they were admitted to the 
honours of the eedilate. On this occasion 
there were new aediles created, of the 
number of the patricians, a.u. c. 388. 

.(EGiEON, a pirate, from whom 
Mgea is so called, flourished a.m. 2110. 

iELIAN, a Greek writer, born at Prse- 
neste, m Italy; flourished, 221. He 
taught rhetoric at Rome, according to 
Perizonms, under the emperor Alexan- 
der Severus. His most celebrated works- 
are his Various History, and his History 
of Animals. 

yEMILIUS, Paulus, a Roman con- 
sul, who subdued Perseus, king of Ma- 
cedonia, and reduced that country to a 
Roman Province, whence he obtained 
the surname of Macedonius. He died 
A.C. 168. 

iEMILIUS, Paulus, a celebrated his- 
torian of the I6th century, was born at 
Verona. He wrote the history of the 
" Kings of France," in Latin, which has 
been greatly admired; died at Paris 1529. 

^PINUS, Francis Ulrich Theo- 
dore, an eminent mathematician and 
natural philosopher, author of a pecuhar 
theory of electricity. Born at Rostock 



MS 8 

m Lower Saxony, 1724. His work was 
published at Petersburgh in 1759. 

AEROLITES, or Meteoric 
Stones, certain stony or metalic sub- 
stances which descend to the earth ac- 
companied by the appearance and ex- 
plosion of a fiery meteor. A large stone 
of this kind fell near Egospotamos, in 
Thrace, 2nd year of the 78th Olympiad 
or about A.c 467- 

An extraordinary shower of stones, fell 
near L'Aigle in Normandy, on the 26th 
'^ of April, 1803. There were three or four 

reports like those of cannon. This noise 
proceeded from a small cloud, about half 
a league to the N.N.W. of the town of 
L'Aigle. The largest stone that fell 
weighed I75lbs. Another remarkable 
aerolite fell at Nobleborough, Maine, 
ly America, Aug. 7, 1823. It fell with 
a similar noise and penetrated the earth 
about six inches, where meeting another 
stone it was broken into fragments. The 
whole mass probably weighed between 
four and six pounds. 

AEROSTATIC Ascent, an ascent in 
a balloon. The first was made in France 
by M. Charles, a physician, and a dis- 
tinguished member of the French In- 
stitute, Dec. 1, 1783. The first made 
in England, Sep. 15, 1784; Scotland, 
Oct. 5, 1785; voyage from Dover to 
Calais by Blanchard and Dr. Jeffries, 
1785. Ascent made by Blanchard, ac- 
companied by sixteen persons, 1798; 
by Ganerin, who was the first to descend 
in a parachute, from a height of 4,154 
ly' feet, Sep. 21,1 802. Madame Blanchard, 
at night, from the Tivoli Gardens, in 
Paris, June,1819,when the balloon catch- 
ing fire from some fireworks which she 
carried with her, caused her to fall from 
a great height, and dashed her in pieces. 
— Voyage performed Nov. 7, 1836, by 
Messrs Green, Monk, Mason and Hol- 
land, in the largest balloon ever con- 
structed. They ascended from Londor. 
at half past one p.m. and descended at 
Weilburgh, near Coblentz, a distance of 
about 480 English miles, at half-past 
seven on the morning of the succeeding 
day. See Balloon. 

.(ESCHINES, an Athenian orator, 
born, A.c. 393, died 323. 

iECHYLUS, a Greek tragic poet, 
born, A.c. 523, died, 454. 

iESOP, the fabulist and EucUd of 
moral science, for ridiculing the igno- 
rance and superstition of the priesthood, 
was put to death about a.c. 500. 



A FR 

^ESOPUS, the Roman actor, and 
contemporary of Roscius, flourished 
A.c. 670. 

AFFIRMATION of Quakers, ad- 
mitted in lieu of an oath, particularly, 
1702; alteration made therein, Dec. 13 
1721; received " in any case whatever," 
1829; sufficient for members of parlia- 
ment, Feb. 14, 1833. 

AFGHANISTAN, country Central 
Asia, founded about 1750, after the death 
of Nadir schah, the Persian king. It 
comprises the kingdoms of Cabool and 
Candahar. 

AFRICA, one of the principal divi-» 
sions of the earth. Partially known to 
the ancients. The Phoenicians sailed 
round.it, a.c. 604. Hanno the Cartha- 
ginian, about 30 or 40 years after, sailed 
to the western coast with 60 ships. 

A.D. 426. Bonifacius, the Roman go- 
vernor of Africa, revolted and called in 
the aid of the Vandals. In 647 the north 
of Africa was overrun by the Saracens : 

1484. The Portuguese penetrated 1500 
miles beyond the equator: I486, Bar- 
tholomew de Diaz, discovered the Cape 
of Good Hope. 

1788. The African Association em- 
ployed various individuals to enter Africa 
at diflferent points and pursue such routes 
as ha\ e been thought most likely to lead 
to important discoveries. See African 
Association. 

1795. Mr. Park discovered the exist- 
ence of the Niger, with a course E. and 
W. confirming what Herodotus had 
stated. He also discovered great and 
populous cities, in the heart of Africa, 
and returned 1797. In 1805, Park took 
another voyage and was killed by the 
natives 1806. 

1821. Major Denham, Capt. Clap- 
perton and Dr. Oudney, endeavoured to 
penetrate from Tripoli southward into 
the interior. Feb. 4, 1823, they reached ' 
Loeri the frontier of Bornou. Clapperton 
and Denham returned to Tripoli 1825. 
Clapperton undertook a second journey 

1826, with the intention of further ex- 
ploring Africa ; he died at Sackatoo, 

1827. See Clapperton. 

1 830. Richard and John Lander, by 
order of government, undertook an ex- 
pedition to determine the course and^ 
termination of the Niger, from Yaoori to 
the sea. They sailed Jan. 9, 1831, and 
succeeded in navigating the river to its 
influx, into the Bight of Benin. In 1 833, 
Lander conducted another expedition on 



AFR 9 

the Niger, under the patronage of a com- 
pany of merchants at Liverpool : its ob- 
ject was to establish a trade in that part 
of the world. He arrived at Fernando 
Po, May 1, and died of a wound, Jan. 
13, 1834. 

1835. The same enterprising mer- 
chants sent out an expedition under the 
command of Becroft, who departed for 
Fernando Po, Sept. 16, This year also, 
Davidson embarked for Gibraltar, on 
his way to Morocco, from which coun- 
y try he hoped to reach Timbuctoo, but 
'''^ was detained by the emperor of Morocco. 
In March 1836, he was permitted to 
travel. The 7th of the same month he 
arrived at Agadeer, or Santa Cruz, and 
reached Wadnoon, April 22. In Dec. 
1836, he fell a victim to the treachery of 
an Arab chief. 

AFRICAN Association, a society 
formed 1788, to promote the discovery 
of the interior of Africa. This society 
formed a new era in the annals of Afri- 
can discovery ; it consisted of men emi- 
" nent for rank and wealth ; and still more 
distinguished by their zeal in the cause 
of science and humanity. Ledyard and 
Lucas were appointed for accomplishing 
the objects of this society : the former 
undertook the task of traversing from 
east to west in the latitude attributed 
to the Niger. He arrived at Cairo, Aug. 
1788; but death disappointed his hopes. 
Lucas embarked for Tripoli, Oct. 1788, 
to proceed over the desert of Zaara, to 
Fezzan, to collect and transmit, by way 
of Tripoli, whatever intelligence he could 
obtain respecting the interior of the con- 
tinent, and to return by way of Gambia, 
or the coast of Guinea. The peregrina- 
tions of this traveller terminated at Me- 
surata, Feb. 1, 1789- 

This society was merged into the Royal 
Geographical Society, in 1831, by which 
the same important objects have been 
carried on, not in Africa merely, but 
throughout the world. See Geogra- 
phical Society. 

AFRICAN Institution. This so- 
ciety has often been confounded with 
^ the former ; but their original objects 

I were different. The African Institution 
\ was formed in 1807, by friends of the 
abolition of the slave trade, for promoting 
the civilization of Africa. It maybe 
considered as a continuation of the Abo- 
lition Society. See Slavery. ' ' 
AFRICAN Company, incorporated 
by Charles II., 1662 ; government owed 



AGl ■ 

them £11,686,800., and their divided 
capital amounted to £10,780,000, both 
which continued till 1776. This com- 
pany was abolished by statute 1 & 2 
Geo. IV. c. 28. 

AFRICANUS, Julius, a Christian 
chronicler of the third century. Died 
about 232. 

AFRICANUS, SciPio. See Scipio. 

AGAMEMNON, generalissimo of the 
Greeks, at the siege of Troy. Slain about 
A.c. 1104. 

AGAREL, Arthur, an English anti- 
quarian, friend of Sir R. Cotton; born 
1540; died 1615. 

AGATHA, St., monastery of, near 
Richmond, Yorkshire, built 1131. 

AGATHARCHUS,pupUofiEschylus, 
inventor of theatrical perspective. Died 
a.c. 480. 

AGATHARCIDES, Ciudius, the 
historian and biographer, flourished A. c. 
174. 

AGATHIAS, a Greek historian of the 
6th century, under Justinian. Born at 
Myrina, a colony of the ancient ^Eolians, 
in Asia Minor ; came into notice about 
565. His history, which begins with 
the 26th year of Justinian's reign, where 
Procopius ends, was printed in Greek 
and Latin, at Leyden, in 1594; and at 
Paris 1660, 

AGE, Augustine, commenced Feb. 
14, A. c. 27. Middle age in history, is 
from about the fourth to the fifteenth 
century. 

AGES OP THE World. The first is 
reckoned from A dam to Noah; the second 
from Noah to Abraham ; the third from 
Abraham to Moses; the fourth from 
Moses to Solomon ; the fifth from Solo- 
mon to Cyrus ; the sixth from Cyrus to 
Christ, 

AGINCOURT, a village of the French 
Netherlands, celebrated on account of the 
victory obtained by Henry V. of Eng- 
land, over the French, Oct. 24, 1415. 
The army of Henry, after landing in 
France, was reduced to 10,000 men; the 
French army amounted to 100,000. No 
battle was ever more fatal to the French, 
by the number of princes or nobility 
slain or taken prisoners. Among the 
former were the constable of France, the 
count of Nevers, and the duke of Bra- 
bant, brothers to the duke of Burgundy; 
the count of Vaudemont, brother to the 
duke of Loraine ; the duke of Alencon, 
the dukeof Barre, and the count of Marie. 
The most eminent prisoners were the 
c 



AG R 



10 



AGR 



dukea of Orleans and Bourbon, the 
counts d'Eu, Vendome, and Richemont, 
and the Mareschal of Boucicaut. The 
killed are computed to have amounted 
to 10,000. 

AGLIONBY, John, chaplain to 
James L, one of the translators of the 
Testament. Died 1610. 

AGNES, St„ martyred 308, aged 13. 

AGNESE SIGNORA, professor of 

mathematics and natural philosophy in 

the university of Bologna, born 1718, 

died 1799. 

AGNUS DEI, or, « O Lamb of God," 
&c, in the Litany; first appointed to 
be read in 687; first consecration of, 
1566. 

AGRA, fortress of, the key of Hindos- 
tan, surrendered to the English Oct. 17, 
1803. 

AGRARIAN LAW, relating to the 
distribution of lands, introduced at Rome 
by Spurius Cassius about, a.u.c. 268,or 
A.c. 486. Revived by Saturnius, 100. 

AGRICOLA, an illustrious Roman, 
born June 13th a. d. 38. He was 
made consul in the reign of Vespasian, 
77. During the year of his consul- 
ship, he contracted his daughter to Ta- 
citus, the historian, who has furnished 
the memoirs of his life. At the expira- 
tion of his office he was appointed gover- 
nor of Britain, whither he repaired, to 
compose the tumults of that distracted 
province. He marched to the north, 
where he made new conquests, and or- 
dered forts to be built for the Romans to 
winter m. He subdued the nations be- 
twixt the Tweed and the Friths of Edin- 
burgh and Clyde, and built fortresses to 
eliut up the nations yet unconquered. A 
few years after, the Britons raised an army 
of 30,000 men, and a battle ensued, in 
which the Romans gained the victory, 
and 10,000 of the Britons are said to 
have been killed. This happened in the 
reign of the Emperor Domitian; who, 
growing jealous of the glory of Agricola, 
recalled him in 84. He built the ram- 
part between England and Scotland, with 
the chain of forts from the Clyde to the 
Forth. He died in 93, aged 56. 

AGRICULTURE. This is indisput- 
ably the most ancient of all the arts. Its 
history is coeval with the history of man. 
A. c. 2247. After the dispersion of 
mankind, this art was cultivated chiefly 
in the East, and especially by the Chal- 
deans. It flourished in Phoenicia, for 
the patriarch Isaac took shelter in that 



country to avoid the effects of a dreadful 
famine which afflicted the neighbouring 
nations. — a. c. 1450, ITie Israelites, 
shortly after their settlement in Pales- 
tine, began to cultivate the soil. Both 
India and Persia are famed for the re- 
spect they paid to agriculture. In the 
former country, Bacchus was worshipped 
as the first who planted a vineyard ; and 
in the latter, husbandmen received the 
highest honours. — a. c. 509. Mago, a 
celebrated Carthaginian general, wTote 
28 books on agriculture, which, in con- 
sequence of a decree of the Roman se- 
nate, were translated into Latin. — a. c. 
850. Hesiod, who flourished about this 
time, wrote a poem on the subject, en- 
titled, "Works and Days." The Ro- 
mans esteemed agriculture as an art 
highly honourable, and necessary to the 
pubUc welfare. — a. c. 30. About this 
time Varro wrote a regular and learned 
treatise on the subject ; and Virgil, who 
was his contemporary, has, in his " Geor- 
gics," laid down the rules and precepts, 
as delivered by preceding writers. 

a. d. 40. About this date Columella 
wrote his twelve books on husbandry, 
which are highly commended for the great 
variety of valuable and important in 
structions they contain. The Romans had 
no sooner established themselves in Bri- 
tain, than agriculture began to flourish 
there. The Emperor Julian erected new 
granaries purposely for the com brought 
from Britain, and built a fleet of 800 
ships, larger than the common barks, 
which he sent to Britain to bring corn 
from thence. — 278. About this time the 
Emperor Probius gave leave to the Ro- 
mans to plant vines and to make wine in 
Britain. Hemp and flax were likewise 
among the vegetable productions of this 
country at an early period; and it is sup- 
posed, not without reason, that they were 
introduced by the Belgic Gauls with their 
agriculture. — 700. According to a law 
made by Inas, King of the West Sax- 
ons, who flourished about this time, a 
farm consisting of ten hides of land was 
to pay a rent of " ten sacks of honey, 
three hundred loaves of bread, twelve 
casks of strong ale, thirty casks of small 
ale, two oxen, ten wethers, ten geese, 
twenty hens, ten cheeses, one cask of 
butter, five salmon, twenty pounds fo- 
rage, and one hundred eels." 

1066. The arrival of the Normans, who 
brought with them many thousands of 
husbandmen from France, Flanders, and 



AGR 



Normandy, proved highly beneficial to 
agriculture. — During the former part of 
the fifteenth century, the barons, and other 
great men, adopted the resolution of en- 
closing and converting them into pasture 
ground. This practice became very ge- 
neral in England about the middle of 
the fifteenth century. In 1534 was pub- 
lished the earliest English work expressly 
on agriculture, entitled, "The Book of 
Husbandry," by Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, 
who was likewise judge in common pleas. 

The husbandmen of the sixteenth 
century are partly indebted to Thomas 
Tusser, who was a pleasant poet as well 
as a good farmer, for their skill in culti- 
vating many kinds of vegetables. In 1557, 
Tusser's book, entitled, "Five Hun- 
dred Pointes of good Husbandrie," was 
first printed. — 16^0. Considerable ef- 
forts were made m France about this 
time to revive the study and practice of 
husbandry. The spirit of improvement 
in the rural arts prevailed also to a con- 
siderable degree in Flanders ; but it was 
chiefly limited to practical husbandry. 
At this period, and even earlier, several 
good agriculturists flourished in Eng- 
land. Among these may be mentioned, 
Gabriel Plattes, who, from the time of 
Elizabeth to that of Cromwell, continued 
to render essential services to the art, 
both practically and by his writings. In 
1700, flourished John Evelyn, author of 
*' Sylva ; or a Discourse on Forest Trees." 
He succeeded in reviving among his coun- 
trymen a taste for promoting the study 
of agriculture. He died 1706. In 1733, 
was published the work of Jethro TuU, 
entitled, " An Essay on Horse Hoeing 
Husbandry." He was the inventor of 
the drill- plough, the use of which he ex- 
plains in his work. TuU is justly cele- 
brated as the first Englishman, perhaps 
the first writer, either ancient or modern, 
who attempted, with any tolerable degree 
of success, to reduce agriculture to cer- 
tain and uniform principles. About this 
time a spirit of improvement in husbandry 
began visibly to manifest itself in Ireland. 
The transactions of the Dublin Society 
for the encouragement of husbandry is a 
valuable work, and is occasionally re- 
sorted to by agriculturists of every coun- 
try in Europe for information. The 
modem discoveries in chemistry about 
the middle of the eighteenth century, 
have enriched agriculture with some of its 
most important improvements. 

790. Sir John Sinclair began his plan 



11 AGR 

for agricultural improvement, and was 
the means of establishing the board of 
Agriculture. On the loth of May, 
1793, Sir John brought the subject 
before the House of Commons, and a 
charter passed the great seal for incor- 
porating the members of administra^ 
tion, the archbishops of Canterbury and 
York for the time being, with other no- 
blemen and gentlemen, into a society, 
under the name of. The board, or Society 
for the Encouragement and Internal Im- 
provement of Agriculture. The regular 
sittings commenced on the 23rd of Janu- 
ary. An extensive correspondence was 
in a short time established, and commu- 
nications of a highly valuable nature 
have been made to the board from every 
quarter. In 1803, Sir H. Davy's Dis- 
courses were published, They form the 
only complete work we possess on agri- 
cultural chemistry. Several local soci- 
eties have since been formed, and exhibi- 
tions of prize cattle made ; that on the 
largest scale is a new and extensive one 
recently established, entitled, "The Eng- 
lish Agricultural Society :" President, 
Earl Spencer. — July 17, 1839, the first 
meeting was held at Oxford. It was at- 
tended by the president, and a great 
number of noblemen. The show of 
cattle was probably the largest ever 
known ; and several prize essays were 
read, calculated to advance the interests 
and improve the knowledge of this art. 

AGRIGENTUM, a city of Sicily, 
founded about a. c. 500. The tyrant, 
Phalaris, first reduced it to slavery. At 
length it sunk under the power of the 
Carthaginians, about A. c. 400. It wasone 
of the most opulent cities of Sicily, con- 
taining 200,000 inhabitants. Among its 
curiosities was the famous bull of Phala- 
ris, which was sent to Carthage. Agri- 
gentum lay fifty years buried under its 
own ruins, when Timoleon collected the 
descendants of the Agrigentines, and sent 
them to re-establish the dwellings of their 
forefathers. The city arose from its ashes 
with such a renewal of vigour, as to ar- 
rogate to itself supremacy over aU the 
Sicilian republics. During the Punic 
war it was the head quarters of the Car- 
thaginians, and was besieged by the Ro- 
man consuls, who took it by storm, A.c. 
262. Part of the site is now occupied by 
a town called Girgenti. 

AGRIPPA, Cornelius, a reputed 
magician, born at Cologne, 1486 5 died 
at Grenoble, 1535. 



AI R 



AGRIPPA, Herod, I, Kingof Judea, 
born A. c. 3 ; died a. d. 44. 

AGRIPPA, Herod, II, before whom 
St. Paul pleaded. Died a. d. 100. 

AGUESSEAU, Henry Francis d' 
chancellor of France, bom at Limoges, 
1668; died 1751. 

AHAB, in Scripture, the son and suc- 
cessor of Omri, began his reign over 
Israel, a. m. 3086, and reigned 22 years. 
About A. M. 3103, Benhadad, King of 
Syria, besieged Samaria with a powerful 
army but he and his army were entirely 
routed, and left a prodigious booty. Ahab 
was slain at Ramoth Gilead, a. m. 3117. 

AHASUERUS or ASTYAGES, the 
Mede, was the son of the brave Cyax- 
ares, who assisted Nebuchadnezzar to 
overturn the Assyrian empire, and ruin 
the city of Nineveh. He died a. m. 3444. 

AHASUERUS, the husband of Es- 
ther. ScaUger, GiU, and others, suppose 
him to be Xerxes, the fourth king of 
Persia after Cyrus. The authors of Uni- 
versal History, Prideaux and others, con- 
sider him to be Artaxerxes Longimanus, 
the son of Xerxes, who greatly favoured 
the Jews ; but the generaUty of writers 
agree with Usher, Calmet, &c., that this 
Ahasuerus was Darius Hystaspes. He 
ascended the throne a. m. 3483. In the 
second year of his reign, the Jews, en- 
couraged by the prophets Haggai and 
Zachariah, resumed the rebuilding of 
their temple. About a. m. 3495 he in- 
vaded India, and obliged the inhabitants 
to pay him nearly 365 talents of silver. 
A little before his death the Egyptians 
revolted from his yoke. He died a. m. 
3519, after a reign of 36 years, and was 
succeeded by his son, Xerxes. 

AHAZ, king of Judah, ascended the 
throne a.m. 3265; died 3278. a.c. 726. 

AIKIN, John, M. D., author of the 
Biographical Dictionary, born January, 
1747 ; died December 4, 1822, 

AINSWORTH, Henry, a noncon- 
formist, and learned bibhcal writer, flou- 
rished 1590. Poisoned from envy, by a 
Jew, 1629. 

AINSWORTH, Robert, a learned 
grammarian, born at Woodgate, near 
Manchester, 1660. We are indebted to 
him for the best Latin and Enghsh Dic- 
tionary extant. It was pubUshed in 1736. 
In 1752 the fourth edition was enlarged 
to two volumes folio. The best of Dr. 
Morrell's editions is dated 1783. He 
died 1743, aged 83, 

AIR BALLOONS. See Balloons. 



12 ALA 

AIR GUNS, invented by Ctesibius, of 
Alexandria, a. c, 120 ; revived by Guter, 
of Nuremburg, a. d, 1656 ; improved by 
Perkins, 1830. 

AIR-PUMPS, invented by Otto de 
Guericke, burgomaster of Magdeburg, 
1654. Also attributed to Boyle, 

AIRE, in France, taken, with its ma- 
gazines, by general Sir Rowland Hill, 
March 2, 1814, 

AITON, William, botanist, author 
of Hortus Kewensis, bom 1731 ; died 
1793. 

AIX La Chapelle, on Lower Rhine, 
founded 795; treaties of peace con- 
cluded May 2, 1668, Oct. 18, 1748. 
Congress at, Oct. Nov. 1818; taken by 
the French 1793, and Sep. 21, 1794. ,^ 
AJACCIO, in Corsica, Napoleon born 
at, Aug. 15, 1769. 

A J AX, son of Telamon, one of the 
Grecian chieftains at the siege of Troy, 
flourished about a.c, 1184. 

AJAX, the son of Oileus, chief of the 
Locrians, a leader in the Trojan war, 
shipwrecked on his return, by Minerva, 
for having violated Cassandira, at her 
shrine; flourished about a.c. 1184. 

AKENSIDE, a celebrated poet, 
bom at Newcastle upon Tyne, Nov. 9» 
1721. After spending three years at 
the university of Edinburgh, he re- 
moved to Leyden, where he continued 
two years, and took, in 1 744, the degree 
of doctor of physic. After his return 
to England, the same year, he pubhshed 
the Pleasures of Imagination. He died 
of a putrid fever, June 23, 1770, in the 
49th year of his age. 

ALAND, John, Lord Fortescue of 
Ireland, a Baron of the Common Pleas, 
and proficient in Saxon literature, born 
1670, died 1747. 

ALARIC, a celebrated Gothic general, 
flourished in the 4th century. He in- 
vaded the finest provinces of the Roman 
empire, during the reign of Arcadius 
and Honorius. In 396 he marched 
into Greece, carrying terror and desola- 
tion wherever he went. Here he was 
opposed by the Roman General Stihcho, 
397. He was proclaimed king of the 
Visigoths 398, and commenced the 
blockade of Rome 408. The last re- 
source of the Romans was in the cle- 
mency of Alaric, who at length in 409, 
consented to raise the siege on the pay- 
ment of an immense ransom. The fol- 
lowing year he made himself master of 
the port of Ostia, after which the gates 



ALB 



13 



ALC 



of the city were soon thrown open. In 
410 Alaric again appeared in arms under 
the walls of the capital. And by a con- 
spiracy the Salarian gate was silently 
opened at midnight; thus a.u.c. 1163, 
Rome was deUvered to the licentious 
fury of the tribes of Germany and Scy- 
thia. The Goths evacuated Rome on 
the sixth day, and were proceeding to 
the conquest of Africa, when the design 
was stopped by the premature death of - 
Alaric; in 410. 

ALBA, kingdom of, of which, the de- 
cendants of iEneas were kings, and 
which afterwards became the empire of 
Rome, lasted 400 years from the arrival 
of iEneas, to the building of Rome. 

ALBAN St. said to have been the 
first martyr in Britain, was beheaded at 
Holmhurst, now St. Albans. 283. 

ALBANIA, a tract of territory, 
which extends 250 miles along the 
Mediterranean and the Gulf of Venice. 
It nearly coincides with the country 
known to the ancients, under the name 
of Epirus. During the time of the 
Greek empire, the name of Albania was 
first given to this district. About the 
year 1478, the people were reduced to a 
state of partial subjection to the Turkish 
empire, and were in succeeding reigns 
induced in great numbers, to enter the 
Turkish army. At the commencement 
of the present century, the notorious 
Ali Pasha, by degrees acquired the sole 
command of this extensive tract of terri- 
tory, and in 1787, was made Pasha of 
Albania. See Ali. Since the inde- 
pendence of Greece in 1830, this king- 
dom has with the exception of a small 
district north of the Drin, been comprised 
in the new kingdom of Greece. 

ALBANS, Abbey, built in 793. 

ALBERONI Julius, a cardinal bom 
at Placentia, 1664. He rose from a 
low origin to the employment of first 
minister of state, at the court of Spain. 
The discovery of his plans caused Eng- 
land and France to unite in declaring 
war against Spain in 1719, and the con- 
dition of peace was the removal of 
Alberoni, and his banishment from the 
kingdom. He died in 1752, aged 86. 

ALBERT DuBER, a German painter, 
born 1471, died 1628. 

ALBERT, Prince. See Coburg. 

ALBERTUS, Magnus, a learned 
mathematician, and general scholar, 
born in Suabia about 1200, flourished 
1237, died 1280. 



ALBIGENSES, a sect of reformers 
who sprung up in the 12th century. 
Their errors were condemned by a coun- 
cil at Albigia in Languedoc 1 1 76. They 
differ from the Waldenses, both as being 
prior to them in point of time, and as 
being charged with various heresies. 
Pope Innocent III, made a most ample 
declaration against them at Toulouse in 
1253, and the catholics agreed upon a 
^crusade against them, from which time 
they decreased till the time of the refor- 
mation, when such of them as were left 
became conformable to the doctrines of 
Zuinglius and the disciphne of Geneva. 

ALBINUS, Christian Bernard, 
professor of Anatomy, at Utrecht, died 
1752. 

ALBINUS, Bernhard Siegfred, 
a celebrated physician and anatomist, 
was born at Frankfort on the Oder, 
1697. In 17 18 he was appointed pro- 
fessor of anatomy and surgery at Ley- 
den. This office he continued to fill 
with great credit for 50 years. His 
anatomical plates, 3 vols, folio. 1744, 
1749, 1753, prove him to have been an 
anatomist of the first rank. He died 
1770, aged 73. 

ALBION Mills, Blackfriars, de- 
stroyed by fire March 2, 1791, the dam- 
age estimated at £25,000. 

ALBION, New, discovered by Drake 
1577, who was the second to attempt a 
voyage round the world, which he per- 
formed in three years. 

ALBUMAZAR, an Arabian physician 
and astrologer, flourished a.d. 841. 

ALBUaUERaUE, Alfonso DE, 
the Portuguese Mars, viceroy of India, 
bom at Lisbon 1452, died 1515. 

ALGOUS, the lyric poet, flourished 
A.c. 605. 

ALGOUS, the tragic poet, flourished 
A.c. 601. 

ALCANTARA, bridge of, across the 
Tagus, Portugal, buUt 98. 

ALCANTARA, order of knighthood, 
instituted 11 60. 

ALCIBIADES, the Athenian states- 
man and general, born A.c. 450. The 
defeat of the Athenian fleet by Lysander 
being attributed to him, he found it 
expedient to retire from Athens. While 
an exile in his house in Phrygia, he was 
asssissinated at the instigation of Lysan- 
der, by order of Pharnabazus a satrap 
of the king of Persia, a.c 404, aged 46. 

ALCIDAMUS, the orator, flourished 
A.c. 615. 



ALD 



14 



ALCORAN, See Koran. 
ALCUINUS, Alcuyn, or Albinus 
Flaccus, a learned English monk, the 
friend of Charlemagne, scholar of Bede, 
and founder of the university of Paris, 
born at York, 732, died at Tours, 804. 
ALDERMAN, among the Anglo- 
Saxons, was the second of the three 
orders or degrees of rank. Atheling 
was the first, alderman the second, and 
thane the lowest. Mr. Hume says that 
comes, in Latin, alderman in Saxon, and 
earl in Dano-Saxon were synonymous. 
In the most ancient times oi the Anglo- 
Saxon government, the aldermen, or 
earls, were appointed by the king, but 
towards the conclusion of this period, 
these officers seem to have been elected 
by the freeholders of the shire, in the 
shiregemont or county-court. To en- 
able them to support their dignity, they 
enjoyed certain lands, called the earl's 
lands. There were anciently however, 
several magistrates who bore the title of 
aldermen, as, the aldermannus totius 
Anglice, or chief justice of England; 
the aldermannus regis, an occasional ma- 
gistrate, answering to our justice of 
assize; and the aldermannus comitatus, 
a magistrate who held the middle 
rank between what was afterwards 
called the earl, and the sheriff: he sat 
at the trial of causes with the bishop ; 
the latter proceeding according to ec- 
clesiastical law, and the former declar- 
ing and expounding the common law of 
the land. 

ALDERMAN, in the English PoHty, 
was originally an associate with the mayor, 
or civil magistrate, of the city or town, 
for the better administration of the office. 
They sometimes took cognizance of civil 
and criminal matters, but that very 
rarely, and only in certain cases. Their 
number was not limited, usually varying 
from six to twenty-six. Out of these 
were elected' the mayors, or chief magis- 
trates of places. Under the new muni- 
cipal act, Dec. 1835, great alterations 
were made. See Municipal Corpo- 
rations. 

ALDERMEN of London. These 
have not been subjected to the changes 
introduced by the Municipal Act. They 
were first appointed in London, in 1 242, 
and consist of 26, who preside over the 
26 wards of the city. When one of 
them dies or resigns, the wardmote 
chooses a successor, who is admitted, 
and sworn into office, by the lord mayor 



ALE 

and court of aldermen. All the alder- 
men are justices of the peace, by a char- 
ter of 15 Geo. n. The aldermen ol 
London, are exempted from serving in- 
ferior offices ; nor are they put upon 
assizes, or serve on juries, so long as 
they continue to be aldermen. 2 Cro. 
585. 

ALDERSGATE, London, built 16 16, 
taken down and sold for £91, April 
10, 1761. 

ALD GATE, London, built 1608; 
taken down and sold for £177 ; April 10, 
1760. 

ALDROVANDINL Tomaso, a 
painter of landscape and architecture, 
born at Bologna, 1653, died 1736. 

ALDROVANDL Aldhovandus, 
Ulysses, a celebrated naturalist, born 
at Bologna, 1522, travelled to Rome 
1550, when he became acquainted with 
Rondelezio. Having graduated in phy- 
sic at Bologna in 1553, he was in the 
following year appointed to the chairs 
of philosophy and logic, and to the 
lectureship of botany. By his interest 
the botanical garden of Bologna was 
founded 1567- He died 1605, at the 
hospital in Bologna, aged 83. His Hor- 
tus Siccus, or collection of dried speci- 
mens of plants, was existing, Haller 
says, near a century after the collection 
was formed : it filled sixteen large folio 
volumes. 

ALE, said to have been invented a.c. 
1404. Its manufacture is of very high 
antiquity, Herodotus tells us that the 
Egyptians drank a liquor fermented 
from barley. It does not appear to have 
been extensively used, either in Italy 
or Greece. Ale or beer, was in com- 
mon use in Germany, in the time of 
Tacitus. "All the nations," says Pliny, 
" who inhabit the west of Europe, 
have a liquor with which they in- 
toxicate themselves, made of com and 
water." In England it is mentioned 
in the laws of Ina king of Wessex. It 
was customary in the time of the Nor- 
man princes, to regulate the price of 
ale, and a statute to that effect was passed 
in 1272. 

The use of hops seems to have been 
a German invention, they were not in- 
troduced into England^ till the beginning 
of the 16th century. In 1530, Henry 
VIII. enjoined brewers not to put hops 
in their ale. Till 1823, there were only 
two sorts of beer allowed m England, 
viz. strong, and small beer In 1823, 



ALE 



15 



ALE 



aa act was passed (4 Geo. IV. c.5l) au- 
thorising the brewery of an intermediate 
beer. By the act 1 Will. IV. passed 1831, 
the commissioners of excise, or other 
persons duly authorised, were bound to 
grant licences, costing £2. 2s. a year, to 
all persons not excepted in the act, em- 
powering them to sell, ale, beer, &c., to 
be drunk indifferently, either on or off 
the premises^ But the act of 1834, 4 
and 5 Will. IV. c.85, made the obtaining 
of a licence to retail beer to be drunk 
on the premises, contingent on the ap- 
plicant being able to produce a certificate 
of good character, subscribed by certain 
persons, rated at a certain amount to the 
poor; it has also raised the cost of such 
licence to £3. 3s.; and reduced the cost 
of a hcence to sell beer not to be drunk 
on the premises to £1. Is. 

ALEMBERT, John Rond d', an 
eminent French philosopher, born at 
Paris, 1717. In 1741, he was ad- 
mitted a member of the Academy of Sci- 
ences ; and, two yifiars after, published 
his Treatise on Dynamics. In 1746, he 
published a discourse on the general 
Theory of the Winds, to which the prize 
medal was adjudged by the academy of 
Berlin. In 1749, he solved the problem 
of the precession of the equinoxes, de- 
termined its quantity, and explained the 
phenomenon of the mutation of the ter- 
restrial axis, discovered by Dr. Bradley, 
In I752,he published a treatise on theRe- 
sistance of Fluids, and began editing the 
French Encyclopaedia. In 1772, he was 
chosen secretary to the French Academy; 
and formed, soon after, the design of 
writing the lives of all the deceased Aca- 
demicians, from 1700 to 1772. In the 
space of three years he executed this 
design, by composing 70 eulogies. He 
died Oct. 29, 1783. 

ALESSANDRIA, or Alessandria 
DE LA Paglia, a city of Italy, in the 
kingdom of Sardinia, the capital of a dis- 
trict named after it, on the Tanaro river, 
46 miles E.s.E. of Turin, Built about 
1168, and named after Pope Alex- 
ander III. The French made themselves 
masters of the town and citadel, but were 
dispossessed by Prince Eugene, in 1706. 
By the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, Ales- 
sandria was assigned to the King of Sar- 
dinia, from whom it was taken by the 
French in 1745 ; but re- taken in the fol- 
lowing year. After the battle of Ma- 
rengo, 1800, it remained in the hands of 
the French tiU 1814, when it reyerted 



to the King of Sardinia with the rest of 
the Italian States. 

ALEUTIAN Isles, on the coast ot 
North America, discovered by Behring 
1741. A more accurate survey of these 
islands was made under the Russian 
government, by Captains Billing and 
Sarytchef, from 1781 to 1798. 

ALEXANDER L, Emperor of all 
the Russians, eldest son of Paul I. 
born Dec. 22, 1777, and married, 1793, 
Elizabeth Alexowina, princess of Baden. 
His education was superintended by the 
Empress Catherine, and his tutor, the 
famous M. de la Harpe. He succeeded 
as emperor March 24, 1801, and was 
crowned at Moscow the following Sep- 
tember. In June, 1802, the emperor 
had his first interview with the 
king of Prussia at Memel, and, the 
same year, gave, in a manner, a new 
constitution to his empire. In 1812, Na- 
poleon set in motion an immense and 
well-appointed army, with the intention 
of conquering Russia ; but the burning 
of Moscow and the firmness of the Rus- 
sian emperor rendered a retreat neces- 
sary. In Feb .1813, Alexander repaired to 
the army in Poland, where he published 
a famous manifesto, that served for a 
coalition of the European powers against 
the French, and the downfal of Napo- 
leon. In the beginning of 1814, the war 
was carried on in France. It was prin- 
cipally owing to the efforts of Alexander 
that, after two months' constant fighting, 
one bold push was made to seize Paris, 
which the allies reached April 30, 1815. 
Alexander visited England,and employed 
the time of peace for the improvement 
of his people. That he was an ambi- 
tious man will be readily allowed, but 
truth must also declare that he min- 
gled with the character of the despot a 
desire for the civilization of the people 
he governed. He died Dec. 3, 1825. 
at Taganrog, on the borders of Tartary, 
and Persia. 

ALEXANDER the Great, king 
of Macedonia and son of Philip, born at 
Pella, the capital of Macedonia, in the 
first year of the 196th Olympiad, a.c. 
356. He was early placed under the 
care of the philosopher Aristotle. The 
ruling passion in Alexander, even from 
his tender years, was ambition, and an 
ardent desire of glory, a.c. 336, after the 
death of Philip he was created general 
of the combined forces, in the room of 
his father, a.c. 333. Alexander invaded 



ALE 



16 



ALE 



Asia, and the same year gained a com- 
plete victory over the army of Darius. 
In spite of the superior forces of the 
enemy, he proceeded to subdue the 
greater part of Asia Minor, and at length 
encountered Darius himself, near the 
city of Issus, with an army twenty times 
the number of the Greeks. Alexander 
was again victorious, and the fruits of 
his victory were the Persian camp, to- 
gether with the wife and mother of Da- 
riusjwhom he treated with the utmost hu- 
manity. A.c. 332,he took Tyre by storm, 
after a defence of seven months. From 
thence he marched to Jerusalem, resolved 
to show it no favour ; but Jaddus, the 
high-priest, met him in his pontifical 
robes, accompanied by the other priests, 
and appeased his anger. Alexander 
next passed into Egypt, which submitted 
to him without the least opposition. 
Here, prompted by a preposterous va- 
nity, he formed the design of visiting 
the temple of Jupiter Ammon, which 
was situated in the midst of the sandy 
deserts of Lybia, and assuming the cha- 
racter of the son of that god. In the 
meantime Darius, who had escaped 
from the battle of Issus, had collected a 
much more numerous army than the 
former, a.c. 331, a decisive battle was 
fought between Alexander and Darius 
at Arbela, which, in its consequeHces, 
was the means of placing all Asia in the 
hands of Alexander, a.c. 328, Alexander 
turned his victorious arms against Scy- 
thia, which shared the fate of Persia. 
Formerly he had manifested a noble dis- 
interested generosity to his enemies, but 
his successes had now so completely 
overpowered the voice of reason, that 
his most faithful friends were daily sa- 
crificed to his suspicions, a.c. 327, he set 
out for India, and was opposed on the 
banks of Hydaspes, by the Indian king, 
Porus, who was encamped on the other 
side in order to dispute the passage with 
him. At the head of his army were 85 
elephants, of a prodigious size, and be- 
hind them 300 chariots, supported by 
30,000 foot. After many obstacles, 
Alexander succeeded in subduing this 
mighty force, and taking their king pri- 
soner. 

Alexander was at length constrained 
to stop short in his career of \dctory, 
through the complaints of the Macedon- 
nians, who hadgrown grey in his service. 
After spending nine months in sailing 
down the rivers, Alexander airived a* 



the ocean, on which he gazed with ea- 
gerness, believing that he had extended 
his conquest to the extremes of the earth 
on that side. From Patala he marched by 
land to Baliylon ; when, finding this city 
surpassed in extent and convenience all 
the cities of the east, he resolved to make 
it the seat of his empire, a.c. 321, he was 
seized witli a ^dolent fever, of which he 
soon after expired, in the 33rd year of 
his age, and 11th of his reign. 

ALEXANDER Balas, King of Sy- 
ria, slain A c. 145. 

ALEXANDER jANN^us.sonof John 
Hyrcanus, prince and high priest of the 
Jews, a short time before the reign of 
Herod the Great, a. c. 106. He died 
A.c 79, after having reigned 27 years. 

ALEXANDER Skverus, Emperor 
of Rome, succeeded Heliogabalus about 
222. He was murdered by his troops, 
at the instigation of Maximinius, toge- 
ther with his mother, in the 29th year 
of his age, 235. 

ALEXANDER »!., pope, his stir- 
rups held by the kings of England and 
France, died 1181. 

ALEXANDER VI., pope, born 1431, 
at Valencia, in Spain ; appointed cai- 
dinal in 1455 ; afterwards archbishop 
of Valencia and vice-chancellor of Rome. 
Under pope Sixtus IV. he was legate in 
Spain. Elected in 1492, at the age of 
61, to succeed Pope Innocent VIII. He 
then changed his original name of Ro- 
deric Borgia, for that of Alexander VI. 
He proposed to the christian princes to 
march at the head of an army against 
the Turks, and under this pretext issued 
a bull for a jubilee in 1 500, by which he 
contributed to enrich his treasury. In 
1503, the poison which he and his son 
Caesar had prepared for others who stood 
in the way of their avarice and ambition, 
by a happy mistake terminated his own 
days. See Borgia. 

ALEXANDRIA, now caUed Scande- 
ria, the ancient capital of Lower Egypt, 
built by Alexander the Great, a. c. 333. 
It is situated on the Mediterranean, 
twelve miles west of that mouth of the 
Nile anciently called Canopicum. In 
one of the suburbs of the city called 
Rhacotis, a temple was erected to the 
god Serapis. This structure, according 
to Ammianus Marcellinus, surpassed in 
beauty and magnificence, all others in 
the world, except the capitol of Rome. 
Within the verge of this temple, was the 
famous Alexandrian Library, formed by 




Alfred enters lie service of a Cowherd 
lleDajios "breai tie Treaty and attack the Pjiglisli Cas^alry- . LR,ba slain andMs famous Standard lakeii. 

Alfred iji. Tie Danish Carop. Al Pred gajus a complelo Victory. 



LONDON, THOMAS KtLl.Y, 18 1 I . 



ALE 



17 



ALF 



Ptolemy Soter, containing no fewer than 
700,000 volumes. Alexandria was be- 
sieged and taken by Julius Caesar, a.c. 
47. It was again taken by Octavius, 
August 1. A.c. 30, after the battle of 
Actium, upon which Egypt became a 
Roman province. 

Alexandria was for a series of years, 
first under ths successors of Alexander, 
and subsequently under the Romans, the 
principal entrepot of the ancient world. 
The greater partofthetraffic between Asia 
and Europe that had, at an earlier period, 
centred at Tyre, was gradually diverted 
to this new emporium. It supplied 
India with the products of Europe and 
Rome, and the western world with silks, 
spices, precious stones, and other pro- 
ducts of Arabia and India ; a great trade 
in corn was also carried on from Alex- 
andria to Rome. Egypt, for a length- 
ened period, constituted the granary 
from which Rome, and aftenvards Con- 
stantinople, drew the principal part of 
their supplies ; and its possession was 
on that account, reckoned of the utmost 
importance. 

Towards the middle of the 7th cen- 
tury, this city was taken by storm, after 
a siege of fourteen months, by the Sara- 
cen general Amrou Ebn al Aas Not- 
withstanding the revolutions in the go- 
vernment of Egypt, after it fell into the 
hands of the Mahomedans, the excellence 
of its port, and its trade preserved Alex- 
andria from total destruction. In 875, 
the old walls were demolished and the 
city contracted to half its former di- 
mensions, and partly rebuilt. 

1798. Alexandria was taken by Buo- 
naparte. In 1801, it was retaken by the 
English General Hutchinson, which was 
the prelude to the conquest of Egypt, 
and its evacuation by the French army ; 
but by an article in the treaty of peace, 
dictated probably by jealousy, it was re- 
stored to the Ottoman Porte. 

There was formerly an artificial navi- 
gation stretching from the city to the 
western branch of the Nile. After being 
shut up for some centuries it was re- 
opened in 1819, by MohamedAli. 

In 1831, there entered the port of 
Alexandria 1215 ships, of the burden of 
198,299 tons, of these, the Austrian 
■were the most numerous, next, the Eng- 
lish and Ionian, and then the French, 
Sardinian, Spanish, &c. 

ALEXAND^I^ Library, con- 



taining 400,000 MSS. destroyed by fire 
A.c. 47. 

ALEXANDRIAN Library, the 
Second, containing 700,000 volumes 
burned by Caliph Omar, 14th January, 
640. The Saracens heated their warm 
baths, for six months, with the burning 
books. 

ALEXANDRINA-VICTORIA. See 
Victoria. 

ALFIERI, Vittorio,- Count, an 
Italian tragic poet, born in Piedmont, 
1749. 

ALFRED, son of Ethelred II ; had 
his eyes put out by Earl Godwin, and 600 
followers slain at Guildford, 1036. 

ALFRED THE Great, fourth son 
of Ethelwolf, born at Wantage in Berk- 
shire, in 849, succeeded to the throne 
872, in the 22nd year of his age. He 
was crowned at Winchester, and at his 
coronation was first used the ceremony 
of crowning and anointing. He was 
obliged to take the field against the 
Danes within one month after his coro- 
nation. A bloody engagement took 
place at Wilton, in Wiltshire ; where, 
though the king was defeated with some 
loss, yet so great was the dread in which 
the Danes stood of Alfred's military 
fame, that they made a treaty with him, 
and retired from his dominions into 
those of the king of Mercia. In 875, the 
Danes broke the treaty, and meeting on 
the road to Mercia a body of English 
horse, advancing in an unprepared man- 
ner, as they relied on the late agreement, 
they slew the greater number of theni. 
In 876, the Danes divided the army, one 
part seized on Exeter, where they win- 
tered, and the other went to Northum- 
berland. Alfred defeated them at Ex- 
eter, but they , again made head against 
him at Chippenham, where he was 
worsted, and soon after at Bristol, where 
he recovered strength, and attacked them 
in camp at Abingdon, Berkshire. He 
fought seven batdes with them that year. 

877. Another succour of the Danes 
arrived and Alfred was obliged to 
disguise himself as a peasant and en- 
gage himself in the service of his own 
cowherd, to take care of his cattle, 
Asser and other ancient writers relate, 
as a proof how completely Alfred was 
disguised, that one day the good woman 
of the house set a cake before the fire to 
bake, where the king was busily em- 
ployed in trimming his bow and arrows^ 
■ ' ■■ o 



ALF 



18 



ALG 



oh coming back and finding it burnt, 
through neglect of turning it in her ab- 
sence, which she supposed he would 
haA'e done, she chid him very severely 
for his inattention; and told him that 
though he could not turn the cake he 
was ready enough to eat it. 

Alfred soon left this station, and with 
his wife and some of his most valued 
friends found a safe retreat in the isle of 
^■Ethelingey (Athelney) in Somerset- 
shire, which was secured by vast mo- 
rasses around it, and accessible only by 
one very obscure passage. 

878. When the king had been about a 
year in this retreat, being informed that 
some of his subjects, under the brave 
Odun, Earl of Devonshire, had routed a 
great army of the Danes, killed their chief 
Ubba, and taken their magical standard, 
he issued letters, giving notice where he 
was, and inviting his nobility to come 
and consult with him. Before they 
came to a final determination, however, 
Alfred disguised as an itinerant harper, 
strolled into the enemy's camp : where, 
without suspicion, he was admitted not 
only to the tents of the common soldiers, 
but even into those of the chief Danish 
commanders. Having examined every- 
thing with great accuracy, he retired 
again to ^Ethelingey, and summoned with 
all privacy his faithful subjects to meet 
him in arms at Brixton, in the forest of 
Selwood in Wiltshire. They obeyed the 
summons ; and, fired with the hope of 
liberty, fell upon the Danes, with in- 
credible alacrity, at a moment when the 
latter had not the least suspicion of a foe, 
and gained a complete victory. 

884. A new swarm of Danes landed in 
Kent, and laid siege to Rochester; but 
the inhabitants boldly defended the place, 
till the king reaching them with an army, 
compelled the enemy to raise the siege: 
In 897, they went up the river Lea, and 
built a fortress at Ware, when king 
Alfred drained oflP the course of the river, 
and left their ships dry, which obliged the 
Danes to remove. Having reigned up- 
wards of 28 years, to the delight of his 
subjects, and the admiration of all Eu- 
rope ; he died October 28, 900. It has 
been observed of Alfred, that, had he 
not been a king, he would have been 
eminently distinguished as a gramma- 
rian, a rhetorician, a philosopher, a his- 
torian, a musician, and an architect. His 
original writings and translations were 
very numerous. 



ALGAROTTI, Francisco, an Italian 
nobleman, a printer, engraver, and critic, 
born at Venice December 12, 1712; 
died at Pisa, March 3, 1764. 

ALGEBRA Where this science 
was first used, and by whom, is un- 
known. Tlie earliest writing on it, was by 
Diophantus, probably about 3.50. It was 
brought into Spain by the Saracens, 
probably about 900. Brought into Italy 
by Leonard at Pisa, about 1202. Par- 
tial solutions of cubic equations, by 
Scipio Ferreus, of Bologna 1505. Fur- 
ther solution by Tartale of Brescia, 
(communicated by Cardan,) 1539- Solu- 
tion of biquadratics by Louis Ferrari, 
1556. The introduction of general sym- 
bols for quantities, whether known or 
unknown, by Vieta, (the greatest step in 
the science) 1600. Positive and integral 
indices, by Harriot, and Descartes ; com- 
positions of the higher equations by 
Harriot, 1610. Application of algebra 
to the expression of curves and use of 
indeterminate quantities, Descartes 1637. 
Diophantine problems. Fermat, about 
1640. Negative and fractional indices, 
by Wallis, 1657. Indefinite division 
and indefinite quotients, by Mercator, 
1666. General indices, by Newton, 
1667 or 1668. 

The Binomial Theorem of Ne%vton, 
1688, thebasisof the doctrine of Fluxions, 
and the new analysis, discovered about 
the year 1668; first published in 1676. 
Sir Isaac Newton's farther discoveries 
and improvements relating to the pre- 
sent subject, are his Method of Divisors, 
for discovering the rational roots of 
equations ; the Method of Fluxions and 
Infinite Series ; the Quadrature, Recti- 
fication, &c. of Curves ; the Investiga- 
tion of the Roots of Equations both 
universal and literal, by Infinite Series ; 
the Reversion of Series. &c. 

The calculation of probabilities in the 
theory of games of chance, was ex- 
pressly treated on, first by Huygens, 
about the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
tury. Demoivre has explained and applied 
the doctrine in his Doctrine of Chances, 
&c. 17 18, and his Annuities on Lives, 
1724. Thomas Simpson has written 
ably on the subject in his Nature and 
Laws of Chance, 1740, and Doctrine of 
Annuities and Reversions, &c., 1743. 

The following branches are more or 
less allied to fluxions, or owe their origin 
to that doctrine; naa^y, the Methodus 
Incrementorum, by jPf. Brook Taylor, 



ALG 



19 



ALG 



published in 1/15; the Doctrine of Ul- 
timators, by tlfe 'Rev. John Kirkby, 1748; 
the Residua] Analysis, by Mr. Landen, 
1764; and lastly, the Doctrine of Uni- 
versal Comparison, 1789, and the Ante- 
cedental Calculus, 1793, both by Major 
Glenie. 

The subsequent improvements are 
numerous, but they are of no great im- 
portance. 

ALGIERS, a piratical state of Africa, 
formerly a kingdom, but now under the 
power of France. In 44, the Romans 
were driven from thence by the Vandals; 
these by Belisarius, the Greek emperor 
Justinian's general, and the Greeks in 
their turn by the Saracens, about the 
middle of the I7th century. The Arabs 
continued masters of thecountry,dividing 
it into a great number of petty kingdoms 
and states, under chiefs of their own 
choosing, till the year 105.1. At this 
time, Abubeker-ben-Omar reduced the 
whole province of Tingitania under his 
dominion, 

1505. The Spaniards obliged Algiers 
to become tributary to Spain. The Alge- 
rines were compelled to submit, till 1516, 
when they sent an embassy to the bold 
adventurous corsair Aruch Barbarossa, 
requesting him to come and free them 
from the Spanish yoke ; for which they 
agreed to pay him a gratuity answerable 
to so great a service. The same year, 
Barbarossa caused himself to be pro- 
claimed king. 

1517. After the death of Barbarossa, 
his brother Hayradin, sought the pro- 
tection of the grand Signior. This was 
readily granted, and himself appointed 
pacha, or viceroy of Algiers. It con- 
tinued to be governed by viceroys ap- 
pointed by the porte, till the beginning 
of the 17th century. In 1623, the Al- 
gerines threw off their dependence on 
the porte, and a revolution took place, 
by which Algiers finally became an 
independent state, under their own 
deys. 1683, their town was bombarded 
by a French squadron under admiral 
Du Quesne, who utterly destroyed their 
fortifications and shipping, and ahuost 
all their city. It was again bombarded 
in 1781, by the French. But it was 
not till the taking of Gibraltar in 1682, 
that Britain could have a sufficient 
check upon them to enforce the obser- 
vation of treaties. In 1775, and again 
in 1784, Algiers was bombarded by the 
Spaniards, by which these pirates were 



for a time reduced to reason. In 1815, 
it was blockaded by an American fleet, 
under Captain Decatur; in consequence 
of which, the dey gladly consented to 
pay the sum of 50,000 dollars. 

In November, 1815, Lord Exmouth 
was dispatched with a fleet of. five 
frigates. On his arrival before the 
city, the dey, alarmed and unprepared 
for any resistance to so powerful a force^ 
complied with his lordship's proposals; 
and confirmed the former treaties. But 
afterwards, committing new depredations, 
on the 27th August, 1816, Lord Exmouth 
attacked their fleet in the harbour, and 
destroyed nearly all their shipping, bom- 
barded the town, and reduced all the bat- 
teries to a heap of ruins. 

For some years this piratical state 
conducted itself with more moderation ; 
but retaining its old system of commit- 
ting gross outrages and repeated insults, 
particularly to France, a French expe- 
dition was sent against it in 1830. July 
the 22nd, the capital of Algiers sur- 
rendered unconditionally to the French 
army, who, occupying it, took posses- 
sion of an immense booty. The reten- 
tion and colonization of Algiers by the 
French, was, for three years found a 
heavy burden on the finances of France; 
the chairman of the committee on the 
budget of the minister of war, 1834, 
strongly recommended its abandonment. 
The expenditure recommended by the 
committee for 1835, exclusive of the sol- 
diers and seamen required for the de- 
fence of the colony, amounted to 
7,000,000 francs. 

1836. The French ministry having 
declared that government, had, notwith- 
standing, adopted a firm resolution tore- 
tain permanent occupation of Algiers and 
its dependencies, a force was maintained, 
and many battles fought. The result of 
which was, that, after several engage- 
ments with the Arabs, Abdel Kader, 
one of the most powerful of their chiefs, 
was obliged to withdraw to the moun- 
tains. During the spring and summer of 
1837, General Bugeand was employed in 
negociating a treaty with Abdel Kader. 
It was officially announced to the public 
on the 18th of July. 

1839. The war in Algiers broke out 
again ; after a long correspondence, be- 
tween Abdel Kader and the French go- 
vernor Marshal Vrdlee, the former 
declared war against the French, Nov. 2. 
The plain adjoining Algiers was in the 



ALH 



■20 



ALI 



possession of a corps of about 4,000 
mounted Arabs. On the 21st a convoy 
which left the city for one of the camps, 
fell in with them, and the 38 men of 
which itg escort consisted, including 
three officers, were all put to the sword 
and decapitated. The Toulonnais o*" 
the 29th thus sums up the situation of 
affairs in Algiers. " The blood of our 
countrymen has everywhere flowed under 
the yataghan, fire has devoured the pro- 
perty of the friendly tribes and of the 
colonists, and our soldiers being inferior 
in numbers to the enemy, are obliged to 
maintain an unequal contest. Hostilities 
are general, they have broken out at 
Blida, Kolesh, Maelma, Foudouck, Arba, 
and all the neighbouring camps. Seve 
ral villages have been reduced to ashes, 
and amongst others, that of Noirlous, 
whose inhabitants have been carried off 
by the Arabs ; a convoy escorted by 48 
men was never heard of, and a detach- 
ment of 148 men entirely put to the 
sword." 

ALHAMBRA, an ancient fortress and 
residence of the Moorish monarch s of 
Granada, derives its name from the colour 
of the materials with which it was built, 
A.H.794, orA.D. 1338. It appears, at first 
view, a huge heap of ugly buildings, all 
huddled together, seemingly without the 
least intention of forming an habitation; 
but it occupies an immense space, and its 
internal structure is perhaps the most 
curious in the world. In every division, 
are Arabic sentences of different lengths, 
most of them expressive of the following 
meanings: — "There is no conqueror but 
God ;" " Obedience and honour to our 
Lord Aboiiabdoulah." 

This edifice is memorable for a re- 
markable fact in Moorish history. It was 
in one of the cells of this building that in 
1491 the wife of the last king of Grenada 
was imprisoned. The Gomels and Le- 
gris,tvvo families of distinction, bore false 
witness against her virtue, and occasion- 
ed the destruction of the greatest part of 
the Abencerrages, another powerful and 
numerous family of Grenada, of whom 
they were jealous. It is said that the 
Abencerrages were sent for, one by one, 
and beheaded as soon as they entered the 
hall of the lions in this fortress, where 
there is still a large vase of alabaster, 
which was quickly filled with blood, and 
the heads of expiring bodies. The un- 
happy princess was imprisoned, and the 
day arriving on which she was to perish 



by the hands of the executioner, when 
none of the Moors offering to defend her, 
she was advised to commit her cause to 
some Christian knights, who presented 
themselves at the time appointed, and 
conquered her false accusers, so that she 
was immediately set at liberty. The tak- 
ing of Grenada by the Spaniards soon 
followed this combat, 

ALI, the son of Abu Taleb and one 
of the most celebrated characters in Ma- 
homedan history, cousin and son-in-law 
to Mahomet. He was remarkable both 
for eloquence and valour. After the 
death of Caliph Othman, he was saluted 
caliph, by the chiefs of the tribes, in 
655, A.H. 35. His accession to the 
throne caused a destructixe civil war. 
AU was assassinated in the 63rd year of 
his age a.d. 660. a. h. 40. 

ALI Bey, an eastern adventurer, 
born at the foot of Caucasus, seized the 
government of Egypt, died 1773. 

ALI Pacha, a self constituted go- 
vernor of Albania, bom at Tepelini, 1744, 
slain, with six of his companions, 
Feb. 5, 1822. 

ALIEN Priories, seized by the 
crown, 1337. 

ALIENS, forbidden to hold church 
livings ; juries for their trial, to be half 
foreigners, 1430 ; not to exercise a trade 
or handicraft by retail, 1483 

1 708. An act was passed for the general 
neutralization of all foreign protestants ; 
but the prejudices against them was stiU 
so great that it was repealed within three 
years. Some unsuccessful attempts have 
been since made to carry a similjir mea- 
sure. 

The conditions under which aliens lat- 
terly resided amongst us were embodied 
in the act 7 Geo. IV. cap. 54, 1827- 
But in 1836, this was repealed by the act, 6 
Will. IV. cap. 11, which enacts in its stead 
some new regulations, of which the fol- 
lowing are the principal. Every master 
of a ship arriving from foreign parts, shall 
declare in writing, to the chief officer of 
customs, the name or names, rank, or oc- 
cupation, &c. of any alien or aliens on 
board his ship, or who may have landed 
therefrom, at any place within the realm, 
under the penalty of 20/., for omission or 
false declaration ; andof 10/. fore very aUen 
omitted in the declaration ; this regula- 
tion does not, however, extend to foreign 
mariners navigating the vessel. On 
arriving in this country, the alien is to 
declare his name, description, &c., and 



ALM 



to produce his passport ; which declara- 
tion is to be registered by the officer of 
customs, who is to dehver a certificate 
to the alien. A copy of this declaration, 
is to be transmitted, within two days, to 
the secretary of state; or, if the alien 
land in Ireland, to the chief secretary of 
the lord lieutenant. The original cer- 
tificate given to the alien is to be trans- 
mitted to the secretary of state on his 
leaving the country. New certificates 
to be granted in lieu of such as may be 
lost, without fee, under a penalty of 20/. 
Forging certificates, or falsely personat- 
ing, was punishable by imprisonment, 
exceeding three months, or by fine, not 
not exceeding lOOl. 

ALLEGIANCE, Oath of, first ad- 
ministered 1636, altered 1689. 

ALLEGRI, (CoRREGGio) Antonio, 
a celebrated but unfortunate historical 
painter, born at Allegri, 1490, and died 
from disappointment, 1534. 

ALLEN, John, archbishop of Dublin, 
and a learned writer, murdered in the 
Lord Offaly's rebellion, 1534. 

ALLEN, Thomas, an English mathe- 
matician, born at Uttoxeter, Dec. 21, 
1542, died 1632. 

ALLEYN, Edward, an English actor 
in the reigns of Elizabeth and James L, 
keeper of the royal bear garden. He 
founded Dulwich College. Born in Lon- 
don, 1566, died 1626, buried at Dul- 
wich. 

ALLIANCE, Holy. See Holy Al- 
liance 

ALLINGTON Castle, Kent, built 
1282. 

ALLOISI, Bald ASS ARE, Gallanino, 
an eminent portrait painter, (the Italian 
.Vandyk), born at Bologna, 1578, died 
.1638. 

. ALL SAINTS, Festival of, insti- 
tuted 625. 

ALL SOULS, Festival of, insti- 
tuted A.D. 1604. 

ALL SOULS College, Oxford, 
founded by Henry Chichely, archbishop 
of Canterbury, 1437. 

ALLY Cawn, made a nabob by 
Col. Clive, June 23, 1765. 

ALMAGRO, Diego de, a Spanish 
commander, of obscure birth, who 
formed an association with Pizzarro 
and De Luque, for the purpose of dis- 
coveries arid conquests, upon the Peru- 
vian coast. In 153.5, he attempted the 
conquest of Chili, and set out at the head 
of 570 Europeans A form of govern- 



21 ALM 

ment was settled in the name ofAlmagro, 
and his jurisdiction over Cuzco was 
universally acknowledged. After a 
fierce and bloody battle with Pizzaro, 
Almagro was made prisoner. In the 
75th year of his age, 1538, he was 
strangled in prison, and afterwards be- 
headed. 

ALMANACS were first published by 
Martin Ilkus, at Buda, 1470; they were 
compiled by MuUer, 1473. Regiomon- 
tanus, was the first in Europe, who re- 
duced almanacs into their present form 
and method. His first almanac was 
published in 1474. The first in Eng- 
land was printed at Oxford 1673. 
The company of stationers, in London, 
claimed an exclusive right to publish 
almanacs until 1779. Almanacs were 
first printed at Constantinople, 1806 ; 
duty was taken off 1834, by 3rd and 4th 
Will. IV. c. 57. 

The best almanac in England is that 
published under the superintendence of 
the Society for the diffusion of Useful 
Knowledge, called " The British Alma- 
nac." The " Companion to the Alma- 
nac," published by the same society, and 
contimied to the present time, with the 
British Almanac, contains 1st. Informa- 
tion connected with the calendar, the ce- 
lestial changes, and the natural pheno- 
mena of the year. 2nd. General information 
on subjects of chronology, geography, 
statistics, &c. 3rd. The legislation, sta- 
tistics, public improvements, and inven- 
tions, of the year. 

ALMANAC, Nautical, and As- 
tronomical Ephemeris, is a kind of 
national almanac, published annually, 
by anticipation, under direction of the 
commissioners of longitude. Besides 
every thing essential to general use, it 
contains, the distances of the moon from 
the sun and fixed stars, for every three 
hours of the apparent time, adapted to 
the meridian at Greenwich, by comparing 
with which the distances observed at sea, 
the mariner may infer his longitude to a 
considerable degree of exactness. It 
began with the year 1767, has been con- 
tinued ever since, and greatly contributes 
to the improvement of astronomy, geo- .> 
graphy, and navigation. 

ALMARANTE-. order of knighthood 
in Sweden, instituted 1653. 

ALM EYDA, in Portug~al, taken by the 
Spaniards, August 25, 1762; by the 
French, August 27, 1810; blown up by 
the French May, 10, 1811 



ALP 



32 



ALMORA, East Indies, carried by 
assault of the Company's forces, April 
25, 1815. 

ALNAGER, King's, seems to have 
originated from the statute of Richard I., 
1197; his office is to regulate the mea- 
sure of woollen cloth made in England. 
ALNWICK Castle, Northumber- 
land, seat of the Percies, founded 1147. 
ALOE, American, introduced into 
Europe, 1561. 

ALPHABET. Some learned men 
have imagined, that the knowledge of 
alphabetical writing was supernaturally 
imparted to our first parents. Others 
have supposed, with more probabiUty, 
that it was introduced very early after 
the deluge, a. c. 2349. It seems pro- 
bable that letters were known to the Is- 
raelites at Sinai, as Go* thought fit to de- 
liver the first elements of their religion in 
th?t kind of v\Titing. From the Israelites, 
it is supposed that the art of alphabetical 
writing passeil to theAssyrians, andfrom 
them was communicated to the Phoeni- 
cians and Egyptians, about a.c. 1950. It 
is generally agreed that Cadmus, the son 
of Agenor, first brought letters to Greece, 
A. c. 1045 ; whence in the following 
ages they spread over the rest of Europe. 
The Ionian alphabet, which consisted, of 
twenty-four letters, was adopted a.c 390. 
ALPHONSINE Tables, Astrono- 
mical tables, so called from the inventor, 
Alphonso X, king of Castile composed 
1252. See Alphonso X. 

ALPHONSO or Alonso III, sur- 
named the Great, king of Asturias, Leon, 
and Onedo, born 849, and succeeded 
his father Don Ordogno, 865. In 910, 
his son Don Garcias, having formed the 
design of deposing his father and seating 
himself upon the throne, Alonso assem- 
bled the states and grandees of the 
country, and abdicating the crown, re- 
signed it to Don Garcias, who was 
declared king. Alonso died in 912, when 
about 63. It is said that he composed 
a chronicle of Spanish affairs from the 
death of king Recesuintho, to that of 
his father Don Ordogno. 

ALPHONSO or Alonso X, sur- 
named the Wise, king of Leon and Cas- 
tile, succeeded his father May 30, 1252. 
His reign was marked by dissensions 
at home, and unsuccessful expeditions 
abroad, in the midst of which he died, 
April 4, 1284, in the 81st year of his 
age. He was an eminent proficient in 



ALV 

science, and a patron of literature. In 
1248 he assembled a number of the 
most celebrated astronomers from all 
parts of Europe, at Toledo, for the pur- 
pose of examining the astronomical 
tables of Ptolemy, and correcting their 
errors. In 1252, they were completed, ' 
and called Alphonsine Tables from 
the name of this prince. 

ALRESFORD, in Hampshire, de- 
stroyed by fire 1160. 

ALTARS, in churches, first used 135, 
consecrated 271, the first used in Britain 
534. 

ALTOF, in Franconia, University of, 
founded 1581. 

ALUM, a salt of great importance in 
the arts, consisting of a compound of 
aluminum, a pure argillaceous earth, 
potass, and sulphuric acid. Alum is 
sometimes found native, but by far the 
greater part of that met with in com- 
merce is artificially prepared. The best 
alum is the Roman, or that which is 
manufactured near Civita Vecchia in the 
papal teritory. 

According to Beckmann the ancients 
were unacquainted wth alum, the sub- 
stance which they designated as such 
being merely vitroUc earth. Alum was 
first discovered by the Orientals, who 
established alum works in Syria in the 
13th or 14th century. The oldest alum 
works in Europe, were erected about the 
middle of the 15th century. Towards 
the conclusion of the reign of Queen 
Elizabeth, Sir Thomas Chaloner esta- 
blished the first alum works in England, 
near Whitby, in Yorkshire, where the 
principal works of the sort, in this coun- 
try, are still carried on. The manufac- 
ture was first brought to perfection 1608. 
ALVA, Don Ferdinand Alvarez, 
of Toledo, Duke of, general of the im- 
perial armies in the time of Charles V., 
born of an illustrious family in Spain, 
in 1508. In 1546 he marched against the 
German protestants ; 1556 was sent into 
the pope's territories, and hanng pursued 
his conquests to the very gates of Rome, 
he yielded to peace, and submitted to ask 
forgiveness of the pontiff he had con- 
quered. He was selected by Philip II. 
to take the government of the Low 
Countries, in order to extirpate the 
protestants. His cruelties led to the 
separation of the Dutch provinces 1565. 
In 1 573 he resigned the government of the 
Low Countries; 1581 defeated Antonio, 



AMB 



■23 



AME 



king of Portugal, drove him from the 
kingdom, and soon reduced the whole 
under the subjection of Philip ; he died 
1582, at the age of 74. 

AMADEUS, the name of several 
Counts of Savoy. 

AMADEUS V, succeeded to the 
sovereignty in 1285; in consequence of 
his wisdom and success, he obtained 
the surname of Great. When the Turks 
attempted to retake the Isle of Rhodes, 
from the knights of St. John of Jerusa- 
lem in 1311, he boldly defended it, A- 
madeus died in 1323, after a reign of 
,38 years. 

AMADEUS IX. Count of Savoy, 
surnamed the Happy, a virtuous and 
pious prince. He succeeded to^ the 
throne in 1464, and died universally re- 
gretted in 1472. 

AMARANTE. See Almarante. 

AMAZONIA, country. South Ame- 
rica, discovered in 1580, by Francisco 
Orellani, who coming from Peru sailed 
down the river called Amazons. In con- 
sequence of the appearance and size of the 
women, the country and river received 
their name from the Amazons of anti- 
quity. See the next article. 

AMAZONS, a nation of warlike 
women, who formed an empire in Asia 
Minor. They made an irruption into 
Attica, about a. c. 1209. A queen of 
the Amazons visited Alexander the Great; 
she died soon after her return, about 330. 

AMBASSADOR. The first sent by the 
Czar of Russia to England, 1556; the first 
sent to Turkey from England, 1606; the 
Portuguese arrested for debt, 1653; the 
Russian arrested by a lace merchant, 
1709; when a law was passed for their 
protection. Prosecution limited, 1773. 
The first that arrived in Europe from 
India, came from Tippoo Saib to France, 
1778. The first from the Ottoman em- 
pire arrived in London, December, 1793. 

AMBERLEY Castle, Sussex, built 
1374. 

AMBOYNA, one of the Molucca 
islands, in the East Indies, the centre 
pf the commerce for nutmegs and cloves. 
It was first discovered by the Portuguese 
in 1515, who built a fort upon it, which 
was taken by the Dutch, 1605. The 
English had here five factors, who lived 
under the protection of the Dutch castle, 

1622. The infamous Amboyna mas- 
sacre took place, in which the Enghsh 
factors, and others, their countrymen, 
were accused of a pretended conspiracy, 



and were inhumanly tortured to ex- 
tort a confession of their guilt. Those 
who did not expire unf^ler the agonies 
of torture, were executed, though all of 
them .protested their innocence to their 
latest breath 

1796. Amboyna was captured by 
the English, but restored to the Dutch 
by the peace of Amiens. In 1810, it was 
again taken by the English, and in 1814 
again restored to its former owners by 
the treaty of Paris. 

AMBROSE, St., Bishop of Milan, 
one of the most eminent fathers of the 
church in the 4th century, bqrn in 
France in 334, or as some say, in 340. 
He attained, by the regular gradation of 
civil honours, the stati(m of consular of 
Liguria and Emilia, comprehending the 
territories of Milan, Liguria, Turin, Ge 
noa, and Bologna. By the prudent and 
gentle use of his jjower, he conducted 
the affairs of the province with growing 
popularity. In 374, Ambrose was 
chosen bishop of Milan. He was a zea- 
lous defender of the church against the 
Arians. He died in 397. His writings 
are voluminous, although little more than 
adulterated editions of Origen and other 
Greek writers. 

AMBROSIUS, AuRBLius, chosen 
king of the Britons, and crowned at 
Slonehenge, in 465 ; died in 508. 

AMONTONS, the reputed inventor 
of the telegraph, died 1705. 

AMERICA, first discovered by Co- 
lumbus, 1492; the complete discovery 
of South America made by Vespucius 
Americanus, a Florentine, in 1499. About 
the same time North America was disco- 
vered by Sebastian Cabot, m the service of 
England. The first English colony set- 
tled in Newfoundland 1498. Florida dis- 
covered by John Cabot, 1500, ceded to 
Spain by the peace of 1783, now one of 
the United states. 

1500. Brazil discovered by the 
Portuguese, planted by them 1549; now 
erected into an independent empire. 
See Brazil. In 1514, Terra Firma 
conquered by Spain; in 1518, Mexico 
conquered by Spain; Peru in 1520. See 
Mexico and Peru. 

1607. The first British settlement 
made in Virginia, North America, 4th 
James I. The second in New England, by 
the Plymouth Company, in 1614. In 1620, 
New Plymouth built by a large body of 
dissenters, who fled from church tyranny 
taEngland. In 1622, Nova Scotia settled 



AME 



34 



AME 



by tJie Scotch, under Sir William Alex- 
ander. In 1628, Salem was built, and 
in 1630, Boston, the present capital 
of New England ; Maryland, was settled 
by Lord Battlemore, 1633; New York, 
by tlie Dutch, 1664; Carolina, by Eng- 
lish merchants, 1670; Pennsylvania, by 
William Penn, 1681 ; Georgia, by General 
Oglethorpe, 1732. Nova Scotia confirmed 
to the Enghsh, by the peace of 1748. 

1663. Louisiana discovered by the 
French ; they took possession of it in 
1718, but eastward oi the Mississippi was 
ceded to England in 1763; it now 
forms one of the United states. Canada 
was attempted to be settled by the 
French in 1534; they built Quebec in 
1608. It was conquered by the English, 
1762, and ceded by the peace of 1763. 
In 1774, free trade opened between 
Old and New Spain, by the straits of 
Magellan. In 1775, paper currency es- 
tablished in America. 

Thirteen colonies united, and declared 
themselves independent of the English 
crown, July 4, 1776 ; allowed by France, 
Feb. 6, 1778 ; by Holland, Oct. 8, 1782 ; 
by the English Parliament, Nov. 30, 
1783. September 1, 1775, American con- 
gress first met at Philadelphia. In 1781, 
William Henry, Duke of Clarence, (late 
William IV.) landed in North America. 
He was the first prince of the blood royal 
who had visited those shores. July 18, 
1812, United States of America declared 
war against England. Made peace Dec. 
24, 1814. See United States. 

Spanish America declared itself inde- 
pendent in 1810. See Colombia, 
Chili, Peru, &c. United Provinces 
assembled in congress, and declared the 
sovereignty of the people, July 5, 1811. 
See Buenos Ayres. 

1830. Independence of all the newre« 
publics acknowledged by France ; Count 
Mole writing to the repubUcan agents, 
announcing tliat France was ready to 
enter into treaties of amity with them. 

Recent Discoveries. — Barrow's Straits 
discovered by Lieut. Parry, in 1819, 
who penetrated as far as Melville Island, 
in lat. 74° 26' N, and long. 113°, 47' W. 
The straits were entered on the 3rd of 
August. The lowest state of the ther- 
mometer was 55° below zero of Fahren- 
heit. The northern limits of North 
America, determined by Captain Frank- 
lin, from the mouth of the Coppermine 
River, to Cape I'urnagain, in his first 
journey. In his second expedition, he 



discovered the coast between the mouths 
of the Coppermine and M'Kenzie's 
rivers, and the coast from the mouth of 
the latter to 1495° W. long. In August, 
1827, Capt. Beechy, in H. M. S. Blos- 
som, discovered the coast from Icy-Cape 
to point Barrow, leaving about 140 miles 
of coast unexplored between this point 
and point Beechy. Point Barrow is in 
156° W. long. 

AMERICAN Colleges, with the 
dates of their foundation, arranged 
under the heads of the different states 
in the union. 

Maine. Bowdoin college, 1794 ; 

Maine Theological Institution, 1814; 

Waterville college, 1820; Maine 

Wesleyan Seminary, 1825. 

New Hampshire. Dartmouth college, 

1769. 
Vermont. University of Vermont, 

1791 ; Middleburg college, 1800. 
Massachusetts. Harvard University, 
1638; William's college, 1793; Am- 
herst college, 1821. 
Rhode Island. Brown University, 

1764. 
Connccticutt. Yael college, 1700; 
Washington college, 1824; Wes- 
leyan University, 1833. 
New York. Columbia college, 1754 ; 
Union college, 1794; Hamilton col- 
lege, 1812; Geneva college, 1825; 
Brockport college, 1834; Univer- 
sity of the city of New York, 1831. 
New Jersey. College of New Jersey, 

1 746 ; Rutger's college, ] 770. 
Pennsylvania. University of Penn- 
sylvania, 1755; Western University, 
1820; Dickenson's college, 1783; 
Jefferson college, 1802; Washing- 
ton college, 1806; Alleghany col- 
lege, 1815 ; Lafayette college, 1826 ; 
Pennsylvania college, 1832; and 
Franklin and Madison colleges, 
founded in 1787, and 1827, now 
closed. 
Marj'land. St. John's college, 1784; 
University of Maryland, 1807; 
Washington Medical college, 1833; 
St. Mary's college, 1799; Mount 
St. Mary's college, 1809. 
Virginia. University of Virginia, 
1825 ; college of William and Mary, 
1691 ; Washington college, 1812; 
Hampden-Sidney college, 1774. 
North Carolina. tJniversity of North 

Carolina, 1793. 
South Carolina. College of South 
Carohna, 1801 ; .Charleston col- 



A M E 2 

lege, 1785; Medical college of 
South Carolina, 1832. 
Georgia. University of Georgia, 1802 ; 
Medical college of Georgia, 1806. 
Alabama. University of Albama, 
1820; Lagrange college, 1830; 
college of Spring Hill. 

Mississippi. Jefferson college, 1802. 

Louisiana. College of Louisiana, 
1825. 

Tennessee. University of Nashville, 
1806; Greeneville college, 1794; 
East Tennessee college, 1807. 

Kentucky. Transylvania university, 
1798; Centre college, 1818; St. 
Joseph's college, 1819; Augusta 
college, 1822; Cumberland college, 
1824; George Town college, 1830. 

Ohio. Ohio university, 1802 ; 
Miami university, 1809; Western 
reserve college, 1826; Kenyon col- 
lege, 1828 ; Franklin college, 1824; 
Medical college of Ohio, 1818. 

Indiana. Indiana college, 1827; 
South Hanover college, 1825. 

Illinois. lUinois College, 1830. 

Missouri. St. Louis university, 1829 ; 
St. Mary's college, 1822. 

District of Columbia. Georgetown 
college, 1799 ; Columbian college, 
1821. 

AMERICAN Societies, with the 
dates of their institution. 

New Hampshire. New Hampshire 
medical society, 1791; New Hamp- 
shire historical society, 1823. 

Massachusetts. Berkshire medical 
institution, 1833 ; Amencan aca- 
demy of arts and sciences, 1780; 
Massachusetts historical society, 
1791 ; American antiquarian so- 
ciety, 1812; Massachusetts medi- 
cal society, 1781; American insti- 
tute of instruction, 1831. 

Rhode Island. Rhode Island histori- 
cal society, 1822 ; Franklin society, 
1821. 

Connecticut. Connecticut histori- 
cal society ; Connecticut medical 
society. 

New York. New York historical so- 
ciety, 1804; New York literary 
and philosophical society ; Ameri- 
can academy of fine arts, 1 808 ; 
national academy of design, 1826 ; 
American lyceum, 1831 ; medical 
society of the State of New York. 

Pennsylvania. American philosophi- 
cal society, 1769; Pennsylvania 
academy of the fine arts, 1805 ; 



> AM I 

academy of natural sciences, 1812 ; 
Pennsylvania historical society, 
1825. 
Vii"ginia. Virginia historical and 

philosophical society, 1832 
North Carolina. North Carolina insti- 
tute, 1831. 
South Carolina. Literary and philo- 
sophical society of South Carolina, 
1831; medical society, of South 
Carolina, 1794. 
Indiana. Indiana historical society, 

1831. 
District of Columbia. Columbian 

institute, 1816. 
AMERICAN Colonization So- 
ciety, for establishing a colony of 
emancipated blacks on the coast of 
Africa, instituted 1816. 

AMERICAN Company, the Rus- 
sian, established in 1785. 

AMERICAN Congress, first as- 
sembled at Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1775, 
removed to Washington, 1801. 

AMERICAN Expedition of dis- 
covery to explore the rocky mountains ; 
heard of after an absence of eleven years, 
1832. 

AMERICAN Philosophical So- 
ciETy, instituted Jan. 2, 1672. 

AMERICUS Vespucius, (Amerigo 
Vespucci,) one of the discoverers of the 
continent of America, born at Florence, 
March 9, 1451 ; first reached America 
in 1499 : died at Seville, 1512. 

AMES BURY, Wiltshire, 32 houses 
destroyed by fire, which did £10,000 
damage, June 3, 1751. 
AMESBURY Nunnery, built 976. 
AMES, Joseph, author of Typogra- 
phical Antiquities, born at Yarmouth, 
1683, died 1759. 

AMES, Fisher, an American orator 
and writer : born 1753, died 1804. 

AMHERST, Jeffrey, Lord, a bri- 
tish general, born 1717, died 1798. 

AM HURST, Nicholas, an English 
poet, born at Marden; the author of 
the " Craftsman," and which materially 
controlled the power of the existing 
administration. Notwithstanding all 
his popularity and talent, he died in po- 
verty, of a broken heart, and was buried 
at the expense of his printer in 1742. 

AMICABLE Society, incorporated 
1706. 

AMIENS, peace of, concluded be- 
tween France and England, March 27, 
1802. In the words of an eminent 
statesman — " It was a peace at which 

E 



A iM S 



every body rejoiced, but of which no- 
body could be proud." From the 
moment this treaty was signed, discon- 
tents and jealousies daily arose, which, 
in 1S03, caused a recommencement of 
the war. 

AMILCAR, (or Hamilcar Barcas) a 
Carthaginian general, father to Hanni- 
bal, slain in battle a.c. 228. 

AMIOT, a French Jesuit, missionary 
to China, born 1718, died in 1794. 

AMMIANUS Marcellintjs, a 
Roman historian, who flourished in the 
4th century : born at Antioch. In 350 
he entered the service of Constantius, 
emperor of the east. His history be- 
gins with the reign of Nerva, and con- 
tinues to the death of Valens : 13 of his 
books perished, the 18 which remain com- 
mence with 1 7 years of the reign of Con- 
stantine, and terminate at 375. Candour 
and impartiality are its leading features. 

AMNESTY, L/^MV of, passed in 
France, Jan. 12, 1816. 

AMORITES, a people that inhabited 
the mountains around the Dead Sea, 
conquered by Moses, a.m. 2553. 
AMOS, the prophet, flourished A.c. 850. 

AMPHICTYONIC Council, was a 
congress of twelve cities of Greece, held 
t^vice a year at Thermopylae, to adjust 
disputes, &c. Founded by Amphictyon 
A.c. 1522. 

AMPHILOCHUS, bishop of Ico- 
nium, died a.d. 394. 

AMPHION, King of Thebes, and a 
celebrated ancient musician, flourished 
A.M. 2617. 

AMPHION Frigate, blown up at 
^Plymouth, and all the crew destroyed, 
Sep. 22, 1796. 

AMPHITHEATRE, at Fidonia, built 
during the reign of Tiberius, fell in 
when 50,000 persons were killed, 26. 

AMPHITHEATRE, at Rome, erected 
in 69, planned by Augustus, and built 
by Vespasian. ITiis immense building 
obtained the appellation of the Coliseum. 
Itwas of an elliptical form, whose longest 
diameter was about 615 English feet, 
and the shortest 510, and was ca- 
pable of containing 87,000 spectators. 
Since stripped of its ornaments to de- 
corate palaces, and the 14 chapels erected 
within It. 

AMPHITRITETRANSPORT,with 125 
female convicts, and a. crew of 39 souls, 
lost \vithin 3 miles of Boulogne, and 
only three lives saved, Aug. 31, 1833. 

AMSTERDAM, the chief city of 



26 ANA 

Holland, situated on the Amstel, from 
which it derives its name. First walled 
in 1490. In 1522, besieged unsuccess- 
fully by the Guelderlanders. In 1578, 
submitted, after a ten months' siege, to 
the Hollanders. In 1675, increased to 
its present extent; 1787, surrendered to 
the Russians; 1795, received the 
French ; 1806, the seat of regal govern- 
ment under Louis Buonaparte; 1810, 
incorporated with tl\e French empire ; 
1813, restored to Holland, when the 
house of Orange was recalled. 

Bank founded, 1609. 

Stadthouse built 1638 ; Exchange in 
1634 ; Opera House at, burnt, 150 per- 
sons perished, 1772; Admiralty House 
destroyed by fire, July 6th, 1791. 

AMURATH.or AmuratI., sultan of 
the Turks, and one of the greatest 
princes of the Ottoman empire, suc- 
ceeded his father Orchan, in 1360. 
He was stabbed by one of his servants 
in 1389j having reigned 29 years. He 
introduced the mihtary order of Jani- 
zaries. See Janizaries. 

AMYOT, James, a French writer, 
bishop of Auxerre, born 1514, died 1593. 

ANABAPTISTS, first appeared un- 
der Storck and Muntzer in Germany, 
1525; chose Buchold, of Leyden, a 
tailor, their king, 1534; appeared in 
England, 1549. They reject infant 
baptism, and baptize by immersion at 
years of discretion. Four Dutchmen 
burnt for heresy, 1538; some imprison- 
ed for a plot against Oliver Cromwell, 
1657; an insurrection of them under 
Venner, Jan. 6, 1661. This ancient sect 
agree with the Baptists of tlie present 
day, only in the circumstance of reject- 
ing infant baptism. 

ANACHARSIS, the Scythian philoso- 
pher, flourishedabout a. c.600. Intrusted 
with an embassy to Athens, A.c. 592, and 
honoured with the friendship of Solon. 
After several years he returned to hs na- 
tive country desirous of instructing the 
inhabitants. But he fell a victim to their 
folly and ignorance. Tlie energetic man- 
ner in which he was accustomed to ex- 
press himself, gave birth to the proverb- 
ial saying, " Scythian eloquence." 

ANACREON, the Greek poet, flou- 
rished A.c. 532. 

ANANIAS AND Sapphiba struck 
dead, a.d. 33. 

ANAPA. After a siege of forty hours, 
the Turkish garrison, 3,000 strong, sur- 
rendered at discretion to the Russian ad- 



ANA 



27 



AND 



uiirals, Greigh and Mencikoff. Eighty- 
five pieces of artillery fell into the hands 
of the conquerors, June 23, 1828. 

ANASTATIUS I., emperor of the 
east, succeeded byZeno, 491, died, 518. 

ANASTATIUS II., dethroned by The- 
odoric, 719- 

ANATHEMA, first exercised by the 
church, 387. 

ANATOMY. Hippocrates, who has 
justly been styled the father of medicine, 
and who flourished about four centuries 
before the Christian era, attended little 
to anatomy. Subsequent to his time, 
opportunities of dissection were very rare, 
and confined to the schools of Athens 
and Alexandria. Under the patronage 
of the Ptolemies, Erisistratus and Hero- 
philus particularly distinguished them- 
selves. Galen, who flourished in the 
2nd century, first reduced the science to 
a regular system 

On the revival of letters in the fifteenth 
and sixteenth centuries, anatomy was 
cultivated with considerable assiduity, 
and by none with so much ability, zeal, 
and success, as the great Vesalius, who 
was born at Brussels, in 1514. 

The commencement of the seventeenth 
century forms a splendid era in the his- 
tory of anatomy, for then was discovered, 
by our countryman, Harvey, the circula- 
tion of the blood. In 16 16 Dr. Harvey 
first promulgated his discovery. By ex- 
periments equally clear and simple, he 
proved that the blood not only circulated 
through the lungs, but in every part of 
the body. Not long after the circulation 
of the blood had been discovered, the 
lacteals were brought to light by Aselius, 
an Italian physician; and, in 1651, Pec- 
quet traced them to the thoracic duct, 
and from thence to the left subclavian vein. 

1653. The lymphatics were disco- 
vered by Rudbeck and Bartholine. Mal- 
pighi made considerable improvements 
in the use of the microscope, which very 
much facilitated the study of anatomy. 
After him, Ruysch distinguished himself 
by his description of the valves of the 
Ijonphatic vessels. 

In the present day anatomy is studied 
with great industry and zeal, and the, 
science is almost daily enriched by acces- 
sions of useful and valuable information. 
In Bell's " Animal Mechanics," pub- 
lished about 1830, the marks of design 
which pervade every part of the human 
frame are illustrated in a scientific and 
elegant manner. 



Dr. Agout, of Pans, m 1832,mvent6d 
an artificial human body, the muscles 
and other parts (1244 in all) being made 
of a peculiar kind of paste, and dried, 
can be removed one after the other ; and 
in that way the muscles of the trunk and 
the extremities can be regularly demon- 
strated, and the relative position of the ex- 
ternal and internal muscles exhibited; the 
transit of the arteries, veins-, and nerves, 
clearly shown ; and each muscle and or-, 
gan, down to the bone, can be removed 
and replaced in their natural position. 

In 1832, by 2 and 3 Will. IV.; an act 
was passed for regulating the schools 
of anatomy, which empowers the secre- 
tary of state to grant licence for practising 
anatomy to any college of physicians. 

ANATOMY OF plants, discovered 
1680. 

ANAXAGORAS, an Ionian philoso- 
pher, born A.c. 500, died-428. 

ANAXANDRIDES, ■ the comic poet, 
flourished a.c. 378. 

ANAXARCHUS, a Thracian philo- 
sopher, flourished a.c 340. 

ANAXIMANDER, the inventor of 
hydrography, born at Miletus, a. c. 610, 
died 547. 

ANAXIMENES, a mathematician, of 
Miletus, who flourished a.c. 556. 

ANCHORS invented 587. 

ANCHORITES, first appeared 1256. 

ANCONA, city of Italy, States of the 
Church : taken by the French, July 1796 ; 
surrendered by the Imperialists, Novem- 
ber 13, 1799; referred to the pope, 1802. 
The French landed here February 23, 
1832, and took possession of the cita- 
del. The pope called it an *' invasion," 
and protested against it several times. 

ANGUS, Martius, fourth king of 
Rome, succeeded a.c. 640, died in 615. 

ANDES, a chain of mountains in 
South America, called by the Spaniards, 
Cordillera de los Andes. They extend 
from the most northern parts of Peru to 
the Straits of Magellan, between 3,000 
and 4,000 miles, and are the longest and 
most remarkable in the world. The 
highest mountain, Chimborazo, is as- 
serted by the French mathematicians, 
who were employed from 1735 to 1743, 
in measuring a degree of the equator, to 
be about 20,280 feet above sea level. 

The important political events from 
1817 to 1822, by which the whole of the 
South American continent has been 
wrested from the dommion of Spain, 
have opened a way for communication 



AN G 



AM 



with this mountainous region. In 1822, 
M. MoUien, an intelligent Frenchman, 
landed at Cartagena, and reached Bo- 
gota by the usual loute of the Mag- 
dalena. 

Captain Cochrane, in 1823, ascended 
the Magdalena, one of the Andean range, 
to Honda, the port of Bogota. 

By the obsen-ations of J. B. Pentland, 
Esq., communicated to the Geographical 
Society in 1835, it appears that the vol- 
cano of Gualatieri, in the Andes, rises to 
an elevation of 22,000 feet. 

ANDOVER, Lord, killed while de- 
livering his fowling piece to his servant, 
January 8, 1801. 

ANDRE, Major, a British officer, 
taken as a spy by the Americans, and 
hanged October 2, 1780. 

ANDRE, Jean, a French historic 
painter, pupil of Carlo Maratti, born 
in 1662, died in 1753. 

ANDREA, Marochini and Orcag- 
NA, two famous Florentine artists, flou- 
rished 1385. 

ANDREW, St., order of knighthood, 
in Scotland, instituted 809 ; revived in 
Scotland, 1451 and 1605; in Russia, 1698. 

ANDKIiW, St., brother of St. Peter, 
martyred No\'ember 30, 69- Festival 
instituted, 354. 

ANDRE^VS, Henuy, the compiler, 
for more than forty years, of Moore's 
Almanac, published by the Stationers' 
Company : died, 1820, aged 76. 

ANDREWS, St., University of, Scot- 
land, founded by bishop Wardlaw,1411. 

ANDREWS, Launcelot, bishop of 
Winchester; born 1555, died 1626. 

ANDRONICUS I., emperor of the 
east, assassinated 1185. 

ANDRONICUS of Rhodes, a peripa- 
tetic philosopher, and preserver of the 
works of Aristotle, flourished a.c. 66. 

ANELLO, Thomas, or Massaniello, 
the fisherman of Naples, born 1623. 
He obtained supreme power, and was 
assassinated 1666. 

ANEURIN, an ancient British bard, 
died about a.c. 570 

ANGELIC KNIGHTS OF ST. GKORGE. 

Order instituted in Greece, 456. 

ANGELITES, an heretical sect that 
first appeared in 494. 

ANGELO, the name of three cele- 
brated painters. — SeeBuoNAROTTi, Ca- 
RAVAGGio, and Campidoglio. Mi- 
chael Angelo Buonarotti, the most emi- 
nent,wasbornl474, and died 1563, in his 
90th year. 



ANGLES, a people who possessed a 
part of Mecklenburgh, as far as Lubeck, 
came into England about 447 ; hence it 
was called Angleterre, or England. 

ANGLESEA, an island of North 
Wales, in the Irish Sea. Said to have Ijeen 
the grand establishment of the Druids in 
Britain, and the seat of the arch-druid till 
the time of Suetonius Paulinus, who, 
about a.d. 59, made a descent upon it, 
cut down the sacred gro\ es, and burned 
the druids in the fires of their own altars. 
The Britons, however, again got posses- 
sion of the island ; and it was Julius 
Agncola who completed its reduction to 
the Roman dominion in 79- In the 
fifth century the British princes recovered 
their ascendency in Anglesey; and, though 
occasionally subjected to the power of 
the Saxons, Danes, Irish, and Normans, 
it was regarded as the seat of the 
sovereignty of North Wales, till the final 
extinction of Welch independence by Ed- 
ward I., in 1295. 

ANGLO-SAXONS, first landed in 
Britain, 449. See Britain, Ancient, 
and England. 

ANGOLA, in Africa, settled by the 
Portuguese, 1482. 

ANGUELLA, or Snake Island, West 
Indies, discovered and colonized by 
England in 1650; attacked by pirates 
under Victor Hughes, 1796. 

ANHALT Island. Four thousand 
Danes repulsed by 150 British, March 
27, 1811. 

ANIMAL Magnetism made its ap- 
pearance in France, 1788; introduced 
into England, 1789 ; exploded, 1791; re- 
vived in France, 1836, and occasionally 
patronized in England. Examinations 
of M. Berna and others who patronize 
this pretended science before the Royal 
Academy of Medicine at Paris, August 
8 and 22, 1837- 

ANIMALS, Cruelty TO. Tlie act 5 
and 6 Will. IV. c. 59, 1835, consolidates 
and amends the several laA\'S relating to 
the cniel and improper treatment of ani- 
mals, and the mischiefs arising from the 
driving of cattle, and to make other pro- 
visions in regard thereto ; i-eciting that 
frequent accidents arise from improperly 
driving cattle, and many and great cru- 
elties are practised by improperly driving 
and conveying cattle, &c., to the great 
and needless increase of the suflferings ot 
dumb animals, and to the demoralization 
of the people, and whereby the lives and 
property of his Majesty's subjects are 



ANN 



greatly endangered and injured. It enacts 
that any persons wantonly and cruelly 
beating, or otherwise ill-treating any 
cattle. &c., or improperly driving the 
same whereby any mischief shall be 
done, shall upon summary conviction, 
be fined not less than 5s., nor more than 
40s.; or, in default of payment be com- 
mitted. And as cnielties are greatly 
promoted by persons keeping houses, 
rooms, pits, grounds, or other places for 
the fighting or baiting of dogs, buUs, 
bears, &c., it inflicts a penalty for keep- 
ing such places of not exceeding 5Z., nor 
less than 10s. per day; and the person 
who shall be the manager of such house 
shall be deemed the keeper. It directs 
every person impounding animals to find 
food, and gives a summary remedy for 
the recovery thereof from the owners. 
Penalties on parties neglecting to feed 
impounded cattle, 5s. per day. And 
whereas great cruelty is practised by 
reason of diseased, old, and worn-out 
horses, sold or taken to knackers or 
slaughtermen, &c., compels any such 
slaughterman to take out a license, under 
a penalty of not exceeding 51., nor less 
than 10s ; and such horses must be 
slaughtered within three days after pur- 
chase, and in the meantime be provided 
with food, under a penalty not exceeding 
40s., nor less than 5s. per day. 

ANICH, Peter, a Tyrolese peasant, 
astronomer, and geographer, born 1723, 
died 1766. 

AN JAR, fortress of. East Indies, taken 
by East India Company, February,! 6 16. 

ANJOU, France, university at, founded 
1349; enlarged 1364. 

ANNAT, F., a French Jesuit, and 
learned author, born 1590, died 1670. 

ANNE, Queen of England, last of the 
Stuart family, born at Twickenham, 
1665 ; married to prince George of Den- 
mark, 1683, by whom she had eighteen 
children, all of whom died young ; came 
to the throne, March 8, 1 702 ; crowned, 
April 13 following ; lost her son George, 
duke of Gloucester, by a fever, July 29, 
1700, aged eleven; lost her husband, 
who died of an asthma and dropsy, Oc- 
tober 28, 1708, aged 55. The queen 
died of apoplexy, August 1, 1714. 

ANNE of Cleves, one of the wives of 
Henry VIII., after being divorced, re- 
turned to her own country, and diedl557. 

ANNE of Beaujeu, Regent of France, 
daughter of Louis XI., wife of the duke 
of Bourbon; died 1522. 



29 ANS 

ANNET, Peteb, pillored for his 
deistical writings ; died 1778, aged 75. 

ANNIBAL— See Hannibal. 

ANNUITIES for life, regulated 1777. 

ANNUITIES, or pensions, first 
granted 1512, when 20Z. was given to a 
lady of the court for services done, and 
61. 13s. for the maintenance of a gentle- 
woman, 1536; and 13Z. 6s. 8d. a com- 
petent sum to support a gentleman in 
the study of the law, 1554. Annuities 
on lives are now become a matter of 
commercial speculation. — See Life An- 
nuities. 

ANNUNCIATION of the Virgin 
Mary observed, 350. 

ANOINTING first used at corona- 
tions in England, 872 ; in Scotland, 
1097. 

ANQUETIL Du Perron, Abra- 
ham Hyacinthe, a famous orientalist; 
born 1731, died 1805. 

ANSELM, archbishop of Canterbury, 
born 1033, at Aost, a town in Savoy. 
In 1092 he was invited over to England. 
When the kingdom was invaded by Ro- 
bert duke of Normandy, in 1 101, Anselm 
by his exhortations, example, and autho- 
rity, preserved Henry on the throne. He 
is reported to have Avrought many mira- 
cles, both before and after his death, 
which happened at Canterbury, 1109» 
aged 76. 

ANSGAR, the apostle of the North, 
introduced Christianity into Sweden and 
Denmark; born 800, died 865. 

ANSON, George Lord, an emi- 
nent English naval commander born in 
1697. In 1724, he was raised to the 
rank of post captain, and to the command 
of the Scarborough man-of-war. Be- 
tween this time and 1733, he went with 
ships under his command three times 
to South Carolina, where he erected a 
town bearing his name, the country 
around which has been since called 
Anson County. In 1740, he was ap- 
pointed to the command of a squadron 
destined to annoy the enemy in the 
South seas. He sailed from St. Helen's 
September 18, in the Centurion of 60 
guns, with the Gloucester and Severn 
of 50 guns each, the Pearl of 40, the 
Wager storeship, and the Tryal sloop. 
He arrived in the latitude of Cape Horn 
about the middle of the vernal equinox, 
1741, and in such tempestuous weather, 
that his strength was diminished by the 
putting back of the Severn and Pearl, 
and the loss of the Wager storeship. 



ANT 30 

Having at Juan Fernandez repaired his 
damages, and refreshed his men, he kept, 
for eight months, the whole coast of 
Mexico and Peru in alarm, made several 
prizes, took and plundered the town of 
Peyta. At length, with the Centurion 
only, he traversed the vast extent of the 
Pacific Ocean, a three months' voyage, 
and with difficulty reached the island of 
Tinian one of the Ladrones. 

1742. Mr. Anson put to sea again, and 
on the 12th of November, after a great 
variety of adventures, he arrived at Ma- 
cao, at the entrance of the river of Can- 
ton. Returning home he fell in with a 
rich galleon, on her passage from Aca- 
pulco to Manilla, which he captured; 
the treasure onboard was said to amount 
to £313,000. He arrived at Spithead, 
June 15, 1744, having completed the 
circumnavigation of the globe, and 
brought back great riches, taken from the 
enemy, though unforeseen disasters had 
defeated some of the principal purposes 
of his enterprise. 

On his return, Mr. Anson was made 
rear-admiral of the blue ; and in a short 
time after, a commissioner of the admi- 
ralty, and rear-admiral of the white; 
and in the year 1746, vice-admiral. In 
1747, he was raised to the peerage by 
the title of Lord Anson, baron of Sober- 
ton in the county of Southampton. In 
1751, he was appointed first lord of the 
admiralty, in which post he continued 
with a very short intermission till his 
death, which happened June 6, 1762. 

ANSON, frigate, 44 guns, wrecked 
in Mount's Bay, Cornwall; when Capt. 
Ledyard and many of the crew perished, 
Jan. 7, 1808. 

ANSTEY, Christophkr, an hu- 
morous poet, author of the New Bath 
Guide; born 1724, died 1805. 

ANTARCTIC Ocean, expanse of 
water, surrounding the South Pole, but 
little known. In 1819, Captain Smith 
discovered land lying between long. 55% 
and 65 w., and beginning at lat. 62°. 
An expedition for discovery in this ocean, 
as well as the Pacific, was fitted out by 
the United States, in the year 1836. 

ANTEDILUVIANS, general name 
for all mankind who lived before the 
flood, including the whole of the human 
race, from Adam to Noah and his family. 
The following table exhibits a summary 
of this chronology, according to the He- 
brew, the Samaritan, the Septuagint, and 
Josephus ; — 



ANT 

Ages of the Antediluvian Patriarchs at 
their Sons' birth. 





Heb. 


Sam. 


Sept. 


Jos. 


Adam . . , 


130 


130 


230 


130 


Seth . . . 


105 


105 


205 


105 


Enos .... 


90 


90 


190 


90 


Cainan . . . 


70 


70 


170 


70 


Mehalaleel . 


65 


65 


165 


65 


Jared . . . 


162 


62 


162 


62 


Enoch . . . 


65 


65 


165 


65 


Methuselah 


187 


67 


187 


187 


Lamech . . . 


182 


53 


188 


182 


Noah's age at the K„^ 
flood J^OO 


600 


600 


600 


To the flood 


1656 


1307 


2262 


1556 



ANTHEMS, introduced into the re- 
formed church in the reign of Elizabeth j 
first used 386. 

ANTH.EUM, at Hove, Sussex, 
dome of, fell in Aug. 30, 1833. 

ANTHONY, St., the Great, bom in 
Egypt, 251, died 356, aged 105. 

ANTHONY, St., of Padua, born Aug 
15, 1 195, died June 13, 1231. 

ANTHONY, St., in Hainault, order 
of knighthood instituted in Germany, 
1282; in Ethiopia, 357. 

ANTI-SLAVERY SOCIETY, for the 
abolition of Slavery and the slave-trade 
throughout the world. This new soci- 
ety was formed at a meeting of delegates 
and friends to the cause, assembled from 
various parts of the united kingdom, held 
at Exeter Hall, the 17th and 18th of 
April, 1839. The follovnng are the fun- 
damental principles of the Society :-"That 
so long as slavery exists there is no rea- 
sonable prospect of the annihilation of 
the slave-trade, and of extinguishing the 
sale and barter of human beings : that 
the extinction of slavery and the slave- 
trade will be attained most effectually by 
the employment of those means which 
are of a moral, religious, and pacific cha- 
racter ; and that no measures be resorted 
to by this Society in the prosecution of 
these objects but such as are in entire ac- 
cordance with these principles." The 
Society is under the management of a trea- 
surer, a secretary, and a committee of not 
less than twenty-one persons, who are 
annually elected. See further the article 
Slavery. 

ANTIMONY, before the 14th cen- 
tury, had no place in medicine, but was 
brought into vogue by Paracelsus, about 
1520. 



ANT 



31 



ANT 



ANTIQUARIES, Society of, at 
London, incorporated Oct. 26, 1751. 

ANTIQUARIAN Society, at Edin- 
burgh, instituted Dec. 18, 1780. 

ANTIQUARIAN Society, at New- 

CcLStlc 1812. 

ANTIGONUS, one of the generals of 
Alexander the Great. Defeated Ptolemy 
and assumed the title of king, a.c. 306. 
At Ipsus a decisive battle was fought, in 
which Antigonus fell, in the 84th year 
of his age, a.c. 301. 

ANTIGONUS, GoNATUS, grandson 
of the former, died about the 80th year 
of his age, and the 44th of his reign, 243. 
ANTIGUA, Island, West Indies, first 
settled by Sir Thomas Warner, with a 
few English families, in 1632. In 1666 
a French armament, from Martinique 
and Guadaloupe, assisted by some Ca- 
ribs, got temporary possession of the 
island, and plundered the planters, 
but were afterwards expelled, and the 
island confirmed to the British by the 
treaty of Breda, in 1688. In 1706, Co- 
lonel Daniel Parke succeeded to the 
government of Antigua; in 1710, the 
colonists rose, en masse, in arms against 
him. He was then dragged into the 
street and murdered. 

Serious disturbances took place in the 
island in 1831, the cause of which is 
stated to have been the stoppage of the 
Sunday Negro market for provisions and 
hve-stock. An act passed the Island As- 
sembly,Feb. 13,1834, and was ratifiedby 
the Council two days after, decreeing the 
emancipation of every slave in the island 
on the 1st of August, 1834. In 1835, 
July 12 and 13, the islands of Antigua 
and St. Kitts were visited by a violent 
hurricane, causing the loss of many lives, 
and an extensive destruction of property. 
The Governor of Antigua permitted the 
importation, duty free, for six months, 
into the island, of provisions and build- 
ing materials, as some alleviation of the 
calamity. 

ANTINOMIANS, certain heretics 
who maintained the law as of no use or 
obUgation under the gospel dispensation, 
took their origin from John Agricola, 
about the year 1533. 

ANTIOCH, the ancient metropolis of 
Syria, founded a.c. 300, by Seleucus Ni- 
cator, was one of the most celebrated cities 
of antiquity. It continued to be as Pliny 
calls it, the queen of the east, for nearly 
1600 years. Nevertheless it has under- 
gone many calamities. About a. c, 145 



being very much disaffected to the per- 
son and government of Demetrius the 
king, he found himself obliged to solicit 
assistance from the Jews. The inhabi- 
tants ran to arms, and surrounded the 
king's palace to the number of 120,000, 
with a design to put him to death. All 
the Jews hastened to his relief, fell upon 
the rebels, killed 100,000 of them, and 
set fire to the city. 

On the destruction of the Syrian em- 
pire, A.D. 65, Antioch fell under the Ro- 
man dominion. In 242 it was taken and 
plundered by Sapor king of Persia ; and 
also again a few years afterwards. In 260 
being taken by the Persian monarch a third 
time, he not only plundered it, but level- 
led aU the pubhc buildings to the ground. 
About the time of the division of the Ro- 
man empire by Constantine in 331 it was 
afflicted with a grievous famine, so that 
a bushel of wheat was sold for 400 pieces 
of silver. 

Antioch suffered from earthquakes in 
the years 458 and 526 ; but when Chos- 
roes, king of Persia invaded Syria in 540, 
the city disdaining the offer of an easy ca- 
pitulation, was taken by storm, and the 
inhabitants slaughtered with unrelenting 
fury. It was almost entirely destroyed 
by an earthquake in 587, by which 30,000 
persons lost their lives. In 634 it fell 
into the hands of the Saracens, who kept 
possession of it till the year 858, when it 
was surprised by one Burtzas, and again 
annexed to the Roman empire. In the 
tenth century the Turks seized upon it as 
well as the whole kingdom of Syria. 
From them it was agam taken by the cru- 
saders in 1098. In 1262 it was taken by 
Bibaris, sultan of Egypt, who put a final 
period to its glory. It is called by the 
Arabs Antakia, and is now no more than 
a ruinous town. 

It is worthy of remark, that Antioch 
was much celebrated in the early ages of 
the Christian church. Here Paul and 
Barnabas preached a considerable time, 
and it was here that the disciples of 
Christ first received the denomination of 
Christians. 

There were many other ancient cities 
which bore the name of Antioch; of these 
the niost remarkable was that usually de- 
nominated Antioch of Pisidia, mentioned 
in Acts xiii. 

ANTIOCHUS, the name of several 
kings of Syria. 

ANTIOCHUS, AsiATicus, seizes a 
part of Syria, A.c. 69. 



ANT 



32 



ANT 



ANTIOCHUS, Cyzicenus, took 
possession of Syria, A.c. 112; was de- 
feated, and killed himself, a.c. 94. 

ANTIOCHUS,Epiph ANES, defeated 
Ptolemy's generals, a.c. 171; took 
Jerusalem, and comraited great cruelties 
there, 170. 

ANTIOCHUS THE Great, took 
Sidon, A.c. 198; was defeated and 
slain, 187. 

ANTIOCHUS, Pius, defeated by 
PhiUp, A. c. 91. 

ANTIOCHUS, SiDETES, king of 
Syria, defeated and s.'ain, a.c. 130. See 
Syria. 

ANTIPATER, a Macedonian states- 
man; born A.c. 398, died 318. 

ANTISTHENES, a Grecian philoso- 
pher, born A. c. 424. 

ANTOINETTE, Marie, the unfor- 
tunate queen of Louis XVI., born at Vi- 
enna, 1725; beheaded 1793; her bones 
disinterred at La Madelaine, and laid in 
St. Denis with the monarchs of France, 
Jan. 18, 1815. 

ANTONINES, a religious sect that 
first appeared in 329- 

ANTONINUS, Pius, the Roman em- 
peror, born at Lanuvium in Italy, in 86. 
Nominated by Adrian February 26, 138; 
and on July 10, succeeded to the empire, 
amidst the universal acclamations of the 
senate and people. The reign of Anto- 
ninus was singularly peaceful, and realized 
a saying of Scipio, " That he preferred 
saving the life of one citizen, to destroy- 
ing a thousand enemies." He died in 
161, in the 74th year of his age, and in 
the 23rd of his reign. 

ANTONINUS, MarcusAurelius, 
the Roman emperor, was born at Rome, 
121. In the year 139, he was adopted 
into the family of the emperor Pius, 
on which he behaved in such a manner 
as endeared him to that prince and the 
whole people. Upon the death of Pius, 
which happened in the year 161, he was 
obliged by the Senate to take upon him 
the government with Lucius Verus. 
They discharged that office in a 
very amicable manner; but the hap- 
piness which the empire began to 
enjoy under these two emperors, was 
interrupted in the year 162, by a dread- 
ful inundation of the Tiber, which de- 
stroyed a vast number of cattle, and 
occasioned a famine at Rome. The Ro- 
mans having gained a victory over the 
Parthians, who were obliged to abandon 
Mesopotamia, the two emperors tri- 



umphed over them at Rome, in 166, 
and were honoured with the title of 
fathers of their country. In the year 
179, two years after his return to Rome, 
M. Antoninus marched against the Mar- 
comanni and other barbarous nations, 
and the year following gained a con- 
siderable victory over them. He died 
March 17, 180, in the 59th year of his 
age, and 19 th of his reign. 

ANTONINUS'S Wall, the third 
rampart, or defence, that had been built 
or repaired by the Romans, against the 
incursions of the North Britons. The 
first barrier erected by the Romans, was 
the chain of forts made by Agricola, 
from the Frith of Forth to that of Clyde, 
in the year 81, to protect his conquests 
from the inroads of the Caledonians. 
The second was the vallum, or dyke, 
flung up by Adrian in the year 121. 
The great number of inscriptions which 
have been found in or near the ruins of 
this third wall, or rampart, to the honour 
of Antoninus Pius, leave no room to 
doubt its having been built by his direc- 
tion and command. 

ANTONY, Marc, was born A. c. 86. 
Ceesar having made himself master of 
Rome, gave Antony the government of 
Italy. At the battle of Pharsaha, a. c. 48, 
Csesar confided so much in him, that he 
gave him the command of the left wing 
of his army, whilst he himself led the 
right. His ill treatment of Octavianus, 
and quarrel \vith him, produced another 
civil war, which ended in an accommo- 
dation between him, Ocia\aanus, and 
Lepidus, fatal to the peace of Rome. 
The famous battle of Actium, fought 
A.c. 31, against the advice of Antony's 
best officers, and chiefly through the 
persuasion of Cleopatra, who was proud 
of her naval force, put an end to his 
hope of attaining the government. Dis- 
tracted with disappointment and vexa- 
tion, he returned to Egypt, and lived 
for some time in gloomy solitude; but 
Cleopatra by her arts drew him to her 
palace, and he resumed his former vo- 
luptuous life. He expired in her arms 
A.c. 30. in the 56th year of his age. 

ANTONY St., the Great, See 
Anthony. 

ANTWERP, first noticed, 517; walled, 
1201 and 1514; citadel erected by the 
duke of Alva, 1568; sacked, 1585 ; taken 
by the French, 1792, evacuated 1794, but 
returned the same year besieged by the 
EngUsh, 1814; again besieged by the 



APO 



33 



Aau 



French, taken, and restored to tlie Bel- 
gians, 1832. See Belgium. Its com- 
merce suffered much in 1831 and 1832, 
from the hostihties between the Belgians 
and the Dutch. 

APELLES, the most celebrated 
painter of antiquity, was born in the isle 
of Cos, and fioui'ished in the fourth cen- 
tury before Christ. He was painter of the 
Venus Anadyomene, and of Alexander 
in the Temple of Diana, at Ephesus. 
He was the contemporary and favourite 
of Alexander the Great, who forbade 
all others to paint him, and gave him 
one of his own mistresses, with whom 
the artist had fallen in love. 

APICIUS, the Roman gourmand, who 
having expended near a million of mo- 
ney on his appetite in the course of a 
few years, poisoned himself when he 
found he had only £20,000 remaining, 
lest he should die of want. 

APOCALYPSE, the name of the 
last of the sacred books of the New 
Testament; according to Irenseus, writ- 
ten about the year 96, in the island 
of Patmos, whither St. John had been 
banished by the emperor Domitian. 
Many churches in Greece, as St. Jerome 
informs us, did not receive this book as 
canonical ; but Justin, Irenaeus, Origen, 
Cyprian, Clemens of Alexandria, Tertul- 
lian, and all the fathers of the fourth, 
fifth, and the following centuries, quote 
the Revelation as a book then acknow- 
ledged to be canonical. 

APOCRYPHA, such books as are 
not admitted into the canon of Scrip- 
ture. They are fourteen in number, viz. 

1 Esdras, 2 Esdras, Tobit, Judith, the 
rest of Esther, Wisdom of Solomon, Ec- 
clesiasticus, Baruch, with the Epistle of 
Jeremiah, the Song of the Three Child- 
ren, Susannah, Bel and the Dragon, the 
Prayer of Manasses, 1 Maccabees, and 

2 Maccabees. None of these were e\'er 
received by the Jews ; nor does Origen 
in the third century, or Epiphanius in 
the fourth, in the least acknowledge 
their authenticity. 

The Apocrypha was first supposed ca- 
nonical in the ninth and tenth centuries; 
but its divine authority was never pub- 
licly assumed but by the preposterous 
decree of the Council of Trent. Its his- 
tory ends A.c. 135. 

APOLLO, frigate, and forty West- 
indiamen, lost off the Portuguese coast, 
April 2, 1804. 

APOLLO, Temple of» at Delphos, 
built A. c. 434 



APOLLODORUS, the Athenian pain, 
ter, flourished A.c 

APOLLODORL S, an eminent archi- 
tect who flourished a.d. 104. 

APOLLODORUS, a grammarian of 
Athens, flourished a.c. 148. 

APOLLONIUS, the mathematician, 
flourished a.c. 242. 

APOLLONIUS, Rhodius, historian 
of the Argonautic expedition^ flourished 
a.c. 246. 

APOLLONIUS, Tyaneus, a Pytha- 
gorean philosopher, who flourished in 
the beginning of the first century. 

APOTHECARIES, first mentioned 
in history, 1345; exempted from serving 
civil offices, 1702; their practice better 
regulated, 1815. 

APOTHECARIES' Company, Lon- 
don, incorporated 16 17, that of Dublin, 
1791. 

APPARITORS, first instituted 1234. 

APPEALS TO THE Pope, from Eng- 
land, fii-st made, 1138; forbidden, 
1532. 

APPIAN, the historian, flourished in 
the reigns of Trajan and Adrian. 

APPIAN Way, from Rome to Capua, 
constructed A.c. 313, by Appius Clau- 
dius, when he was censor ; afterwards 
it extended to Brundusium. 

APPIANI, Andrea, a Milanese pain- 
ter of history and portraits. Napoleon 
sat to him, and appointed him his pain- 
ter. Born 1754, died 1818. 

APPIUS Claudius, a cruel arro- 
gant patrician, one of the Decemviri, died 
A.c. 448. 

APRICOT Trees, first planted in 
England, 1540; Epirus is their native 
country. 

APULEIUS, author of the Golden 
Ass, flourished in the first century of the 
christian era. 

AQUATINTA,a method of engrav- 
ing, by which tinted or washed drawings 
in Indian ink are imitated ; invented, 
and practised m France, by M. Le Prince, 
about the year 1767. 

AQUINAS, Thomas, styled the An- 
gelical Doctor, was born in the Castle of 
Aquino, in the Terra di Lavora, in Italy, 
in 1224, or 1225. He settled at Na- 
ples, where he spent the remainder of 
his life in study, in reading of lectures, 
and in acts of piety. Being simimoned 
to a general council held at Lyons, to 
present a book which he had written, by 
order of Pope Urban IV., for refuting 
the errors of the Greek churchj he died 



A RC 



34 



ARC 



in the monastery of Fossa i.>^ova, on his 
way there, 1274. He was canonized in 
1323. His works were printed in 1490, 
in 17 vols, folio. 

AQUITAINE, erected into a princi- 
pality, 1362 ; re-annexed to the French 
crown, 1730. 

ARABIA, conquered by Mahomet, 
622. Whahabee sect sprung up about 
1801. See Mahomet. 

ARABLE Lands restrained, and 
pastures enforced, 1534. 

ARAM, Eugene, a learned man, 
born in Yorkshire, 1704, executed for a 
murder committed fourteen years be- 
fore, 1759. 

ARATUS, of Sicyon, made praetor 
of the Achaean League, a.c. 251 ; re- 
duces Corinth, and takes Megara, a. c. 
243. 

ARBELA, a city of Assyria, famous 
for the last and decisive battle between 
Alexander the Great and Darius Codo- 
mannus. This battle was fought a.c. 331, 
and the event of it determined the fate 
of the Persian empire. 

ARBITRATION, an act for settle- 
ment of differences by. May 16, 1698. 

ARBUTHNOT. John, M. D., the 
friend of Swift, and a voluminous writer, 
died 1735 

ARCESILAUS, founder of the Mid- 
dle Academy, born in iEohs, a.c. 316, 
died of intemperance, a.c. 241. 

ARCHANGEL, in European Russia, 
passage to, discovered 1553 ; injured by 
fire, 1763; 200 dweUings burned down, 
October 16, 1771; cathedral and other 
edifices burned, June 29, 1793; total 
of houses destroyed, 3,000. 

ARCHBISHOPS were not known in 
the east till about 320. Athanasius was 
the first that used the title. 

ARCHDEACON. The first appointed 
in England, was by Lanfranc, Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, about 1076, though 
some say the title was so early as the 
fourth century. 

ARCHELAUS, a Greek phUosopher, 
flourished a. c. 440. 

ARCHELAUS, son of Herod the 
Great, a cruel prince. He flourished in 
the reign of August\is. 

ARCHELAUS, king of MaceJon 
died about a. c, 398. 

ARCHERY, in use among the Greeks. 
Introduced into England by the Saxons, 
in the time of Vortigern ; dropt imme- 
diately after the conquest, but revived 
by the crusaders, 1199, they having felt 



the eflfects of it from the Saracens, who, 
probably, derived it from the Parthians. 
The English archers were celebrated 
above all others, as appears from the 
battles of Cressy, Poictiers, &c. The 
victory of Homildon against the Scots, 
1402, was achieved by the archers en- 
tirely. 

ARCHES OF STONE, St. Paul's 
church, London, built on. A mode of 
building unknown in England until 1187- 
ARCHINDSCHAN,Turkey, destroy- 
ed by an earthquake, when 12,000 per- 
sons were buried in the ruins, 1784. 

ARCHENHOLZ, J. W. von, a vo- 
luminous German writer, born 1743, 
died 1812. 

ARCHILOCHUS, of Paros, a \vriter 
of Iambic verses, who flourished a. c. 
700. 

ARCHIMEDES, one of the most 
eminent mathematicians aud philoso- 
phers amongst the ancients ; inventor of 
the sphere; born A. c. 287; slain, 212. 
ARCHIPELAGO del Espirito 
Santo, discovered by Guiroo, a Portu- 
guese, sent from Peru in 1606. These 
islands are the Cyclades of Bougain- 
ville, and the New Hebrides of Cook. 

ARCHITECTURE. This art was 
first carried to any considerable extent in 
ancient times by the Tyrians, about a.c. 
700 (see Isaiah xxiii. 8). From them the 
Greeks derived it, and it was in its great- 
est glory under Pericles, about A. c. 
429. The Romans bon-owed the art 
from the Greeks, and the English from 
the Romans. The Saxons built some 
rude edifices here in the ninth cen- 
tury, and the Normans, after the con- 
quest, improved on their style, and raised 
some magnificent ecclesiastical edifices 
in England. The Norman style differed 
from the Saxon in the greater dimensions 
of their buildings, in ha\ing more lofty 
and plain vaulting, circular pillars of 
greater diameter, and more richly orna- 
mented carvings &c. The period of this 
style extends from the conquest in 1066, 
to the death of Stephen, in II 54. 

The Gothic taste, which succeeded the 
Saxon, did not make its appearance in 
England till about 1189. SaUsbury ca- 
thedral is of this style, and was finished 
in 1258. The Gothic architecture re- 
mained in vogue till near the end of the 
reign of Henry VIII., when the Grecian 
style took its place. 

British architecture was a union of 
the two till about the reign of James I., 



ARE 



35 



ARI 



when a greater degree of regularity was 
introduced, especially about the time of 
Inigo Jones, at the beginning of the se- 
venteenth century. 

ARCHONS, perpetual, established at 
Athens, a. c. 10/0 ; decennial, 754; 
changed to annual, 684. 

ARCHYTAS, ofTarentum, a mathe- 
matician and mechanist, constructed an 
automaton, invented the vice and pulley ; 
flourished a.c. 408 ; perished by ship- 
wreck. 

ARCOT, in the East Indies, taken by 
the Enghsh, 1759. 

ARCTIC Expedition. The firstsailed 
under Ross and Parry, 1817, returned 
November 5, 1818. The second sailed 
under Parry, in the Hecla, May 10, 1819- 
Lieutenant Beechy accompanied him in 
the Griper. They returned in Novem- 
ber, 1820. The third, under Lyon and 
Parry, sailed April 25, 1821, and Parry 
returned with the Hecla and Fury, Oc- 
tober 29, 1823, and Lyon November 11, 

1824. The fourth sailed October 25, 

1825. The fifth, under Ross, sailed May 
23, 1829; returned October 19, 1833. 

Land Arctic Expedition, imder Captain 
Franklin, 1826; under Captain Back, 
1833. Captain Back sailed to explore 
the Wager River, June 28, 1836; re- 
turned, Sep., 1837. See America. 

ARDOGHAN, fortress of, in Asia, 
surrendered to the Russian forces undei 
major-general Berggmann, September 3, 
1828. 

ARDEES, in France. An inteniew 
took place here between Francis I., of 
France, and Henry VIIL, of England, 
attended with great magnificence, 1520. 

ARENDT, Martin Frederick, a 
scientific European traveller, born at AJ- 
tona, 1769, died at Venice, 1824. 

AREOPAGUS, council of, established 
at Athens, a. c. 1507. 

ARETINO, GuiDo,who invented the 
present musical notation by applying the 
first words of the following verses : — 
" UT queant laxis 
REsonare fibris, 
MIra gestorum, 
FAmuli tuorum, 
SOLve poUutis 
LAbiis reatum." 

By wluch he converted the old tetra- 
chords into hexachords. He also invented 
lines and spaces in musical notation. He 
flourished about 1022. 

ARETINO, Peter, an Italian poet, 
born 1492, died, 1557. 



ARETINO, Leonard, an Italian his- 
torian, born, 1370 died at Florence, 
1443. 

ARETUSI, C^sare, a famous Italian 
portrait painter. He flourished in the 
seventeenth century. 

ARGAND'S Lamps introduced ge- 
nerally in London, 1785. 

ARGO, the first long ship built by the 
Greeks to carry the Argonauts, a.c. 1263. 

ARGONAUTIC Expedition, 
one of the greatest epochs or periods of 
history, said to be a.c. 1263, or 79 years 
before the taking of Troy. Some wri- 
ters say A.c. 1225. According to the 
fable, the Argonauts undertook their 
famed expedition in order to find the 
golden fleece. The golden fleece means 
the treasure of the king of Colchis, pil- 
laged by the Argonauts — the Syriac word, 
gaza, meaning fleece ; but it is more ge- 
nerally admitted that Argo was the name 
of the first ship that was built (except 
the ark), and that it was therefore made 
a sign in the heavens ; that the fable of 
the fleece originated in the fleeces sunk 
in the river Xanthus to collect the allu- 
vial gold washed into that river from the 
adjacent mines. 

ARGONAUTS of St. Nicholas, an- 
order of knighthood instituted at Naples, 
1382. 

ARGOS, kingdom of, began a. c. 1586. 

ARGOS, battle of, between the allies 
and Turks, a.d. 1683. 

ARGYLE, Marquis of, beheaded 
May 27, 1661. 

ARGYLE, Earl of, executed at 
Edinburgh, 1685. 

ARGYLE, late duke of, died Septem- 
ber 22, 1839, aged 72. 

ARIANS, followers of Arius,, a pres- 
byter of the church of Alexandria, about 
315, who maintained that the Son of God 
was totally and essentially distinct from 
the Father. The Arians were first con- 
demned and anathematized by a council 
at Alexandria in 320, under Alexander, 
bishop of that city, who accused Arius 
of impiety, and caused him to be expelled 
from the communion of the church ; and 
afterwards by 380 fathers in the general 
council of Nice, assembled by Constan- 
tine in 325. Not^vithstanding, Arianism 
was not extinguished ; on the contrary, 
it became the reigning religion, especially 
in the east, where it obtained much more 
than in the west. In 328 Arius was re- 
called from banishment by the emperor 
Constantine. In 335, Athanasius, his 



ARI 



30 



ARI 



zealous opponent, was deposed, and ba- 
nished into Gaul, and Arius and his fol- 
lowers were reinstated in their privileges. 
The Arian controversy was introduced 
or revivedbyWhiston, in England, in the 
beginning of the 18th century. 

ARION, a musician of Methymna, 
flourished a.c. 664 or 625. 

ARIOSTO, the celebrated Italian 
poet, and author of Orlando Furioso, 
born at the castle of Reggio, Lombardy, 
in 1474; began his poem about 1504, 
published 40 cantos in 1516, and the 
whole 46 cantos in 1532. He died at 
Ferara, July 6, 1534. 

ARISTIDES, the Theban painter and 
.scholar, and brother of Nicomachus, 
flourished a.c. 341. 

ARISTIDES, surnamed The Just, 
an illustrious Athenian, was one of the 
most celebrated characters of his age for 
purity and integrity. He was present 
at the battle of Marathon, fought a.c. 
490, and was next in command among 
the Athenians to Miltiades. The year 
following he was elected archon ; but by 
the art of Themistocles, the high autho- 
rity he had attained by his merits, was, 
at length, convei'ted into an accusation 
against him, and he was accordingly 
banished by the ostracism. He died 
about A.c. 407, at an advanced age, 
universally regretted by the affectionate 
admiration of his countr}'. 

ARISTARCHUS, the Samian as- 
tronomer, flourished a.c. 967. 

ARISTARCHUS, a famous gram- 
marian, born at Samothrace, flourished 
A.c. 150. 

ARISTIPPUS, founder of the Cy- 
renaic sect, flourished a.c 380. 

ARISTOBULUS, a peripatetic phi- 
losopher, flourished a.c. 120. 

ARISTODEMUS, a musician and 
philosopher, flourished a.c. 614. 

ARISTOMENES, the Messenian 
hero, flourished a.c. 689- 

ARISTOPHANES, a Grecian comic 
poet, flourished a.c. 420. 

ARISTOTLE, the most famous of all 
the Grecian philosophers, tutor of Alex- 
ander the Great, founder of the Peri- 
patetic sect, born at Stagira a.c. 384. 
Philip, king of Macedon, having heard 
of his great reputation, sent for him to 
be tutor to his son Alexander, then 
about fourteen years of age. Philip 
erected statues in honour of Aristotle ; 
and for his sake rebuilt Stagira, which 
had been almost ruined by the wars. 



He is said to have poisoned him.self a.c. 
322. 

ARITHMETIC. When this science 
was invented is unknown. About a.c. 
600 it is said to have been brought from 
Eg)'pt to Greece by Thales. About a. c 
300, the oldest treatise on arithmetic, 
extant, by Euclid (7th, 8th, and 9th 
books of his elements) appeared. In 
A.c 220, Greek arithmetical notation 
was indefinitely extended by the octades 
of Archimedes. 

A.D. 130. About this time was in- 
vented the sexagesimal arithmetic of 
Ptolemy, which was simplified and 
brought very near to the principle of 
modern arithmetical notation, by Apol- 
lonius about 220. 

The common arithmetical notation 
by nine digits, and zero, was known at 
least as early as the 6th century in 
Hindostan. In 900 it was introduced 
by Mohamed ben Musa from Hindostan 
into Arabia. Generally used by Arabian 
writers in arithmetic and astronomy in 
the 10th and 1 1th centuries. About 
1050 it was probably introduced by 
them into Spain. 

The first known European work in 
which the Arabic figures in common 
use appear, is a translation of Ptole- 
my (in Spain) 1 136. They were brought 
by Leonard of Pisa, from Bugia in Bar- 
bary to Pisa 1202; probably ch-culated 
by the Alphonsine tables 1252. This 
arithmetic was generally cultivated by 
the Tuscans, in the 13th and 14th 
centuries. 

Treatises on this notation (de Algo- 
rismo) were pubhshed in many calendai's 
in the 14th century: it was generally 
known and used in this country from 
time beginning of the 1 5th century. Tlie 
calendar in Corpus Christi Library, Cam- 
bridge, for 1380, contains an account 
of the Arabicfigures. Calendar for 1386 
(in English), contains them through- 
out. This almanac is very splendid, and 
is full of the astrological, astronomical, 
and medical knowledge and prejudices 
of the period. 

The oldest existing date is 1355. The 
first monumental date in Arabic nume- 
rals, is on a brass plate in the church at 
Ware, (on Ellen Wood), dated 1454. 
Date in Caxton's " Mirror of the World," 
(Arabic characters,) 1480. Date of the 
almanac of St. Mary's Abbey, Cupar, 
Angus, 1482. 

The first printed book on algebra 



ARI 



37 



ARM 



and arithmetic, was by Lucas de Bargo, 
1484. The science introduced into the 
university registers in England not be- 
fore 1500. The first work printed in 
England on arithmetic, (de Arte Suppu- 
tandi) by Tonstall, Bishop of Durham, 
was in 1522. 

Decimal fractions were considered for 
the first time in La Disme of Stevinus, 
published 1590; this work was translated 
into English 1608 ; their theory and 
notation perfected by Lord Napier in 
his Rabdologia 16 17. Continued frac- 
tions introduced by Lord Brounker, 
P.R.S., 1670. 

About 1750 Arithmetic of Sines was 
completed by Euler. The theory had 
been hinted at by Christian Mayer in 
1727. Since the latest of these periods, 
no improvement worthy of notice has 
been effected in relation to this science. 

ARIUS, founder of the Arian sect : 
first promulgated his doctrines in 315, 
died 336. See Arians. 

ARKWRIGHT, Sir R., inventor of 
spinning jennies, died Aug. 3, 1792. 

ARMADA, Spanish, the Invin- 
cible, a term applied to the armament 
fitted out by the king of Spain in the 
reign of Queen Elizabeth. It consisted 
of ninety-two galleons, four galliasses, 
thirty frigates, thirty transports of horse, 
and four galhes ; on board of which were 
8,350 mariners, 2,080 galley-slaves, and 
19,290 land forces; the whole com- 
manded by the duke of Medina Cell. 
To oppose this formidable Armada, the 
queen of England assembled a numerous 
fleet, the command of which she gave to 
Lord Howard of Efiingham, admiral of 
England, assisted by Drake, Hawkins, 
and Forbisher. The Spanish Armada 
sailed from the river Tagus in Portugal 
on the 29th of May, 1588, but, being 
dispersed by a storm, rendezvoused 
again at the Groine in Gahcia, from 
whence they set sail again on the 12th 
of July, and entered the English chan- 
nel on the 19th ; on the 21st a battle be- 
gan, and a kind of running fight con- 
tinued to the 27th. The English ad- 
miral finding he could make but little 
impression on the galleons, sent eight or 
ten fire ships among them, which put 
the Spaniards in the utmost confusion. 
They cut their cables immediately, and 
put to sea ; and endeavouring to return 
to the rendezvous between Calais and 
Gravelin, the English fell upon them, 
and took several of their ships, where- 



upon they all bore away for Scotland 
and Ireland. Here the rest of the fleet 
were dispersed by a storm. The Spaniards 
lost fifteen great ships, and 4791 men in 
the several engagements with the Eng- 
lish fleet; seventeen ships, and 5,394 
men were drowned, killed, or taken in 
the retreat, in the month of September. 
The loss of the English, was so incon- 
siderable, that none of our historians 
mention the loss of one ship. - 

ARMED Neutrality of the Nor- 
thern Powers against England, by the 
Empress of Russia, commenced 1780; 
revived 1800 ; dissolved by a British 
fleet. 

ARMENIA, a country of Asia, pro- 
bably derived its name from Aram, the 
son of Shem who, according to tradition, 
settled there, and peopled it with his de- 
scendants. Berosus makes one Sytha 
the first founder of this monarchy, whose 
successor Bardanes, he says, was driven 
out by Ninus, king of Assyria. 

On the dissolution of the Median 
empire, by Cyrus, about a. c. 560, the 
kingdom was reduced to the form of a 
province, governed by Persian prefects 
or lieutenants. On the destruction of 
the Persian empire by Alexander the 
Great, about a.c. 333, it fell into the 
hands of the Macedonians, to whom it 
continued subject till the beginning of 
the reign of Antiochus the Great. Ti- 
granes, however, the king's son, who had 
been delivered as a hostage to the Par- 
thians, was restored to his kingdom, 
after his father's death, about a. c. 95; 
and entered into an alliance with Mithri- 
dates Eupator, against the Romans. 

Armenia was subdued by the Romans 
under Pompey, about a. c. 65. From 
this time to the time of Trajan, it was go- 
verned by its own kings. By Trajan, 
however, Armenia Major was reduced to 
the form of a Roman province, a. d. 114; 
but it soon recovered its liberty, and was 
again governed by its own kings, in the 
reigns of Constantine the Great, and his 
successors, to whom the kings of Ar- 
menia were feudatories. 

In the reign of Justine II., the Sara- 
cens subdued and held it till the irrup- 
tion of the Turks, 755, who possessed 
themselves of this kingdom, and gave it 
the name of Turcomania. In 1472, Us- 
san Cassanes, king of Armenia, suc- 
ceding to the crown of Persia, made Ar- 
menia a province of that empire, in which 
state it continued till 1522, when it was 



ARM 



38 



ARM 



Bubdued by Selim II., and made a pro- 
vince of the Turkish empire. 

ARMINIANS, a religious sect which 
arose in Holland. They followed the 
doctrines of Arminius, a celebrated mini- 
ster of Amsterdam, who first introduced 
his principles in 1591. The controversy 
which was thus begun, became more ge- 
neral after the death of Arminius, in the 
year 1609. The Arminians were treated 
with great severity, and many of them 
banished ; but after the death of Prince 
Maurice, in the year 1625, the exiles 
were restored to their former reputation 
and tranquillity. 

The Arminians are also called Re- 
monstrants, from a humble petition, en- 
titled theii remonstrance, which, in the 
year 1610, they addressed to the states 
of Holland. 

ARMINIUS, Hermann, the deli- 
verer of Germany from the Roman yoke, 
born A.c. 18, assassinated a. d. 21. 

ARMINIUS, James, a Dutch divine, 
founder of the Arminian sect; born 
1560, died l609. 

ARMORIAL Bearings, introduced 
by the English nobles 1100, taxed, 1798 
— 1808. See Heraldry. 

ARMORICA, Little Brittany. France 
was colonized by the Britons of this 
island, 387 ; Lesser Brittany continued 
a kingdom till 874, when it was changed 
to a duchy ; it was reduced afterwards 
by Francis I. 

ARMORER'S Company, London, 
incorporated 1423. 

ARMOUR. The body armour at the 
time of the conquest consisted indiffer- 
ently either of a tunic, or of a jacket and 
breeches in one, composed of leather or 
cloth, covered sometimes with flat iron 
rings sewn horizontally and contiguously, 
sometimes with small perforated lozen- 
ges of steel, called mascles, from their 
resemblance to the meshes of a net. 
The general form of armour was after- 
wards but little changed, until mail was 
superseded by the complete casing of 
steel. 

Scaled mail was in use about the 12th 
century, as there is a specimen of it in the 
seal of Alexander I. of Scotland, who 
began his reign in 1107. About the mid- 
dle of the 13th century, interlaced or 
twisted chain mail, the rings of which 
were rivetted within each other, and 
therefore required nothing fm'ther to 
hold them together was introduced. 
The lance and the sword were still the 



battle-axe became the favourite weapon 
of Richard I., and the warriors of his 
time J and the martel and the maul were 
also among the offensive arms of chivalry. 

The precise date at which armorial 
bearings and surcoats were first used, 
is a much controverted question. These 
were originally plain garments worn over 
the armour, but were afterwards splen- 
didly emblazoned and richly embroid- 
ered. The monument in Westminster 
Abbey, of Aylmer de Valence, Earl of 
Pembroke, about 1315, is, perhaps, the 
first English effigy of a knight in com- 
plete mixed armour. 

The fuU casing of steel began aboat 
the time of Edward the Black Prince, 
used at Crecy, 1346, and Poicters. 1356. 
The ciixumstances which led to the 
adoption of complete harness of plates, 
are thus satisfactory stated by D. Mey- 
rick: "The reason of leaving off the 
hauberks, and substituting plate armour, 
was the weight of the chain-mail with its 
accompanying garments : indeed, it was 
so great, that sometimes the knights 
were suffocated in it when the heat was 
excessive ; for, although the plate-armour 
was very heavy, it was less so than the 
court of mail with the wambais, the 
plastron, and the surcoat, because there 
was no need of either of the two former 
under a cuirass of steel; besides, if it 
was of well- tempered metal, it was nei- 
ther pierced nor bent by the thrust of the 
lance, nor pushed into the body of the 
knight, as the mailles used to be, if the 
wambais, or hoketon, were ever wanting 
underneath." 

The helmet, from being cylindrical, 
was first made conical, closed all round 
with a grating for breath and sight ; then 
was mtroduced the moveable vizor in one 
piece, pierced as usual, and fastened on 
pivots, to the sides of the besinet, to 
raise at pleasure ; and, at last, early in 
the fifteenth century, a covering for the 
face was invented of several overlapping 
plates, which were drawn up from the 
chin. This was the beaver, which, as 
being raised over the mouth, was pro- 
bably so called, in contradistinction to 
the common vizor, from the Italian 
bevere, to drink. 

The crest surmounting the helmet, 
with a flowing scarf, came first into 
fashion in the thirteenth century, but it 
does not appear that plumes of feathers 
were of earlier use than the beginning of 
the fifteenth century. Tlie perfection of 



ARM 

common arms of knighthood ; but the 
armour in this century, while small fire- 
arms were not yet in general use, or had 
not been rendered very efficacious, had a 
singular and unexampled influence upon 
the state of warfare. Defensive armour 
fell gradually into disuse about the mid- 
dle of the fifteenth century, by the in- 
vention of fire-arms, which passed 
through a series of successive improve- 
ments, till they reached their murderous 
completion. See Cannon, Fibe- 
Arms, &c. 

ARMS, Coats of, came in vogue 
in the reign of Richard I, and hereditary 
in families about 1 192. They took their 
rise from the knights painting their ban- 
ners with diflferent figures, to distinguish 
them in their crusades ; though some trace 
it higher, and say it originated in the 
common custom of primitive people 
painting their bodies with different 
figures, to distinguish them from each 
other. The lions in the English arms 
were originally leopards, so says a re- 
cord of 1252. Formerly, none but the 
nobility bore arms ; but Charles the 
Fifth having ennobled the Parisians in 
1371, he permitted them to bear arms. 
This was followed in other places. See 
Heraldry. 

ARMS, French, first quartered with 
the English, 1358. 

ARMSTRONG, John, M. D., a poet 
and miscellaneous writer, born in Rox- 
burghshire, Scotland, 1709, died 1779- 

ARMY. The first standing one in 
modern times was estabhshed in France 
in 1445, by Charles VII.; in England 
by Oliver Cromwell, about 1654. 

The troops were not clothed, whether 
feudatory or otherwise, at the public ex- 
pense, till the eleventh year of Edward 
III. There was no uniform in the Eng- 
lish army till the latter end of the reign 
of Henry VI., the men for that purpose 
wearing badges, engraved with the arms 
of their officers, of a form and texture 
resembling the badges now worn by 
watermen; and occasionally scarfs of a 
particular colour, were the only badges 
of unifomi. In the reign of Henry VIII. 
white was the prevailing colour of the 
national uniform ; under Ehzabeth, dark 
green or russet, distinguished the infan- 
try, while scarlet cloaks were worn by the 
cavalry 

The army of England, at the 
battle of Waterloo, in 1814, amounted 
to 200,000 regular troops, exclusive of 



39 ARM 

about 100,000 embodied militia, a large 
amount of local militia and volunteers, 
to which might also be added a 
number of regiments employed in the 
territories of the East India Company, 
and in its pay. After the abdication and 
exile of Buonaparte, a rapid reduction 
of our military establishment was ef- 
fected. The militia was disembodied; 
the regular force was reduced in 1817, 
to 92,000 men, and in 1819, lo 69,000. 
Circumstances which afterwards arose 
in Europe, and in our own colonies, led 
to successive augmentations ; and in 
1831, the estimates were for 88,000 men; 
of whom 74,000 were infantry of the line, 
5700 foot guards, 1300 dragoon guards, 
7000 dragoons- This was independent 
of 18,000 men employed m India, and 
paid by the Company. The charge for 
these forces was 6,381,000/., but of this 
sum 3,240,000/. consisted of half-pay, 
retired allowances, pensions, and other 
charges consequent on the former 
immense establishment. Of the vast 
host of volunteers called forth by the 
menaced invasion during the wars, some 
corps of yeomanry cavalry were all that 
remained, and most of these have been 
recently disbanded, their services being no 
longer deemed requisite to maintain do- 
mestic tranquillity. 

ARMY Punishments. Within the 
five years ending Dec. 31st. 1835, there 
had been punished by the lash 1 440 men 
in Great Britain and Ireland, and 9591 had 
been imprisoned. Corporal punishment 
was inflictedon 1227 soldiers once only, on 
172 twice, on 32 three times, on 7 four 
times, and on 2 five times. Of the 1440 
who received corporal punishment, 825 
were also imprisoned, namely 294 once, 
203 twice, 170 three times, 88 four times, 
46 five times, 10 six times, 8 seven times, 
4 eight times, 1 nine times and 1 ten 
times. During the above five years, 415 
men belonging to the Royal Marines 
received corporal punishment, namely, 
322 once, 70 twice, 12 three times, and 
1 five times; and 1115 men had been 
imprisoned, namely, 86ponce, l7l twice, 
56 three times, 17 four times, and 2 five 
times. Of the 1115 who had been im- 
prisoned, 263 had also received corporal 
punishment; viz. 46 previous to im- 
prisonment, l73 subsequent to impri- 
sonment, and 44 both before and after 
imprisonment. A return has also been 
made of the number of cases in regi- 
ments and depots in Great Britain and 



ARS 



40 



ART 



Ireland in which corporal punishment 
has been inflicted, specifying the offen- 
ces for which it was awarded, since the 
issuing of the circular and letter, dated 
Horse Guards, 24th August, 1833, re- 
stricting the pitnishment of flogging to 
certain offences, indicated in the said 
letter. The offences were, mutiny, insub- 
ordination, and violence, or using or 
offering violence to superior officers, 270; 
drunkenness on duty 80, sale of or 
making away with arms, ammunition, ac • 
coutrements, or necessaries, 139, stealing 
from comrades 52, disgraceful conduct 
47 ; total, 588. See Flogging. 

ARMY, Medical Officers' Be- 
nevolent Fund Society, 1820. 

ARNE, Michael, an English musi- 
cian, died 1785. 

ARNE, Thomas Augustine, Dr., 
a composer, horn in London in 1704, 
died 1778. 

ARNHEIM, Guelderland, taken by 
Bulow, and the garrison butchered No- 
vember 30, 1813. 

ARNOBIUS, of Sicca, Numidia, pro- 
fessor of rhetoric, flourished 303. 

ARNOLD, Benedict, an American 
general, who deserted to the English, 
died in London, 1801. 

ARNOLD, Samuel, a doctor of 
music, and composer, l)orn 1739, died 
1802, and buried in Westminster Abbey. 

ARNOLD, Christopher, the peasant 
astronomer, born near Leipsic, 1646, 
died 1695. 

ARNOLD, John, watchmaker, born 
1744, died 1799 

ARRAGON, erected into r. kingdom, 
912 ; united to the crown of Castile, 
1479. See Castile. 

ARRAY, First Commission of, for 
raising the Militia, 1422. 

ARREST, vexatious ones prevented 
by an act passed May 17, 1733; for 
less than ten pounds forbidden 1779 ; for 
less than twenty pounds, or on a bill of 
exchange for fifteen pounds, 1810. The 
late act 1 and 2 Victoria, Aug. 1838, 
abolishes arrest, except the defer dant is 
about to leave England, and in other 
cases ; also extends the remedies of cre- 
ditors against the property of debtors, &c. 
ARRIAN, a Greek historian, who 
flourished in the 2nd century. 

ARS ACES, the name of several Par- 
thian kings. The first laid the founda- 
tion of the empire a. c. 250. 

ARSENAL, at Corunna in Spain, 
destroyed by fire, when 60 persons were 



killed, and 50 wounded, March 1 1, 1794. 

ARTAXERXES, the name of seve- 
ral monarchs of Persia. First, died a. c 
425. See Persia. 

A RTEMIDORUS.a Greek geographer 
of Ephesus, flourished a.c. 104. 

ARTEMISIA, Queen of Caria, widow 
of Mausolus. died a. c. 351. 

ARTHUR, the celebrated British 
king, born at Tindagel, in Cornwall, 
about 453. Made his first appear- 
ance against the Saxons at the age of 
fourteen, being then king of Cornwall and 
Devon, 467, defeated the Northumbrian 
Saxons 491 ; again defeated the North- 
umbrian Saxons, on the river Dugles, 
near Wigan, in Lancashire, 494 ; de- 
feated the revolting subjects of Ambro- 
sius, and drove their leader into Wales, 
when tie procured the possession ot 
Brecknock and Radnorshire, which he 
erected into a kingdom, 497 ; again took 
the field, at the head of 15,000 men, and 
defeated the Saxons under Ctrdic, near 
Boston, and soon aftei', a second time, 
near Gainsford, in 504. 

508. Arthur succeeded Ambrosius 
in the government, and his name was 
terrible to the Saxons ; he was crowned 
at Caerleon, and defeated the North- 
umbrians on the borders of the river 
Ribroit, which runs through Lancashire, 
being his tenth victory over the Saxons, 
and soon after, again defeated another 
army of theirs at Cadbury, in Somerset- 
shire. The battle of Baden Hill, near 
Bath was fought in 511, where a most 
complete victory -was gained by Arthur, 
wherein two of the Saxon chiefs were 
slain, and Cerdic Avas obhged to retire to 
an inaccessible post. Here Arthur slew 
400 with his own hands. 

512. He retired to York to regulate 
tlie affairs of the church. The bishop- 
ric of St. David's was founded by Ar- 
thur, 520, and Dubritius was the first 
bishop. Cerdic, the Saxon king, gave 
him battle, and defeated him at Cherd- 
sey, in Buckinghamshire, 527. Cerdic 
subdued the Isle of Wight, and cruelly 
destroyed the inhabitants, 530. Modred, 
Arthur's nephew, surrendered a great 
part of Arthur's dominions to Cerdic, 
and was crowned king of the remainder, 
at London, 531. 

533. Arthur discovermg Modred's 
villany, raised forces, and after several 
battles in favour of Arthur, a decisive 
one was fought in 542, near Camelford, 
wherein both fell, and with Arthur, al! 



ARU 



41 



ARU 



the hopes of the Britons. Arthur was 
bttrieu at Glastonbury, aged ninety years, 
seventy- six of which were spent in con- 
tinual exercise of arms. See Britain, 
Ancient. 

ARTICHOKES, first brought into 
England, 487. 

ARTICLES, Six, called also the six 
bloody articles, enforced by an act passed 
in the 31st year of Henry Vlll, 1536. 
They were as follow : — 1. The belief of 
transubstantiiition. 2. A declaration that 
the communion in both kinds was not 
necessary 3. That it was not lawful 
for priests to marry. 4. That vows of 
chastity were not to be broken. 5. That 
private masses were profitable. And 6. 
That auricular confession was necessary. 
If any person held opinions contrary to 
any of these articles, they were to be ad- 
judged heretics, and burnt, and forfeit 
all their lands and goods, as in high 
treason. 

ARTICLES OF Religion, 42 pub- 
lished without consent of paiTiament, 
1552; the 42 reduced to 39, January, 
1563; received the authority of parlia- 
ment, 1571. 104 drawn up by arch- 
bishop Usher, for Ireland, 1615; esta- 
bhshed, 1634. 

ARTICLES, Lords of the, a state 
assembly in Scotland before the Union, 
1707. They were thus chosen : — the bi- 
shops chose eight peers, the peers eight 
bishops, and these sixteen chose eight 
knights of the shire, and eight burgesses; 
to these were added eight great oflScers 
of state ; in all forty. They prepared all 
matters for the parliament. 

ARTILLERY. See Cannon. 

ARTILLERY Company, London, 
revived 1610. 

ARTISTS, Society of. Great Bri- 
tain, incorporated, 26th January, 1765, 

ARTOIS, Count D', brother to 
Louis XV I. of France, landed at Leith, 
Scotland, January 6, 1796; visited 
London March 27, 1799 ; set out for 
Paris to take possession of the crown of 
France, April 23, 1814. See Louis 
XVIII. 

ARTS AND Sciences House, in 
the Adelphi, London, erected 1772. 

ARTS and Sciences, Society of, 
at New York, 1765. 

Royal, at London, established 

1768. 

ARUNDEL Castle, Sussex, built 
by the Saxons about 800. 

ARUNDEL Street, Panton Square, 



destructive fire in, with loss of life, 
in 1833. 

ARUNDEL, Thomas, Archbishop 
of Canterbury; born 1353, died 14l3. 

ARUNDELIAN Marbles, or Pa- 
rian Chronicle, ancient stones where 
on is inscribed a chronicle of the city of 
Athens engraved in capital letters, in the 
island of Paros, A.c. 264. The characters 
are Greek. They take their first name from 
Thomas, Earl of Arundel, who procured 
them out of the east, or from Henry, his 
grandson, who presented them to the 
university of Oxford. Ihe Arundelian 
Marbles in their perfect state, contained 
a chronological detail of the principal 
events of Greece during a period of 1318 
years, beginning with Cecrops, a.c. 1582, 
and ending with the archonship of Di- 
ognetus, A. c. 264. But the chronicle 
of the last 90 years is lost ; so that the 
part now remaining ends at the archon- 
ship of Diotimus, a, c. 354 

They were brought to England about 

1619, and placed in the gardens belong- 
ing to Arundel House in London. In 
the turbulent reign of Charles I., and the 
subsequent usurpation, the chronological 
marble was unfortunately broken and 
defaced. The upper part, containing 
31 epochs, is said to have been worked 
up in repairing a chimney in Arundel 
House. In 1667, the Hon. Henry How- 
ard, afterwards Duke of Norfolk, the 
grandson of the first collector, pro- 
eented these remains of antiquity to the 
university of Oxford, and they have ever 
since been deposited in the public schools 
of that city. Several learned works have 
been published on this chronicle. In 

1620, Selden pubhshed a small volume 
in quarto, including about 39 inscrip- 
tions copied from the marbles. Selden's 
work becoming very scarce. Bishop Fell 
engaged Mr. Prideaux to publish a new 
edition of the inscriptions, which was 
printed at Oxford in 1676. In 1732, 
Mr. Maittaire published a more compre- 
hensive view of the marbles than either 
of his predecessors. Lastly, Dr Chand- 
ler published a new and improved copy 
of the marbles in 1 763, in which he cor- 
rected the mistakes of the former edi- 
tors. In 1788, their authenticity was 
questioned by Mr. Robertson, in a dis- 
sertation entitled " The Parian Chroni- 
cle." In 1789, a vindication of it was 
undertaken by the Rev. J. Hewlett, B.D., 
editor of a classical and elaborate edition 
of the Bible. On the appearance of this 



ASI 



42 



AS I 



vindication, the controversy almost 
instantly ceased, and the Parian Chroni- 
cle was re-established on the basis, on 
which it had always rested from the 
time of its first discovery. 

ASAPH, St., a native of North Wales, 
flourished 590. 

ASAPH, St., church built at the town 
of, 560; rebuilt, 1402. 

ASBESTOS, or Cotton Stone, 
Pliny says, was spun imi\ersally in Cy- 
prus, 1 50 years before his time. It has 
been found in Scotland ; garments were 
made of it in 1760. 

ASCANIUS, the son of .Eneas, 
founder of Alba Longa, died a.c. 1139. 

ASCENSION Island, in the Atlantic 
Ocean, formerly uninhabited, discovered 
1503: made a permanent station to ac- 
commodate British vessels, 1830. 

ASCENSION DAY, first comme- 
morated, 68. 

ASCLEPIODORUS, a British prince, 
opposed to the Romans, crowned 235, 
slain 260- 

ASCUE, Ann, burnt for heresy, 
(denying the real presence) in 1546. She 
was first racked at the Tower, in the pre- 
sence of the Lord Chancellor, who, 
throwing olF his gown, drew the rack 
himself so severely, that he almost drew 
her body asunder. 

ASDRUBAL, a Carthaginian general, 
flourished a. c. 203. 

ASH, Dr. John, author of an English 
dictionary and grammar, born 1724, 
died 1779. 

ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH, Leicester- 
shire, Castle of, built, 1399. 

ASHMOLE, an English antiquarian, 
founder of the Ashmolean Museum, 
Oxford, born I6l7, died 1692. 

ASIA. In this quarter of the globe, 
we trace the origin of the human 
race. The kingdom of Babylon was 
founded by Nimrod, called also Belus, 
the son of Cush, and grandson of Ham, 
A. c. 2245, rather more than a century 
after the flood, and two years after the 
confusion of Babel. About the same 
time, Assur, the son of Shem, led 
his companions from the plains of 
Shinar into the country afterwards 
called Assyria, where he built a city, 
known in the sequel by the name of 
Nineveh. See Assyria and Babylon. 
Nebuchadnezzar governed Babylon 
about A. c. 608. He subdued the Is- 
raelites and other neighbourina: states, 
carrying away all their valuables, and 



transplanting the inhabitants into his 
own dominions. The empire was con- 
quered about A. c. 538, by Cyrus, king 
of Persia, who had alreaay subjugated 
Media, the eastern parts of Asia, and the 
kingdom of Lydia. Alexander the Great, 
A.c. 311, defeated Darius, the Persian 
king, conquered all the provinces of Asia 
Minor, and took Tyre. His conquests 
were spread over Media, Persia, Syria, 
India, and a part of Scythia. The other 
countries of Asia arose to eminence at 
diflferent periods. See the principal facts 
of their history undertherespective heads. 

There are still large tracts of country 
in Asia very little known. Indeed 
the interior was for ages almost as un- 
known as the African deserts. It was 
not till affer the British became undis- 
puted masters of India that satisfactory 
information could be obtained respecting 
this portion of the world. Since that 
period, the mountainous territories of 
Cabool and Candahar, the vast sandy 
plains of Mekran, have been illustrated 
by the missions of Elphinstone and Pot- 
tinger; while Turner and Moorcroft 
penetrated into the high interior table- 
land of Thibet. There still remained, 
however, a great terra incognita, respect- 
ing which our information rested chiefly 
upon the obscure reports of Marco Polo, 
and the meagre narrative of Goez. In 
1829, Lieutenants Conolly and Burns 
traversed the regions of Central Asia, by 
diflferent routes. Lieutenant Conolly 
passed through Russia, and along the 
western shores of the Caspian and 
Tabreez, effecting a journey across Toor- 
kistan and Affghanistan, and proceeded 
from Tabreez to Astrabad, where he 
arrived in April 1830. He travelled 
through Khiva, Bokhara, and Cabool. 
Crossing the pass of Akrobat, they left 
the dominions of modern Cabool, and 
entered Toorkistan, called Tartary by 
Europeans, and visited several cities but 
little known to Europeans. 

Lieutenant Burns visited Tehran the 
modern capital of Persia. He tra- 
versed the scenes of Alexander's wars, 
of the rude and savage inroads of Jeugis 
an(i Timour, as well as of the campaigns 
and revelries of Baber ; marched on the 
very line of route by which Alexander 
pursued Darius, whilst the voyage back 
to India took him to the coast of Mekran 
and the track of his admiral Nearchus. 

At the same time northern Asia was 
explored by Professor Enuan. "It would 



ASS 



4'S 



AST 



r»e the most important result," says M. 
Erman, " of my travels, if the prejudices 
M'hich make Siberia a barbarous and 
fearful place of exile, were to give way to 
the impression of an opposite character, 
which I experienced in these arctic 
regions. I travelled from Irkutsk to 
Ochotsk attended only by a single Cos- 
sack, through themidst of the Yakuts and 
Tonguses, and through Kamtschatka. I 
mixed continually with the natives. My 
astronomical and other instruments at- 
tracted much curiosity, and were thought 
tobe of inestimable value, yet through the 
whole course of my journey, I never 
once experienced an insult, or an act of 
dishonesty." 

ASIATIC Society, at Calcutta, found- 
ed by Sir W. Jones, January, 15, 1784. 

ASIATIC Society, Royal, founded 
in 1820. 

ASKEW, Ann. See Ascue. 

ASPARAGUS, first produced in Eng- 
land in 1608. 

ASPERN, Battle of, between Na- 
poleon and the Archduke Charles, May 
21, 1809. 

ASSASSINATION Plot, against 
William III., discovered by Pendergrass, 
February 14, IG96. 

ASSASSINS,, or Assassinii, were 
originally a body of men who possessed 
ten or twelve cities about Tyre, and who 
chose themselves a king, in 1090; 
their profession was murder ; the Tartars 
overcame them, killed their king in 1257, 
and the faction became extinct in 1473. 

ASSAY-MASTER, established at 
Sheffield and Birmingham, 1773. 

ASSAYING of gold and silver legally 
established, 1354. 

ASSES, Feast of, in France, held 
in honour of Balaam's ass, when the 
clergy at Christmaswalked in procession, 
so as to represent the prophets. Sup- 
pressed early before 1445. 

ASSESSED TAXES advancedin 1797; 
reduced, 1798 ; new ones added, 1801 ; 
reduced 1823; and farther, 4 & 5 Will. 
IV.. 1834, authorizes a composition; to 
continue for 5 years. 

ASSIENTO Contract, for supply- 
mg America with Slaves from Jamaica, 
began 1689; vested in the South Sea 
Company, 1713; resigned to Spain by 
the peace of 1748. 

ASSIGN ATS, ordered by the National 
Assembly of France, April 17, 1790. 

ASSIZE of Bread, estabhshed iu 
England, 1266. See Bread. 



ASSUMPTION OF the Virgin, 
Festival of, instituted, 813. 

ASSOCIATION, British. See Bri- 
tish A.SSOCIAT10N. 

ASSURANCE, Life. See Life As- 
surance 

ASSURANCE Companies, Royal 
AND London. See Companies. 

A SSYRI A, kingdom of, began under 
Ninus, or Assur, the second son of 
Shem, about A.c. 2245 ; lasted about 
1264 years. Sardanapalus was the last 
of the ancient Assyrian kings. Arba- 
ces, governor of Media, withdrew his 
allegiance and rose up in rebellion against 
him, defeated the Assyrian army, and 
besieged Sardanapalus in his capital, 
Nineveh. Here, being driven to the 
last extremity, he retired to his palace, 
where he collected all his treasures, and 
setting fire to the splendid pile, was con- 
sumed in its ruins, A.c. 801. After the 
death of Sardanapalus, the Assyrian em- 
pire was divided into three kingdoms, 
namely, the Median, Assyrian, and Ba- 
bylonian. Arbaces retained the supreme 
power, and fixed his residence at Ecba- 
tana in Media. After the death of As- 
sarbaddon, the brother and successor of 
Sennacherib, the kingdom of Assyria, 
was split, and annexed to the kingdoms 
of Media and Babylon. Several tribu- 
tary princes afterwards reigned in Nin- 
eveh ; but no particular account of them 
is found in the annals of ancient nations. 
Cyaxares, king of Media, assisted Ne- 
buchadnezzar, king of Babylon, in the 
siege of Nineveh, which they took and 
destroyed, a.c. 606. 

The Chaldean or Babylonish kingdom 
was transferred to the Medes, after the 
siege of Nabonadius, son of Evilmero- 
dach, and grandson of Nebuchadnezzar ; 
styled Belshazzar in the sacred records, 
and conquered by Cyrus, a.c. 538. As- 
syria has since successively belonged to 
the Romans, Parthians, Persians, Sara- 
cens, Turks ; and at present is an almost 
useless part of the Persian empire. See 
Babylon. 

ASTAPIANS, a people of ancient 
Spain, who had acquired great wealth by 
robbery and plunder, being attacked 
by the Roman army, and conscious that, 
if defeated, they should have no quarter, 
determined to conquer or die. They 
carried their wealth into the market-place 
where they placed their wives and chil- 
dren, and such old men as could not 
bear arms surrounded them with a large 



AST 



44 



A ST 



pile of faggots, and when they were 
beaten by theRomans.set fire to the wood, 
and cut in pieces those which escaped, 
60 that every one perished, a.c. 209 

ASTLEY, Philip, founder of amphi- 
theatres in London, Paris, and Dublin ; 
born 1742, died 1814. 

ASTLEY'S Amphitheatre and 19 
houses destroyed by fire, August 17, 
1794; and again, Sept. 2, 1803, when 
many houses were burned. 

ASTORGA, in Spain, taken by the 
French, April 12, 1810; evacuated June 
12, 1811; capitulated to the Spaniards 
August 18, 1812. 

ASTRACAN,Tartar town, belonging 
to Russia, taken by the Russians 1554, 
besieged by the Turks, 1559; incorpo- 
rated with the government of Caucassus, 
1785, and made a separate government, 
1801. 

ASTROLOGY, supposed to have ori- 
ginated either in Chaldsea or Egypt ; the 
Greeks and Romans received it from the 
latter country, and the Europeans were 
instructed in the art principally by the 
Arabians. During the middle ages, 
there was scarcely a monarch or prince 
in Europe who had not astrologers at his 
court. King Edward VL had his na- 
tivity cast, and Queen Elizabeth con- 
sulted Dr. John Dee, on the subject of 
determining an auspicious day for her 
coronation. 

At the close of the seventeenth century, 
most physicians regulated the time and 
manner of their prescriptions by the prog- 
nostics of the stars ; since then it has 
gone out of repute, except with the ig- 
norant, who rely with implicit faith on 
the astrological predictions of Moore's 

ASTRONOMER Royal. Flamstead 
was the first, and resided at Greenwich ; 
obser\'-atory built, 1676, by order of 
Charles IL Flamstead died, 1719. and 
was succeeded by Dr. Halley, who, dying 
in 1742, Dr. Bradley succeeded, and 
after him, the Rev. Mr. Maskelyne, in 
1762. 

ASTRONOMICAL Observations 
first made at Babylon, about a.c. 2250; 
tables made 1253. 

ASTRONOMICAL Society insti- 
tuted 1825, 

ASTRONOMY and Geography 
brought into Europe by the Moors of 
Barbary, 1201. 

ASTRONOMY was probably the first 
science studied but when, or by whom, 



is not known. It is generally ascribed 
to the Grecian colonies that inhabited 
Africa ; learned by them from the Egyp- 
tians. Anaxagoras was the first that 
taught it, in the year that Xerxes entered 
Greece. About a.c. 2250, observations 
at Babylon were transmitted to Aristotle 
by Callisthenes (according to Porphyry). 
a.c. 1100, La Place speaks confidently 
of Chinese observations, a.c. 719,720, 
eclipses of the moon were observed at 
Babylon, with accuracy. About a.c. 
640, the globular form of the earth, the 
five zones, some principal circles of the 
sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the 
true cause of lunar eclipses taught, and 
an eclipse predicted by Thales of Miletus. 

The earliest philosophic astronomer on 
record was Anaximander, born about 
A.c. 610. He is said to have been the 
inventor of maps and charts. He also 
maintained that the planets are uncon- 
nected with the earth ; that they are the 
habitations of animated beings ; that the 
fixed stars are the centres of other sys- 
tems ; and that the earth moves round 
the centre of the system of the world. 
About A.c. 556 was bornAnaximenes,who 
maintained that the earth is a plane, and 
that the heavens are a firmament (<rrtpfoc), 
or solid substance like the earth. He is 
said to be the inventor of sun-dials 
(though probably only the introducer of 
them into Greece). 

Anaxagoras, born about A. c. 500, 
maintained that the etherial, or upper 
regions of the atmosphere, were fire ; 
that the fire drew up from the earth, and 
ignited masses of stone, which thus be- 
came stars; that the comets were wan- 
dering stars ; that the light of small stars 
occasioned the white colour of the milky 
way, and that the moon is irregular in 
its surface, and habitable like the earth. 
His conjectures with regard to the milky 
way and the moon have been confirmed 
as far as the observations have been car- 
ried. The same philosopher was the 
first who wrote on the phases of the 
moon and eclipses. He was banished 
from Athens on a charge of insulting 
and contemning the gods, by teaching 
natural philosophy. 

About A.c. 506, Pythagoras, the dis- 
ciple of lliales, died. Like his master, 
he travelled into the east ; and, like him, 
corrected the errors into which his coun- 
trymen had fallen. He demonstrated, 
from the varying altitudes of the stars 
by change of place, that the earth must 



A ST 

be round ; tliat there might be antipodes 
on the opposite part of the globe ; that 
Venus was the morning and evening 
star; that the universe consisted of 
twelve spheres — the sphere of the earth, 
the sphere of the water, the sphere of 
the air, the sphere of fire, the spheres of 
the moon, the sun, Venus, Mercury, 
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, and the 
spheres of the stars. He admitted the 
idea of a plurality of worlds, and even 
calculated the height of the people in the 
moon ; and he maintained that the mo- 
tions of the twelve spheres must produce 
delightful sounds inaudible to mortal 
ears, which he caUed the " music of the 
spheres." He was persecuted, and is 
said to have perished with hunger at the 
age of 80. 

Democritus, about A.c. 450, main- 
tained the opinion that more planets 
would be discovered. The metonic cy- 
cle of 19 years, 7 months, as the period 
of comcidence in the motions of the sun 
and moon, was introduced l6th July, 
A.c, 433. Eudoxus died about A.c. 368, 
who estimated the lunar month at 29 
days, 12 hours, 43 minutes, 38 seconds; 
and the year at 365i days. The same 
philosopher attempted to explain the 
])lanetary motions by a very complicated 
assemblage of concentric spheres. 

A.c. 357- An occultation of Mars by 
the moon, and one of a star by J npiter,were 
observed by Aristotle. About the same 
time, Pytheas of Marseilles is said to 
have travelled to Ireland, and seen the 
sun in the north. He determined the 
obliquity of the ecliptic at 23 degrees, 50 
minutes, and is said to have been the 
first that observed the dependence of the 
tides upon the moon. 

This may be considered as the termin- 
ation ol the first epoch in the history of 
astronomy ; and though some of the 
conjectures made during it were saga- 
cious enough, there were no great con- 
necting principles. They had no idea 
of the distances of the heavenly bodies, 
or the means of ascertaining them ; and 
they had no other notion of the stabihty 
oi the system, but that of its being up- 
held by solid spheres. Only one attempt 
•was made to account for the stability of 
the earth — that by Parmenides, who ar- 
gued upon what is called the " sufficient 
reason ;" that it had no reason to fall in 
one way rather than another, could not 
fall all ways at once, and therefore stood. 
In the next epoch, that during which the 



45 A S T 

school of Alexandria flourished, the first 
of these desiderata was supplied, and 
practical astronomy became a science; 
but it was reserved for modern times to 
supply the latter, and perfect the theory 
of this most sublime and beautiful branch 
of human knowledge. 

A.c. 300. About this time Aristillus 
and Timarchus determined the positions 
of the stars with regard to the equator. 
About A.c. 280, Aristarchus first calcu- 
lated geometrically the relative distances 
of the sun and moon, and also main- 
tained the stability of the sun. About 
A.c. 240, Eratosthenes calculated the 
magnitude of the earth from the mea- 
suring of an arc of a meridian. The pla- 
netarium was constructed by Archime- 
des before a.c. 212. 

A.c. 140 The whole science was re- 
vised, the true length of the year found, 
the equation of time pointed out, the 
motion of the moon's nodes, and the in- 
clination of her orbit, the latitudes and 
longitudes of more than a thousand stars 
determined, table of terrestrial latitudes 
and longitudes projected, and first me- 
ridian referred to the Canary isles by 
Hipparchus. After this, little was done 
for nearly 300 years. 

A.D. 130. The second inequality, or 
" evection" of the moon was discovered, 
the places and distances of the planets 
accurately observed, the precesion of the 
equinoxes confirmed, the system of epi- 
cycles for explaining the inequalities of 
the celestial motions introduced, and 
general tables drawn up by Ptolemy. 
The science was then neglected more 
than 600 years, when it was resumed by 
the Arabs about 800. 

1001. Refraction of the atmosphere 
and cause of twihght explained by Al~ 
hazen. 1284. Alphonsine tables con- 
structed under the patronage of Alphon- 
so X., of Leon and Castile. 1437. Very 
accurate tables formed by Ulugh Beigh, 
a Tartar, 1500. Clock first used in 
astronomy by Walther. = 

1530. An important era in astronomy. 
The true doctrine of the celestial motions 
was revived by Copernicus. 1601. Ob- 
servations greatly improved by Tycho 
Brahe, who died about this time. 1631. 
Kepler died. He discovered the true 
laws of the planetary motions. 1631. 
Transit of Mercury over the sun observ- 
ed by Gassendi. About the same time 
Horrox observed the transit of Venus, 
asd Bayer made his catalogue of the stars. 



AST 



46 



A 1 U 



1642. Galileo died. He first used 
telescopes m astronomy, discovered in- 
numerable stars, the satellites of Jupi- 
ter, a peculiarity in the form of Saturn, 
and many other phenomena. 1669. A 
degree of the meridian measured in 
France, and magnitude of the earth de- 
termined by Picart. 1670. A map of the 
moon constructed by Hevelius 

1687. Newton's Principia published; 
in the third book of which he applies his 
doctrines to the heavenly bodies. 1688. 
Huygens died. He discovered the ring 
and foui'th satellite of Saturn. 1688. 
History of the heavens, and catalogue ol 
the stars completed by Flamstead, after 
thirty-three years' labour. 

1696. Richer died. He discovered the 
inequalities of the pendulum in different 
latitudes. From these Huygens inferred 
the spheroidal figure of the earth. 1712. 
Cassini died. He discovered the four 
satellites of Saturn, the diurnal rotation 
of Jupiter, Venus, and Mars, the Zodia- 
cal light,and other phenomena. In 1742, 
Dr. Halley died. He discovered the pa- 
rallax of the sun, lunar theor)-^, and laws 
of comets. 1747. Method of finding the 
longitude by the distances of the moon 
from the sun or stars. A])proximate so- 
lution of the problem of the three bodies 
by Clairault. 1758. Re-appearance of 
Halley 's comet. — See Comet. 

1762 Dr. Bradley died. He disco- 
vered the abberration of the stars and 
mutation of the earth's axis, and investi- 
gated the law of atmospheric refraction. 
About 1780 celestial inequalities found 
to be periodical by La Grange. 

1781. Uranus, or Herschel, with its 
six satellites, and two satellites of Saturn 
discovered ; early observations of the 
motions of double stars ; and the proba- 
ble motion of the whole solar system to- 
wards the constellation Hercules, — by 
Dr. Herschel. 

1799. Mecanique Celeste published, 
periods of the planetary inequalities 
investigated, and many improvements 
made by Laplace, 

1801. Ceres discovered by Piazzi. 

1802. Pallas, by Dr. Olbers. 
1804. Juno, by Dr. Harding. 
1807. Vesta, by Dr. Olbers. 

1 824 to 1 828. Sir John Herschel made 
several new and important observations 
on the distances, appearances, &c. of the 
fixed stars. Many of them appear to 
have vanished from the heavens. The 
star 42 Virginis seems to be of this nun^- 



ber, having been missed by Sir John 
Herschel on the 9th of May, 1828, and 
not again found, though he frequently 
had occasion to observe that part of the 
heavens. Sometimes stars have all at 
once appeared, shone with a bright light, 
and vanished. Many thousands of stars 
that seem to be only brilliant points, 
when carefully examined, are found to 
be in reality systems of two or more suns, 
some revolving about a common centre. 
Sir John Herschel has discovered that 
several of these systems of stars are sub- 
ject to the same laws of motion with our 
system of planets : he has determined the 
elements oftheir elliptical orbits, and com- 
puted the periods of their revolution . No- 
vember 18, 1833, Sir John Herschel pro- 
ceeded to the Cape of Good Hope, to 
make observations on the stars in the 
southern hemisphere. 

ASYLUM, near Westminster bridge, 
London, instituted 1758. 

ASYLUMS for debtors abolished in 
London, I696. 

ATAHUALPA, or Atabalipa, the 
last of the Incas, king of Quito, burnt 
by the Spaniards 1533. 

ATH ALL\H, wife of Joram, king of 
Judah, slain a.c. 877. 

ATHANASIAN Creed, supposed 
to have been written 340. 

ATHANASIUS, St., bishop of Alex- 
andria, born in 296, died May 2, 373. 

ATHELSTAN, the natural son and 
successor of Edward the Elder. Suc- 
ceeded, being Edward's eldest son, and 
was crowned at Kingston-upon-Thames 
by Athelm, archbishop of Canterbury, 
with far greater magnificence than usual, 
925. A plot was formed to seize Athel- 
stan, which was discovered and prevented. 
At the instigation of a courtier, Athelstan 
in 938, condemned his brother Edwin to 
be exposed in a boat, without oars, out 
of which the prince leapt into the sea 
and was drowned. The king felt re- 
morse for his conduct ; and to avert the 
vengeance of God, built Middleton 
abbey in Dorsetshire, and soon after 
ordered his adnscr to the murder to be 
beheaded. He caused the Bible to be 
translated into the Saxon, which was 
then the mother-tongue. King Athel- 
stan died at Gloucester, without issue, 
October 17, 941, and was buried at 
Malmsbury, having reigned fifteen years 
and some months. See England. 

ATHENAGORAS, Athenian philo 
sopher, flourished 177. 



AUG 

ATHENODORUS, a Stoic philo- 
sopher, tutor to Tiberius, flourished 
A.D. 10. 

ATHENS, one of the twelve cities in 
Attica, founded by Cecrops, in the time 
of Moses, A. c. 1571 ; kingdom of, begins 
A.c. 1556; council of Areopagus esta- 
blished at, 1507; Council of Amphic- 
tyons, 1497 ; royalty abolished, 1070, on 
which they were governed by magistrates 
called archons, Medon being the first ; 
governed by nine annual archons, of 
Avhich Cleon was the first, 684. 

A.c. 480. City taken by Xerxes, 30 
tyrants expelled, and democracy re-esta- 
blished, 401 ; taken by Demetrius, 297. 
A. c. 80, it was taken and despoiled by 
Sylla, who destroyed the harbour works, 
and it never after recovered its lustre. 

A.D. 50, Athens was visited by the 
apostle Paul. In 420, paganism was abo- 
lished here, and Justinian even closed the 
schools of philosophy. In 1445, Athens 
became the prey of Omar, and was made 
an appendage of the Turkish empire. 
In 1687, it was besieged, and some of its 
noblest buildings destroyed by the Ve- 
netians ; restored to the Greeks again 
in 1688. 

1822. In the Greek war, the city 
was besieged and taken by the insurgent 
Greeks, but surrendered again in 1827. 
In 1830,it was included in theterritory al- 
lotted to the new kingdom of Greece, 
and became the capital of that kingdom, 
and residence of the court of Otho I. 

The most magnificent ruins of central 
Athens that still remain, are the pery- 
style of the Parthenon, the poecile or 
lantern of Demosthenes ; the tower of 
the winds; Adrian's gate, and a wall 
of a theatre. On the rock of the Acro- 
polis are the remains of the renowned 
Parthenon, the frieze of which was strip- 
ped of its statues by Lord Elgin. 

ATKYNS, Sir Robert, chief baron 
of Exchequer, bom 1621, died 1709. 

ATTALUS, king of Pergamus, in- 
ventor of parchment, born A.c. 198, be- 
queaths his dominions to the Romans, 
133. 

ATTAQUIA, in Syria, destroyed by 
an earthquake, with 3000 inhabitants. 
May 5, 1796. 

ATTEBBURY, Francis, bishop of 
Rochester, born 1662 ; sent to the 
Tower, August 24, 1722; banished. 
May, 1723; died, Feb., 1731; buried 
in Westminster Abbey. 
ATTERBURY, Dr. Lewis, an Eng- 



47 AUG 

lish divine and sermon writer, born 
1656, died 1731. 

ATTICA. Theseus collects the twelve 
cities of Attica into one republic; estab- 
lishes a democracy, and renews the Isth- 
mian games A.c. 1234. Some say this 
happened in a.c. 1231. 

ATTICUS, Titus Pomponius, the 
friend of Cicero, died a.c. 54, aged 77. 

ATTICUS, partriarch of Constantino- 
ple, died 427. 

ATTILA, the Hun, surnamed " the 
Scourge of God," began his reign 433; 
overran Thrace, 442; murdered his bro- 
ther, 444 ; ravaged all Europe, 447 ; was 
defeated by Aetius, 450 ; died of excess, 
454. At his death, his kingdom was 
spht into a number of small states, by 
his numerous children, who waged an 
uninterrupted war against each other for 
several years. 

ATTORNEYS, maximum number 
allowed in Great Britain, in the reign of 
Edward III., 400; tax on, commenced 
in 1785 ; the number limited in Norfolk 
and Suffolk, and reduced from eighty to 
fourteen, 1754. 

ATTRACTION, the first idea of, 
adopted by Kepler, 1605. 

ATTWOOD, George, a celebrated 
mathematician and merchant, born 1746, 
died, 1807 

AUBIN, Gabriel Jacques de St. 
a French historical painter, and an en- 
graver, born 1724, died 1770. 

AUBREY, John, F.R.S., an English 
antiquary, born 1626, died 1700. 

AUCHMUTY, Sir Samuel, an 
English general, born 1756, died 1822, 
buried at Dublin. 

AUCTION, the first in England, by 
Elisha Yale, governor of Fort George, 
East Indies, of the goods he brought 
home, 1700; tax on, commenced, 1779. 

AUCTION Mart, London, founded 
1813. 

AUDLEY, James, Lord, an Eng- 
lish hero, who served under Edward III., 
born 1314, died 1386, 

AUDRAN, Claude, a French his- 
torical painter, and professor at the Aca- 
demy of Arts, born 1641, died 1681. 

AUGEREAU, Duke op Castig- 
lione, one of Napoleon's marshals, 
born 1757, died 1816 

AUGMENTATION of the king's 
revenue, a new court erected, Feb, 4, 
1536—1704. 

AUGSBURG, city of, Germany, 
and the capital of Suabia, celebrated for 



A U G 48 

the diet of the empire held here by 
Charles V. in person, 1530, at which the 
confederate princes who had protested 
against the act of the diet of Spires, were 
called protestants. 

Here the celebrated Lutheran con- 
fession of faith was first drawn up by 
Melancthon, and presented to the em- 
peror, and all the German princes. 1547, 
the emperor again held a diet in this 
place, for finally composing the contro- 
versies with regard to reUgion, which 
had long disturbed the empire. Before 
this diet he laid the system of doctrine 
kno\vn afterwards by the name of the 
Interim ; and in 1548, he made his first 
attack upon this city, on account of the 
part it took in the opposition to this sys- 
tem. In 1550, a diet was summoned by 
the emperor, at this place, for further 
enforcing the observation of the Interim. 
Finally, the diet held here, 1555, settled 
the peace of Germany, by an act called 
the Recess. 

Though the protestants were very 
powerful at Augsburg, they could not 
keep their ground, for the Bavarians 
afterwards drove them from thence ; but 
Gustavus Adolphus restored them again 
in 1632; since which time they have con- 
tinued there, and share the government 
with the catholics. In 1703, the elector 
of Bavaria took the city, after a siege of 
seven days, and demolished the forti- 
fications. 

Jews were not until 1805, admitted to 
live within the walls; but such as carried 
on business there, lodged in a village 
half a league from the city, and paid a 
certain tax for liberty of trading in it 
through the day. 

AUGUSTIN, St., usuaUy styled the 
apostle of the English, was originally a 
monk in the convent of St. Andrews at 
Rome. He was sent to Britain by Pope 
Gregorj' I., with 40 other monks of the 
same order, about the year 596, to con- 
vert the English Saxons to Christianity. 
He resided principally at Canterbury, 
which thus became the metropolitan 
church of England; and having esta- 
bhshed bishops in several of the cities, 
he died May 26, 607. 

AUGUSTINE, St. a celebrated chris- 
tian divine, usually reckoned among the 
fathers of the christian church, was born 
at Thagaste, a city of Numidia, Nov. 
13, 354. His mother, Monica, being 
a woman of great piety, instructed him 
in the principles of the christian religion. 



AUK 

At the age of sixteen, and in 371, he was 
removed to the schools of Carthage. In 
383, he was chosen public professor of 
rhetoric at Milan. In 388, he retired 
into Africa; having obtained a garden- 
plot without the walls of the city of 
Hippo, he associated himself with eleven 
other persons of eminent sanctity, who 
distinguished themselves by wearing 
leathern girdles, and lived there in d mo- 
nastic way for the space of three years. 
In 390, Valerius, bishop of Hippo, 
caused him to be ordained bishop of 
Hippo, by Megalus, bishop of Calame. 
He died Aug. 28, 430, aged 76. 

AUGUSTINES, or, Augustinians, 
an order of religion, thus called from St. 
Augustine. The Augustines or Augus- 
tine Friars, were originally hermits, whom 
Pope Alexander IV. first congregated 
into one body, under their general Lan- 
franc,in 1256. Soon after their institu- 
tion, this order was brought into Eng- 
land. 

AUGUSTUS, the Roman emperor, 
whose original name was Octavius, 
born A.c. 65. defeated Sextius Pompey, 
36, and M. Antony, 31, received 
the title of Augustus, 27, then the 
power of imperator for ten years, next, 
the censorship. A. c. 24, the senate, by 
a solemn oath, on the 1st of January, con- 
firmed to Octavius, the tribuneship and 
exemption from laws. a. c. 13, he as- 
sumed the oflSce of Pontifex Maximus, 
and burnt all the pontifical books, being 
about 2000 in number, reserving only 
the Sibylline oracles. The ministers of 
Rome, were pontiffs and priests ; the 
former elected from the patricians, the 
latter from the plebeans. In the days 
of Augustus, the pontiffs, originally four 
in number, had been increased to fifteen, 
of whom the president, or chief, was called 
pontifex maximus, or sovereign pontiflf. 

A.c. 8. Augustus corrected the calendar 
by ordering the twelve ensuing years to 
pass without intercalation ; the month 
Sextilis received the name of Augustus 
by a decree of the senate, a.c. 2, he 
banished Juha, widow of Agrippa, to the 
httle isle Pandatarium, oflf Campania, on 
account of her adulterous courses. Au- 
gustus died, A.D. 14. 

AURELIAN, the Roman emperor, 
consulted the SibyUine oracles, 271 ; de- 
feated Zenobia, 273 ; defeated Tetricus, 
tyrant of Gaul ; and abandoned Daciato 
the barbarians, 274 ; was assassinated, 
275. 



AUR 



49 



AURENG-ZEBE, the great mogul, 
born in 1618. In 1658, he conquered 
his brother Dara, took possession of 
the throne, July 20th, and was pro- 
claimed emperor at the town of Eazabad, 
about six miles from Delhi. During his 
reign from 1660 until 1678, there pre- 
vailed through Hindoostan in general 
the most profound peace that had ever 
perhaps been known. Aureng-Zebe was 
employed in the conquest of the Deccan 
from the year 1 678 to the time of his death, 
and was actually in the field during the 
greatest part of the last fifteen years of 
his life; he died Feb. 21, 1707, in the 
90th year of his age. 

AURICULAR CoNFRSSiON, first 
made, 1215. 

AURORA BOREALIS, a kind of 
meteor appearing in the northern part of 
the heavens, chiefly in the winter sea- 
sons, and when the weather is frosty. 
The first remarkable one in England of 
which any particular record is given, was 
that of November 11, 1574. Five small 
ones were seen in 1707 and 1708. The 
next remarkable one was March 6, I7l6, 
which appeared for three nights succes- 
sively. It was visible from the west of 
Ireland to the confines of Russia and the 
east of Poland, extending to about 30" 
of longitude over nearly the whole of the 
north of Europe, exhibiting every where 
the most extraordinary appearances. Oc- 
tober 4, 1822, an aurora borealis was ob- 
served at Paris, in the northern part of 
the sky. It attracted the attention of 
great crowds, who stopped on the quays 
and bridges to observe the phenomenon. 
The great heat gave presage of a storm, 
which broke out some hours after. At 
dawn of day, the heavens were in a blaze, 
the thunder and lightning succeeding 
each other without interruption; the rain 
fell in torrents, mixed with hail, which 
broke the windows in many parts of the 
city, and killed a great number of birds 
in the public gardens. 

In 1827, there were two appearances 
of this kind in England. The first, which 
was in February, was visible from the 
forest near Woodford, seven miles north- 
east of London. About eight o'clock it 
extended from the north-east to the 
north-west point, and was in height about 
fifteen degrees. The main body of it was 
of a faint greenish blue tint, and was vind 
enough to cast a considerable shadow ; 
near ten, strong rays of light in rapid 
succession, were seen darting up, in a 



AUS 

parallel direction, to about half the alti- 
tude of the pole star. Waves of phos- 
phorescent light issued from the central 
part of the aurora in remarkably rapid 
succession. Another of these pheno- 
mena was observed on the 25th of Sep- 
tember, 1827. The most singular part 
was exhibited in a north north-east di- 
rection, where, at about 30° above the 
horizon, was a small dense cloud, above 
which was a broad streak, curved, and 
about 10^ in length, varying in colour 
from a deep copper hue to red ; from 
this the corruscations were incessant 
and remarkably bright and luminous, 
proceeding from the west towards the 
east. These appearances continued till 
after midnight. 

The last of these phenomena was that 
seen over good part of England, October 
18, 1836. There first appeared a large 
luminous arch, extending nearly from 
north to south, from which streamers 
appeared very low, running from north- 
east to south-west, and increasing in 
number untill they began to approach the 
zenith, appearently with an accelerated 
velocity. Suddenly the whole hemis- 
phere was covered with them. This 
splendid scene, however, lasted only 
about forty seconds ; the variety of 
colours disappeared, and the beams lost 
their lateral motion, and were converted 
as usual into flashing radiations, which 
kept diminishing in splendour until the 
whole disappeared, leaving only a pale 
white light near the horizon. During 
the aurora, which lasted about half an 
hour, the light of the stars was not re- 
fracted, numbers being occasionally seen 
through the luminous arch or beam. 

AUSCULTATION, or the method of 
detecting diseases in the interior of the 
chest, by percussion of the knuckles, 
discovered by Avenbrugger, l76l. 
AUSONIUS, the poet, died 394. 
AUSTEN, Mr., deputy treasurer of 
Greenwich Hospital, disappearance of, 
in consequence of the discovery of a de- 
ficiency in his accounts to the amount of 
20,000/. Aug. 11, 1828. 

AUSTERBURY,in Moravia, battle of, 
Dec. 2, 1805. 

AUSTERLITZ, in Moravia, battle of, 
Dec. 2, 1805. 
AUSTRALIA. See New Holland. 
AUSTRALIA, South, colonized 
under the act of parhament, 4 & 5 Will. 
IV. c. 75. The following are some of 
the leading provisions of the above bill, 



A us 



50 



passed in the parliamentary session for 
1S34, for the establishment of the South 
Australian colony. The whole of the, ter- 
ritory within the prescribed limits, to be 
open to settlement by British subjects. 
The colony is in no case to be employed 
as the place of confinement of trans- 

{)orted convicts. No waste or public 
ands to become private property save by 
purchase. The whole of the purchase 
money of waste or public lands to be em- 
ployed in conveying labourers, natives 
of the British islands, to the colony. 

AUSTRALIAN Company, South, 
a joint stock company, estabhshed in 
1836, for the purchase and improvement 
of land in the above colony. It was placed 
under the government of directors, with 
a capital of 500,000Z. By the regula- 
tions of the commissioners of the colony, 
important advantages were offered to the 
early purchasers of lands, amongst which 
were the following : the selection of their 
own labourers and artisans ; the reduced 
price of 12s. per acre, instead of 20s., to 
which price it was raised on the 1st of 
March, 1836 ; the right of purchasing 
one acre of land in the metropohs of the 
colony, for every 134 acres of country 
land ; this town land being limited to 
437 sections: the right of selection to 
purchasers of 4000 acres and upwards, 
&c. These and some other advantages 
were powerful inducements to the direc- 
tors to enter largely into the early pur- 
chase of land; they therefore secured 
13,770 acres, in which are included 102 
acres of the land on which the first town 
is proposed to be erected; in right of 
which purchase they can rent on lease 
220, 1 60 acres for pasturage, at less than 
one farthing per acre. A supply of 
gold, silver, copper, and bank notes 
was forwarded to the colony some months 
ago, by separate ships, and all necessary 
arrangements made for carrying on bank- 
ing operations upon as extensive a scale 
as the demands of the colony may require. 

AUSTRIA, in the ninth and tenth 
centuries was the frontier of the emperor 
of Germany against the barbarians. In 
928, the emperor Henry the Fowler, to 
oppose these incursions, invested Leo- 
pold, surnamed the Illustrious, with that 
country. Otho I. erected Austria into a 
marquisate, in favour of his brother-in- 
law, Leopold, whose descendant, Henry 
II., was created duke of Austria, by the 
emperor Frederic Barbarossa. His pos- 
terity becoming extinct in 1240, the states 



A US 

of the country put themselves under the 
protection of Henry, Marquis of Misnia, 
but Othogar II., king of Bohemia, took 
possession of it. The emperor Rodol- 
phus I., pretending a right to this duchy, 
refused to give Othogar the investiture 
of it, and afterwards killed him in 
battle ; from this Rodolphus the house of 
Austria descended. 

1477. Austria was erected into a 
arch-duchy, by the emperor Frederic the 
Pacific, for his son, Maximilian. His 
son, Philip, in 1496, marrying the heiress 
of Arrsgon and Castile, Spain fell after- 
wards under th e Austrian sceptre . Ch arles 
V. inherited all these domains ; but on 
his resignation, Spain, and the Nether- 
lands, passed to his son, Philip II., and 
the former crown continued in the Aus- 
trian line till the close of the seventeenth 
century. 

By the death of Charies VI., Oct. 20, 
1740, without male issue, the house of 
Austria became extinct. The elector of 
Bavaria seized the kingdom of Bohemia, 
and was elected emperor in 1742, but 
died in 1745. Francis of Lorraine, son 
of Leopold, duke of Lorraine, ha\nng 
married Maria Theresa, daughter of the 
emperor Charles VII., succeeded to the 
Austrian dominions, which continue to 
be held by his descendants. On the suc- 
cesses of the French in Germany, Aus- 
tria was humbled, but afterwards in 1804, 
erected into an empire under Francis, the 
first emperor. March 2, 1835, the em- 
peror Francis I. died at one o'clock in 
the morning, in his 67th year. 

Sept. 6, 1838. The ceremony of the 
coronation of Ferdinand, his successor, 
was performed at Milan, the capital of 
his Italian dominions ; the iron crown 
of Lombardy having been brought in 
state from its sacred depository for the 
occasion. All the preparations were 
conducted with great magnificence, and 
many distinguished foreigners were pre- 
sent. The emperor promulgated an 
amnesty which remits the punishment of 
all state oflFenders and persons exiled for 
state ofiences are set at liberty, and al- 
lowed to return to their country. 

1838. A very important treaty was 
concluded between Great Britain and 
Austria, thus further cementing the an- 
cient and natural alliance between two 
countries, of whom it has been remarked, 
that for 1 50 years, they have always had 
the same enemies, though these enemies 
have not been the same. By this, all 



BAB 51 

Austrian vessels arriving from the ports 
of the Danube, as far as Galatz, inclu- 
sively, are, together with their cargoes, 
to be admitted to British ports, exactly 
in the same manner, as if such vessels 
came direct from Austnan ports. And 
the same privileges are extended to 
British vessels entering or departing 
from such ports. 

AUSTRIAN Netherlands, entered 
by the French, April 28, 1792. 

AUTODAFAY, (the first) at Vallado- 
lid. May 21, 1559; the last was at Goa, 
in 1787. 

AUTOMATON, a flying dove, the 
first made by Archytas, a.c. 408. 

AVELLINO, a city of Naples, de- 
stroyed by an earthquake, November 29, 
1732. 

AVERROES, an Arabian philosopher, 
died at Morocco, 1217, or 1225. 

AVERZOAR, or Ebn-Zoar, an Ara- 
bian physician, died 1 169. agedl35 years. 

AVICENNA, an Arabian philoso- 
pher, born 980, died 1036. 

AVIGNON, University at, found- 
ed 1388 ; taken from the Pope by the 
French, 1769; restored on the suppres- 
sion of the Jesuits, 1773; claimed by 
the French National Assembly, 1791 ; 
confirmed to France by the Congress of 
Sovereigns, 1815. 

AXUM, the capital of Siris, in Abys- 
sinia, now in ruins, flourished under 
Ptolemy Evergetes, 221 before Christ, 
was a royal city in the 6 th century. 

AXUM, Chronology of, the most 
authentic Abyssinian history, which, 
though defective in dates, is considered 
valuable. Among the modern Abys- 
sinians, it stands next to the sacred 
writings, and though abounding with 
fabulous accounts of the origin and es- 
tabhshment of the empire, appears to 
coincide with and to corroborate many 
passages in sacred history. According 
to this book, there was an interval of 



BAB 



5500 years between the creation of the 
world, and the birth of Christ; and 1808 
years before the last event, the empire 
of Abyssinia or Ethiopia received its 
first inhabitants. 

AYLESFORD, the four great stones 
near it, are the tomb of Catigern, slain 
by Hengist, at the battle there, 455. 

AYLMOUTH Castle, Northumber- 
land, built 559. 

AYSCOUGH, George- Edward, 
a dramatic writer, died 1779. 

AYSCOUGH, Rev. Samuel, com- 
piler of the index to Shakspeare , died 1805. 

AZOF, in Russia, built by the Genoese, 
1261,; seized by Tamerkne, 1392; fell 
to Turkey, 1471 ; fortifications demo- 
lished, 1739; ceded to Russia, 1774. 

AZORES, islands in the Atlantic, 
discovered by the Portuguese in 1449- 
They are in number nine ; their names 
are, St. Michael, Santa Maria, Terceira, 
Fa)'a], Vico, Graciosa, St. George, Flores, 
Corvo. Terceira, the seat of govern- 
ment, is remarkable as the refuge of 
the Portuguese patriots. See Ter- 
ceira. In July 9, 1757, the Azores 
were visited by a dreadful shock of an 
earthquake, which was felt in most of 
the islands ; it lasted about two minutes, 
when all the houses in Angra, capitol of 
Terceira were violently agitated. On 
the 10th, about ten in the morning, 
there was another shock, which was re- 
peated about four in the afternoon, with 
the same violence, but of short duration. 
In the isle of St. George, 12 leagues from 
Angra, there was a shock on the same 
day, and at the same hour, when 1053 
persons were crushed under the ruins of 
the houses. On the morning of the 10th, 
18 new islands had risen at the distance 
of 100 fathoms northward of that island. 
The isles of Flores and Corvo were the 
only two that proved exempt from this 
disaster. It is supposed that 10,000 
persons perished in this visitation. 



B. 



BABEL, Tower of, began to be 
built A.c. 2247, and continued building 
40 years; when God confounded the 
builders' language, and dispersed them 
into different nations. Thence arose 
the difference of languages, the disper- 
sion of the people 101 years after the 



flood, and the forming of empires. 
From Japhet, the eldest son of Noah, 
sprung the inhabitants of the north of 
Europe and Asia, as well as those of the 
west. From Shem came the people of 
the east, as also those of Israel ; and 
from Ham descended the Canaanites, 



BAB 



52 



BAC 



Philistines, Egyptians, and the ancient 
possessors of Africa. 

BABEUF, Francis Noel, an ac- 
tive accomplice in the French Revolu- 
tion, put to death, 1797. 

BABINGTON, and 13 others, hang- 
ed for conspiring to assassinate queen 
Elizabeth, 1586. 

BABINGTON, Dr. Gervase, bishop 
of Worcester, born 1550, died 1610. 

BABINGTON, Dr., an eminent En- 
glish physician and medical writer, for- 
merly Apothecary, and afterwards Phy- 
sician and Lecturer on medicine and 
chemistry, at Guy's Hospital. His pub- 
lications were, " A Systematic Arrange- 
ment of Minerals, 4to. 1795;" "A 
New System of Mineralogy, 4to. 1799 ;" 
some contributions to " Nicholson's 
Journal," and the " Medico- Chirurgical 
Transactions," Died at his house in De- 
vonshire-street, Portland-place, April 29, 
1833, aged 76. 

BABOUR, Sultan, founder of the 
Mogul dynasty, died 1530. 

BABYLON, City of, founded by 
Nimrod, A.c. 2245; walled, 1243; taken 
by Cyrus, 536, by Darius, after nine- 
teen months' siege, 511. The gardens 
in the city of Babylon, were one of the 
seven wonders of the world ; they were 
made on the top of a palace, there erect- 
ed ; the figure of the garden was square, 
each side four acres long ; it bore trees 
of eighty feet high, and sixteen feet 
round, it was watered by the rain drawn 
up by machines. There is a fine ruin 
here, the tower of Belus. See Belus. 

BABYLON, kingdom of, had its 
origin under Nimrod, when the city was 
founded a.c. 2245 ; by the acquisition 
of the Assyrian and other states, it be- 
came the first great empire. TiU the 
reign of Merodach Baladan, who con- 
quered the King of Assyria, it was 
called the kingdom of Assyria. He 
made Babylon the capital, instead of 
Nineveh, and it was then called the 
kingdom of Babylon, about a.c. 748. 
Ben Merodach, his son, was the next 
king, he broke the league his father had 
made with the Jews, and imprisoned 
Manasses, their king, (who succeeded 
Hezekiah.) Nebuchadnezzar 1, (though 
many say this and the succeeding king, 
were one and the same) ascended the 
throne, his reign was short, and his 
successor was his son, Nabuchodo- 
noser, or Nebuchadnezzar the Great, 
who killed Josiah, king of Jiidah, took 



and burnt the city of Jerusalem, and 
put an end to the kingdom of Judea, he 
died A.c. 614. See Jerusalem. 

Evil Merodach, his son, was the suc- 
ceeding king, and was assassinated by 
his sister's husband, and after an usurp- 
ation of about nine years, was followed 
by Belshazzar, supposed by some to be 
the Ahasuerus of Scripture. This 
prince divorced his wife Vashti, who 
according to Plutarch, was Pausatis, the 
mother of Artaxerxes, and married 
Hadassa, afterwards called Esther. He 
was slain by Darius the Mede, and thus 
ended the kinsrdom of Babylon, a.c,570. 
BABYLONISH CAFriVITY. The 
first, by Nebuchadnezzar, a.c. 606 ; the 
second, at the time of the birth of Cyrus, 
A.c. 599. 

BACCIO, Della Porta, or Fra. 
Bartolomeo, di San Marco, a celebrated 
Italian history painter, born 1469, died 
at the convent of St. Mark, 1517- 

BACHELORS' Tax, 1695; again. 
1735 and 1796. 

BACK, Captain, had the command 
of her majesty's ship Terror, on an 
expedition to the Polar Sea, sailed from 
England in June, 1836, with the inten- 
tion of proceeding to Repulse Bay, or 
Wager Inlet, on the north-western 
shore of Hudson's Bay ; thence an ex- 
ploring party was to cross over the 
supposed isthmus to the Arctic Sea, 
with the hope of coasting along and 
determining the outline of the northern 
shores of America, but the physical 
obstacles which opposed themselves to 
this undertaking were utterly insur- 
mountable, and therefore they were com- 
pelled to return. 

August 29, 1837, they reached Lat. 
65 deg. 50 min. S. Long. 82 deg. 7 niin. 
W, This was their extreme north point 
within 40 miles of Winter Island, where 
the Hecla and Fury passed the winter of 
1821 — 2. On the 3rd. of September, 
1837, they arrived in Lough Swilly, 
not having let go their anchor since 
June, 1836. 

BACKER, Nicholas de, a por- 
trait painter and friend of KneUer, born 
at Antwerp, 1648, died 1689. 

BACKEREEL, or Bacquerelli, 
(William) a Dutch historical painter, 
fellow pupil with Vandyk under Ru- 
bens, 

BACKHUYSEN, Ludolph, an emi- 
nent painter, born at Eubden, 1631, 
died, 1709, 



BAG 



53 



BAD 



BACKWAY, Hertfordshire, a fire 
at, destroyed thirteen dwelhngs, with 
Btarks, offices, &c. Aug. 18, 1748. 

BACON, Sir Nathaniel, half bro- 
ther to Lord Verulam, an eminent por- 
trait painter, died after 1615. 

BACON Roger, a celebrated monk 
of the Franciscan order, was born near 
Ilchester, in Somersetshire, in 1214. 
He began his studies at Oxford; from 
whence he removed to the university of 
Paris. About the year 1240, he return- 
ed to Oxford ; and assuming the Fran- 
ciscan habit, prosecuted his favourite 
study of experimental philosophy with 
unremitting assiduity. His extraordi- 
nary talents, and astonishing progress in 
sciences, excited the envy and malice of 
his illiterate fraternity, who found no 
difficulty in possessing the vulgar with 
the notion of Bacon's dealing with the 
devil. Under this pretence, he was re- 
strained from reading lectures; his 
writings were confined to his convent, 
and finally, in 12/8, he himself was im- 
prisoned in his cell. At this time he 
was 64 years of age. After 12 years' 
confinement, he obtained his liberty, 
and spent the remainder of his life in 
the college of his order, where he died 
in 1294, in the 80th year of his age. 

BACON, Francis Lord Verulam, 
lord high chancellor of England, under 
King James I, bom 1560, and showed 
such marks of genius, that he was par- 
ticularly taken notice of by Queen Eliz- 
abeth, when very young. Upon the 
accession of King James, he was soon 
raised to considerable honours; and 
wrote in favour of the union of the two 
kmgdoms of Scotland and England, 
which the king so passionately desired. 
Jan. 16 16, he was sworn of the privy 
council; in 1617 was appointed Lord 
Keeper of the Great Seal, and in I6l8, 
was made Lord Chancellor of England, 
and created Lord Verulam. He pub- 
lished in 1620, the best finished and 
most important, though the least read, 
of all his philosophical tracts, the 
Novum Organum Scientiarum. 

1621. He was advanced to the dignity 
of Viscount St. Albans, and apjieared 
with the greatest splendour at the open- 
ing of the session of parhament. But 
he was soon after charged with bribery 
and corruption before a committee of 
the House of Commons, who on May, 
3, gave judgment against him, "That 
he should be fined £40,000, and remain 



prisoner in the Tower during the king's 
pleasure; that he should foi ever be 
incapable of any office, place, or em- 
ployment, in the state or commonwealth ; 
and that he should never sit in parlia- 
ment, or come within the verge of the 
court. The king afterwards granted 
him a full and entire remission of bis 
whole sentence; but he did not live 
long to enjoy these favours ; he expired 
April 9, 1626, aged 66. 

BACON, Sir Nicholas, lord keeper 
of the great seal, born in Kent, 1510, 
died Feb. 26, 1578—9. 

BACON, John, an English sculptor, 
born 1740, died 1799. 

BACTRIA, a small kingdom of Greeks 
in India, originally subject to Seleucus, 
but wrested from his son or grandson 
and rendered independent, about 69 
years after the death of Alexander ; 
overwhelmed by the Tartars, and the 
Greeks dispersed, a.c. 126. 

BADAJOS surrendered to the French 
March 11, 1811, taken by storm by 
the British and Portuguese, April 6, 
1812. 

BADEN. The princes of Baden 
derived their origin from Godfrey, a 
duke of the Alemanni, who defended 
his country, against the incursions of 
the Franks, till his death in 709. In 
1801, the government devolved upon 
Charles Louis Frederick, who, in I8O6, 
married Stephanie Louise Adrianne Na- 
poleone, an adopted daughter of Buo- 
naparte, after whose death in 1818, his 
uncle, the late grand duke, Louis Wil- 
liam Augustus, became his successor. 

After the battle of Leipsic, the grand 
duke of Baden left the confederation of 
the Rhine, and, in 1815, joined the Ger- 
man confederation, in the diet of which 
he has the 7th place, and in the general 
assembly three votes. In 1818, he be- 
stowed on his subjects a constitution, 
proceeding like the French, from the 
prince alone, and not consisting of a 
compact between the people and prince, 
like the English, or that of Wirtem- 
burg. In 1819, the chambers assembled 
for the first time. The grand duke 
Louis died of apoplexy, March 30, 
1830, and was succeeded by his brother, 
the grand duke Leopold. 

BADCOCK, John, educated a 
bookseller, wrote "White's Farriery," 
" Hinde's Veterinary Art," " Gentle- 
men's Recreations," and various other 
works, died Dec. 1836, aged 65. 



B A I 54 

BADJAZET, Fortress of, captured 
by the Russians, Sept. 9, 1828. 

BAFFIN'S BAY, North America, the 
largest and most northern gulf that has 
yet been explored in the western hemi- 
sphere, was discovered, in 1623, by 
William Baffin, a British navigator. It 
has been lately ascertained that it com- 
municates with the Atlantic Ocean, by 
Davis's Straits, and with the Polar Sea, 
through Lancaster Sound. In 1818, 
Captain Parry completed the circum- 
navigation of Baffin's Bay. In 1819, 
Captain Parry sailed up Lancaster 
Sound, establishing the practicability of 
reaching, in that direction, the Polar Sea. 
BAGDAD, at one time the most con- 
eider able city in the world. It was 
begun in 762, by the caliph Abu Giafar- 
Almanzor, finished in four years, and 
raised to its highest pitch of splendour, 
by Haroun Alraschid : but, 100 years 
after bis death, it was destroyed by the 
Turks. 

In the thirteenth century, it was 
stormed by Holagou, the grandson of 
Zingis-Khan, who caused the reigning 
caliph to be slain, and destroyed the ca- 
liphate. In 1302, the descendants of the 
conqueror were expelled by Tamerlane, 
and, in 1412, by Kara-Yusef. In the 
following centur)'. Shah Ismael, took 
possession of the city, and from that 
time it was a perpetual subject of con- 
test in the wars between the Turks and 
Persians. In 1638, after a memorable 
siege, it was taken by the Turkish Em- 
peror, Amurath IV., and has ever since 
remained subject to the Ottoman power. 
BAGLIONI, Giovanni, a Roman 
painter of church pieces ; he wrote the 
lives of the Roman artists ; born 1 594, 
died 1644. 

BAHAM.l Islands, discovered, 
1629; taken possession of by the En- 
glish, Dec. 1718 ; immense damage done 
to the shipping at, by a hurricane, Oct. 
1796; and again by storm and inunda- 
tion, July 22, 1801. During the perse- 
cution of the missionaries in Jamaica, 
1834, some of those employed by the 
Baptist Missionary Society, took refuge 
in Bahamas and introduced the gospel. 

BAH I A, capital city and province of 
Brazil, revolution at, Dec. 6, 1837, in 
which the leaders proclaimed it a free and 
independent republic, the city re-taken 
by the emperor's troops, March 16, 1838. 
See Brazil. 
BAIL, the first security for appear- 



BAL 

ance was given for Caeso, in a charge of 
murder, at Rome, a.c. 460 ; ten per- 
sons were bound for him in a bond of 
3000 asses. 

BAIZE, manufacture of, first intro- 
duced into England, at Colchester, 1660. 

BAJAZKT I. Sultan of the Turks, 
and a celebrated warrior, succeeded his 
father Amurath I, in 1389- Having ob- 
tained the title of sultan from the Ca- 
liphs who served in Egypt, he turned 
his arms against the kingdom of Hun- 
gary, under Sigismund, the king. In 
the battle of Nicopolis, Sept. 28, 1396, 
Bajazet defeated a confederate army of 
100,000 Christians. A few years after 
he invested Constantinople ; but he was 
called away by menaces, of Timour, or 
Tamerlane, who in 1400, began his 
march towards Asia Minor. To Ba- 
jazet he offered peace, which the sultan, 
confiding in his strength, refused, and 
these two potentates met on the plains 
near Angora, in July, 1402, to a memo- 
rable conflict, which has immortalized 
the glory of Timour, and the shame of 
Bajazet. The Turks were entirely bro- 
ken with dreadful slaughter; Bajazet 
was pursued, and taken, and brought 
to the tent of Timour. The Mogul em- 
peror placed a crown upon his head, and 
a sceptre in his hand, with a solemn as- 
surance of restoring him to the throne 
of his ancestors. But the effect of this 
promise was disappointed by the sul- 
tan's untimely death, nine months after 
his defeat in April, 1403. 

BAKER, Thomas, antiquary, born 
1656, died 1740. 

BAKER, Henry, natural philoso- 
pher, born 1698, died 1774. 

BAKING OF Bread, invented, a.c. 
1400, became a trade, a.c. 170. 

BAKEWELL, Robert, the scien- 
tific experimental farmer and grazier, of 
Leicestershire, and the most successful 
improver of horses and cattle in England 
died, Oct. 1, 1795. 

BALBEC, a town of Syria, anciently 
called Heliopolis, and by the Arabians 
the Wonder of Syria, delightfully situ- 
ated at the foot of Anti-Libanus, it was 
built about a.d. 14. Under the Romans, 
in the time of Augustus, it is mentioned 
as a garrison town. In 154, Antoninus 
built there the present temple mstead of 
the ancient one, afterwards converted 
into a church ; a wall of which is now 
remaining, that hid the sanctuary of 
the idols. In 1751, when visited by Mr. 



BAL 



55 



BAL 



Wood, the wretched gove nment of the 
emirs of the house of Harfoushe had 
already impaired it, and the earthquake 
of 1759 completed its destruction. 

BALCHEN, Admiral, born 1669 : 
lost in theVictory man-of-war, Oct. 1744. 
BALDWIN, created first Count of 
Flanders, by Charles le Chauve, 864. 

BALDWIN I., emperor of Constan- 
tinople, born in 1172, and succeeded his 
father as count of Flanders and Hai- 
nault. In the fourth crusade, which 
commenced in 1198, he assumed the 
cross at Bruges, together with his bro- 
ther Henry. He was chosen emperor 
of the east, 1204, and was taken pri- 
soner 1205. He soon after died in prison, 
but the time and manner of his death 
are not known. 

BALDWIN II., emperor of Constan- 
tinople, was the son of the emperor 
Peter of Courtenay ; and in his eleventh 
year, succeeded his brother Robert in 
1228. He was sent to visit the western 
courts, and to obtain some supplies of 
men and money, for the relief of the 
sinking empire. Of the twenty-five 
years of his reign, the greater number 
were spent abroad than at home. In 
his first visit to England he was stopped 
at Dover, and checked by a severe re- 
primand for presuming, without leave, 
to enter an independent kingdom. After 
some delay, he was permitted to pro- 
ceed, and after a reception of cold civil- 
ity, thankfully departed with a present 
of 700 marks. His kingdom was soon 
reduced to the limits of Constantinople, 
and in 1261, this city was taken from 
him by Michael Paloeologus, when Bald- 
win with some of the principal families, 
embarked on board the Venetian gallies. 
Having consumed thirteen years in so- 
liciting the Catholic powers to join in 
his restoration, without success, he died 
in 1273. 

BALE, John, an English divine and 
historian, born at Cove, in Suffolk in 
1495. He obtained, by nomination 
from the crown, the bishoprick of Ossory 
in Ireland, and in 1553, was consecrated 
by the Archbishop of Dublin. By his 
attachment to the doctrines of the re- 
formation, he was subject to constant 
terror, and his life was frequently in 
danger. Being removed as a prisoner 
to Holland, he was under the necessity 
of purchasing his liberty by a large ran- 
som. Upon the accession of Elizabeth, 
he returned to England, and fearful of 



encountering the difficulties and hazards 
of his Irish life, he retired to a prebend 
stall in the church of Canterbury, to 
which he was preferred in 1560; here 
he (]ied in 1563, aged 68. The work 
which has given him distinction among 
authors, is his " Scriptorum lUustrium 
Majoris Britannise Catalogus." An ac- 
count of the lives of eminent writers 
of Great Britain, brought down through 
a series of 3618 years, to the year 1557. 

BALEARIC Isles, in the Mediterra- 
nean, belonging to Spain, consisting of 
Majorca, Minorca, &c. They derived 
their name from the Greek j3aX\a>, to 
throw, those islanders having there been 
celebrated for their dexterity in using 
the sling. The Balearic slingers were 
conspicuous in the time of Hannibal, 
and in his battles with the Romans did 
memorable execution. They were after- 
wards eiu"olled by Caesar under the Ro- 
man eagle, and their assistance proved 
equally effective in the Gallic wars. 
After the Romans' occupation of these 
islands terminated, the Vandals took 
possession of them, under Genseric, 
about the year 426 ; and, in the year 
798, they fell into the power of the 
Moors, from whom they were wrested 
by James I. king of Arrogan, in 1259. 
At that period they formed the kingdom 
of Majorca or Mallorca, which was unit- 
ed to the kingdom of Arragon, and 
afterwards in 1375, attached to the 
crown of Spain. The English con- 
quered Minorca in 1708, but lost it 
again in 1782, and finally relinquished 
their claims to it, by a treaty with Spain, 
in 1783. 

BALEN, Henderic Van, an emi- 
nent Dutch portrait painter, born 1560, 
died 1632. 

BALES, Peter, an eminent \mting- 
master, who wrote the Lord's Prayer, 
the Creed, the Decalogue, and two short 
prayers in Latin, his ovni name, motto 
the day of the month, year of our Lord, 
and reign of the queen, plainly legible, 
within the circle of a single penny, which 
he presented to queen Elizabeth at 
Hampton-court, died 1575. 

BALIOL, John, the successful com- 
petitor of Robert Bruce for the crown of 
Scotland, was the great-grandson of Da- 
vid, Earl of Huntingdon, third son of 
King David.I., began his reign a.d. 1292. 

BALIOL, Sir John De, founder oi 
Baliol College, Oxford, was a person 
very eminent for his power and richee, 



BAL 

during the reign of King Henry III. He 
died in the year 1269. 

BALIOL College, Oxford, found- 
ed A.D. 1268. 

BALISTA, and Catapulta, of the 
Romans, engines for hurling stones and 
darts, first invented by Uzziah, king of 
Judah, and fixed on the walls of Jeru- 
salem, A.c. 1003. 

BALKAN, passed by the Russians 
under General Diebitsch, June 19, 
1830. 

BALL of fire fell, during a thunder 
storm, upon a public-house in Wapping, 
which instantaneously set fire to it and 
tie house adjoining, July 4, 1803. 

BALLARD, Edward, was the last of 
the fraternity of booksellers that lived 
in Little Britain. His shop was the sign 
of the globe, over against the pump ; he 
died Jan. 2, 1796, aged 88, in the same 
house in which he was born. 

BALLOON. See ^Eegstatic As- 
cent. 

BALLOON Air, hint given by Ga- 
lien, A. D. 1755. Hint by Dr. Black as 
to hydrogen, 1767. Constructed by 
Montgolfier, 1782. Filled with hydro- 
gen by Roberts and Charles, who made 
the first voyage, 1783. Parachute in- 
vented by Le Normand, 1783. 

BALLOW, in Russia, had 458 houses 
destroyed by fire, in 1803. 

BALLYHEAUGH. A sanguinary 
faction-fight took place, June 24, 1834, 
at the races of, 13 miles from Tralee, in 
Ireland, between the clans of the Coo- 
leens and Lawlors. At least 1000 per- 
sons were engaged, of whom eight or 
ten were killed in the battle, and thirty- 
five were drowned in the river, on the 
banks of which the affray took place. 

BALMERINO, Lord, one of the re- 
bel Highland chiefs, who was taken pri- 
soner at the battle of Culloden, April 16, 
1746 ; tried at Westminster Hall, with 
the earl of Kilmarnock, July 28, and 
found guilty. The execution took place 
Aug. 18. Being permitted to have an 
interview, they took an affecting leave : 
Lord Kilmarnock said, " My dear lord, 
I am only sorry I cannot pay this reck- 
oning alone : once more farewell for 
ever." The earl of Kilmarnock, who was 
first executed, then kneeling down, joined 
in prayer. The multitude showed the 
deepest signs of commiseration and pity; 
and his lordship at the same time, struck 
with such a variety of dreadful objects at 
once, — namely, the multitude, the block. 



56 BAL 

his coffin, the executioner, and the in- 
strument of death, turned about to Mr. 
Hume, and said, " Hume, this is ter- 
rible," without changing his voice or 
countenance. After putting up a short 
prayer, concluding with a petition for his 
majesty King George, and the royal fa- 
milj"^, he then embraced and took the last 
leave of his friends. The executioner, 
who had previously had something ad- 
ministered to keep him from fainting, 
was so affected with his lordship's dis- 
tress and the awfulness of the scene, that 
on asking his forgiveness, he burst into 
tears. When all things were ready for 
the execution, and the black baize which 
hung over the rails being turned up, that 
the people might behold the execution, 
in about two minutes after his lordship 
kneeled down ; when dropping his hand- 
kerchief, the executioner, at one stroke, 
severed his head from his body. Lord 
Balmerino, observing the axe in the 
hand of the executioner, he took it from 
him, and feehng the edge, returned it, 
saying, " Have courage," accompanied 
by a clap on the shoulder; then folding 
down the collar of his shirt and waist- 
coat, he pointed out the place where he 
was to strike, desiring him to do it reso- 
lutely; "for in that," added his lord- 
ship, " will consist your kindness." Im- 
mediately, without trembling or changing 
countenance, he again knelt down at the 
block; and having, with his arms 
stretched out, said, " O Lord, reward 
my friends, forgive my enemies, and re- 
ceive my soul :" he gave the signal by 
letting them fall; but his uncommon 
firmness and intrepidity, and the unex- 
pected suddenness of the signal, so sur- 
prised the executioner, that though he 
struck the part directed, the blow was 
not given with force enough to wound 
him very deep : a second blow imme- 
diately succeeding the first, rendered him 
quite insensible, and a third finished the 
work. During the whole of this tra- 
gedy, Tower-hill and the scaffoldings 
were crowded with spectators, who be- 
held it with the greatest decorum ; a con- 
duct that evinced how much the people 
entered into the rectitude of the execu- 
tion, though feeling too humane to re- 
joice at the catastrophe. 

BALSHAM, Hugh, founder of Peter 
House, Cambridge, died 1286. 

BALTIMORE. General Ross killed, 
in an unsuccessful attack on, by the Bri- 
tish, Sept. 2, 1814. 



BAN 57 

BALTIMORE House, Southampton- 
row, built 1759. 

BAMBERG Bishopric, instituted 
1002, others say 1007. Taken by the 
French, Aug. 4, 1796. It suffered from 
an inundation in 1784. 

BAMBOROUGH Castle, built by 
Ina, 559; this town was the capital of 
the kingdom of Northumberland. 

BANBURY, Oxfordshire, battle be- 
tween Yorkists and Lancasterians here,, 
1469. First sent members to parliament 
1553. Church fell Dec, 16, 1790. 

BANBURY, earldom, became extinct 
1632; but the earl's widow married 
Lord Vaux, who assumed the title, and 
the family has continued it since. 

BANCROFT'S Almshouses, Mile- 
end, Middlesex, built 1735. 

BANCROFT, Archbishop, born 
1544, died 1654 

BAND, order of knighthood, insti- 
tuted in Spain, 1232. 

BANDA Isles, seizea by the Dutch, 
1621, — taken by the English, Aug. 1801. 

BANDA ORIENTAL, or Uru- 
guay, new republic. South America, 
lying between the east bank of the Uru- 
guay river and the ocean ; and between 
the La Plata river on the south, and the 
Sierra de Topas on the north, which se- 
parates it from Brazil. The Banda Ori- 
ental has attained notoriety from the 
long and sanguinary struggle which its 
possession occasioned, between the em- 
pire of Brazil and the United Provinces 
of La Plata. It was at first settled by 
Spain ; next became the subject of con- 
tention between the Spanish and Portu- 
guese ; after violent and long continued 
struggles, Portugal consented to the line 
of Sierra de Topas, in 1 777, but afterwards 
seized the territory of the missions, which 
was exchanged for the Portuguese for- 
tress of Olivenza, in 1804 

In the revolutionary war, the Ori- 
entalists attached themselves to the re- 
pubhc of Buenos Ayres, and declared 
their complete independence, imme- 
diately after the battle of Gaubiju, in 
1815. The Imperiahsts of Brazil made 
an irruption into the Banda Oriental, 
and until 1822, retained possession of it. 
Brazil then also declared itself indepen- 
dent of Portugal, and the Orientalists 
revolted from their obedience, and at- 
tached themselves once more to the 
republic of Buenos Ayres. In 1826, the 
standard of independence was again 
raised by Fructuoso Rivera, and then a 
violent war began, in which blood and 



BAN 



treasure were profusely lavished. When 
both parties had nearly exhausted their 
resources, Great Britain interfered, and 
obtained a cessation of actual war. On 
August 28, 1828, a treaty of peace was 
signed at Rio, by which the Banda 
Oriental was declared an independent 
state. 

In July 1836, an insurrection broke 
out. General Rivera v/as then ex- presi- 
dent of the State; General Oribe was 
president in possession ; therefore Gene- 
ral Rivera and his partizans opposed the 
government, assumed arms, and took 
the field. Oribe, brother of the presi- 
dent, and Lavalleja, from Buenos Ayres, 
with superior numbers, gave him battle 
in September: he was totally routed; 
almost the whole of his force being killed 
or taken. The war continued through 
1837; Rivera again assumed a formida- 
ble attitude, and found himself at the 
head of a considerable force of mal- 
contents in the autumn of the year; but 
nothing occurred. On June 15, 1838, 
the revolutionary general, Fructuoso Ri- 
vera, engaged and defeated Oribe, the 
president, and menaced Monte Video 
the capital. Oribe found it necessary to 
abdicate after this reverse, and was re- 
placed by General Lavalleja. Endea- 
vours were made to negociate with the 
victorious chief, and a commission ap- 
pointed to proceed to his quarters; but 
apparently with no success. The town 
was soon afterwards closely invested by 
Rivera's forces, and reduced to great 
distress ; but he was repulsed at last. 
On March 10, 1839, this republic declar- 
ed war against Buenos Ayres. 

BANDS, for lawyers, first used by 
Judge Finch, 1615; for clergymen, 
about 1652. 

BANGALORE, in the East Indies, 
became subject to the Rajah of Mysore, 
1687. Taken by Earl Cornwallis, 1791. 

BANGOR, in Flintshire, North Wales, 
monks of, slain by the Danes, 580. 

BANGOR Cathedral, built 616. 

BANGOR, North America, taken by 
the British, May 3, 1814. 

BANK MILL, Manchester, used as 
a cotton factory, destroyed by fire, Oct. 
31,1813; damage estimated at £30,000. 

BANK. This term is applied to all 
establishments intended to serve for the 
safe custody of money; to facilitate its 
payment by one individual to another ; 
and, sometimes, for the accorrjmodation 
of the public with loans. The first insti- 
tution of banks was in Italy, where the 
I 



BAN 58 

Lombard Jews kept benches in the 
market places, for the exchange of mo- 
ney and bills ; and banco being the Ita- 
lian name for bench, banks took their 
title from this word The bank of Ve- 
nice was established about 1 1 7 1 , the bank 
of Genoa in 1345, the bank of Hamburg 
in l6l9, the bank of Rotterdam in 1635, 
the bank of Amsterdam in 1659, the bank 
of England in 1694, the bank of Scotland 
in 1695, the bank of Ireland in 1783, the 
bank of France in 1803, the bank of the 
Netherlands in 1814, the bank of the 
United States in 1816. See Bank of 
England, Bankers, &c. 

BANK OF England, was ongmally 
projected by a merchant of the name 
of Patterson, and established in 1694. 
The following year it was incorporated 
by King William and the Parliament, in 
consideration of £1,200,000, lent to go- 
vernment, which was then its capital. 
This capital, however, has gone on gra- 
dually increasing to the present period, 
by sums lent to government. 

The charter of the Bank of England 
was executed July 27, 1694, and was 
granted for twelve years, the corporation 
being then determinable on a year's no- 
tice. The original capital of £1,200,000 
was lent to government at 8 per cent, 
interest, with an allowance of £4000 per 
annum for their expenses of manage- 
ment. The term of the charter was, in 
1706, extended to five years beyond the 
original period, in consideration of the 
company ha^dng undertaken to circulate 
for government exchequer bills, to the 
amount of £1,500,000, and it has since 
been further extended at different times. 
In 1709 to 1st of August 1732 

1713 1742 

1742 1764 

1763 1786 

1781 . . , . . 1812 
1800 . ... 1833 

1833 1854 

TTie total permanent debt due from 
government to the bank is, £14,686,100, 
bearing 3 per cent, interest ; but the ca- 
pital stock of the company is,£lO,914,750, 
on which they usually pay a dividend of 
10 per cent, per annum to the proprie- 
tors. According to the accounts pre- 
sented to the House of Commons, in the 
year 1824, the average amount of ba- 
lances of public money in the hands of 
of the bank during the last year was, 
£5,526,645. The profit of the bank (at 
3 per cent., the rate which the govern- 



BAN 

ment pays them for their capital of fif- 
teen millions), is therefore upwards of 
£165,792, in its capacity of banker to the 
public departments. 

From the report of the secret com- 
mittee appointed in 1797, to investigate 
the affairs of the bank, it appeared that 
on the 25th of February, in that year, 
there was a balance of £3,826,903 ; and" 
on the 11th of November, a balance of 
£3,839,500 in favour of the company; 
their profits since must have been greater 
than while they were obUged to main- 
tain a large stock of cash to answer their 
notes; which has enabled them to make 
several occasional dividends to their pro- 
prietors, and at Lady Day, 1807, to raise 
their usual dividend from 7 per cent., 
which it had been for the last nineteen 
years, to 10 per cent. 

The building in which the affairs of the 
bank are transacted, is situated in the 
city of London, near Threadneedle-street; 
it was built 1732, enlarged 1771, consi- 
derably improved and insulated in 1796, 
and the exterior partly rebuilt in 1824, 

The style of their firm is, " The Gover- 
nor and Company of the Bank of Eng- 
land." They discontinued paying in 
cash, Feb. 25, 1797; issued 20s. notes, 
March 9, 1797; issued 5s. tokens, 1798; 
raised the value of these tokens to 5s. Qd., 
1811 ; discontinuance of their payments 
in cash restricted by Pariiament, 1816, 
not to extend beyond April 5, 1818; cash 
payments resumed, 1821 ; notes a legal 
tender, &c. 1833. 

BANK OF England's Accounts. 
Amount of coin and bullion possessed 
by the Bank in each year, from 1815 to 
1832:— 
Year ending 28th Feb. £ 

1815 2,179,147 

1816 .... 3,399,114 

1817 7,504,284 

1818 11,109,381 

1819 ..... 6,721,647 

1820 3,969,528 

1821 8,174,419 

1822 11,631,090 

1823 10,254,698 

1824 12,606,963 

1825 11,858,595 

1826 4,521,702 

1827 6,607,976 

1828 10,201,253 

1829 9,640,000 

1830 7,285,000 

1831 10,322,000 

1832 6,389,000 



BAN 

Tlie Bank of England has always acted 
as banker to the Government, The fol- 
lowing are the balances of public money 
in its hands, from 1807 to 1831 



1807 

1808 

1809 

1810 

1811 

1812 

1813 

1814 

1815 

1816 

1817 

1818 

1819 

1820 

1821 

1822 

1823 

1824 

1825 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1829 

1830 

1831 



£12,647,551 

11,761,448 

11,093,648 

1 1,950,047 

10,191,854 

10,390,130 

10,393,404 

12,158,227 

11,737,436 

10,807,660 

8,222,187 

7,066,187 

4,538,373 

3,713,442 

3,920,157 

4,107,853 

5,526,635 

7,222,187 

5,347,314 

4,214,271 

4,223,867 

3,831,697 

3,862,656 

4,761,952 

3,948,102 



59 BAN 

Private deposits in the hands of the 
Bank during each year, from 1807 to 
1831 :— 

1807 ..... £1,582,720 



1808 
1809 
1810 
1811 
1812 
1813 
1814 



1,940,630 
1,492,190 
1,428,720 
1,567,920 
1,573,950 
1,771,310 
2,374,910 



1815 1,690,490 

1816 . . . . . 1,333,120 

1817 . . . 1, '672,800 

1818 . . . . . 1,640,210 

1819 1,790,860 

1820 1,325,060 

1821 1,326,020 

1822 ..... 1,373,370 

1823 2,321,920 

1824 2,369,910 

1825 2,609,900 

1826 3,322,070 

1827 3,931,370 

1828 . ... 5,701,280 

1829 . . . . . 5,217,210 

1830 5,562,250 

1831 5,202,370 



Liabilities and Assets of the Bank of England : from 1833, to 1839. 



Quarter or Month endin 


Liabilities. 


Assets. 1 


Circulation. 


Deposits. 


Bullion. 


Securities. 




£ 


£ 


£ 


£ 


1833. Dec. 28, . . . 


. 17,469,000 


15,160,000 


10,200,000 


24,576,000 


1834. March 29, . . 


. 18,544,000 


13,750,000 


8,753,000 


25,787,000 


June 28, . . . 


. 18,684,000 


15,372,000 


8,885,000 


27,471,000 


Sept. 27, . . . 


. 18.437,000 


12,790.000 


6,917,000 


26,915,000 


Dec. 28, . . . 


. 17,070,000 


13,019,000 


6,978,000 


25,551,000 


1835. March 28, . . 


. 18,154,000 


9,972,000 


6,295,000 


24,533,000 


June 27, . . . 


. 17,637,000 


11,753,000 


6,613,000 


25,221,000 


• Sept. 26, . . . 


17,320,000 


13,866,000 


6,284,000 


27,724,000 


Dec. 26, . . . 


. 16,564.000 


20.370,000 


7,718,000 


31,764,000 


1836. March 26, . . 


. 17,669,000 


12,875,000 


8,014,000 


25,521,000 


June 25, . . . 


17,184,000 


15,730,000 


6,868,000 


28,847,000 


Oct. 18, ... 


. 17,936,000 


13,324,000 


5,257,000 


28,815,000 


Nov. 15, . . . 


. 17,543,000 


12,684,000 


4,933,000 


28,134,000 


Dec. 13, . . . 


17,361,000 


13,330,000 


4,545,000 


28,971,000 


1837. Jan. 10, ... 


. 17,422,000 


14,354,000 


4,287,000 


30,365,000 


Feb. 7, . . . . 


. 17,868,000 


14,230,000 


4,032,000 


31,085,000 


• March 7, . . • 


. 18,178,000 


13,260,000 


4,048,000 


30,579,000 


April 4, . . . 


. 18,432,000 


11,192,000 


4,071,000 


28,843,000 


May 2, . . . . 


. 18,480.000 


10,472,000 


4,190,000 


28,017.000 


May 30, ... 


. 18,419,000 


1 0,422,000 


4,423,000 


27,572,000 


June 27, . . • 


. 18,202,000 


10,424,000 


4,750,000 


26,932,000 


July 25, . . . 


18,261,000 


10,672,000 


5,226,000 


26,727.000 


Aug. 22, . . . 


. 18,462,000 


1 1,005,000 


5,754,000 


26,717,000 


Sept. 19, . . . 


. 18,814.000 


11,093,000 


6,303,000 


26,605,000 


Oct. 17, . . . 


18,716,000 


10,501,000 


6,856,000 


25,316,000 



BAN 



60 
("Table Continued.') 



BAN 



Quarter or Month ending. 


Liabilities. 


Assets. 


Circulation. 


Deposits . 


Securities. 


Bullion. 




£ 


£ 


£ 


£ 


1837. Nov. 14 . . . 


18,344,000 


10,242,000 


23,985,000 


7,432,000 


Dec. 12 ... . 


17,998,000 


10,195,000 


22,727,000 


8,172,000 


1838. Jan. 9 


17,900,000 


10,992,000 


22,606,000 


8,895,000 


Feb. 6 


18,206,000 


11,266,000 


22,569,000 


9,543,000 


March 6 ... 


18,600,000 


11,535,000 


22,792,000 


10,015,000 


April 3 . . . . 


18,987,000 


11,262,000 


22,838,000 


10,126,000 


May 1 .... 


19,084,000 


11,006,000 


22,768,000 


10,002,000 


May 29 ... . 


19,018,000 


10,786,000 


22,648,000 


9,806.000 


June 26 ... . 


19,047,000 


10,426,000 


22,354,000 


9,722,000 


July 24 .... 


19,286,000 


10,424,000 


22,601,000 


9,749,000 


Aug. 21 ... . 


19,481,000 


10,298,000 


22,747,000 


9,746,000 


Sept. 18 ... , 


18,665,000 


10,040,000 


22.846,000 


9,615,000 


Oct. 16 ... . 


19,359,000 


9,327,000 


22,015,000 


9,437,000 


Nov. 16 ... . 


18,900,000 


8,949,000 


21,171,000 


9,339,000 


Dec. J 1 .... 


18,469,000 


9,033,000 


20,707,000 


9,362,000 


1839. Jan. 8 


18,201,000 


10,315,000 


21,680,000 


9,336,000 


Feb. 5 ... 


18,252,000 


10,269,000 


22,157,000 


8,919,000 


March 5 . . , 


18,298,000 


9,950,000 


22,767,000 


8,106,000 


April 2 . . . . 


18,371,000 


8,998,000 


22,987,000 


7,073,000 


April 30 ... 


18,350,000 


8,107,000 


23,112,000 


6,023,000 


May 28 ... . 


18,214,000 


7,814,000 


23,543,000 


5,119,000 


June 25 ... . 


18,101,000 


7,567,000 


23,934,000 


4,344,000 


July 23 ... . 


18,049,000 


7,955,000 


24,905,000 


3,785,000 


Aug. 20 ... . 


17,969,000 


8,029,000 


25,588,000 


3,265,000 


Sept. 17 ... . 


17,960,000 


7,781,000 


25,936,000 


2,816,000 



BANK OF Scotland. This institu- 
tion was projected by Mr. John Hol- 
land, merchant of London, and was es- 
tablished by act of the Scotch Parliament, 
(Will.III. Pari. I. Sec. 5), in l695,bythe 
name of "Governor and Company of the 
Bank of Scotland." Its original capital 
was £1,200,000 Scotch, or £100,000 ster- 
ling, distributed in shares of £1,000 
Scotch, or £83 6s. 8d. sterling each. 

The capital of the Bank was increased 
to £200,000 in 1744, and was enlarged 
by subsequent acts of parliament, the 
last of which (44 Geo. III., c. 23), was 
passed in 1804, to £1,500,000, its pre- 
sent amount. Of this sum £1,000,000 
has been paid up. On the union of the 
two kingdoms, in 1707, the Bank of 
Scotland undertook the re- coinage, and 
effected the exchange of the currency in 
Scotland ; it was also the organ of go- 
vernment in the issue of the new silver 
coinage, in 1817- 

The Bank of Scotland is the only 
Scotch bank constituted by act of Par- 
liament : it began to estal)lish branches 
in 1696, and issued notes for £1 so early 
as 1704. The bank also began, at a very 



early period, to receive deposits on inte- 
rest, and to grant credit on cash ac- 
counts ; a minute of the directors, with 
respect to the mode of keeping the latter, 
being dated so far back as 1729. 

According to an official abstract of the 
constitution and objects of the Bank of 
Scotland, printed for the use of the pro- 
prietors in 1818, it appears that the sta- 
tutory capital is at present £1,500,000 
sterling : it is raised by voluntary sub- 
scription, and has been subscribed for. 
£1,000,000 has been called for and 
paid in. 

Bank of Scotland stock may be ac- 
quired, in any portions, by any person, 
community, or other lawful party what- 
ever, wthout selection, exclusion, or li- 
mitation of numbers. The management 
is vested by statute in a governor, deputy- 
governor, twelve ordinary, and twelve 
extraordinary, directors. 'I'hey are cho- 
sen annually on the last Tuesday of 
March, by the stockholders, having £250 
of stock, or upwards. Those above £250 
have a vote for every £250, to £5,000, for 
twenty votes. No person can have more 
than twenty votes. The governor must 



BAN 



61 



BAN 



hold at least £2,000 of stock, the deputy- 
governor £1,500, and each director £750. 
They swear to be equally favourable to 
all persons, and cannot hold any inferior 
office in the bank. 

BANK OF Ireland was established 
in 1783, with similar privileges to those 
of the Bank of England, in respect to the 
restriction of more than six partners in 
any other bank : and the injury that 
Ireland has sustained from the repeated 
failure of banks, may be mainly attribut- 
ed to this defective regulation. 

In 1797, when the Bank of England 
suspended its payments, the same privi- 
lege was extended to Ireland ; and after 
this period the issues of the Bank of Ire- 
land were rapidly increased. In 1797, 
the amount of the notes of the Bank of 
Ireland in circulation, was £621,917; 
in ISIO, £2,266,471 ; and in 1814, 
£2,986,999- These increased issues led 
to corresponding increased issues, by the 
private banks, of which the number was 
fifty in the year 1804. 

In 1821, in consequence of eleven 
banks having failed nearly at the same 
time, in the preceding year, in the south 
of Ireland, government succeeded in 
making an arrangement with the Bank 
of Ireland, by which joint stock compa- 
nies were allowed to be estabhshed at a 
distance of fifty miles (Irish) from Dub- 
lin ; and the bank was permitted to in- 
increase its capital £500,000. The Act 
of 1 and 2 Geo. IV''., c. 72, was founded 
on this agreement. 

The capital of the Bank of Ireland at 
its establishment, in 1783, amounted to 
£600,000 , but it has been increased at 
various periods, and has, since 1821, 
amounted to £3,000,000. At present no 
bank ha^ang more than six partners, can 
be estabhshed any where within fifty 
Irish miles of Dublin ; nor is any such 
bank allowed to draw bills upon Dublin 
for less than £50, or at a shorter date 
than six months. 

BANK OF Venice seems to have 
been the first banking establishment in 
Europe. It was founded so early as 
1171, and subsisted till the subversion of 
the repubhc in 1797- It was essentially 
a deposit bank ; and its bills bore at all 
times a premium, or agio over the cur- 
rency of the city. 

BANK OF Amsterdam was esta- 
blished in 1659. It was a deposit Bank, 
and payments were made by writing off 
sums from the account of one individual 



to those of another. According to the 
principles on which the bank was esta- 
bhshed, it should have at all times in its 
coflTers, bullion equal to the full amount 
of the claims upon it. But the directors 
privately lent about 10,500,000 florins to 
the states of Holland and Friesland. This 
circumstance transpired when the French 
invaded HoUand, and caused the rum of 
the bank. 

BANK OF THE Netherlands was 
established in 1814. It is formed on the 
model of the Bank of England, and was 
to enjoy, for twenty- five years, the exclu- 
sive privilege of issuing notes. The ori- 
ginal capital of 5,000,000 florins, wag 
doubled in 1819. The affairs of the 
bank are managed by a president, secre- 
tary, and five directors, who are chosen 
every six months, but may be indefinitely 
re-elected. 

BANK OF Hamburg, established 
in 1609 ; its affairs are managed ac- 
cording to a system that insures the 
fullest publicity. It receives no deposits 
in coin, but only a bullion of a certain 
degree of fineness. The Bank of Ham- 
burg is universally admitted to be one cf 
the best managed in Europe. 

BANK OF France was founded in 
1803. The exclusive privilege of issuing 
notes payable to bearer, was granted to it 
for forty years. The capital of the bank 
consisted at first of 45,000,000 francs, 
but it was subsequently increased to 
90,000,000 francs, di\ided into 90,000 
shares or actions of 1000 francs each. Of 
these shares, 67,000 are in the hands of 
the public : 22,000 being purchased by 
the bank from part of her capital. The 
notes issued by the bank are for 1000 
and 500 francs. The discounts in 1827 
amounted to 621,000,000 francs. The 
administration of the bank is vested in a 
council-general, of twenty members, viz. 
seventeen regents and three censors, who 
are nominated by 200 of the principal 
proprietors The king appoints the go- 
vernor and deputy-governor. 

BANK OF THE United States was 
incorporated in I8I6. The capital is 
35,000,000 dollars, divided into 350,000 
shares of 100 dollars each. Seven mil- 
lions were subscribed by the United 
States, and the remaining 28,000,000 by 
individuals, companies, corporations, &c. 

In 1832, 84,000 shares were held by 
foreigners. The bank issues no note for 
less than five dollars; all its notes are 
payable in specie on demand. It dis- 



BAN 



62 



BA N 



(Jounts bills, and makes advances on bul- 
lion at the rate of 6 per cent. The ma- 
nagement is under twenty-five directors, 
five of whom being holders of stock, are 
annually appointed by the President of 
the United States. 



The principal office of the bank is 
in Philadelphia; but in Jan. 1830, it 
had twenty-seven subordinate offices or 
branch-banks, established in different 
parts of the Union. 



Subjoined is a statement of some of the items in the affairs of the United States, 
on April 1, 1830, and Nov. 2, 1832 : — 



Notes Discounted, 

Domestic Bills Discounted, . . . 
Funded Debt held by the Bank, . 

Real Estate, 

Funds in Europe, equal to Specie, 

Specie, 

Public Deposits, 

Private Deposits, 

Circulation, 



1830. 



32,138,270.89 dol 

10,506,882.54 

11,122,530.90 

2,891,890.75 

2,789,498,54 

9,043,748.97 

8,905,501.87 

7,704,256.87 

16,084,894.00 



1832, 



45,726,934.95 dol 
16,304,498.48 
4,747,696.45 
1,822,721.51 
2,885,016.26 
8,026,055.45 
6,957,621.54 
7,622,898.84 
17,968,733.36 



The total liabilities of the bank to the 
public on Nov. 1, 1832, including its 
notes in circulation, deposits, and debts 
to the holders of public funds, were 
37,296,950.20 dollars; and its assets, 
including specie, cash in Europe, debts 
from individuals, banking companies, &c. 
were 79,593,870.97 doUars, leaving a 
surplus of 42,296,920.77 dollars. 

The charter of the Bank of America ex- 
pired in 1836. A bill for its renewal 
passed both houses of congress in 1832, 
but was rejected by the president; since 
then it has been re-chartered, in so far at 
least as respects Pennsylvania, by the le- 
gislature of that state ; and it seems to 
be expected that it will be re-chartered 
by the legislature of some of the other 
states. Although, therefore, the United 
States Bank no longer exists as a great 
national establishment, it maintains its 
place as the greatest banking company 
in the new world. 



1839. In consequence of great com- 
mercial difficulties felt in England, as 
well as in America, Oct. 14, the American 
banks suspended their cash payments. 
The United States Bank set the example, 
followed by all the banks in New York, 
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Virginia, and 
the interior of Pennsylvania. 

BANK Notes, origin of, occasioned 
by a run on the bank by the Jacobites, 
during the rebellion of 1745. The amount 
of Bank of England notes in circulation, 
and bank post-bills, at the following pe- 
riods, were, — 

1778 £7,440,330 

1790 10,040,540 

1800 16,954,470 

1810 21,019,600 

1815 27,361,650 

1820 23,484,010 

1826 . ... 25,467,910 
1832 18,657,710 



In 1833, 1834, 1835, 1836, 1837, «nd 1838, the amounts were as follows:— 



1st Quarter. 

2nd 

3rd ■ 

4th 



1833. 



£ 

18,876,200 
18,722,080 
18,483,250 
17,531,910 



1834. 

£ 
18,571,810 
18,493,560 
18,517,250 
17,361.310 



1835. 



18,215,220 
17,690,380 
17,413,960 
17,016,780 



1836. 



17,833,620 
17,621,200 
17,443,680 
17.209,970 



1837. 



£ 
17,941,090 
17,185,930 
17,845,040 
17,086,610 



1838. 



£ 
18,636,490 
19,184,710 
18,369.420 
17,782,610 



BAN 



63 



BAN 



The aggregate amount of Notes circulated in England and Wales, by private 
Banks, and by Joint Stock Banks and their branches ; distinguishing Private from 
Joint Stock Banks. (From Returns directed by 3 and 4 Will.. IV., c. 83.) 



Quarters Ending. 


Private Banks. 


Joint Stock 
Banks. 


Total, 




£ 


£ 


£ 


1833. Dec. 28, . . 




8,836,803 


1,315,301 


10,152,104 


1834. March 29, . 




8,733,400 


1,458,427 


10,191,527 


June 28, . . 




8,875,795 


1,642,887 


10,518,682- 


r Sept. 27, .. . 




8,370,423 


1,783,689 


10,154,112 


Dec. 28, . . 




8,537,655 


2,122,173 


10,659,828 


1835. March 28, . 




8,231,206 


2,188,954 


10,420,160 


- — - June 27, . • 




8,455,114 


2,484,687 


10,939,801 


r Sept. 26, .. . 




7,912,587 


2,508,036 


10,420,623 


Dec. 26, . . 




8,332,863 


2,799,551 


11,134,414 


1836. March 16, . 




8,353,894 


3,094,025 


11,447,919 


June 25, . . 




8,614,132 


3,588,064 


12,202,196 


Sept. 24, . . 




7,764,824 


3,969,121 


11,733,945 


Dec. 31, . . 




7,753,500 


4,238,197 


12,011,697 


1837. March 31, . 




7,275,784 


3,755,279 


11,031,063 


June 30, . . 




7,187,673 


3,684,764 


10,872,000 


Sept. 30, . . 




6,701,996 


3,440,053 


10,142,049 


Dec. 30, . 




7,043,470 


3,826,665 


10,870,135 


1838. March 31, . 




7,005,472 


3,921,039 


10,926,039 


June 30, . 




7,383,247 


4,362,256 


11,745,503 


Sept. 30, . 




7,083,811 


4,281,151 


11,364,962 


Dec. 31, . 




7,599,942 


4,625,546 


12,225,488 


1839. March 30, . 




7,642,104 


4,614,363 


12,259,467 


- — ^ June 30, . 




7,610,708 


4,665,110 


12,275,818 



The amount of country bankers' notes, at the following periods were : — 

1813 ..,,'. £22,597,000 1827 1,239,755 

1820 ... .■ 11,767,391 1830 2,403,700 

1825 . . . . . 14,147,211 1833 1,751,685 

Bank Notes issued by the Bank of England, and which have not been paid 
into the Baiik up to the end of November, 1831 ; distinguishing the amount and 
description of each class, were : — 

Total. 

£1,000 2,964,000 None issued until 1815. 

500 494,500 

300 327,300 

200 338,800 

100 1,237,400 

50 1,101,650 

40 166,040 

30 241,770 

25 • None issued since 1822, 

20 944,360 

15 None issued since 1822. 

• 10 2,433,190 

5 2,288,459 None issued until 1793. 

• - 2 and 1 301,340 None issued until 1797, or since 1826. 

BANK Paper, edict issued by the em- at one-fifth of its nominal value, March 
perorof Austria, fixing its current value 20, 1811. 



BAN 



34 



BAN 



BANK Post Bills, first issued in 
1754. 

BANK Restriction Bill, passed 
1797 ; ceased after nine renewals, 1823. 
BANK Stock. See Funds. 
BANKERS. The first bankers in 
England were goldsmiths ; and the busi- 
ness of banking was committed to them 
under the following circumstances : — 
The Mint, in the Tower of London, was 
anciently the deposit for merchants' cash, 
till Charles I., in the year 1640, laid his 
hands upon the money, and destroyed 
the credit of the Mint. 'ITiis circum- 
stance drove the traders to some other 
place of security for their gold, which 
their apprentices did not fail to rob them 
of when at home, and to run off with it 
to the army. In 1645, therefore, they 
consented to lodge it with the goldsmiths, 
in Lombard-street, who were otherwise 
obliged to prepare strong chests for the 
deposit of their own valuable wares ; and 
this became the origin of banking in Eng- 
land. -See the preceding Articles. 

BANK, Savings', the first instituted 
1816 ; number of, in England, Wales, and 
Ireland, to Nov. 1833, were 484. The ac- 
count of investment in English Sa\'ings' 
Banks, to Nov. 1833, £14,473,953. The 
number of these institutions on Nov. 20, 
1837, was 508; in England, 398; Scot- 
land, 9 ; Wales, 23 ; and Ireland, 78. In 
the twenty years ending Nov. 1837, the 
sum of £9,558,060 has been paid to the 
trustees of Savings' Banks, and Friendly 
Societies, for interest on deposits and 
other charges. See Savings' Banks. 
BANK, Joint Stock. It was for- 
merly understood, that the act of 1708, 
and the other acts conveying exclusive 
privileges to the Bank of England, pre- 
vented any company with more than six 
partners, from issuing notes payable on 
demand, or from undertaking ordinary 
banking business. Lately, however, it 
was held by the attorney and attorney- 
general, that such banks might be legally 
established within the limits to which the 
exclusive privileges of the Bank of Eng- 
land were restricted by the act, 7 and 8 
Geo. IV., c. 46. But as the opinion of 
other eminent lawyers differed from theirs, 
a clause has been inserted in the act, 3 
and 4 Will. IV., c. 98, (1833,) which au- 
thorises the establishment of banks not 
issuing notes, with any number of part- 
ners, any where within the district to 
which the exclusive privileges of the 
Bank of England, as a bank of issue, are 
restricted. 



From the official returns, dated July 4, 
1833, there were then 34 Joint Stock 
Banks in England and Wales ; but from 
the subjoined account, up to Nov. 26, 
1836, the number had increased to 101; 
and in 1839, to 152, with 903 branches. 
The progress of the system has been as 
follows : — 



In 1826 there 


were 


registered 3 


1827 4 


1828 

















1829 














7 


1830 














1 


1831 














9 


1832 














7 


1833 














. 9 


1834 














. 10 


1835 














9 


1836, Nov 


26 








42 


1839, Jan. 5. . . 




51 










Total 




152 



BANKRUPTS, in England, first re- 
gulated by law, 1543; enacted that mem- 
bers of the House of Commons proving 
bankrupts, and not paying their debts in 
full, shall vacate their seats, 1812. 

Bankrupts, at different periods : from 
the year 1701 to 1839, 



1701 

1702 

1713 

1714 

1726 

1727 

1744 

1745 

1746 

1762 

1763 

1772 

1773 

1774 

1778 

1779 

1780 

1781 

1782 

1783 

1784 

1791 

1792 

1793 

1800 

1801 

1802 

1803 

1804 

1805 

1806 



38 
28 
200 
173 
416 
446 
197 
200 
159 
205 
233 
525 
562 
360 
675 
544 
449 
438 
537 
528 
517 
604 
628 
1304 
736 
871 
861 
923 
921 
876 
953 



BAN 

Bankrupts (continued.) 
1807 . 



1036 

1808 1058 

1809 16/0 

1810 . 2000 

1811 .... . . 1616 

1812 1599 

1813 1066 

1814 1285 

1815 . 2029 

1816 2030 

1817 1879 

1818 1059 

1819 1416 

1820 1335 

1821 1287 

1822 1064 

1823 964 

1824 977 

1825 .... . . 846 

1826 2489 

1827 .....*. . 1528 

1828 1332 

1829 1409 

1830 1467 

1831 • . . , . ... 1269 

1832 • 1591 

1833 • . . ... 1136 

1834 • 1191 

1835 • . . • . . . . 9591 

1836 • 890 

1837 .890 

1838 1462 

1839 930 

BANKRUPTCY, New Court op, 

established 1 & 2 Will. IV. 1831, 
opened Jan. 11, 1832. This court con- 
sists of one person, being a serjeant or a 
barrister at law of not less than ten years' 
standing, to be chief judge of the said 
court, and three persons, being Serjeants, 
or barristers at law, of not less than ten 
years' standing at the bar, or of five years' 
standing at the bar, having previously 
practised five years as a special pleader 
below the bar, to be other judges of the 
said court, and six persons, being bar- 
risters at law of not less than seven years* 
standing at the bar, or of four years' 
standing at the bar, having previously 
practised as a special pleader for three 
years below the bar, to be called com- 
missioners of the said court, and the 
same court shall be a coiurt of law and 
equity, and shall, together with every 
judge and commissioner thereof have 
all the rights, incidents, and privileges 
of a court of record, or judge of a court 
of record, and of her Majesty's courts of 
law or judges at Westminster. 



65 BAR 

1830. The bankruptcy law of Ireland 
came under review by 6 Will IV. c. 14. 
entitled " An Act to amend the laws re- 
lating to Bankruptcy in Ireland," This 
act consists of 160 sections. Its object 
is to consolidate all the former statutes 
relating to bankruptcy in Ireland, and it 
accordingly repeals them, and contains 
in itself a complete system of adminis- 
tring bankruptcy estates. 

BANKS, Sir Joseph, bom 1743; 
elevated to the chair of the Royal Society, 
1777; discontents at his proceedings, 
1 783 ; confirmed in the presidency, 1 784 ; 
died March 19, 1820. 

BANKS, Thomas, sculptor, born 
1735; died 1805. 

BANNERETS first created in Eng- 
land, 1360; renewed by Hen. VII. 
1485. 

BANNS, Publication of, for mar- 
riage, instituted 1210. See Marriage. 

BANQUETING- HOUSE, White- 
hall, Westminster, built 1607. 

BANTAM, flourishing town in the 
island of Java, once the capital of the 
kingdom of Bantam. It was at first a 
Hindoo kingdom, changed in the fifteenth 
century into a Mahammedan dynasty, 
by the victorious chief Cheribon. The 
Dutch settled here in 1595 ; the English 
in 1602 ; but the latter settlers lieing 
cruelly murdered, the Dutch enjoyed the 
whole pepper trade without a rival. In 
1674, the king of Bantam was possessed 
of a fleet of his own, with which he traded 
to the Persian Gulf, and in 1682, sent 
eight ambassadors into England ; but, 
after this period. Bantam fell gradually 
under the Dutch-Batavian government. 
In 1811, this district was convulsed by 
civil wars, when the British invaded and 
took possession of the whole territory, 
deposed the refractory sultan Achmet, 
and set up another in his place. In 
1813, the sultan transferred his rights, 
unequivocally, to the British, in consi- 
deration of an annual pension of 10,000 
rupees; and, in the year 1817, it was 
finally restored to the Dutch. Since 
1817, Bantam has been abandoned for 
Sirang, or Ceram, seven miles higher 
up the river. 

BARABIS, T. Phil., a Prussian; 
a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years 
of age ; master of mathematics at twelve, 
&c., died, 1740, aged 19 years, and 8 
months. 

BARBADOES, one of the Caribbees, 
and the most eastern of the West Indian 



BAR 



islands, eupposed to have been dis- 
covered by the Portuguese about 1614, 
and named and planted by them in 1624. 
In 1627, the island was made over to the 
Earl of Carlisle, and its possession was 
disputed by different parties. Some 
years after this, disputes broke out be- 
tween the earl and the planters, which 
terminated in the island being made a 
crown colony in 1662. It has suffered 
a succession of dreadful hurricanes. On 
October 18, 1780, a storm arose exceed- 
ing aU that were ever before e.xperienced 
in any part of the world; so teiTific were 
its effects that the whole country pre- 
sented a scene of wild desolation. Up- 
wards of 6000 persons perished in this 
awful visitation, and the damage done to 
property exceeded a million sterling. 

July 11, 1831, another dreadful hur- 
ricane occurred, by which 3000 lives were 
lost, 16 vessels driven on shore, and the 
whole island nearly desolated. The 
hurricane also extended to the islands of 
St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and the da- 
mage done was very extensive, tliough 
not attended with such a serious loss of 
life. 

BARBAROSSA, Aruch, celebrated 
corsair chief; his name, together with 
that of his brother, Hayradin, became 
terrible, from the Straits ot the Darda- 
nelles to those of Gibraltar. In 1516, 
being invited to assist Euteini, king of 
Algiers, against the Spaniards, he mur- 
dered the prince he came to aid, causing 
himself to be proclaimed king in his 
stead. Charles V. sent the Marquis de 
Gomarez, governor of Oran, with troops 
to suppress him, by whom he was de- 
feated and killed, near Tremecen, in 
1518. 

His brother, Hayradin, known also by 
the name of Barbarossa, assumed the 
sceptre of Algiers, with the same abilities 
and with better fortune. He put his do- 
minions under the protection of the 
grand Signior, Solyman the Magnificent, 
and obtained the command of the Tur- 
kish fleet. He acquired the kingdom of 
Tunis, in 1534, in a manner similar to 
that by which his brother gained Algiers. 
The time of his death not known. See 
Algiers. 

BARB AULD, Letiti A.whose lessons 
for children from two to three years old 
have considerably assisted in educating 
the young, was the daughter of the Rev. 
John Aikin, D.D., and bom at Kibworth, 
June 20, 1743. She pubUshed in 1772, 



66 BAR 

a volume of poems, which immediately 
gave her a place in the first rank of 
living poets. In 1774, she was married 
to the Rev. Rochemont Barbauld. In 
1776, she went to reside at Palsgrave, 
in Suflblk, where her " Early Lessons" 
and "Hymns in Prose, for Children," 
were composed, — master-pieces in the 
art of early instruction — monuments at 
once of her genius^ and of the conde- 
scending benevolence which presided 
over its exercise. In 1802, she and Mr. 
Barbauld fixed their abode at Stoke- 
Newington, where a selection from "ITie 
Guardian," " Spectator," and " Tatler," 
introduced by an elegant essay ; another 
from the manuscript correspondence of 
Richardson, with a life of the author, and 
a view of his writings prefixed, and a 
collection of the best English novels, 
with biographical and critical prefaces, 
served in succession to amuse her leisure. 
A higher effort of her powers was the 
splendid poem entitled " Eighteen Hun- 
dred and Eleven," which appeared early 
in the ensuing year. She died at Stoke- 
Newington, Apl. 9, 1825, in the eighty- 
second year of her age. 

BARB ARY, that long hue of territory, 
from 100 to 200 miles in depth, which 
extends eastward from Egypt to the 
shores of the Atlantic. The name is de- 
rived from the Barbees, a race of native 
inhabitants, but is not recognised in the 
country itself. It comprises Morocco, 
Fez, Tunis, Tripoli ; some geographers 
also include the kingdom of Barca. 
Barbary occupied a more conspicuous 
place in the ancient than the modern 
world. It formed a prominent part in 
the great system of civilized nations 
around the Mediterranean. Cyrenaica 
corresponding now to Barca, and part 
of Tripoli, was one of the most flourish- 
ing Grecian colonies ; and Tunis is on 
the site of Carthage. Barbarj' was sub- 
jected to the Ottoman power m 647, by 
Omar and others ; Algiers was built by 
Zeiri, a distinguished Arab, m 944 ; he 
died in 970, and his family held the 
reins of government, under the appella- 
tion of the Zeirites, till 1148, when 
Roger, king of Sicily, took from Hassan- 
ben-Ali, the last of the dynasty, a great 
portion of his territory; and the other 
parts were soon after seized by the Mo- 
ravides. This latter dynasty ruled the 
whole coast, till the year 1269, when the 
kingdom of Tunis was founded by the 
negro prince Abonhafs. The most im- 



BAR G1 

portant cities, Oran, Algiers, Tunis, and 
Tripoli, were raised into independent 
sovereignties, which, by the expiilsion of 
the Moors and Jews from Spain, in and 
after 1492, became very populous. About 
1594, they began to revenge themselves 
upon Spain by repeated acts of piracy. 
This provoked Ferdinand to send a 
powerful expedition against them, with 
great success. But after the death of 
the Spanish monarch, the Algerines 
called to their assistance, the famous 
Turkish pirate, Barbarossa, who carried 
all before him, and at length caused 
himself to be proclaimed king. See 
Barbarossa. In 1544, the pacha of 
Egypt conquered Tremears; in 1555, 
Bujia, and in 1569, Tunis; which, how- 
ever, regained its independence in 1628, 
but, in 1754, was conquered a second 
time, and since then has remained more 
or less dependent upon Algiers. See 
Algiers, Tripoli, Tunis, &c. 

BARBERINI Urn, said to h:;ve con- 
tained the ashes of the Roman emperor, 
Alexander Severus, deposited in the 
earth about 235 ; dug up by Pope Bar- 
berini, alias Urban VIII. between 1623 
and 1644; sold to the duke of Marlbro', 
out of the Portland Museum, for 980 
guineas, 1^86 ; others are of opinion that 
the workmanship is Roman, not Grecian, 
and older than the time of Severus, and 
sculptured by the wheel; On the Sar- 
cophagus is the story of Achilles and 
Briseis ; on the vase, that of Admetus 
and Alcestes , it is 9f inches high, and 
21 1 inches round. 

BARBERS, brought from Sicily to 
Rome, A.c. 299; incorporated with the 
surgeons in London a. d. 1540; disasso- 
ciated again, 1744. , ■. 

BARBUDA Isle, first'^anted by 
the Enghsh, 1628. 

BARCELONA, town of Spain, the 
capital and largest city of the province of 
Barcelona, was founded by the Cartha- 
ginians, and called after the general 
Hannibal Barcino. After the foundation 
of this ancient city, its fortunes were 
various, and its masters many. The 
Romans, Goths, Moors, and Franks, 
were succeeded by the counts of Barce- 
lona, who governed it until some time in 
the 12th century, after this period, by the 
marriage of Raymond V. with PetroniUa, 
daughter of RamiroII.,king of Arragon, 
it became united with that ancient king- 
dom. In 1640, it attached itself to France, 
but returned to its former and natural al- 



BAR 



liance in 1652. In 1691, it was be- 
sieged by the French, and taken by them 
in 1697, but restored by the treaty of 
Ryswick. In the war of the Spanish 
succession, Barcelona joined the party of 
the archduke Charles, but was besieged 
and taken by the duke of Berwick, for 
Phihp v., Sept. 7, 1714, when the for- 
tress on the east side of the city was 
erected. In 1809, the Freneh general 
Duhesme, took the city by surprise, and 
retained possession until 1814, when the 
French were called home to defend their 
own country. In 1821, Barcelona was 
desolated by the yellow fever. 

BARCLAY, Robert, one of the most 
eminent among the quakers. He joined 
them in 1669, and distinguished himself 
by his zeal and abihties in defence of 
their doctrine. In 1676, he published, 
in Latin, at Amsterdam, his " Apology 
for the Quakers," which is the most ce- 
lebrated of his works. He travelled 
with the famous Mr. WiUiam Penn, 
through a considerable part of England, 
Holland, and Germany, and was every- 
where received with the greatest respect. 
He died October 3, 1690, aged forty- 
two. 

BARCLAY, Captain, concluded his 
walking bet, to walk 1000 miles in 1000 
successive hours, July 10, 1809. 

BARCLAY & Go's Brewery, Bank- 
side, Southwark, destroyed by fire. May 
22, 1832. 

BARDS, Welsh, massacred by order 
of Edward I , 1282. 

BARHAM of 74 guns foundered on 
the coast of Corsica, July 29, 1811. 

BARING, Transport, wrecked on 
the rocks off Beerhaven by a gale, and 
several lives lost, Oct. 10, 1814. 

BARK, Jesuits', virtue of, discover- 
ed 1500 ; first brought to Europe, 1650. 

BARKER, Robert, an English ar- 
tist, inventor of the panorama, died 
1806. 

BARKWAY greatly damaged by 
fire, Aug. 18, 1748. 

BARLING Abbey, Lmcolnshire, 
built 1180. 

BARLOW, Joel, envoy extraordi- 
nary from the United States, to the 
court of France, born 1756, died 1812, 

BARLOW, William, natural philo- 
sopher, died 1625. 

BARLOW, Dr. Thomas, a learned 
prelate, born 1607, appointed fellow of 
Queen's College, Oxford, in 1633, was 
keeper of the Bodleian Library, and in 



BAR 

1657. chosen provost of Queen's Col- 
lege. In 1675, he was made bishop of 
Lincoln. Tlie greatest part of his writ- 
ings are against popery. But after James 
ascended to the throne, he seemed to 
have relaxed in his opposition to it. His 
compliances were much the same after 
the revolution. He died at Buckden, 
Huntingdonshire Octobers, I69I, aged 
eightv-five. 

BARNABITES, (foundation of) in 
France, 1533 

BARNARD, Sir John, his statue 
erected in the Royal Exchange, London. 
May 23, 1747. 

BARNEVELT, John-Olden, a mi- 
nister of Holland eminently distinguished 
by his abilities and patriotism, was born 
m 1547. In I6I8, he was arrested and 
imprisoned in the castle of Louvenstein, 
for his attachment to Arminian princi- 
ples. Prince Maurice, to whom appli- 
cation was made from various quarters 
in his favour, remained inexorable, and 
he was condemned to death. On the 
morning of execution, having prayed 
with the minister who attended him, he 
rose from his knees with composure, 
declared his mnocence to the specta- 
tors, and desired the executioner to per- 
form his office. His head was struck off 
at a blow, in his seventy-second year. 
May 13, 1619. 

BARNWELL, near Cambridge, de- 
stroyed by a fire, Sept. 30, 1751 ; again, 
Dec. 16, 1757. 

BARNWELL Castle, Northamp- 
tonshire, built 1132. 

BAROMETERS, invented by Tor- 
ricelli in 1643; pressure of the air proved 
l)y Pascal in 1648 ; employed as a wea- 
ther-glass, and for the measurement of 
heights about I66O. 

BARON, the title first created by pa- 
tent in England, 1388. 

BARON OF Renfrew, wonderful 
timber ship of 9000 tons burden, bound 
from Quebec to London ; lost between 
Calais and Dunkirk, Oct. 23, 1825. 

BARON, the French Roscius, born 
1652, died 1729- 

BARONS, first summoned to parlia- 
ment in 1204 ; the writ was directed to 
the bishop of Salisbury. 

BARONETS first created in England, 
1611. 

BARONETS of Nova Scotia first 
created 1625. 

BARONIUS, C^SAR, a learned car- 
dinal, born 1538, died, 1607, aged 68. 



68 BAR 

BARRAS, chief of the excecutive di- 
rectory during the French revolutionary 
government, died January 29, 1828. 

BARRl, Madam Du, formerly mis- 
tress of Louis the 15th, was guillotined 
Dec. 8, 1793. 

BARRINGTON Isle, one of the Gal- 
lopagos, explored, June, 1793. 

BARRINGTON, John Shute, Lord 
Viscount, a learned nobleman, particu- 
larly distinguished by his attention to 
theological subjects, born at Theobald's 
in Hertfordshire, in 1678. In 1701, 
commenced his literary career, by " An 
Essay upon the Interests of England in 
respect to Protestants dissenting from 
the Established Church." Obtained the 
oflSce of commissioner of the customs, 
from which he was removed by the Tory 
administration of queen Anne in 1711, 
on account of his avowed opposition to 
their principles and conduct. In 1720, 
he was advanced by the king to an Irish 
peerage, under the title of viscount Bar- 
rington, of Ardglass. In 1723, he suffered 
the very severe and unmerited censure 
of expulsion from the house of commons, 
for opposing the reigning ministry. In 
1725, he published, in two volumes 8vo., 
his " Miscellanea Sacra," and in the 
same year, "An Essay on the several 
Dispensations of God to Mankind, in the 
order in which they lie in the Bible ; or, 
a short system of the religion of Nature 
and Scripture." He was also the author 
of several other tracts, chiefly on subjects 
connected with toleration in matters of 
religion. He died in 1734, aged fifty-six. 

BARRINGTON, Daines, antiqua- 
rian and miscellaneous wiiter, born 1727, 
died 1800. 

BARR0W, Dr. Isaac, a very emi- 
nent divaVlmd mathematician, was born 
in London 1630. In 1643, was admitteda 
pensioner of Peter-house, in Cambridge ; 
1645, entered a pensioner of Trinity 
College, where he was erected fellow in 
1 649. Percei\ing that the circumstances 
of the times were, in consequence of his at- 
tachment to the royalcause, unfavourable 
to persons of his opinions, he determined 
to devote himself to the medical profes- 
sion. In 1652, commenced master of arts, 
and was incorporated in that degree at 
Oxford. But influenced by the aspect of 
public affairs, he resolved to travel abroad, 
and set out in 1655. He visited France 
and Italy; and in 1656, set sail from 
Leghorn to Smyrna; and in the course 
of his voyage, he had an opportunity of 



BAR 69 

manifesting his intrepidity by standing 
to his gun, and defending the ship on 
which he had embarked, against the at- 
tack of an Algerine corsair, and beat- 
ing off the enemy. In l659,he passed 
through Germany and Holland into 
England. 

Soon after his return, he was ordained 
by bishop Browning ; and when the king 
was restored, his friends expected that 
this attachment to the royal cause wDuld 
have been rewarded by some consider- 
able preferment ; but their expectations 
were disappointed. In 1 660, he was chosen 
Greek professor at Cambridge ; and in 
consequence of this appointment, he read 
lectures on the rhetoric of Aristotle. In 
1662, he was elected to the professorship 
of geometry at Gresham College. In 1 663, 
was included in the first choice of mem- 
bers made by the Royal Society, after 
receiving their charter. He determined 
in 1669 to exchange his mathematical 
studies for those of divinity. In 1670, he 
was created doctor in divinity by man- 
date; and in 1672 he was nominated to 
the mastership of Trinity College, by the 
king, who observed, "that he had be- 
stowed it on the best scholar in England." 
In 1675, he was chosen vice-chancellor of 
the university ; but his services in this 
high and honourable station were speedily 
terminated by his death, occasioned by a 
fever, in London, May, 1677, aged 47. 

His works on theology appeared in 
1685, in three volumes, folio ; there have 
been several editions since. They con- 
sist of sermons, of expositions of the 
creed, the Lord's prayer, and the deca- 
logue ; of the doctrine of sacraments, 
and of treatises on the pope's supremacy, 
and the unity of the church. A fourth 
volume in Latin, entitled " Opuscula," 
was published in 1687, and consists of 
Determinationes, Conciones ad Clerura, 
Speeches, Latin poems, &c. 

BARROW'S Straits, discovered by 
Lieut. Parry, 1819, who penetrated as 
far as Melville Island, in lat. 74° 26" and 
long. 113° 47" W. The straits were en- 
tered Aug. 3. 

BARRY, an eminent Irish artist, bom 
in 1741. He formed an acquaintance 
with the celebrated Edmund Burke, and 
under his patronage, set out for the Con- 
tinent in 1765. In 1775, he published 
an inquiry into the real and imaginary 
obstructions to the acquisition of the 
arts in England. He undertook to ex- 



BAR 



ecute by himself the paintings for the 
great room of the Society of Arts, in the 
Adelphi, They consist of a series of six 
pictures, intended to illustrate the de- 
pendence of public and individual happi- 
ness upon the cultivation of the human 
faculties. The earl of Buchan set on 
foot a public subscription on his behalf, 
which amounted to about a , thousand 
pounds, when these benevolent exertions 
were rendered useless by his death, 
which happened Feb. 22, 1806. 

BAR-SUR-AUBE, taken by general 
Wrede, Feb. 26, 1814. 

BARTHELEML John James, a 
French abbe, highly celebrated for his 
literary attainments and virtues, bom at 
Cassis, a little sea-port on the shores of 
the Mediterranean, Jan. 1716. In 1747 
he succeeded M. Burette, as associate to 
the academy of inscriptions. In 1753, 
he succffided M. de Boze as principal 
keeper of the medals. In 1754, he fol- 
lowed M. de Stainville, prime minister, 
afterwards duke of Choiseul to Rome, 
and made a tour to Naples, where the 
subterraneous treasures of Herculaneum 
and Pompeii engaged his particular at- 
tention. He returned to Paris in 1757, 
and in 1758, obtained the place of secre- 
tary-general of the Swiss. When his 
patron, the duke of Choiseul, was ba- 
nished in 1771, Barthelemi accompanied 
him in his exile. In 1788, appeared bis 
celebrated work entitled "Voyage du 
Jeune Anach arsis in Grece, dans le Milieu 
du quatrieme Siecle avant 1' Ere Chre- 
tienne." He had begun it in 1757, and, 
during an uninterrupted succession of 30 
years, occupied his leisure hours in 
bringing it to maturity. In 1789, he 
was elected to the chair in the French 
academy. Aug. 30, 1793, he was de- 
nounced as an aristocrat, and imprisoned, 
but afterwards liberated. He died April 
30, 1795, aged 80. 

BARTHOLOMEW, St., in the West 
Indies, taken from the Danes by Eng- 
land, March 20, 1801. 

BARTHOLOMEW, St. Monas- 
tery Smithfield, built 1162; hospital 
founded,1546; rebuilt froml750 tol770. 

BARTHOLOMEW, St., festival, in- 
stituted 1130. 

BARTHOLOMEW Fair, London, 
Philips' booth fell, two persons killed, 
and many wounded, Aug. 23, 1749. 
Toll abolished, 1755. 

BARTHOLOMITES, Sect of. 



B AS 

founded at Genoa, 1307 ; suppressed by 
pope Innocent X., 1630. 

BARTOLO, PiETRo Senito, an 
eminent painter, born 1635, died 1700. 

BARTOLOMEO, Fra. de St. 
Marco, an eminent Florentine painter 
of scriptual subjects, born 1469, died 
1517. 

BARTON-STACY, in Hampshire, 
had 27 houses, beside out-houses, de- 
stroyed by fire. May 8, 1792. 

BARTON, Eliza, "Holy Maid of 
Kent," an epileptic impostor, whom the 
catholic clergy made use of to deter 
Henry VHI. from his quarrel with the 
pope. This " lewd and silly nun," as 
Sir Thomas More, who once counte- 
nanced her pretensions to a divine mis- 
sion, terms her, while in the humble ca- 
pacity of a servant at an inn at Adlington 
in Kent, acquiring a local reputation 
tor sanctity and miraculous end^vments, 
the parson of her parish, with some other 
priests, determined to convert her trances 
and ravings to their own views and in- 
terests. But the deluded prophetess 
venturing to prophesy against evil doers 
in high places was, with her accomplices, 
beheaded, April 21, 1534, at Tyburn, for 
her predictions against Henry VHI., 
respecting his divorce from Catherine, 
and his marriage with Ann Boleyn. 

BASIL, St., died 379, aged 53. 

BASIL, Switzerland, University of, 
founded 1458. 

BASSINGWARK Abbey, FUnt- 
shire, built 1131. 

BASKERVILLE, John, a celebrated 
printer of Birmingham, born 1706, died 
1775. 

BASSORA, Balsorah, or Basrah, 
a city in Arabia Irak, built by command 
of the caliph Omar, in the 15th year 
of the Hegira, a. d. 656, for the sake 
of carrying on, more commodiously, 
an extensive commerce between the Sy- 
rians, Arabians, Persians, and Indians. 
After repeated contests between the 
Turks and the Persians, about this place, 
it came into the power of the former in 
1668. In the year 1777, the Persians 
took it, but abandoned it to the Turks 
the year following. In 1787, the Turks 
were expelled by the Arabs ; but some 
time after they succeeded in recapturing 
it, under Soliman, pacha of Bagdad, and 
it has remained in their hands ever since. 

BASS'S vStraits, discovered 1797. 
Mr. Bass, Surgeon of his majestys ship 
• Reliance," penetrated as far as Wes - 



ro BAS 

tern Port, in a small open boat, from Port 
Jackson, and was of opinion that a 
strait existed between New South Wales 
and Van Diemen's Land. In 1799, Lieut. 
Flinders circumna\ngated Van Diemen's 
Land, and named the strait after Mr. 
Bass. 

BASTIA, a town in the island of 
Corsica, formerly the capital of the 
island. Taken from the Genoese by the 
English in 1745, but restored in 1746: 
it was besieged, ineffectually, by the 
Austrians and Piedmontese, in 1748 ; in 
1768, it was annexed to the crown of 
France ; the English possessed them- 
selves of it in the year 1794, but held it 
only for a short period ; and with this 
exception, it has been attached to France 
since 1768. In the territorial partition 
of France, in 1791, Bastia was made the 
capital of a department, in which rank 
it has been since superseded by Ajaccio. 

BASTILLE, orBastile of Paris, was 
begun to be built in 1369, by order of 
Charles V., and was finished in 1383, 
under the reign of his successor. Its 
chief use was for the custody of state 
prisoners ; or, more properly speaking, 
for the clandestine purposes of unfeeling 
despotism. This castle consisted, ac- 
cording to Mr Howard, of eight very 
strong towers, surrounded with a fosse 
about 120 feet wide, and a wall 60 feet 
high; It was attacked and taken by the 
Parisian mob, July 14, 1789. 

It was just at the commencement of 
the French revolution, that some un- 
known individual, on that morning, after 
attracting the attention of the citizens, 
exclaimed, " Let us take the Bastile." 
The name of this fortress, which recalled 
to the memory of the people everything 
hateful and odious in the ancient despo- 
tism, operated with all the effect of elec- 
tricity. The cry of "To the Bastile," 
resounded from rank to rank, from 
street to street, from the Palace Royal 
to the suburbs of St. Antoine. Though 
a formidable resistance was made by De 
Launay, the governor, the gates were at 
length forced, the besiegers entered, and 
this castle was taken by storm in less 
than four hours, which had menaced 
France for nearly as many ages, and 
which an army, headed by the great 
Conde, had formerly besieged in vain, 
during three-and-tvventy days. De 
Launay, whose name had been long 
odious to the Parisians, was put to death, 
in his way to his town-house. The Bas- 



BAT 

tile was immediately devoted to destruc- 
tion: the unhappy prisoners were released 
in triumph ; the instruments of torture 
were dragged from the dungeons, and 
exposed to day, and the destiny of the 
monarch and the monarchy seemed to 
be already decided. 

BATAVIA, town in the island of Java, 
the capital" of all the Dutch possessions 
in the East Indies. It was founded by 
the Dutch in the year 1619, after the 
conquest of Jocastra, by John Pieterson 
Coen, it was taken by the British, Jan. 
1782, and again, Sept. 1800, but remained 
in their possession only a short time. 
Batavia was formerly notorious for its in- 
salubrity. Recently, however, the Baron 
Capellen exerted himself to prevent its 
further decay ; he widened several of the 
streets, filled up some of the canals, and 
cleaned others, demolished useless forti- 
fications, &c., so that it is now as healthy 
as any other town in the island. The 
population in 1834, consisted of 3,025 
Europeans and their descendants, 23,108 
natives, 14,708 Chinese, 601 Arabs, and 
12,419 slaves ; inal?, 53,861 persons, ex- 
clusive of the garrison. 

BATH, order ot Knighthood, insti- 
tuted in England at the coronation of 
Henry IV., 1399, renewed, 1725. 

BATH, City, the Aquae Solis of the 
Romans, early celebrated for its medici- 
nal waters, which are said to have been 
discovered a.c. 871. Bath was one of 
the principal Roman stations in England, 
and probably, originally l)uilt by them, 
about A. D. 44. Attracted by the medi- 
cinal and warm springs, the Roman sol- 
diers were fixed in this place in the 
reign of Adrian, about 118. The Ro- 
mans having enjoyed the possession of 
Bath for nearly four centuries, it was 
subjugated by the Saxons in 577- King 
Edgar was crowned and inaugurated here, 
973, and testified his regard for the place 
by granting it several privileges. Seve- 
ral coins of Canute the Great, struck 
here, during the Danish dominion, are 
still remaining in some select cabinets. 
After the Norman conquest in Rufus's 
reign, in the insurrection raised by Odo, 
bishop of Bayeux, Geoffrey, bishop of 
Constance, and Robert de Mowbray, the 
two latter took the place by assault, and 
delivered it over for plunderand burning. 
John de Villula purchased it of Rufus, 
in 1090, for 500 marks, and obtained 
permission to remove the pontifical seat 
from Wells hither. He rebuilt the city. 



71 BAT 

erected a new monastery upon the ruins 
of the old one, and united the bishopric 
to this institution. Thus reinstated, 
Bath gradually increased its monastic 
possessions, but the dissolution of Henry 
VIII. drove the monks from its monas- 
tery, when the abbey-house with its 
lands, &c , were granted to private indi- 
viduals. In the eariier part of the civil 
wars, this city was garrisoned f6r Charles 
I., notwithstanding which, it quickly 
surrendered to the enemy, and was 
made one of the principal posts for the 
parliament's forces, till after-the battle of 
Round way-down, July 13, 1643, when 
the king's troops took possession of the 
city. 

1755. A most valuable remnant of 
antiquity was discovered August 18, at 
Bath, under the foundation of the abbey- 
house, then taking down, in order to be 
rebuilt by the duke of Kingston. The 
workmen, when digging, came to the 
remains of an ancient building, and some 
cavities, which led to a further research, 
when Roman baths and sudatories, con- 
structed upon the most elegant plans, 
were found with floors suspended upon 
square brick pillars, and surrounded 
with tubulated bricks for the convey- 
ance of heat and vapour. It appears 
that the Romans, although at so remote 
a period, entertained higher ideas of the 
convenience, elegance, and use of baths, 
than the opulent inhabitants of Britain 
have yet discovered for themselves. 

The present city rose to eminence 
chiefly during the 18th century, and it 
is now probably the handsomest and 
most regularly built city in England. 
The guildhall, a magnificent structure, 
containing several very noble apartments, 
was commenced in 1766, and finished in 
1775 The pump-room was erected at 
the expense of the corporation in 1797 ; 
it is 85 feet in length by 46 in width, 
with a height of 34 feet. The springs 
are carefully enclosed, and there are two 
hot baths, called the king's and queen's, 
attached to the pump-room, the first of 
which is supplied immediately by the 
hot spring, and extends 65 feet in length 
by 40 feet in breadth, containing, when 
full to the proper depth, 346 tons of 
water. The queen's bath is supplied 
from the king's and the water suffers a 
diminution of temperature in its transit. 
Attached to this establishment are pri- 
vate baths, sudatories, &c. Besides 
this great establishment, there are the 



BAT 



Kingston, the hot, and the cross baths, 
all fitted up with much elej^ance, and 
having pump-rooms attached to each. 

BATHS, Ancient. The most mag- 
nificent baths among the Romans were 
those of Titus, Paulus iEmilius, and 
Dioclesian,of which there are some ruins 
still remaining. It is said that at Rome, 
there were 856 public baths. Nero, 
Vespasian, Titus Domitian, Severus, 
Gordian, Aurelian, Maximian, Dioclesian, 
and most of the emperors who studied 
to gain the affections of the people, 
erected baths laid with the richest marble, 
and wrought according to the rules of 
the most delicate architecture. Baths of 
Agrippa were built of brick, but painted 
in enamel : those of Nero, were not only 
furnished with fresh water, but even had 
the sea brought into them : those of Ca- 
racalla were adorned with 200 marble 
columns, and furnished with 1 600 seats 
of the same material. 

The Romans who enjoyed dominion 
in our island near four hundred years, 
had their baths here. At Hovingham 
in the north riding of Yorkshire, 1745, 
a Roman bath was discovered which had 
its sudaria and vaporarium; and ten 
years after m taking down the abbey- 
house at Bath, to build a new set of 
baths, the workmen found the remains 
of very noble Roman baths, for a more 
particular account of which see the pre- 
ceding article. 

In England, a magnificent building 
of the kmd occurs among the monastic 
conveniences of the middle ages, erected 
by Hugh, the sacrist of the monastery 
of Bury, early in the 12th century, fi- 
nished by Sampson, who was elected 
abbot in 1182. 

BATHURST, Earl, the friend of 
Pope, born 1684, died 1775. 

BATTERSEA-BRIDGE, built 1770. 

BATTERING-RAM, invented a. c. 
441. 

BATTLES. The following are the 
principal, arranged in chronological 
order : — 

A.c. 669. The Horatii and Curiatii. 

A.c 480. Salamis, which delivered 
Greece from the Medes. 

A.c. 470. Eurymedon. 

A.c 373 Leuctra. 

A.c, 363. Mantinea. 

A.c 338. Cheeronea 

A.c. 490. Marathon. 

A.c. 334. The river Granicus, when 
Alexander defeated the Persians. 



n BAT 

A.c. 333. Battle fought at Issus, 
where Darius lost 100,000 men. 

A.c. 331. Arbela. See Arbela. 

A.c. 216. Cannae, where 40,000 Ro- 
mans were killed. See Cannae. 

A.c. 47- Pharsalia, when Pompey was 
defeated. 

A.c. 40. PhiUppi, which terminated 
the Roman republic. 

A.c. 31. Actium. 

A.D. 51. Shropshire, when Caracta- 
cus was taken prisoner. 

449. Stamford, in Lincolnshire. The 
first between the Britons and Saxons. 

455. Aylesford. 

457. Crayford, in Kent, when the 
Britons were defeated. 

458. Kydwelly, between the Britons 
and the Armoricans. 

466. Ipswich, between the Britons 
and Saxons. 

520. Bath. 

542. Banbury, in Oxfordshire. 

571. Bedford. 

542 and 908. Camelford. 

633. Hatfield, in Yorkshire, between 
Cadwallen and Edwin. 

641. Oswestry, between Panda and 
Mercian, and Oswald of Northumber- 
land. 

642. Malerfield, in Shropshire, Aug. 1. 
651. Gelling. 
665. Leeds. 
740. Lindesfarne- 
771 Benson, in Oxfordshire. 
834. Helstone, in Cornwall, and in 

the Isle of Sheppy, between Egbert and 
the Danes. 

842. Romney. 843. In Somerset- 
shire. 915. In Devonshire. 852. At 
London and Canterbury, between Ethel- 
wolf and the Danes. 

854. The Isle of Thanet, where the 
English were defeated, and the Danes 
settled. 

871. Assenden, where the Danes 
were defeated by Alfred and Ethelred. 
Another defeat at Merton. 

872. Wilton, in Oxfordshire, where 
the EngUsh were defeated by the 
Danes. 

894. Farnham, in Hampshire, where 
the Danes were defeated. 

905. Bury, in Suffolk, between Ed- 
ward the elder, and his cousin Ethel- 
wald. 

910, 913, and 914 Edward and the 
Danes 

916. Griffith, of Wales, and Leofric, 
the Dane 



BAT r 

918. Battle fougnt at Maiden, in Es- 
sex, between Edward and the Danes. 

922. Chester. 

923. Stamford, in Lincolnshire, be- 
tween Edward, the Danes, and Scots. 

924. Benfield. 

938. Widendane, between Athelstane, 
the Irish, and Scots . 

938. Brombridge, in Northumberland. 

938 to 1016. Saxons and Danes, 
fought several with different success. 

1016. Ashden, in Essex, between Ca- 
nute and Edmund . 

1038. Crossford, with the Welsh . 

1054. Dunsinane, in Scotland, be- 
tween Siward and Macbeth. 

1066. Stanford-bridge, or Battle- 
Ijridge, between Harold II. and Har- 
finger, September 25. 

1066. Hastings, when king Harold 
was slain, October 14. 

1092. Alnwick. 

1 106. Tinchebray, in Normandy. 

1117. Rouen, in Normandy. 

1119. Brenneville, in Normandy. 

1129. Velweves, in Portugal. 

1136. Cardigan, in Wales. 

1138. Northallerton, or the Stand- 
ard, August 22. 

1141. Lincoln. 

1174. Alnwick. 

1191. Ascalon, September 16 

1128. Gisors. 

1214. Bovines, July 25 

1217. Lincoln, May 19. 

1264. Lewes, May 14. 

1264. Evesham, August 5. 

1296. Chesterfield. 

1296. Dunbar, April 27. 

1298. Falkirk, July 22. 

1302. Courtras, in Flanders. 

1303. Biggar. 

1314. Bannockburn, June 25, when 
the English were totally defeated. 

1315. Morgarten, so glorious in the 
annals of Swiss libert)', in which 1,300 
Swiss heroes, under the glorious Ru- 
dolph Reding, defeated 20,000 Austri- 
ans, and freed their country from the 
foreign yoke, Nov. 15. 

1322. Boroughbridge, in Yorkshire. 

1333. Halidon-hill, near Berwick, 
where 20,000 of the Scots were slain, and 
only 15 EngUsh, July 29. 

1346. Halidon Hill, August 26. 

1337- Causant, inFlanders, November. 

1344. Auberoche, in Fi-ance. 

1346. Cressy, Aug. 26. See Cress y. 

1346. Durham, where David, king of 
Scotland, was taken prisoner, Oct 17. 



} BAT 

1347. Battle fought at Devil's 
Cross, in Durham. 

1356. Poictiers, where the king of 
France and his son were taken prisoner 9, 
September 19. See Poictiers. 

1363. Auray, in Brittany. 

1363. Brignai, in Provence. 

1369. Najard. 

1371. Rochelle. 

1378. Near Berwick. 

1388. Otterborn, between Hotspur 
and the earl of Douglas, July 31. 

1402. Nisbet, between the Enghsh 
and Scots, when 10,000 of the latter 
were slain, May 7. 

1403. Shrewsbury, July 22. 

1405. Monmouth, when the Welsh 
were defeated, March 11, and May 11. 

1415. Agincourt, October 25. See 
Agincourt. 

1421. Beauge, where the duke of 
Clarence and 1,500 English were killed, 
April 3. 

1423. Crevent, June. 

1424. Verneuil, August 16. 
1429. Herrings, February 12. 
1434. Herberoy, in France. 
1444. Basil, in Switzerland. 
1452. Castillon, in Guiene. 
1455, St. Albans, May 22. 

1459. Bloreheath, September 22. 

1460. Northampton, July 19. 

1460. Wakefield, December 31, 

1461. Towton, March 29. 

1461. St. Albans, Shrove Tuesday. 
1461. Mortimer's Cross. 
1463. Hexham, May 15. 

1469. Banburj', July 26. 

1470. Stamford, March 13. 
1471- Barnet, April 14. 

1471. Tewkesbury, May 4. 

1471. Morat, or Murten, in which 
the heroic Swiss destroyed the entire 
army of Charles the Bold, duke of Nor- 
mandy, and, of the bones of the slain, 
made two pyramids as a memorial of 
their braver)'. 

1485. Bosworth, August 22» 

1487. Stoke, June 6. 

1488. St. Aubin, in France. 
1491. Knockton, Ireland. 
1497. Blackheath, June 22. 

1513. Flodden, when James IV. of 
Scotland was killed, September 9. 

1515. Marignon, in Italy, Octo- 
ber 13. 

1524. Pa^da, in Italy. See Pavria. 

1522, and 1525. Bicoca, in Italy. 

1542. Solway, November 24. 

1544. Cerisoles in Piedmont. 



B A T 



74 



BAT 



1547. Battle fought at Musselburgh, 
Scotland, September 10. 

1557. St. Quintin, August 10. 

1558. Gravelines, in Flanders. 
1562. Dreux, in France. 
1069. Jarma, in Poictiers. 
1585. Ardavat, in Ireland. 
1600. Newport, in Flanders. 
1620. Prague, Bohemia. 

1633. Lutzen, king of Sweeden killed, 
September 7. 

1635. Avein, in Liege, May. 

1637. Newcastle, in Northumber- 
land. 

1638. Calloo, in Flanders. 
1640, Arras, June. 

1642. Hopton-heath, in Staffordshire, 
March 1 9. 

1642. Worcester, September 23- 
1642. Edgehill, October 23. 
1642, Brentford. 
1642. Kilrush, Ireland. 

1642. Liscarrol, Ireland. 

1643. Liskard, in Cornwall, Jan. 19. 
1643. Hopton-heath, near Stafford, 

March 19. 

1643. Barham-moor, March 29. 
1643. Ross, Ireland, March. 
1643. Rocrav, in France. 
1643. Shatton, May 16. 
1643. Lansdown, July 5. 
1643. Round-awaj'-down, July 13 

1643. Newbury, September 20. 

1644. Alresford, March 29- 

1644. Cropedy-bridge, 0.vfordshire, 
June 6. 

1644 Friedburgh, m Suabia. 
1644. Marston-moor, July 2 

1644. Newark. 

1645. Aldera, May 15. 
1645. Naseby, June. 
1645. Alford, July 2. 

1645. Norlingen, in Suabia, Aug. 3 

1646. Benburb, Ireland. 

1647. Kingston, in Surrey. 

1647. Knocknoness, in Ireland, No- 
vember. 

1649. Rathmines, in Ireland. 

1650. Dunbar, September 3. 
1651 Worcester, September 3. 

1651. Bothwell-bridge, June 22. 
1654. Arras. 

1668. Brod, in Sclavonia. 
1674. Zintzheim, in Germany. 
1674. Seneffe,, in Flanders. 

1674. Mulhausen, in .Alsace, Decem- 
ber 31. 

1675. Fahrbellin, in Brandenburgli, 
June 18. 

1675. Altcnheim, Jiilv 28. 



1679. Battle fought at Bothwell- 
bridge, in Scotland. 

1683. Argos, Allies and Turks, 

1683. Barkan, in Hungary, Allies 
and Turks 

1683. Vienna, Allies and Turks, 
July 18. 

J 685. Sedgemoor, in Somerset.<5hire, 
August 6. 

1685. Coron, in European Turkej', 
Allies and Turks. 

1687. Mohats, in Hungary, Allies 
and Turks, August 4. 

1687. Hersen, in Hungary. Allies 
and Turks. 

1688. Tors^an, between the Germans 
and Turks. 

1689. Walcourt, Allies and French. 
1689. Killikrankie, in Scotland. 

1689. Newton Butlers, in Ireland. 

1690. Boyne, in Ireland, July 1. See 

BOYNE. 

1690. Salusses, in Piedmont, Aug.8. 
1690. Fleurus, in Flanders, July 1 2 . 

1690. Staflferda, French and Pied- 
montese. 

1691. Salenkemen, Austrians and 
Turks. 

1691. Leuse, Allies and French. 

1691. Angrim, July 22. 

1692. Potsheim, Germans and French 

1692. Steinkirk, Allies and Frencli. 

1693. Landen, Allies and French, 
July 19 

1693. Marfaglia, Piedmontese and 
French, October 8. 

1693. Neckar, Germans and French. 

1695. In Transylvania, Allies and 
Turks 

1696. Olasch, Germans and Turks. 

1697. Zeuta, in Hungary, Germans 
and Turks. 

1700. Nerva, by Charles XII , of 
Sweden, December. 

1701. Chiara, Frenchand .Allies, Aug.6. 

1701. Riga, Russians and Poles. 
17"1. Carpi, in Modena, Frenchand 

Allies. 

1702. Glissa, in Poland, Swedes and 
Saxons. 

1702. Fridlingen, in Suabia, French 
and Germans. 

1702. Vittoria, French and Allies. 

1702. Lauzara, in Italy, August 15 

1703. Pultusk, Poles and Swedes. 

1703. Eckeren, in Brabant, French 
and Dutch, June 30. 

1704. Donaveit, French and Ger- 
many, July 2. 

1704. Punit-s Swedes and Saxons. 



BAT "5 

1704. Battle fouglit at Blenheiin, 
Allies and French, August 2. See Blen- 
heim. 

1704. Sclilemburg, Austrians and 
Bavarians. 

1705. Mittau, Swedes and Russians, 
July. 

1705. CassanOj in Italy, French and 
Allies. 

1705. Tirlemont, French and Allies. 

1706. Fraunstadt, in Silesia, Swedes 
and Saxons. 

1706. Calcinate, in Italy, French and 
Allies. 

1706. Rarailies, French and Allies, 
Whit Sunday. 

1706. Turin, French and Germans, 
September 7. 

1707. OflFenburg, Germans and 
French. 

1707. Calisch, in Poland, Poles and 
Bavarians, April. 

1707. Almanza, in Spain, Allies and 
Spaniards. 

1708. Oudenarde, French and Allies, 
June 30. 

1708. Holowzin, in Russia, Russians 
and Swedes. 

17O8. Czanianapata,in Muscovy, Sep- 
tember 22. 

17O8. Lezno, in Poland, Russians 
and Swedes. 

17O8. Gemauthorff, in Poland, Rus- 
sians and Swedes. 

1708. Winnendale, French and Allies, 
September 28. 

1709. Caya, French and Allies, May 
17. 

1709. Pultowa, Russians and Swedes, 
Junes. 

1709. Malplaquette, French and Al- 
lies, September 11. 

1709. Rumersheim, French and 
Germans. 

1709. Gudina, Allies and Spaniards. 

1710. Almanza, French and Allies, 
July 16. 

1710. Elsinburgh, Swedes and Danes. 
1710. Saragossa, French and Ger- 
mans, August 20. 

1710. Villa Viciosa, French and Ger- 
mans, December 12. 

1711. Arleux, Allies and French, 

1712. Gadebash, Swedes and Danes. 

1712. Denain, in Netherlands, Allies 
and French 

1713. Pulkona, Russiansand Swedes. 
1713, Friburg, French and Germans. 
1715. Preston, in Scotland, when the 

rebels were defeated, November 12. 
1715. Dumblain, ditto, November 13, 



BAT 

1716. Battle fouglit at Peterwarden, 
Austrians and Turks, August 5. 

1717. Belgrade, Austrians and Turks, 
July 16. See Belgrade. 

1719. Glenghields,inScotland,JunelO. 

1733-4. Before Babylon, between the 
Turks and Persians, when Kouli Khan 
lost 10,000, and killed 30,000 men, Fe- 
bruary 28. 

1734. Parma, June 29- 

1734. Guastella, August. 

1734. In Persia, where the Turks 
were totally defeated by Kouli Khan, and 
lost near 60,000 men, a general, and six 
bashaws. May 22. 

1734. Bitonto, Austrians and Spa- 
niards. 

1734. Parma, France and Spain 
against Austria. 

1 734. Secchia, French and Austrians, 

1735. Turks and Persians; 50,000 
of the latter killed. 

1737. Bagnialuk, in Eiuropean Tur- 
key, Russians and Turks, July 27- 

1738. Bog, Russians, and Turks. 

1738. Krosta, Austrians, and Turks, 

1739. Kernal, Turks and Persians. 
1 739. Choezin, in Hungary, July 21 . 
1741, Molwitz, Prussians and Aus- 
trians, April 10. 

1741, WiUiamstadt, in Sweden, 
Swedes and Russians, July 23. 

1742, Hilkesburg, Prussians and 
Austrians, April 8. 

1742. Czaslaw, ditto, May 7. 

1742. Teyn, Austrians and Fi-ench. 

1743. Brenau, Austrians and Bava- 
rians. 

1743. Campo Santo, Spaniards and 
Allies. 

1743. Dettingen, Allies and French, 
June 15. 

1744. Cani, Allies, French and Spa- 
niards. 

1745. Landshut, Prussians and Aus- 
trians. 

1745. Friedburg, Prussians and Aus- 
trians, June 4. 

1745, Fontenoy, April 30. 
1745, Preston- Pans, Sept. 21. 

1745. Erzerum, Turks and Prus- 
sians, 

1746. Falkirk, in Scotland, Jan.' 17- 
1746, Roucoux, French and Allies, 

April 12. 

1746. CuUoden, in Scotland, April 17. 

See CULLODEN. 

1746. St. Lazaro, French and Allies, 
May 31. 

1746. Placentia, Spaniards and Allies 
June 15. 



BAT 

1746. Battle fought at Exilles, in 
Piedmont, Allies and French, July 6. 

1747- Vail, in Flanders, Allies and 
French, June 20. 

l747.Lassielt,AlUesandFrench,July20. 

1751. Arania, in India. 

1752. Bahoor, in India, Aug. 7 • 
1755. Fort du Quesne, North Ame- 
rica, July 9. 

1755. Lake of St. George, Sept. 8. 

1755. Paraguay. 
1756 and l759,Calcutta in India, June. 

1756. Lowoschutz, Prussians andAus- 
trians, Sept. 30. 

1757. Norkitten, Russians and Prus- 
sians. 

1756. Plassie,inthe East Indies, Feb.5. 

1757. Prague, Prussians and Aus- 
trians, May 22. 

1757. Reichenberg, in Bohemia, ditto. 

1757- Kolin, ditto, June 12. 

1757. Haslenbeck, French and Allies, 
July 25. 

1757. Jagersdorf, in Prussia, Aug. 3. 

1757. Rosbach, French and Prussians, 
Nov. 5. 

1757. Breslau, Prussians and Aus- 
ians, Nov. 21. 

1757. Lissa, ditto, Dec. 5. 

1758. Hoya, in Westphalia, French 
and Allies, Feb. 24. 

1758. Crevelt, French and Allies June 
23. 

1758. Sandershansen, ditto, July 25. 

1758. Meere, ditto, Aug. 5. 

1758. Zorndorff, Prussians and Aus- 
trians, Aug. 25. 

1758. Olmitz, ditto. 

1758. Hockkirchen, Oct. 10. 

1758. Landwarenhagen, French and 
Allies. 

1758. Colies. 

1759. Bergen, French and Allies, April 
14. 

1759. Minden, ditto, Aug. 17. 

1759. Zulichaw, in Silesia, Prussians 
and Russians, July 27. 

1759. Peterswalde, Prussians and 
Austrians. 

1759. Pasberg, ditto. 

1759. Niagara, in North America. 
July 24. 

1759. Warburg, French and Allies, 
Aug. 6. 

1759. Montmorenci, French and Eng- 
lish, Aug 10. 

1759. Cunersdorf, Prussians, Rus- 
sians, and Austrians, Aug. 12. 

1759- Plains of Abraham, French and 
English, Sept. 15. 



7(i BAT 

1760. B.\TTLE fought at Wanwash, 
East Indies, Jan. 10. 

1760. Strehla, in Silesia, Prussians 
and Austrians. 

1760. Near Quebec, April 28. 

1760. PasffendoflF, Prussians and Au8« 
trians, Aug. 12. 

1760. Torgau, ditto, Nov. 3, 

1760. Fulda, ditto. 

1760. Plains of Silleri, English and 
French. 

1761. Langensaltze, Allies and French 
1761. Slangerode, ditto 
1761. Kirk-Dankern, ditto. 
1761. Fillinghansen, in the Palati- 
nate, Prussians and Austrians, July 16. 

1761. Dippolswalda, ditto. 

1762. Graebenstein, French and Allies, 
June 4. 

1762. Buckersdorf, ditto, July 22. 

1762. Frcdburg, in Hesse, Prussians 
and Austrians, Oct. 29. 

1762. Homburg, Allies and French. 

1762. Johannesburg, Allies and 
French. 

1762. Minden, ditto. 

1762. Buckr-Muhl, ditto. 

1763. Bushy Bun, in America. 

1763. Nunas Nullas, in the East In- 
dies. 

1764. Buxard, ditto. 

1765. Calpi, ditto. 

1767. Errour, ditto, 

1768. Mulwaggle. 

1769. Choczim, Russians and Turks, 
April 30. 

1770. Braillow, in European Turkey. 
1773. Silistcia in European Turkey. 
1775, Lexington, near Boston, April 

19. 

1775. Bunker's-hill, June 27- 

1776. Long-Island, America,Aug. 27. 

1776. White Plains, near New York, 
Nov. 30. 

1777. Brandy- Wine Creek, in Ame- 
rica, Sept 13. 

1777. Of the Lakes, July 5. 

1777. Skenesborough, in North 
America, July 7. 

1777. Bennington ditto, Aug. 16. 

1777. Albany ditto. 

1777- Saratoga, General Burgoyne 
surrendered to the Americans, Oct. 7. 

1777. Germantown, Oct. 14. 

1778. St. Lucie, ditto 
1778. Monmouth, ditto 

1778. Rhode Island, Americans. 

1779. Briar Creek, ditto. 
1779. Stony Ferry, ditto. 
1780 Camden, ditto, Aug. 16. 



BAT 



1780. Battle fought at Perimban- 
cain, in the East Indies. 

1780. Waxau and Catauba, in N 
America. 

1761. Broad River, ditto. 

1781. Guilford, ditto, March 16. 
1781. Hobkirk's-Hill, ditto, 
1781. Eutaw Springs, ditto. 
1781. York town, when earl Corn- 

wallis surrendered, Oct. 29- 

1781. Port Novo, in the East Indies. 
1781. Amee, ditto 
1781. Russians and Turks. 
1788. Russians and Swedes. 

1788. Austrians and Turks. 

1789. Bassarabia and Ukraine. 
1789. Finland, Austrians and Turks. 

1789. Lassmarc, Austrians and 
Turks. 

1790. Ukraine, Russians and Turks, 

1791. Maczin, ditto. 

1791. Seringapatara, in the East In- 
dies. Again, in 1792, when Tippoo 
was reduced by Lord Cornwallis. 

1791. The Austrians defeated the 
French, near Mons, April 30. 

1792 At Longwy, when the Aus- 
tsians were defeated, Aug. 14. 

1792. Grand-pre, when the French 
were defeated, Sept. 10. 

1792. Valory, between the French 
and Austrians, Sept. 20 

1792. Menehould, Prussians and 
French, Oct. 2. 

1792. Conde, Austrians and French 
Oct. 2. 

1792. Hanau, ditto, Oct. 27- 

1792. Bossu, ditto, Nov. 4. 

1792. Jamappe, when Dumourier 
entered Brabant, Nov. 6. 

1792. Arderlecht, Austrians and 
French, Nov. 13. 

1792. Thu-lemont, ditto, Nov. 17- 

1792. Varoux, ditto, Nov. 27- 

1793. Hockheim, ditto, Jan. 7. 
1793. Aldenhoven, ditto, Feb. 28. 
1793. Aix-la-Chapelle, ditto, Jan. 15. 
1793. Tongres, ditto, March 4. 
1793. Jurvienden, near Thirlemont, 

ditto, March 18. 

1793. Thirlemont, ditto, March 19- 

1793. Lovaine, or the Iron Moun- 
tain, ditto, March 22. 

1793. Coblentz, ditto, April 1 

1793. Cassel, ditto, April 7- 

1793. Tournay, Austrians and Eng- 
lish against the French, May 8. 

1793. St. Amand and Maulde, ditto. 
May 10. 



77 BAT 

1793. Battle fought at Valenciennes, 
Allies and French May 23. 

1793. Manheim, ditto. May 30. 

1793. Fumes, Dutch and French, 
June 21. 

1793. Fumes, Austrians and French, 
June 26. 

1793. Villiers, ditto, July 18. 

1793. Cambray, or Caesar's Camp, 
ditto, .4.ug. 9- 

1793. Lincelles, ditto, Aug. 8. 

1793. Fumes, ditto, Aug. 21. 

1793. Rexmond, ditto, Aug. 29. 

1793. Dunkirk, EngUsh and French, 
Sept. 7. 

1793. Quesnoy, ditto, Sept. 11. 

1793. Limbach, Austrians and French 
Sept. 12. 

1793. Menin, ditto, Sept. 15. 

1793. Toulon, English and French, 
Oct. 14. 

1793. Maubeuge, Allies and French,, 
Oct. 16. 

1793. Tirlemont, ditto, ditto, 

1793. Orchies, ditto, Oct. 20. 

1793. Wanzenaw, ditto, Oct. 25. 

1793. Landau, ditto, Nov. 29. 

1793. Toulon, when it surrendered 
to the French, Nov. 19. 

1793. Lebach, ditto Nov. 27- 

1793. Roussillon, the Spaniards and 
French, Dec. 11, 

1793, Perpignan, ditto, Dec. 20. 

1794. Oppenheim, the Allies and 
French, Jan. 8, 

1794. Waterloo, ditto, Jan. 23. 

1 794. Werwick, ditto, March 1. 

1794. Beyonne, Spaniards and 
French, March 19- 

1794. Perle, Allies and French, 
March 22. 

1794. Cateau, Allies and French, 
March 28. 

1794. Cracow, Russians and Poles, 
April 4. 

1794. Durkheim, Allies and French, 
April 5. 

1794. Piedmont, Sardinians and 
French, April 6. 

1794. Crombech, Allies and French, 
April 29. 

1794. Arlon, ditto, April 17^ 

1794. Warsaw, Russians and Poles, 
April 21. 

1794. Landrency, Allies and French, 
April 24, 

1794. Cambray, English and French, 
ditto. 

1794. Cateau, ditto, April 26. 



BAT n 

1794. Battle fought at Courtray, 
Allies and Fiench, April 29- 

1794. Ostend, ditto. May 5. 

1794. Montesquan, Spaniards and 
French, May 1. 

)794. Aost, Sardinians and French, 
May 2. 

1794. Saorgia, ditto, May 8. 

1794. Tournay, English and French, 
May 16. 

1794. Courtray, Allies and French, 
May 12. 

1794. Mons, ditto, May 16. 

1794. Tournay, EngUsh and French, 
May 10. 

1794. Bouillion, Allies and French, 
ditto. 

1794. Tournay, ditto. May 22. 

1794. Lautern, ditto. May 23. 

1794. Lithuania, Russians and Poles, 
June 3 

1794. Piliczke, ditto, ditto. 

1794. Barcelona, Spaniards and 
French, June 26. 

1794. Charleroi, Dutch and French, 
June 17. 

1794. Cracow, Prussians and Poles, 
ditto. 

1794. Aost, Sardinians and French, 
June 26. 

1794. Puycerda, Spaniards and 
French, ditto. 

1794. Blonie, Russians and Poles, 
July 7. 

1794. Manheim, Allies and French, 
July 12. 

1794. Dorhilos, Prussians and Poles, 
July 19. 

1794. Fontarabia, Spaniards and 
French, Aug 2. 

1794. Zogre, Prussians and Poles, 
Aug. 22. 

1794. Bellegarde, Spaniards and 
French, Aug. 26. 

1794. Valley of Leira, ditto, Sept. 8. 

1794. Maestricht, Allies and French, 
Sept. 18. 

1794. Clermont, ditto, Sept. 20. 

1794. Piedmont, ditto, Sept. 23. 

1794. Posnania, Prussians and Poles 
Sept 24. 

1794. Kophir Bazsee, Russians and 
Poles, Sept. 25. 

1794. Milan, Sardinians and French 
Sept 30. 

1794. Emmerick, Allies and French, 
Oct. 2. 

1794. Warsaw, Poles defeated by the 
Russians, &c. Oct. 12. 



BAT 

1794. Battle fought at Druten.Eng- 
lish and French, Oct. 20. 

1794. Pampeluna, Spaniards and 
French, Oct 28. 

1794. Nimeguen, Allies and French 
Nov. 4. 

1794. Sandomir, Poles and Prus- 
sians, &c, Nov. 16. 

1794. Navarre, Spaniards and French 
Nov. 25. 

1794. Mentz, Allies and French 
Dec. 1. 

1795. On the Waal, Jan. 11. 

1795. Nantes, between the Cho- 
nans and Republicans, Jan. 18. 

1795. Catalonia, March 5. 

1795. Neve Munster, where the 
French were repulsed March 3 ; again 
the 18th ditto. 

1795. At Figuras, the Spaniards Avere 
defeated, April 5. 

1795. Piedmont, the Piedmontese 
were defeated, April 12. 

1795. Pontas, in Catalonia, where 
the French were defeated, June 14. 

1795. Piedmont, the French were 
defeated, June 14 ; again the 27th, and 
again July 1. 

I'r95. Pampeluna, when the French 
were defeated, July 2. 

1795. Bilboa, when the Spaniards 
were defeated, July 17- 

1795. Quiberon, the Emigrants were 
defeated, July 21. 

1795. Urutia, when the French were 
defeated, July 30. 

1795. Vittoria, when the Spaniards 
were defeated, Aug. 14. 

1795 Piedmont, the Austrians were 
defeated, Aug. 20. 

1795. La Pietra, when the French 
were defeated, Aug. 31. 

1795. On the Lahu, when the French 
were defeated, Sept. 19. 

1795. Manheim, when the Austrians 
were defeated, Sept. 23. 

1795. Piedmont, when the French 
were defeated, Oct. 1. 

1795. On the Mayne, when the 
French were totally defeated, Oct. 1 1 . 

1795. Mentz, when the French were 
defeated, Oct. 29. 

1795. Worms, ditto, Nov. 8. 

1795. Moselle, ditto, Nov. 22. 

1795. Deux Fonts, ditto, Nov. 28. 

1795. Alsentz, ditto, Dec. 8. 

1796. Piedmont, Sardinians were to- 
tally defeated by the French, April 14. 

1796. Lodi, French and Austrians, 
May 11. 



BAT 

1796. Battle fought at Mantua, 
ditto. May 29. 

1796- French defeated near Wetz- 
laer, June 4 

1796- Ditto, under Jourdan, by Gene- 
ral Kray, near Kirpen, June 20. 

1796. Austrians defeated by Jourdan, 
Jvily 6. 

1796. The Archduke repulsed by 
the Fr6nch, July 8. 

1796. Mantua's siege raised, when 
the French left behind them 140 cannon, 
100,000 shells, balls, &c. July 31. 

1796. The Austrians were defeated 
by General Jourdan, Aug. 11. 

1796. Jourdan was defeated by the 
Archduke near Auremburg, Aug. 18. 

1796. The French were defeated by 
the Austrians near Neuvvied and Am- 
berg, Aug. 24. 

1796. Jourdan was defeated near Mu- 
nich, Sept. 11 

1796. Again near Limberg, and on 
the following day at Ishy, on the Leek. 
Sept. 18. 

1797. Between the Austrians and 
Buonaparte, when the Austrians were 
defeated, Jan. 19 and 27. 

1797. Buonaparte defeated the Arch- 
duke, April 1. 

1797. The Austrians were again de- 
feated on the Upper Rhine, when the 
French took Frankfort Kehl, &c. May 7. 

1798. The Swiss Troops were totally 
defeated by the French, and their inde- 
pendency abolished, Sept. 19. 

1798. Between the Irish Rebels and 
king's forces, at Kilcullen, May 22. 

1798. Ditto at Naas, May 23; the 
same day at Stratford upon Sleney; at 
Backestown, May 25; at Dunleven May 
25; at Taragh, May 26; at Carlow, 
May 27 ; at Monastereven the same 
day ; at Kildare, May 28 ; at Ballacanoe 
and at Newtonberry, June 1 ; at New 
Ross, June 5 ; at Antrim the same day ; 
at Acklow, June 9 ; at Ballynahnich, 
June 13; at Ovidstown, June 19; at 
Ballynarush, June 20; at all which 
places the insurgents wei-e defeated. 

1798. In Connaught, where the 
French aided the Irish Rebels, and were 
all taken prisoners, September 7. 

1799 Near Naples, between the 
French and Neapolitans, January IS. 

1799. Near Stockach, where the Arch- 
<luke Charles totally defeated the French, 
and took 2,000 prisoners, March 14 
and 26. 

1799. Near Verona, where the French 



79 BA T 

were defeated, with great loss, March 5, 
25, and 26 ; and again 30, and April 5. 

1799. Near Cremona, in Italy, the 
Austrians defeated the French, April 9, 
and 30 

1799. Near Milan, the Russians de- 
feated the French; 11,000 killed and 
taken prisoners, April 27. 

1799. Near Cassano, the French were 
defeated, April 27. 

1799. At Acre, where Bonaparte was 
repulsed by the Turks and Sir S. Smith, 
April 16. 

1799. Near the Adda, where the 
French were defeated, March 26, 31, 
and May 5. 

1799. Near Alessandria, where Su- 
warrow's army defeated the French under 
Moreau, May 17 

1799. Zurich, where the French were 
defeated, and lost 4,000 men, June 4. 

1799. Suwarrow defeated the French 
under Macdonald, when the French lost 
18,268 men, 7 cannon, and 8 standards, 
June 19. 

1799. Near Penapatam, in the East 
Indies, where Tippoo Saib was defeated 
by the English forces, with considerable 
slaughter, and slain, May 4. 

1799. Near Croire, where the Austri- 
ans were defeated by General Massena, 
when Captain d'Ausauberg and 730 men 
were taken prisoners. May 7. 

1799. The Archduke defeated Jour- 
dan, April 2. 

1799. General Kray defeated General 
Scherer, commanding the French in 
Italy, April 18. 

1799. Near Parma, where Suwarrow 
defeated Macdonald, with the loss of 
10,000 men and 4 generals, July 12. 

1799. Suwarrow defeated General 
Moreau, July 13, 

1799. At Novi, where Joubert was 
totally defeated by Suwarrow, and was 
himself killed, with 10,000 men; 400 pri- 
soners, and all the artillery taken, Aug. 1 5, 

1759. Near Tranto, when the French 
were defeated, June 19. 

1799. Near Manheim, when the 
French were defeated, August 12. 

1799. Near Zurich, when the Im- 
perialists were defeated, September 24. 

1799. Near Mondvi, when the French 
were defeated, November 6. 

1799. Near Philipsburgh, when the 
French lost 4,000 men, December 3. 

1800. Novi, Austrians and French, 
January 8. 

1800. Savona, in Italy, Austrans and 
French, April 8. 



BAT 



80 



1800. Battle fought at Veragio, 
French defeated, April 10. 

180 J. Stockach, Austrians defeated. 
May 1. 

1800. Moskirch, Austrians defeated, 
May 3. 

1800, Riss, Austrians lost 500 men, 
May 9. 

1800. Broni, by which the French 
became possessed of Italy, from Milan 
to Placentia, June 10. 

1800. Marengo, 6,000 Austrians 
killed, 8,000 prisoners, and 45 pieces of 
cannon taken, June 14. 

1800. Hohenhnden, Austrians de- 
feated, November X 

1800. On the Mincio, Austrians de- 
feated, December 25. 

801. Rhamonia, in Egypt, French 
defeated by the English, March 21. 

1803. East Indies, between Scindiah 
and the Enghsh ; former defeated, Au- 
gust 11. 

1804. Ferruckabad, East Indies, 
English victorious, November 17. 

1805. Bhurtpore, East Indies, Jes- 
wunt Rao Holkar defeated by the Eng- 
lish, April 2. 

1805. Guntzburg, French and Aus- 
triaRs; French victorious, October 2. 

1805. Ulm, French and Austrians, 
latter taken prisoners, Oct. 19. 

1805. Moelk, French and Austrians, 
latter beaten, November 10 

1805. Austerlitz, French against Aus- 
trians and Russians; French victorious, 
December 2. 

1806. Maida, French and English; 
the former defeated, July 6. 

1806. Castel Nuova, French and 
Russians ; latter defeated, September 29. 

1806. Anerstadt, French and Prus- 
sians ; latter beaten, October 3. 

1807. Eylau, French and Prussians; 
latter defeated, February 7. 

1807. Friedland, in which the Rus- 
sians were defeated with dreadful slaugh- 
ter, June 14. 

1S08. Baylen, the French, under 
Dupont, defeated by the Spaniards, 
July 20. 

1808. Vimiera, in which the whole 
of the French force under General Junot 
was defeated by Sir Arthur Wellesley, 
August 21. 

1808. Tudela, Spaniards beaten by 
the French, November 23. 

1809. Corunna, French and English ; 
the former defeated, January 16. 

1809. Braga, Portuguese defeated by 
the French, March 19. 



BAT 

1809. Battle fought at MedeUin, 
Spaniards defeated by the French, 
March 28. 

1809. PlafFenhoflfen, Austrians de- 
feated by the French, April 19. 

1809. Abensburg, Austrians defeated 
by the French, April 20. 

1809. Landshut, Austrians defeated 
by the French, April 21. 

1809. Eckmull, Austrians defeated 
by the French, April 22 

1809. Ebersberg, Austrians defeated 
by the French, May 3. 

1809. Oporto, French defeated by 
Sir Arthur Wellesley, May 11. 

1809. Aspern and Essling, French 
and Austrians ; dreadful slaughter. 

1809. Raab, Austrians defeated by 
the French, June 14. 

1809. Wagram, Austrians defeated 
by the French, July 5. 

1809. Talavera de la Reyna, French 
defeated by the English and Sj)aniard8, 
July 27. 

1809. Ocana, Spaniards defeated by 
the French, November 19. 

1809. Buzaco, French repulsed with 
great slaughter by the allied army under 
Lord Wellington, September 27. 

1811. Pla, near Tarragona; Italian 
division of the French army repulsed by 
the Spanish General, Saarsfield, Jan. 15. 

1811. Lafesat, Turks defeated by the 
Russians, F'eb 11. 

1811. Barossa, the French, under 
General Victor, defeated by General 
Graham, March 5. 

1811. Parma, French surprised by 
General Remon's detachment, and dis- 
persed, March 10. 

1811. Albuera, French repulsed, wth 
the loss of 9,000 men, by Marshal Be- 
resford. May 16. 

1811 Buenos Ayres and Montevi- 
deo, between the troops of, in which 
those of the latter were defeated. May 18. 

1811. Radshuck, Turks defeated by 
the Russians, June 4; and again, Oct. 14. 

1811. Ximena, a division of Soult's 
army defeated by General Balasteros, 
September 18. 

1811. Ciudad Rodrigo, between the 
French and the allied armies under Lord 
Wellington, ending in the orderly retreat 
of the latter, September 25. 

1811. Puch, near Saguntum, Gene- 
ral Blake defeated by the French under 
General Suchet, October 25. 

1811. Cavares and Menda ; the 
French, under General Girard, surprised 
and routed by General Hill, October 28. 



BAT 



81 



BAT 



1812. Battle fought at Plains ofBor- 
nos, Spaniards defeated by the French, 
June 1. 

1812. Castalla, army under General 
O'Donnel defeated the French, 21. 

1812. Salamanca, French defeated, 
with great slaughter, by Lord Welling- 
ton, July 22. 

1812. Mohilow, Russians, under 
Prince Bagrathion, defeated by the 
French, under General Davoust, July 23. 

1812. Ostroono, Russians defeated 
by the French, July 25 and 28. 

1812. Polotsk, French, under Mar- 
shal Oudinot, defeated by the Russians, 
under Count Witgenstein, July 30 and 
31. The same armies contended the 
next day, when the Russians were de- 
feated. 

1812. Dressa, Russians were defeated 
by the French, August. 

1812. Smolensko, Russians defeated 
by the French, and abandoned the town, 
Aug. 16. 

1812. Banks of the Duna, near Po- 
lotsk, several severe actions between the 
Russians and French, in which success 
was nearly balanced, Aug. 16 and 17- 

1812. Heights of Valentina, between 
the French and Russians, which termi- 
nated in the retreat of the latter, Aug. 19. 

1812. Moskwa (or Borodino), between 
the French and Russians, dreadful car- 
nage on both sides, each claiming the 
victory, Sept. 7. 

1812. Queen's Town, Canada, annj' 
of the United States defeated by the Bri- 
tish, Oct. 13. 

1812. Polotsk, French defeated by 
the Russians, and the place taken by 
storm, Oct. 20. 

1812. Molo-Yaroslavetz, Russians 
and French, victory claimed by each, 
Oct. 24. 

1812. Visma, French under Ney and 
Davoust, defeated by the Russians, No- 
vember, 3. 

1812. Dorogobudsch, French driven 
from, by the Russians under Platoflf, with 
great slaughter, Nov. 7. 

1812. Witepsk, French under Gene- 
ral Victor, defeated by the Russians 
under Witgenstein, with the loss of 3000 
men, Nov. 14. 

1812. Krasnoi, French army under 
Davoust, completely destroyed or dis- 
persed by KutusofF, Nov. 16. 

1812. Ney's corps, 12,000 of which 
laid down their arms, defeated by the 



Russian general Millaradovitch, No- 
vember 14. 

1812. Borisow, Russians under 
Count Lambert, defeated Dornbrow- 
skie's Polish division, Nov. 21. 

1812. Berezina, terminated in the 
capture, by General Witgenstein, of a 
French division of 8,800 men, Nov. 28. 

1812. Wilna, French column de- 
stroyed near that town by Platoff, and a 
general and 1000 prisoners taken, De- 
cember 11. 

1812. Kowna, French defeated by 
the Russians, with the loss of 6000 pri- 
soners, and 21 pieces of canon, De- 
cember 14. 

1813. Kalitch, Saxons under the 
French general Regnier, defeated by the 
Russian general Winzingerode, with the 
loss of many officers and 2000 privates. 

1813. French-town, Canada, Ame- 
rican General Winchester defeated, and 
made prisoner, by Colonel Proctor, Jan- 
uary 22. 

1813. Bejar, in Spain, French de- 
feated by General Hill, and the allied 
Spaniards, Feb, 20 

1813. Lunenburg, French defeated 
by the united army of Russians and 
Pnissians, with the loss of General 
Moraud, 100 officers, 2,200 privates, and 
9 pieces of canon, April 2. 

1813. Castella, French under Suchet 
defeated by General Murray, and the 
allied Spaniards, April 1813. 

1813. Lutzen, between the allied 
armies of Russians and Prussians, great 
slaughter on both sides, and victory 
claimed by each. May 2. 

1813. Mockern, Beauhamois de- 
feated with great loss by the Russians 
and Prussians, April 5, 

1813. Alberstadt, French division 
defeated by the Russian general Czerni- 
cheff. May 7. 

1813. Konigswerden, French defeated 
by the allied army of Russians and 
Prussians under Generals Barclay de 
Tolly, and D'Yorck, May 19. 

1813. — second battle, which ended in 
the falling back of the allies. May 20. 

1813. Wurtzschen, between the al- 
lied army of Russians and Prussians and 
the French army under Napoleon ; dread- 
ful carnage on hoih sides ; the Allies re- 
treated, May 21. 

1813. Miami, Americans defeated by 
Colonel Proctor. ^. 

1813. Fort Geoi^ on the Niagara^ 



BAT 



S2 



BAT 



British defeated by the Americans, May 
27th. 

1813. Burlington Heights, Ameri- 
cans defeated by the British, June 6. 

1813. Vittoria, French under Joseph 
Buonaparte, defeated by Lord Welling- 
ton and the allied Spaniards, June 21. 

1813. Valley of Bastan, General Hill 
and the allied Spaniards attacked by 
Soult, and obliged to retreat, July 24. 

1813. Pyrenees, Soult defeated, with 
immense slaughter, by Lord Wellington 
and the combined Spaniards, July 28. 

1813. San Marcial, Soult defeated 
by the Spaniards, July 31. 

1813. Defeated again, Aug. 4, and 
driven from the Pyrenees. 

1813. Bober, (Banks of), Prussians 
under Blucher, defeated by the French 
under Napoleon, May 21 . 

1813. Jour, French under Macdo- 
nald, defeated, \vith immense loss, by 
Blucher, August 26 and 27. 

1813. Before Dresden, allied army 
of Austrians, Russians, and Prussians, 
defeated by the French, Aug. 28. 

1813. Tophtz, French defeated by 
the allied Austrians, Russians, and 
Prussians, August 30. 

1813. Dennewitz, French defeated by 
the Crown Prince of Sweden, with great 
loss, Sept. 8. 

1813. Ordal, (Pass of) Colonel 
Adams, and the combined Spaniards 
and Portuguese defeated by Soult, Sep- 
tember 12. 

1813. Domitz, French under Da- 
voust, defeated by Count Walmaden, 
Sept. 16. 

1813. Elster, French under Bertrand, 
defeated by Blucher, Oct. 3. 

1813. Moravian village, on the 
Thames, Canada, the British defeated by 
the Americans, Oct. 5. 

1813. Mockern, between the French 
and the allied army of Austrians, Rus- 
sians, and Prussians, a desperate con- 
flict, the place having been taken and re- 
taken five times, which ended in the de- 
feat of the French, Oct. 14. 

1813. Before Leipsic, a general en- 
gagement between the same armies, in 
which no ground was gained by either, 
October 16. 

1813. Before Leipsic, another gene- 
ral engagement, of which the result was 
a loss to the French of 40,000 men, in 
killed, wounded, and prisoners, 65 pieces 
of artillery, and thcdiesertion of 17 Ger- 
man battalions, Oct. 18. 



1813. Battle fought at Hanau, 
French defeated by the combined Aus- 
trian and Bavarian army, under Gene- 
ral Wrede, Oct. 29. 

1813. Hanau, another severe en- 
gagement between the same armies, in 
which Wrede was taken prisoner, and 
the Allies driven from the place, Oc- 
tober 30. 

1813. St. Jean de Luz, between the 
alUed armies under Lord Wellington, 
and the French under Soult, when the 
latter were driven farther from France, 
Nov. 19. 

1813. Passage of the Neve, several 
engagements between the allied army 
under Lord Wellington and the French, 
during which two German regiments 
came over to the Allies, and the French 
were driven to their entrenchments, 
Dec. 10 and 13. 

1813. Christler's Point, Upper Ca- 
nado, Americans defeated bv the Bri- 
tish under Colonel Pearson, Nov. 1 1. 

1813. Black Rock, American Gene- 
ral Hull defeated by the British general 
Riall, Dec. 30. 

1813. Province of Valladolid, three 
battles, in which the forces of Morelos 
and other insurgent chiefs were defeated 
by the Royalists, vvdth the loss of 1,500 
men, and 30 pieces of canon, Dec. 

1814. Bozzolo, on the Mincio, 
Austrians defeated by the "French under 
Beauharnois, Jan. 7 and 8. 

1814. Marne, advanced guard of 
Schwartzenberg defeated by the French, 
Jan. 27. 

1814. Brienne, allied army of Rus- 
sians and Prussians defeated, and the 
place taken by the French, Jan. 29 . 

1814. Rothiere, French under Na- 
poleon defeated by the allied Russians 
and Prussians, with the loss of 3000 
prisoners, and 36 pieces ofcannon,Feb. 1. 

1814. Champ-aubert, Russian divi- 
sion under General Alsafief, defeated by 
the French under Napoleon, Feb, 10. 

1814. Champ-aubert, division of Blu- 
cher's army, under General Sacken and 
D'Yorck, attacked by the French under 
Napoleon, in whose favour it terminated, 
Feb. 12. 

1814. JanviUiers, Blucher's army at- 
tacked by the French, and driven back to 
Chalons, Feb. 14. 

1814. Garris, French defeated by the 
allied Spaniards under General Morello 
and General Stewart. Feb. 1 5. 

1814. Nangris, advanced guard of 



BAT 

Witgenstein's corps under Count Pahlen, 
defeated by the French under Napoleon, 
Feb. 14. 

1814. Bridges of the Seine at Mon- 
tereau and Bray, the prince of WLrtem- 
berg defeated by Napoleon, Feb. 18. 

1814. Orthes, French defeated by 
the allied Spaniards under General Hill, 
Feb. 25. 

1814. Reggio, French defeated by the 
king of Naples, March 5. 

1814. Laon, French defeated by 
Prince William of Prussia, March, 12. 

1814. Passage of the Taro, French 
defeated by the king of Naples, March 12. 

1814. Rheiuis, allied Russians and 
Prussians defeated by the French, 
March 13. 

1814. Tarbes, Soult defeated by Lord 
"Wellington, March 20. 

1814. Arcis-sur-Aube, French de- 
feated by the prince of Wurtemberg, 
March 21. 

1814. Fere Champenoise, the corps 
of Generals Marmont, Mortier, and Ar- 
righi, surprised and defeated by General 
Schwartzenberg, and a convoy taken, 
March 25. 

1814. Heights of Fontenoy, Ro- 
manviUe, and Belville, French army out 
of Paris under Joseph Buonaparte, 
Marmont, and Mortier, defeated by the 
allied Austrians, Russians, and Prus- 
sians, March 30. 

1814. Toulouse, French defeated by 
Lord Wellington, April 10. 

1814. Arazua (valley of), between 
the instu-gents of the Carracas and the 
Royalists, in which the latter obtained 
a complete victory, June 18. 

1814. Chipawa, British under Gene- 
ral Riall, defeated by the Americans un- 
der General Brown, July 5. 

1814. Chipawa, Americans defeated 
by the British under Generals Dnun- 
mond and RiaU, but the latter general 
wounded and taken prisoner, July 25. 

1815. Ferrara, Neapolitans under 
Murat defeated by the Austrians, April 
12. 

1815. Tolentino, between the Aus- 
trians under General Bianchi and the 
Neapolitans under Murat, ending, after 
two engagements, in the retreat of Mu- 
rat, May 2 and 3. 

1815. Ligny, Prussians under Prince 
Blucher, after a desperate conflict, de- 
feated by the French, with the loss of 
fifteen pieces of cannon, June 16. 

1815. Waterloo, in which the whole 



83 BAV 

French army, was defeated with im- 
mense slaughter, June 18. See Wa- 
terloo. 

1828. Akhalzik, in which the Turks 
were defeated by the Russians, Aug. 24. 

1830. Brussels, the Dutch repulsed 
from, Sept. 21. 

1831. Grocho, near Praga, a suburb 
of Warsaw, Feb. 20. 

1831. Waaz, March 31. 
1831. Siedlez, April 10. 

1831. Ostrolenka May 26, in all which 
the Poles defeated the Russians. 

1832. On the plains of Koneah, in 
which the sultan was defeated by the 
pacha of Egypt, Dec. 31. 

1833. Dec. 6. Between the Mexican 
generals, Santa Anna and Bustamente, 
to the disadvantage of the latter. On 
the 10th an armistice was concluded be- 
tween them. 

1839. East Indies. The citadel of 
Ghizzy taken by the British, and the 
king of Cabool restored. See Cabool. 

BATTLE Abbey, Sussex, built 1067- 

BATTLE Bridge, Southwark, a 
fire at, when 80 houses, besides a brewery, 
dye-house, and four wharfs, were de- 
stroyed, 2000 quarters of malt and 800 
butts of beer lost, and damage done to 
the amount of £50,000., Aug. 12, 
1749. 

BATTONI, PoMPEO, a great Floren- 
tine painter of history, born Feb. 5, 
1708, died Feb. 4, 1787- 

BAUHIN, Jasper, the botanist, 
bom 1560, died 1624. 

BAUTRIJ, William. French writer, 
bom 1588, died 1665. 

BAVARIA, supposed to have derived 
its name from the Boii, or Baoiarians, a 
confederacy of German tribes, who 
spread themselves over this district in 
the fifth century, and made Ratisbon 
their capital. Noricum was then its 
name, and it appears that the Ostogroths 
never occupied it. After this for several 
centuries the throne of Bavaria, and its 
territorial boundaries, were alike subject 
to vicissitudes, and two rival lines con- 
tended for the one, while the imperatorial 
mandate enlarged or contracted the 
other. After the battle of Blenheim 
1704, the emperor treated Bavaria as a 
conquered country, the elector was 
placed under the imperatorial ban, and 
not reinstated in his government, until 
the peace of Baden, in 1714. Charles 
Albert succeeded to the electorate in 
1726, and was at length elected emperor 



BAV 



84 



BEA 



of Germany, under the title of Charles 
VII., in the year 1742, but upon the 
death of his successor, the electorate 
reverted to its former rank. 

In the French revolutionary wars, the 
elector furnished his contingent to the 
army of the empire, and in 179^, the 
palatinate itself Ijecame the theatre of 
war. In 1799, the Sulzhach branch of 
the line of the palatinate became extinct, 
and the Duke of Deux-Ponts succeeded 
to the Bavarian possessions. In the 
year 1805 the elector, MaximiUan Jo- 
seph, compelled to make his selection of 
adhering to the imperatorial union, or 
attaching himself to the party of France, 
adopted the latter course, and brought 
an accession of 30,000 troops to the 
French army. For this he received, at 
the peace of Presburg, an addition to 
his dominions of 10,595 square miles, 
containing 1,000,000 of inhabitants, and 
had the dignity of king conferred upon 
him. Bavaria joined the allies in 1813, 
when it was stipulated, that for what- 
ever of her territories Bavaria might be 
required to re.store to Austria, she should 
receive compensation at the expense of 
her neighbours. In 1818, the king pro- 
mulgated the new constitution, and 
adopted the system of the two chambers. 
The upper chamber consists of princes, 
crown officers, &c. The lower chamber 
consists of fourteen representatives of 
the lower nobility. The first meeting 
of the representatives was held on Feb. 
4, 1819. 

1832. There was considerable po- 
litical agitation in a public meeting con- 
voked at Hambach, Rhenish Bavaria, in 
consequence of the suppression of some 
journals by the government, at which 
20,000 persons were present. In May 
18, 1833, at the anniversary of the fes- 
tival, which had been celebrated at 
Hambach in the preceding year, consi- 
derable disturbances took place. To 
disperse the mob, whose appearance 
threatened more serious consequences, 
the troops were compelled to use their 
arms, when one of the rioters was killed 
and several wounded. Dr. Liebenp- 
feiflFer, one of the distinguished repub- 
lican orators of the Hambach festival in 
1832, along with some of his comrades, 
were brought to trial at Landau. The 
inquiry lasted several days ; he was sen- 
tenced to two years' imprisonment, and 
to pay the expenses of the trial, but he 
escaped to France. 



BAXTER, Richard, an eminent 
nonconformist divine, born at Rowton, 
in Shropshire, November 12, 1615. At 
the opening of the long parliament, he 
was chosen vicar of Kidderminster. 
Upon the conventicle act he was com- 
mitted to prison ; but procuring a ha- 
beas corpus, he was discharged. 

1682. He was seized for coming 
within five miles of a corporation. In 
1684, he was taken again ; and in the 
reign of King James II. was committed 
prisoner to the King's Bench, and tried 
before the Lord Chief Justice Jeflferies. 

He continued in prison two years, 
from whence he was at last discharged, 
and had his fine remitted by the king. 
He died December 8, 1691, and was 
buried in Christ-Church. 

BAXTERIANS, a sect who took 
their name from the above Richard 
Ba.xter, began 1648. 

BAYARD, Le Chev, a French war- 
rior, born 1476, died 1524. 

BAYER, the astronomer, flourished 
early in the seventeenth century. 

BAYLE, Peter, author of the His- 
torical and Critical Dictionary, born 
Nov. 18, 1657. In 1681, was chosen 
professor of philosophy and history at 
Rotterdam. The first volume of his 
dictionary was published in Aug. 1695, 
and the second in October following. 
He died Dec. 28, 1706. 

BAYONETS, invented at Bayonne, 
1670; first used in England Sept. 24, 
16P3. 

BEADS, first used by papists in their 
devotions, 1093. 

BEAR, order of knighthood, began 
in Switzerland, 1243. 

BEARDS, worn by the Greeks till 
A.c. 349 ; by the Romans till a.c. 299; 
fashionable in England after the con- 
quest till the thirteenth century ; dis- 
continued at the Restoration. 

BEATON, primate of Scotland, and 
cardinal of Rome, in the reign of Henry 
VIII., was born in 1494. He was ap- 
pointed resident at the court of France 
in 1519, returned to Scotland in 1525, 
and took his seat in parliament as abbot. 
Having ingratiated himself with the 
young king, James V., whom he had 
served in France during his minority, 
he was promoted in 1528 to the high 
office of lord privy-seal. In 1533 he 
was eminently instrumental in main- 
taining the attachment of James to the 
French interest. In 153/, he was de- 



BEA 



85 



BEC 



puted to negotiate a second marriage 
for the king with Mary, daughter of the 
duke of Guise, whom he conducted to 
Scotland in 1538. The same year was 
advanced by pope Paul III. to the dig- 
nity of cardinal. At his instigation, 
James undertook the invasion of Eng- 
land, and at Solway Moss the royal 
army was totally defeated in 1542 ; but 
this unexpected disaster proved fatal to 
the king, and he died soon after. 

The commission of legate " a latere," 
which he soon afterwards obtained from 
the court of Rome, empowered him to 
proceed in his favourite design of ex- 
tirpating heretics. He caused several 
persons to be condemned and executed, 
and among the rest, Mr. George Wish- 
art, the most famous Protestant 
preacher in Scotland, who, it is said, 
predicted his death, and who was burnt 
at St. Andrews, in 1646 ; the cardinal 
himself being seated at a window as a 
spectator of the tragedy. In less than 
three months after the death of Wishart, 
a conspiracy was formed against the 
cardinal's life, by some persons whom 
he had disobliged ; and they, accom- 
panied by a small number of attendants, 
surprised the castle of St. Andrew's, 
in which he lodged, rushed into his 
chamber, and dispatched him with their 
swords, in May, 1646. 

BEATTIE, James, author of the 
" Minstrel," was born about 1735. In 
1760, he published a volume of " Ori- 
ginal Poems and Translations," which 
in 1765 was followed by "The Judgment 
of Paris." In 1770 he pubUshed " An 
Essay on the Nature and Immutability 
of Truth, in Opposition to Sophistry 
and Scepticism." In 1771, his fame as 
a poet was extended throughout the 
kingdom by the publication of the first 
part of " The Minstrel." In 1772, the 
degree of L.L.D. was conferred upon 
him by his college at Aberdeen. In 
1783 he published " Dissertations, Mo- 
ral and Critical," and in 1786, " Evi- 
dences of the Christian Religion, briefly 
and plainly stated." He lost two sons, 
one in 1790, aged twenty-two, another 
in 1796, in his eighteenth year ; so that 
the latter years of his life were a blank 
of existence, which terminated at Aber- 
deen, Aug. 18, 1803. 

BEAUCHIEF Abbey, Derbyshire, 
built" 1183. 

BEAUFORT, Cardinal, was the 
natural son, legitimated by parliament. 



of John of Gaunt. In 1397 he became 
bishop of Lincoln; in 1399 chancellor of 
the university of Oxford, and dean of 
Wells; in 1404 lord-high chancellor of 
England, and in 1405 bishop of Win- 
chester. 

During the reigns of his brother 
Henry IV., and of his nephew Henry 
v., he lived in great splendour, and 
acquired immense wealth. In 1425, 
the dissensions that subsisted between 
him and the protector Humphry, duke 
of Gloucester, rose to such a height, 
that Beaufort thought it necessary to 
appeal to his nephew the duke of Bed- 
ford, then regent of France. In 1428 
the duke of Bedford returned to France, 
and was accompanied by Beaufort to 
Calais, where the latter was invested with 
the dignity of cardinal, with the title of St. 
Eusebius conferred upon him by pope 
Martin V. 

In 1430 cardinal Beaufort accompanied 
king Henry into France, and performed 
the ceremony of crowning the young 
monarch in the church of Notre Dame, 
at Paris. He died in 1447, about a 
month after the duke of Gloucester, in 
whose murder, it is supposed, he was 
concerned. Mr. Hume describes him 
as a prelate of great capacity and expe- 
rience, but of an intriguing and dange- 
rous character. 

BEAULIEU Abbey, Hampshire, 
built 1204. 

BEAUMARIS Castle, Anglesey, 
built 1295. 

BEAUMONT, Francis, the poet, 
born 1555, died I6l5. 

BECCARIA, Aug. first ItaUan pas- 
toral poet, died 1550. 

BECCARIA, MARauis, born 1735, 
died 1795. 

BECCLES, in Suffolk, injured by 
fire, damage estimated at £20,000, 80 
houses being destroyed, November 29, 
1586. 

BECKET, Thomas a, a celebrated 
English prelate in the reign of Henry II. 
was born in 1119, made chancellor 1157, 
archbishop of Canterbury, 1162. He 
was impeached in 1164, and retired to 
France that year, but was reconciled to 
Henry, June 2, 1170. He was assas- 
sinated in the cathedral church at Can- 
terbury, Dec. 29, 1170, canonized by 
Alexander III., Ash Wednesday, 1172, 
his bones enshrined in gold set with 
jewels, 1220, dismantled and stripped of 
its treasures by Henry VIII. 1541. 



BEE 



86 



BEE 



Dr. Henry, says of Becket : " he was 
evidently a man of very great abilities, 
particularly of consummate cunning, 
undaunted courage, and invincible con- 
stancy in the prosecution of his designs. 
But his schemes were of a most per- 
nicious tendency, to emancipate the 
ministers of religion from the restraints 
of law, and to subject his king and 
country to a foreign power. He was 
vain, obstinate, and implacable, as little 
affected by the entreaties of his friends, 
as by the threats of his enemies. His 
ingratitude to his royal master admits 
of no excuse, and has fixed an indelible 
stain upon his character. Though his 
murderers were highly criminal, his 
deatb was very seasonable, and pro- 
bably prevented much mischief and 
confusion." 

BECKFORD, William, the patri- 
otic mayor of London, who had the 
firmi>ess and courage to speak the plain 
honest truth, in his memorable speech 
to George HI., in vindication of the 
people's right to remonstrate to the 
throne, died 1770. 

BECKFORD'S, Alderman, monu- 
ment set up in Guildhall, 1770. 

BEDA, commonly called Venerable 
Bede, one of our most ancient historians, 
born 672, in the neighbourhood of 
Weremouth, in the bishopric of Dur- 
ham; published his Ecclesiastical His- 
tor)% 731. He died 735, of a lingering 
consumption, probably occasioned by 
a sedentary life. His learning, for the 
times, was extensive, his application in- 
credible, his piety exemplary, and his 
modesty excessive. His writings are 
deservedly considered as the foundation 
of our ecclesiastical history. All his 
works are in Latin. 

BEDELL. Bishop of Kilmore, born 
1570, died 1641. 

BEDFORD, Duke of, made Regent 
of France, 1422, died 1435. 

BEDFORD, late Duke of, died 
Oct. 20, 1830, in his seventy-fourth 
year. 

BEDFORD, sixty houses at, destroy- 
ed by fire. May 25, 1812. 

BEDLOE, Capt. William, infa- 
mous for perjury, died 1680. 

BEER. See Ale. By the statute 
of James L one full quart of the best 
beer or ale was to be sold for one penny, 
and two quarts of small beer for one 



penny. The duties on beer from the 
years 1783, to 1786, produced7,308,655/. 
On malt for the same years, yielded 
6,156,020/. In 1788 the duties on beer 
were 1,666,152/ From Jan. 5, 1816, to 
Jan. 5, 1817, 9,881,772/. 

1830. The duties on ale and beer 
were repealed by 1 Will. iv. cap. 51. 
In the same year another act received 
the sanction of the- legislature. This 
was the Act 1 Will. iv. cap. 64, entitled, 
" An Act to permit the general sale of 
beer and cider by retail in England." 
Under its provisions, which came into 
operation Oct. 10, 1830, any person 
could obtain a license to sell ale, beer, 
and porter by retail. Previously, the 
justices of the peace were alone em- 
powered to grant licenses for the sale of 
malt liquor. By this act another class 
of dealers in beer was created, inde- 
pendent of the magistracy, and deriving 
their privilege from an excise license 
costing two guineas, and renewable 
annually. 

1834. An act was passed (4 and 5 
Will. iv. cap. 85) introducing some new 
regulations. Each beer-seller was in 
future to obtain his license only on con- 
dition of placing in the hands of the 
Excise a certificate of good character 
from six of the rated inhabitants of his 
parish. In Esse.v, Suffolk, Uxbndge, 
York, Lincoln, and several other agri- 
cultural districts, there was in 1837 an 
increased consumption of malt, though 
on the total consumption of England 
there was a diminution to the extent 
of 1,661,043 bushels. 

Since 1838, the increase of beer-shops 
in England has been 31-32 per cent., 
and in Kent and Sussex, 30-90 per 
cent. From these two counties there 
are gratifying statements of the growth 
of provident habits, and there is nothing 
in this statement which is inconsistent 
with the increase of properly-regulated 
places for the sale of beer by retail 
dealers. Crime has also diminished. 
The proportion of offenders was 9 per 
cent, less in 1837 than in any previous 
year since 1830; and yet the beer-shops 
have increased from 1,508 in 1834 to 
1,974 in 1837 ; the number of licensed 
victuallers and licensed retailers together 
having been 3,907 in 1834 ; 4,205 m 
1835 ; 4,447 in 1836 ; and 4,496 in 
1837. 



BEE 



&7 



BEE 



The quantity of the different sorts of ])eer made in England and Wales in 
each year from 1787 to 1825, is as follows: — 



Years ending 








5th July: iStrong Beer Barrels. 


TableBeei- Barrels. 


Small Beer Barrels. 


1787 


4,426,482 


43.'5,620 


1,342,301 , 


1788 


4,304,895 


524,176 


1,334,947 


1789 


4,437,831 


.514,900 


1,244,046 


1790 


4,525,950 


546,260 


1,282,157 


1791 


4,754,588 


579,742 


1,347,086 


1792 


5,082,293 


625,260 


1,401,870 


1793 


5,167,850 


620,207 


1,414,255 


1794 


5,011,320 


586,551 


1,464,939 


1795 


5,037,804 


576,464 


1,453,036 


1796 


5,504,453 


565,630 


1,479,130 


1797 


5,839,627 


584,422 


1,518,512 


1798 


5,784,467 


622,064 


1,547,570 


1799 


5,774,311 


611,151 


1,597,139 


1800 


4,824,306 


574,995 


1,360,502 


1801 


4,734,574 


500,025 


1,191,930 


1802 


5,345,844 


392,022 


976,787 


1803 


5,582,516 


1,660,828 




1804 


5,262,623 


1,779,570 




1805 


5,412,131 


1,776,807 




1806 


5,443,502 


1,771,754 




1807 


5,777,176 


1,732,710 




1808 


5,571,360 


1,710,243 




1809 


5,513,111 


1,682,899 




1810 


5,735,319 


1,635,588 




1811 


5,902,903 


1,649,564 




1812 


5,860,869 


1,593,395 




1813 


5,382,946 


1,455,759 




1814 


5,624,015 


1,432,729 




1815 


6,150,544 


1,518,302 




1816 


5,982,379 


1,514,867 




1817 


5,236,048 


1,453,960 




1818 


5,364,009 


1,434,642 




1819 


5,629,240 


1,460,244 




1820 


5,296,701 


1,444,290 




1821 


5,575,830 


1,439,970 




1822 


5,712,937 


1,492,281 




1823 


6,177,271 


1,419,589 




. 1824 


6,188,271 


1,401,021 




1825 


6,500 664 


1,485,750 





It appears from the foregoing table 
that the quantity of strong beer manu- 
factured by the public brewers had in- 
creased about a third since 1787; but 
the quantity of malt consumed in 1787, 
was quite as great as in 1828; a fact, 
which shows conclusively, either that the 
quality of the beer brewed in the public 
breweries has been deteriorated since 
1787, or that less, comparatively, is now 



brewed in private families, or. which is 
most probable, that both effects have 
been produced. 

BEES, Ruber's discoveries and ex- 
periments 1793; new observations, 1821. 

BEES, St. college, for the education 
of candidates for holy orders in the four 
northern dioceses, 1817. 

BEES Prioky, Cumberland, found- 
ed, 1120. 



BEL 88 

BEESTON Castle. Cheshire, built 
by Randal Bundeville, 1220. 
BEETHOVEN, Ludwig Von, the 

celebrated German composer, born 1770, 
at Baun, Germany, where his father was 
the tenor singer in the elector's chapel. 
In 1792 he was sent to Vienna, as court 
organist, under the celebrated Haydn. 
In 1809, the archduke Rodolph and the 
princess Lobkowitz and Kinsky settled 
upon him an annuity of 4,000 florins, 
£400 a year. Nevertheless, the latter 
period of his life was passed almost in a 
state of destitution. Some benevolent 
friends in England raised a subscription 
for him early in the year 1827; he died 
at Vienna March 31 of the same year, 
aged fifty-seven. 

BEGGARS, relieved by act of par- 
liament, 1496. 

BEGGING Friars established in 
France, 1587. 

BEGUINES, an order of religious, 
began, 1208. 

BEHEADING of noblemen first 
introduced into England, 1074. 

BEHiMEN, Jacob, called the Teu- 
tonic Philosopher, a remarkable vision- 
ary, born in a village of Germany near 
Gorhtz, in 1575. He died 1624. 

BE H RINGS Straits, explored and 
designated by a Danish Navigator in the 
service of Russia, whose name it bears. 
Behring thus estabUshed the fact that 
the continent of Asia and America are 
not united, but are distant from each 
other about thirty-nine mUes. 

BELFAST, long bridge at, built 1782. 
Bank built 1787 ; riot at, July 1835. 

BELGIUM, originally part of the 
territory of the Belgae, conquered by the 
Romans, a.c. 47. It consists of ten 
provinces, a part of those anciently 
called the Netherlands, divided between 
the Dutch, the Austrians, and the 
French. See Netherlands. 

After the French Revolution, Belgium 
was incorporated with France, and divid- 
ed into nine departments; but on the abdi- 
cation of Buonaparte, and the restoration 
of legitimate authority in France and 
Holland, 1813, it was transferred to the 
house of Orange by a revolution com- 
menced at Brussels Aug. 25. Separated, 
by another revolution, from HoUandOct. 
1830. The Belgians elected Leopold king 
June 4, 1831. July 21, Leopold I. made 
his entrance into Brussels, after a most 
triumphant progress through his domi- 
nions from Ostend, where he landed 



BEL 

from England. On the 22d, his in- 
auguration took place, and, in the pre- 
sence of the congress, he took the oaths 
to preserve and defend the Belgic con- 
stitution. 

Aug. 3. The king of the Nether- 
lan(is having endeavoured to subdue the 
Belgians, resumed war against them, 
and obtained several advantages over 
the Belgic troops. King Leopold ap- 
plied for protection to the Five Powers 
under whose auspices the settlement of 
the differences between the two states 
was proceeding. France immediately 
despatched 50,000 men to his assistance; 
upon which, on the 13th, the king of 
the Netherlands agreed to withdraw 
his troops, and consented to an ar- 
mistice. 

Oct. 20. In the Belgian Chamber 
of Representatives, the Secretary for Fo- 
reign Affairs sul)mitted the protocol 
agreed upon by the plenipotentiaries of 
the Five Powers respecting the terms 
of the division of Belgium and Holland, 
which is declared to be final, and to be 
enforced by the whole of the subscri- 
bing powers. 

Nov. 3. The Belgian Congress, after 
several days debate, adopted the articles 
of separation from Holland proposed to 
them by the conference, by a majority 
of 35 to 8 ; but they were not accedea 
to by the House of Holland. 

Nov. 13, 1832. The Belgian Cham- 
bers opened by the king in person. 
His Majesty announced the recognition 
of Belgium as an independent state, by 
the leading powers of Europe ; and 
likewise his recent marriage with one 
of the daughters of the king of France, 
He also alluded to the situation of their 
affairs with regard to Holland, of 
which, however, he declared his confi- 
dence of obtaining, a satisfactory settle- 
ment. 

Same day, the French army, com- 
manded by Marshal Gerard, entered 
Belgium, and, marching directly for- 
ward, encamped before the citadel of 
Antwerp. The marshal having formally 
summoned Genera] Chasse, the gover- 
nor, to surrender, hostilities commenced 
on the 30th, by the Dutch garrison 
firing on the besiegers. 

Dec. 24. The citadel of Antwerp 
having been battered and bombarded by 
the French, tiU it was no longer tenable. 
General Chasse surrendered it to the 
French commander. Baron Chass^ and 



BEL S9 

the garrison were held as prisoners of 
war till the surrender of Lello and 
Leifkenshock, two other Belgian for- 
tresses on the Scheldt, in the possession 
of the Dutch. The king of Holland 
having refused to allow of the surrender 
of these forts, the garrison were marched 
into France, and the French army pro- 
ceeded immediately to evacuate Bel- 
gium. 

1832. A new treaty called the 24 
Articles, was proposed by the Five Pow- 
ers, by which, as the basis of separation, 
a certain portion of the Duchy of Lux- 
emburgh was definitively assigned to the 
king of Holland as Grand Duke, (no 
right of redemption being any longer 
reserved to Belgium) together with the 
entire sovereignty of Maestricht, and a 
considerable part of Limburgh. It was, 
moreover, determined, that Belgium 
should contribute 8,400,000 florins an- 
nually, as her share of the joint debt of 
the two countries. The king of Hol- 
land obstinately refused his concurrence, 
and for several ensuing years, the matter 
remained unadjusted. 

At length, in March 1838, the king of 
Holland, through his ambassador, inti- 
mated to the Conference at London his 
entire assent, upon his part, to the con- 
ditions of separation which the courts of 
Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, 
and Russia, had declared to be unalter- 
able and irrevocable. His Majesty, 
therefore, declared his readiness to ac- 
cept the 24 articles. 

1839. Treaty signed, April 19, ratifi- 
cation exchanged June 8. 

BELGRADE, one of the most im- 
portant cities in the north of the Turkish 
empire. Being situated on the frontier 
of Hungary, it has borne a conspicuous 
part in almost every contest between the 
two great powers of Austria and Turkey. 
It has been occupied successively by the 
Visigoths, Huns, Goths, Greeks, and 
Austrian s. In 1442 and 1456, it was 
besieged by the Turks, and in 1521 
taken by Solyman II. In 1668 it was 
seized by the Imperialists, but wrested 
from them by the Turks in 1690. Prince 
Eugene made himself master of Bel- 
grade in 1717, when the Turks lost 
20,000 men. At the peace of Passa- 
rowitz, it was allowed to remain in the 
hands of the Austrians, who, however, 
were unable to hold it longer than after 
the year 1739. By the conditions of 



BEL 



the peace of Belgrade, made m the same 
year, the Porte was permitted to retain 
the possession, provided the fortifica- 
tions erected during Austrian occupancy 
were immediately demoUshed, which 
was accordingly done, after the con- 
stant exertion of nine months on the 
part of as many persons as could be 
conveniently occupied at the task. On 
March 19, 1765, more than half the 
city was destroyed by fire. In 1789, it 
was taken by General Laudon, but re- 
stored to the Porte at the peace of 
Szistowe, in 1791. In 1806, it was 
seized by the revolutionary Servians, 
but upon their suppression, it was re- 
occupied by the Turks. 

BELISARIUS, a celebrated Roman 
general who flourished under the Em- 
peror Justinian, in the sixth century. In 
533 the supreme command of the fleet 
and army destined for the African war 
was delegated to Belisarius, who invaded 
Sicily, 535, which he succeeded in re- 
storing to the subjection of the Romans. 
He then proceeded to Rome, which svir- 
rendered without opposition, Dec. 10, 
536. In 563 he was falsely accused of 
a conspiracy against the emperor. He 
died of resentment and grief, 564. 

BELL, Rev. Dr. Andrew, author 
of the Madras system of education, 
born in 1753, died 1832. Shortly pre- 
vious to his death, he had transferred 
very large sums to diflferent bodies for 
the promotion of the improvement and 
diffusion of education. Among the 
sums so applied, were upwards of 
£100,000 for the establishment of schools 
in the towri of St. Andrew's where he 
was born, and £10,000 to the British 
Naval school. 

BELL, John, an eminent surgeon, 
died 1820. 

BELL of the church of Notre Dame, 
baptized and received the names of the 
duke and duchess of Angouleme ; the 
prince de Foix and duchess de Dames 
being proxies, Nov. 15, I8I6. 

BELL, Book, and Candle, swearing 
by, originated in the manner of the 
Pope's blessing the world yearly, from 
the balcony of St, Peters, at Rome. He 
holds a wax taper lighted; a cardinal 
reads a curse on all heretics, and no 
sooner is the last word uttered, than the 
bell tolls, and the pope changes the 
curse into a blessing, throwing down 
his taper among the people. 

N 



BEL 

BELLAIR, North Ahierica, attacked 
unsuccessfully by the 'British, and Sir 
Peter Parker killed, Aug. 30, IS 14. 

BELLAMY, Thomas, bom at Kings- 
ton-on-Thames, 17-44, and after twenty 
years in business as a hosier, he pro- 
jected the " General Magazine," and the 
" Monthly Mirror," and devoted the 
whole of his time to hterature, under the 
auspices of Harrison, the bookseller, 
and friend of Montgomerj', the poet. 
He was a man of original genius and 
talent, author of several elegant poetical 
eflusions and some dramatic pieces. 

BELLARMIN, Cardinal, one of 
the ablest controversial writers among 
the Roman Catholics, bom in Tuscany 
1542. In 1576 he read lectures at 
Rome with such applause, that Sixtus 
V. sendmg a legate into France in 1590, 
appointed him as a di\-ine. In 1599, he 
was made a cardinal, and died 1621. 
He left, at his death, to the Virgin Mary 
one half of his soul, and to Jesus Christ 
the other. 

BELLA Y, French poet, bom 1524, 
died 1561. 

BELLEISLE. An engagement took 

Elace oflf this island in the year 1759, 
etween the Enghsh fleet, under Hawke, 
and the French, commanded by Con- 
flans, when the latter were defeated. 
It was taken by the English in the year 
1761, but restored to France at the 
peace of Fontainbleau. 

BELLINGHAM, Northumberland, 
twenty-five houses at, destroyed by fire, 
Aug. 25, 1750. 

BELLINGHAM, John, shot Spen- 
cer Perceval, prime minister of Great 
Britain, in the lobby of the House of 
Commons. May 11, ISll. 

BELLINI, a musical composer, au- 
thor of I. Puritani, died 1S35. 

BELLOWS, invented a. c. 554. 

BELLMEN, first appointed in Lon- 
don 1556. They were to ring their bells 
at night, and cry. — " Take care of yom- 
fire and candle, be charitable to the 
poor, and pray for the dead." 

BELLROCK Light-house, Scot- 
land, finished Feb. 12, 1811. See Light- 
house. 

BELLS, invented by Paulinus, bishop 
of Nola, in Campagnia, about 400 ; 
first known in France, 550 ; first used 
by the Greek empire, S64. 

Bells were introduced into monaste- 
ries in the seventh or eighth centurj-. 



90 BEL 

Pope Stephen III. placed three bells in 
a tower on St. Peter's at Rome. They 
were introduced in the churches of 
Europe, 900. The first tuneable set in 
England, were hung up in Croyland 
abbey in Lincolnshire, 960. They were 
first generally introduced into Switzer- 
land, 1020. Used to be baptized in 
churches, 1030. 

ITie following are the weights of the 
principal bells in Europe : — 

lbs. 

Empress Anne's, Moscow 432,000 

Boris Godinuf s, ditto 288,000 

Novogorod great bell 70,000 

Ambrise bell, Rou^n 40,000 

Vienna bell, cast from Turkish 

cannon 40,200 

Erfurt, Prussian Saxony 30,000 

Great Tom, of Oxford 18,000 

St. Paul's, London 1 1,400 

Ghent, Flanders 11,000 

Great Tom, of Lincoln 10,400 

Worcester great bell 6,600 

York ditto 6,600 

Gloucester ditto 6,000 

BELSHAM, Rev. Thomas, Unita- 
rian minister, and author of the " Calm 
Inquiry into the Scripture Doctrine of 
the Saviour," died 1S29. 

BELTON, Rutlandshire, 27 houses, 
with their offices, destroyed by fire. 
May 27, 1776, 

BELUS, according to some, the Nira- 
rod of Scripture, began the kingdom 
of Babylon, a. c. 2245. According to 
others, Belus, tbe Assyrian began to 
reign at Ninevah a.c. 2124, and during 
55 years extended his conquests and 
territory- on ever)' side. 

BELVOIR Castle. Greater part of 
this noble seat of the Duke of Rutland 
destroved by fire, Oct. 28, 18 16, 

BELZONI, the Egjptian traveller, 
bom in Italy about 1795. Arrived' in 
England in IS 13, and for some time 
procured a livelihood by exhibitmg ex- 
periments in hydraulics, &c. Embarked 
from Malta for Egypt about 18 16, where 
he remained several years, and disco- 
vered many remains of Egj'ptian an. 
tiquity. 

1820. He returned to England with 
numerous and important remains, among 
which, was the colossal bust of Memnon. 
During the years 1821 and 1822, these 
were exhibited at the Gothic Hall, PaU 
Mall, London. Set out for Africa 1S22 
to join the other travellers, Clapperton 



BEN 91 

and Denham, at Haussa. He was at- 
tacked with dysentery at Benin, (on his 
way to Haussa and Timbuctoo) Nov. 
26, 1823, and died at Gate, Dec. 3; was 
buried at Gato Dec. 4. 

BEMBO, cardinal of Venice, died 
1547, aged 77. 

BENBOW, Admiral, fought the 
French off Carthagena, 1702. Having 
had his leg shattered in that engage- 
ment, he died of his wounds the 4th of 
November following. Five captains 
under Admiral Benbow, were tried at 
Port Royal, in Jamaica, for cowardice 
in this engagement, when tn'o were shot 
on their return to England. 

BENDER, a city in European Russia. 
In 1709, it became the retreat of Charles 
Xn. of Sweden, after his disastrous 
defeat at Pultowa, where he remained 
until 1711. In 1770 it was taken by 
storm by the Russians, under General 
Panim, who butchered the greater part 
of the inhabitants, at that time amount- 
ing to 30,000 individuals, nearly half of 
whom were soldiers, and reduced the 
city to ashes. At the peace of Kay- 
nardgi, it was restored to the Turks ; 
but on Nov. 15, 17S9, the Russians 
again took possession of the place. They 
finally made themselves masters of it a 
third time, and retained it at the peace 
of 1812. 

BENEDETTO. See Castiglione. 

BENEDICT, St. founder of the Be- 
nedictines, born in Italy about 480; died 
546, aged 66. 

BENEDICTINT:S, founded about 
528, introduced into England 596, mo- 
nasteries destroj^ed under Henry VIII., 
re-established at Douay in the Nether- 
lands in I6O8. 

BENEFICES, began, about 500. 
The number in England and Wales, is 
10,674 benifices and parochial chapel- 
ries, with 649 chapels not parochial, 
and 227 new cturches and chapels, 
erected under the authority of the 
Church Building Acts. The number of 
Irish benefices is 2,168. In England, 
theii" patronage, or gift, is as follows : — 

Befitories. Vicarages, 

Of the crown 558 490 

the bishops 592 709 

deans and chapters 190 792 
the University of 

Oxford 202 112 

the University of 

Cambridge 152 131 



BEN 

Collegiate Esta- Rect. Vic. 

blishments 39 107 

In corporations .. .3444 3175 
The number of benefices, churches, 
and chapels, in the respective dioceses 
is as follows, — 

Benefices. Churches Sf 
Chapels, 

Asaph, St 160 143 

Bangor .. 131 - 193 

Bath and Wells 440 493 

Bristol 255 306 

Canterbury 343 374 

Carhsle. 128 129 

Chester 616 631 

Chichester 266 302 

Davids, St 457 561 

Durham 175 214 

Ely 156 160 

Exeter 607 711 

Gloucester 283 330 

Hereford 326 360 

Llandaff 194 228 

Litchfield & Coventry 623 655 

Lincoln 1273 1377 

London 577 689 

Norwich ....1076 1210 

Oxford 208 237 

Peterborough 305 338 

Rochester 93 111 

Salisbuiy 408 474 

Winchester 389 464 

Worcester . 222 260 

York 825 876 

In Ireland, the patronage of 2,073 
of the benefices is as follows : — 

Rectories 4" Vicarages. 

Of the crown 293 

The Bishops 1,392 

Impropriators 367 

Dublin Universitj' 21 

The crown has also the patronage of 
the bishoprics, the deaneries, prebends, 
&:c. The annual incomes of the English 
livings are, — 

290 under £50 a year, 
1,621 of £50 and under £100 a year 

1,591 .. 100 150 

1,355 .. 150 200 

1,964 . . 200 300 

1,317 .. 300 400 

830 . . 400 500 

504 . . 500 600 

337 . . 600 700 

247 . . 700 800 

129 .. 800 900 

91 . . 900 1,000 

137 . . 1,000 1,500 

31 .. 1,500 .. , 2,000 

18 . . 2,000 and upwards 



BEN 92 

The English benefices are held by in- 
dividuals in the following proportions : — 
Number of Livings held 

individuals. by each 

1 11 

1 8 

5 7 

12 6 

64 5 

209 4 

567 3 

2,027 2 

4,305 1 

The 2,073 Irish hvings are held by 
about 700 individuals. 

The income of the English church, 
viz., £9,500,000, is shared among less 
than 8,000 individuals; that of the Irish 
church, or £1,500,000, is shared among 
about 3,000 individuals. 

BENEFICENCE, Society of, esta- 
blished in Holland, for the amelioration 
of the condition of the poor, in 1818. 

BENEFIT OF Clergy. By the statute 
7 and 8 Geo. iv. c. 27- passed June 21, 
1827, various statutes in England, relative 
to the benefit of clergy, and to larceny, 
and other offences connected therewith, 
and to malicious injuries to property, and 
to remedies against the hundred, are re- 
pealed. See Clergy, Benefit of. 

BENEFIT Societies' Act, passed, 
1795. 

BENEVENTO, seized by the king ot 
Naples from the Pope, in 1768. 

BENGAL, formerly a province of the 
Mogul empire, first known to Europeans 
in 1517, when some Portuguese, ac- 
cording to their history, were thrown on 
the coast by a tempest. Mohammed 
Buktyar Khillijee invaded Bengal, drove 
out the native sovereign, and assumed 
the government himself, 1203. Erected 
into an independent kingdom, 1340, 
which existed until 1533, when it again 
became an appendage to the throne of 
Delhi. 

1634. The British obtained permis- 
sion to trade to Bengal, but were re- 
stricted to the port of Pipley in Orissa, 
where they established their factory. In 
1656, owing to extortion and oppression, 
the company withdrew their factories. 
In 1664, the French and Danes esta- 
bhshed themselves here. In 1678, the 
British appear to have returned, and, in 
1681, Bengal was constituted a distinct 
agency. In I696, the Dutch atChinsura, 
the French at Chandernagore, and the 
British at Chattanuttee, were permitted 



BEN 

to raise regular fortifications to protect 
their possessions. In 1706, the whole 
stock of the East India Company had 
been removed to Calcutta, where the 
garrison consisted of 129 soldiers. In 
1740, the empire of Delhi was virtually 
annihilated. 

1756. Seraje-ud-Dowlah took un- 
disputed possession of Bengal, Bahar, 
and a portion of Orissa; and on June 
20, in the same year, he captured Cal- 
cutta and shut up his prisoners, 146 in 
number, in the black hole, a room 20 
feet square, where all except 23 perished 
in one night. See Calcutta. In 1757, 
Calcutta was re-taken by the British, 
and from this era may be dated the 
commencement of the British govern- 
ment of this province, although the 
dewanny, or authority to collect the 
revenue, was not obtained from Delhi 
until 1765. In 1768 and 1769, the crops 
proved scanty, and scarcely any rain 
having fallen in October, of the latter 
year, the December crop totally failed, 
which caused a most dreadful and deso- 
lating famine, during which the child 
fed on its parent, and the mother on her 
child; the number cut off by this scourge 
exceeded 3,000,000. In 1772, the osten- 
sible seat of government was removed to 
Calcutta ; English supervisors were sent 
into the districts to superintend the col- 
lection of the revenue, which hitherto 
had been done by natives; the direct 
authority of the British now pervaded 
the interior in the civil administration 
of justice, and the native government 
was abrogated, with the exception of 
criminal jurisprudence, which was still 
exercised by the nabob; who abused his 
power by vesting his authority in some 
Mohammedan delegate, who filled the 
inferior courts by sale. This destructive 
system soon became insupportable, and, 
m 1786, during the administration of 
Lord Cornwallis, the nabob was induced 
to appoint the governor-general in coun- 
cil his delegate in the office of supreme 
criminal judge. At the same period the 
land revenue was permanently fixed, 
and British power predominated in every 
department. 

1834. On the renewal of the charter 
of the East India Company, the commer- 
cial character of that great establishment 
was resigned, and its political authority 
only, continued in Bengal. The East 
India trade is now open to all British 
subjects and vessels without restriction. 



BEN 



BENGAN, on the Danube, was taken 
by the French, September 16, 1747. 

BENIN, a kingdom. Western Africa, 
coast of Guinea, extending along the 
coast from the river Lagos to cape For- 
mosa, first explored by Alfonso de Aveiro, 
in 1486. Described by Adams, who 
visited it about 1812. 

BENNETT, Timothy, one of Gilbert 
Wakefield's " Two Village Hampdens," 
who by his public spirit, compelled Lord 
Halifax, the ranger of Bushy Park, to 
re-open the footpath from the village 
of Hampton Wick to Kingston-upon- 
Thames, through that park, which had 
been shut up from the public for several 
years. The other village patriot was 
Lewis Richmond, who nobly resisted 
some meditated royal encroachments. 

BENSERADE, the French poet, born 
1612, died 1691. 

BENTHAM, Edward, English di- 
vine, and writer of the history of Ely 
cathedral, died 1776. 

BENTHAM, Jeremy, an eminent 
English lawyer, born 1747, died 1832. 
He was an eccentric character during 
his life, and at his death his body was 
bequeathed to Dr. Southwood Smith, 
for the service of anatomy. 

BENTIVOGLIO, Cardinal, author 
of the " Civil Wars of Flanders," born 
1579, died 1644, aged 65. 

BENTLEY Richard, a very eminent 
critic, born at Oulton, near Wakefield, 
■ in Yorkshire, January 27, 1661-2. In 
1691-2, hepublished his first work, which 
was a Latin epistle to Dr. Mill, contain- 
ing, " Critical Observations on Malala's 
Chronicon." In 1692, he was installed 
a prebend of Worcester; and in the 
following year he was appointed keeper 
of the royal library at St. James's. In 
1696, he was admitted to the degree of 
doctor of divinity in the university of 
Oxford. In 1697, he published "Disser- 
tations on the Epistles of Themistocles, 
Socrates, Euripides, Phalaris, and the 
Fables of Msop." This publication was 
succeeded by a literary controversy with 
Mr. Boyle, on " The genuineness of the 
Epistles of Phalaris," which engaged at 
the time a great degree of public atten- 
tion. In 1711, he published his edition 
of " Horace," said to be the most com- 
plete work produced by criticism since 
the restoration of learning. In I7l6, 
Dr. Bentley was appointed regius pro- 
fessor of divinity. In 1726, he published 
an edition of " Terence and Phsedrus;" 



93 BER 

and in 1732, the last of his works, which 
was his edition of " Milton's Paradise 
Lost." He died July 14, 1742, aged 81. 

BENYOWSKI, Count, a singular 
Hungarian adventurer, born 1741, slain 
1786. 

BERCROFT'S Almshouses, Mile 
End, Middlesex, built 1785. 

BERCHEM, OR Berghem, a cele- 
brated Dutch painter of landscapes and 
cattle, born 1624, died 1689. 

BERENGER, principal of the public 
school at ToLu-s, and archbishop of An- 
gers, was much celebrated for his oppo- 
sition to the doctrine of transubstantia- 
tion as early as the year 1045. Pope 
Nicholas II. summoned him to Rome, 
1058, and in the council which was held 
there the following year, so terrified 
him, that he declared his readiness to 
embrace and adhere to the doctrines 
which that venerable assembly should 
think proper to impose upon his faith. 
The remainder of his life for 30 years 
exhibited the same vacillation of mind 
which he had already manifested. He 
died in 1088. 

BERE-REGIS, Dorsetshire, 42 dwel- 
lings at, with outhouses, destroyed by 
fire, June 8, 1788. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, taken by the 
French, September 16, 1747, again 1794. 
Attempt by the British to carry the 
place by storm defeated, March 8, 1814. 

BERGHAMABBEY,Sussex,builtl 160. 

BERGMAN, a celebrated Swedish 
chemist, a native of Catharineberg, in 
West Gothland. Bom in 1735, and re- 
ceived his education at the university of 
Upsal. In l76l he was appointed pro- 
fessor of mathematics and natural philo- 
sophy at Upsal, and in 1767, on the 
resignation of Wallerius, he obtained 
the professorship of chemistry in the 
face of a violent opposition ; a situation 
which he filled during seventeen years, 
with the greatest credit to himself, and 
advantage to the science. He deter- 
mined the true nature of fixed air, and 
died in 1784. 

BERIOT Madame Malibran db, 
the celebrated singer, who had been 
taken ill during one of her performances 
at the Manchester musical festival, died 
September 23, 1836, aged 28. 

BERKELEY, George, the celebrated 
bishop of Cloyne, in Ireland, was born 
at Kilcrin, near Thomastown, in the 
county of Kilkenny. Became a fellow 
of Trinity college, Dublin, in 1707. In 



BER 



94 



BER 



1717, created doctor of divinity by di- 
ploma. In 1721, obtained the deanery 
of Down. In May, 1734, he was con- 
secrated bishop of Cloyne, and vacated 
his deanery. On that occasion he said 
to his few intimates, " I will neA'er ac- 
cept of a translation." He adhered to 
this resolution to the end of his life, 
though he was offered the vacant see of 
Clogher, of more than double the value 
of Cloyne. In 1751, he removed to 
Oxford, to superintend the education of 
his son, where he died, January 14, 
1753. Few persons were ever held in 
higher estimation by those who knew 
him than this excellent prelate, whose 
worth was of so high a standard as to 
render the praise of Pope scarcely hyper- 
bolical, when he ascribes 

" To Berkeley every virtue under heaven." 

His principal works were, " An Essay 
towards a new Theory of Vision," " The 
Principles of Human Knowledge," "Al- 
ciphron, or the Minute Philosopher," 
"The Analyst," and the " Querist." A 
complete edition of his works, with an 
account of his life, and several letters, 
was published in two quarto volumes 
in 1784. 

BERKELEY, Judge, arrested on his 
seat in the court of King's Bench, and 
sent to prison for giving his opinion in 
favour of ship-money, February 10, 1640. 

BERKLEY Castle, Gloucestershire, 
began by Henry I., 1108; finished by 
Henry II. 

BERLIN, founded in 1163, by Albert, 
the Bear, and settled by emigrants from 
Holland. It was taken by the Austrians 
and Russians in 1760, and occupied by 
Napoleon in I8O6, after the battle of Jena 
In 1828, the annual meeting of German 
naturalists for the promotion of natural 
science was held here, the president, 
Alexander Von Humboldt. 

BERLIN coach, invented 1509. 

BERLIN decree, issued by Buona- 
parte, declaring the British territories in 
a state of blockade, and interdicting the 
whole world from having any commu- 
nication with them, November 21, 1806, 
revoked as to America, April 28, 1812. 

BERLIN University, founded by 
the king of Prussia, 1809. 

BERMUDAS, or Somers' Islands, in 
the Atlantic ocean, discovered by Juan 
Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522 ; and, in 
1602, Sir George Somers, an English- 
man, being wrecked here, his crew form- 
ed the first settlement, and since that 



time they have belonged to England. 
During the civil war in England many 
withdrew from their native country to 
these islands ; amongst the number was 
the poet Waller, who celebrated the 
praises of the land of his exile in pa- 
triotic measures. 

1813. Hurricane at Bermuda, by 
which one-third of the houses were de- 
stroyed, and all the vessels in the har- 
bour, except two, driven ashore or sunk, 
July 26. On April 3, 1 834, ( he House of 
Assembly passed a resolution, declaring 
slavery, without any modification of ap- 
prenticeship, abolished in the colony, 
from August 1, following. 

BERNADOTTE, General, elected 
crown prince of Sweden, 1810; con- 
cluded a treaty of subsidy and amity with 
Great Britain, 1812. At the death of 
Charles XIII., he ascended the throne, 
1818. 

BERNARD St., born IO91, founded 
the abbey of Clairvaux, 1115, died 1153. 

BERNARD, St., of Savoy, the 
founder of a religious community, was 
born in the Genevois, in 903. Having 
witnessed the hardships and dangers en- 
countered by the pilgrims, in their pas- 
sage to Rome over the Alps, he founded 
two monastries, or hospitia, for their 
relief, on Mount-joux, called from him, 
" Great and Little St. Bernard." He 
died at Novara, at the age of 85, and was 
canonized by the Romish church. His 
institution has undergone a varity of 
vicissitudes, and lost great part of its 
riches ; but it still subsists, and is emi- 
nently useful to travellers. 

BERNARD, Dr. Edward, the as- 
tronomer, born 1638, died 1695. 

BERNARD, Peter Quesnel, a 
French writer, died 1773. 

BERNARD, Sir Thomas, an Eng- 
lish philanthropist, conductor of poor 
societies, died July 1, 1812. 

BERNARD, Sir John, statue erected 
on the exchange, died 1764, aged 80. 

BERNARD Castle, Durham, built 
1270.^ 

BERNE, in Switzerland, made an 
imperial city, 1290; ancient government 
of, overturned by the French ; re-esta- 
blished, December 24, 1813; the diet 
met here by rotation in 1835-6 ; at Lu- 
cerne in 1827-8. 

BERNO, Italian poet, poisoned 1536. 

BERNOULLI, James, a celebrated 
mathematician born at Basil, December 
27; 1654. Having taken his degrees at 



BER 



95 



BER 



the university of Basil, he applied him- 
self to divinity, not so much from in- 
clination as from deference to his father, 
who had designed him for the church. 
But his predilection for the mathematics 
induced him to make it his constant 
study, in opposition to his father's wishes, 
so that he soon became a geometrician, 
without any assistance from masters, 
and at first almost without books. In 
1676, he composed universal gnomonic 
tables, but they were never published. 
In 1687, he was made professor of ma- 
thematics at Basil. In 1699. he was 
admitted into the academy of sciences 
at Paris as a foreign member, and in 
1701, the same honour was conferred 
upon him by the academy of Berlin. He 
died A.ugust 16, 1705, aged 58. 

BERNOULLI, John, the brother of 
the above, and no less celebrated as a 
mathematician, was born at Basil in 
1667- Received the degree of doctor m 
philosophy in 1685. He was a member 
of most of the academies of Europe, and 
received as a foreign associate of that of 
Paris in 1699- He died 1748, aged 81. 

BERNOULLI, Daniel, a celebrated 
physician and philosopher, and s(m of 
the preceding, born at Groningen, Feb- 
ruary 9, 1700. In 1748, he succeeded 
his father in the academy of sciences. 
He died in 1782. 

BEROSUS, the Chaldean historian, 
flourished, a.c. 268. 

BERRETINI, an Italian, and an ex- 
cellent painter of history and landscapes, 
born 1596, died 1669. 

BERRI, Duke de, assassinated at 
Paris, February 13, 1820, by Louvel, a 
fanatic. 

BERRI, Duchess op, took part in 
the Carlist movements in France, 1832. 
Arrived at La Verdee in May. Imme- 
diately on ascertaining the presence of 
the duchess, a royal ordinance appeared 
on June 3, placing under martial law the 
departments of Maine and Loire, La 
Vendee, the. Loire Inferieure, and Deux 
Sevres. Issued proclamations in the 
name of her son as Henry V., and her- 
self as regent ; the royalist cause failing, 
she escaped in disguise. 

In the beginning of November, she 
came into Nantes, and on the morning 
ot the 6th, her house was surrounded 
by gendarmes, and searched. No person 
was found. The police was accompanied 
by masons to detect, by sounding the 
walls, private places of concealment, but 



none was discovered. In one apartment 
a corner was marked by a chimney, in 
which the gendarmes had lighted a fire 
during the night. It had been allowed 
to go out, bu was rekindled in the mor- 
ning. It was thought that the apparatus 
of the chimney was not precisely as it 
had been. The fire was raised higher ; 
voices were heard behind it. The in- 
mates of the secret recess, to- which it 
was the entrance, unable longer to en- 
dure the heat, came forth from their 
hiding place, and the duchess of Berri, 
with three of her ladies, was a prisoner. 
She behaved with great good humour 
and cheerfulness. They had remained 
fifteen hours in this narrow hole, too 
small to be called a closet. The duchess 
was immediately conveyed by sea to the 
castle of Blaye, on the banks of the 
Gironde, where she was treated with the 
civility, and accommodated with the 
comforts, which were demanded by her 
sex and rank, no less than by her spirit 
and fortitude, however imprudently di- 
rected. 

1833, February 22. Having beenfound 
pregnant in her prison at Blaye, she de- 
clared herself to have been secretly mar- 
ried in Italy. 

May 10. Delivered of a female child, 
on which occasion she declared herself 
the wife of Count Hector Luchesi Palli, 
gentleman of the chamber to the king 
of the Two Sicilies, and Neapolitan En- 
voy at the Hague. 

June 9. Liberated and sent off to 
Palermo, it being considered that the 
recent disclosures had nutralized her 
power of giving disturbance. 

1834, March 8. The duchess as guar- 
dian of the Duke of Bourdeaux, having 
appealed against the sequestration placed 
on the estate of Chambord, the civil 
tribunal of Blois delivered judgment, 
restoring the full possession of the do- 
main to the young prince. 

BERRY, Rear-Admiral Sir E., bom 
1769, died 1831. 

BERRY, Pomperoy, Castle, Devon, 
built 1070. 

BERTHIER, Marshal, prince of 
Wagram, threw himself from the win- 
dow of a house at Bamberg, and was 
killed, June 1, 1815. 

BERTH OLD, or Schwartz, a 
monk, who, mingling the ingredients of 
which gunpowder is composed, for a 
medicine in a mortar, and laying a stone 
upon it, it caught fire by his striking a 



B I B 



light near it, and blowing up the stone 
with violence the idea of gunpowder 
was suggested; died 1340. 

BERTHOLLET, Count, the French 
chemist, died 1822. 

BERTIN, N., an eminent French his- 
toric painter, born 1667, died 1736. 

BERWICK, Duke of, born 1670, 
killed at the siege of Philipsburg, June 
12 1734. 

BESANCON. Burgundy, university 
of, founded in 1540. 

BETHLEHEM Hospital, Moor- 
fields, built 1553, rebuilt 1675, pulled 
down 1818, and removed to Lambeth, 
being built on the site of the Dog and 
Duck gardens, and called "New Bethle- 
hem hospital," First stone laid, April 
20 1812. 

BETHLEHEMITES, religious sect, 
began 1248. 

BETTENSON, Mr., of Queen's 
square, left £30,000 to charitable uses, 
£10,000 of it to Mr. Hetherington's 
charity for the blind, October 28, 1788. 
BETTERTON, player, bom 1635, 
died 1605. 

BEVELAND, South, the island of, 
taken by the English, August 3, 1809. 

BEVERLEY Church, Yorkshire, 
built 711- 

BEVERLEY, near Nottingham, 14 
houses at, burnt March 19, 1816. 

BEVERTON Castle, Gloucester- 
shire, built 1076, 

BEZA, Theodore, one of the prin- 
cipal pillars of the reformed church, born 
at Vezelai, in Burgundy, 1519. In 1549, 
he accepted the Greek professorship at 
Lusanne. In 1571, he was chosen mo- 
derator of the national synod of Rochelle. 
In l600, he discontinued his public ad- 
dresses, and died October 13, 1605. 

BIANCHINI, aVeronese philosopher, 
founder of the academy of Altofili, born 
1662, died 1729. 

BIBLE. The word comes from the 
Greek Bi/3Xia, or BtjSXtov, used to denote 
any book ; but, by way ot eminence, 
apphed to the book of Scripture, which 
is " the book," or " book of books," as 
being superior in excellence to all other 
books. The list of the books contained 
in the Bible, is called the canon of 
Scripture. They are called canonical, 
by way of contradistinction from others 
called deutero-canonical, apocryphal, &c., 
which either are not acknowledged as 
divine books, or are rejected as heretical 
and spurious. See Apocrypha. 



95 BIB 

The first canon or catalogue of the 
sacred books was made by the Jews, but 
the original author of it is not satisfacto- 
rily ascertained; it is generally allowed to 
be by Ezra, about a.c. 445. The original 
language of the Bible is probably the 
Hebrew. The most ancient manuscripts 
were written between a.d. 900 and 1100 ; 
but though not more than eight or nine 
hundred years old, they were transcribed 
from others of a much more ancient 
date. The manuscript preserved in the 
Bodleian Library, Oxford, is not less 
than 800 years old. The most ancient 
printed Hebrew Bibles are those pub- 
lished by the Jews of Italy, especially 
those of Pisars and Bresse. The Chaldee 
Bibles are but expositions made by the 
Jews at the time when they spoke the 
Chaldee tongue, and, therefore, are most 
usually called by the name of Targu- 
mim, or paraphrases, as not being any 
strict version of the Scripture. The 
Targum of Jonathan Ben Uzziel, sup- 
posed to be done about 50, is a Chaldee 
paraphrase, rather than a version, on 
Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, 
Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve minor 
prophets. 

The Samaritan is ranked among 
the most ancient oriental versions, al- 
though neither its date nor author can 
with certainty be ascertained. It com- 
prehends only the Pentateuch, and has 
never been printed any where but in the 
London and Parisian Polyglots. 

TheSEPTUAGiNT. AccordingtoAris- 
tobulus, the Pentateuch and Joshua, 
if not other books also, must have been 
translated into Greek, before the time of 
Alexander the Great. The Septuagint, 
or Greek version ascribed to seventy 
interpreters, was not composed till long 
after. Josephus, Philo, Justin Martyr, 
Epiphanius, and others, say it was 
done by seventy- two Jewish transla- 
tors, at the request of Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus, king of Egypt, for the use of 
his library, 284. This version prepared 
the way for Christianity, and was very 
much used by the primitive churches, 
as well as among the Hellenistic 
Jews, 

The Copts, or remnant of the ancient 
Egyptians, have a very old translation 
of the Bible. The Old Testament is 
done with considerable exactness from 
the Alexandrian Septuagint. ITiere are 
several MS. copies of the Coptic Bible in 
public libraries. There was one much 



BIB 

esteemed in that of the late king of 
France, Louis XVI. The Gospels and 
Psalter have been recently printed by 
the Bible Society. 

English Bibles. Adelm, bishop of 
Sherbourn, made an English- Saxon ver- 
sion of the Psalms as early as 709 ; and 
Edfrid, or Ecbert, bishop of Lindisferne, 
translated several books of Scripture 
into the Anglo-Saxon about 730. It is 
said also, that Venerable Bede translated 
the whole Bible into that language prior 
to 785, in which year he died. In 699, 
a version of several books of the Bible 
was made by Elfric, Abbot of Mahns- 
bury : it was published at Oxford, and 
copies of it are still extant. One of the 
first attempts at a translation of the 
Scriptures into the English language, 
as spoken after the Norman conquest, 
appears to have been made by Richard 
Rolle, a hermit of Harapole, in York- 
shire, who translated the Psalter, and 
wrote a glossary upon it, and a metrical 
paraphrase of the book of Job ; he died 
in 1349. About 1360, John WickUfFe 
composed his version of the Scriptures, 
which was never printed, but is still ex- 
tant in manuscript in many of the pub- 
lic libraries. A translation, however, of 
the New Testament, by WickUfFe, was 
published about 1731. 

The first printed copies of the New 
Testament were of the translation of W. 
Tindall, assisted by Miles Coverdale, 
afterwards bishop of Exeter. It was 
printed abroad in 1526, but most of the 
copies were bought up and destroyed by 
bishop Tonstall and Sir Thomas More. 
It was, however, reprinted in 1530. In 
1532, Tindall and his colleagues com- 
pleted all thg canonical books, and 
printed them abroad in one volume. 
John Rogers, the protomartyr of queen 
Mary's reign, and Miles Coverdale, car- 
ried on the work, revising Tindall's 
translatiian by a careful comparison with 
the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, adding 
the Apocrypha and notes from Luther's 
Bible. Rogers had the work printed at 
Hamburgh, vmder the assumed name of 
Thomas Matthews, and hence it was 
called Matthews' Bible. It was further 
corrected by Cranmer and Coverdale. 
jCranmer added a preface to it, and had 
it printed in England, 1540; it was the 
first ever printed in this country, and is 
called Cranmer's Bible. By a royal 
proclamation, king Henry VIII. ordered 
a copy of it to be supplied to every 
church, and left open for the perusal of 



97 BIB 

all svho chose; it was afterwards sup- 
pressed by the same authority that gave 
it sanction. It was restored, under the 
authority of Edward VI., but again sup- 
pressed in the reign of queen Mary, 
and finally restored by queen Elizabeth, 
going through a new edition in 1562. 
When Coverdale, Cole, and others were 
exiles, they framed another translation, 
to which they added notes, and had it 
printed at Geneva. This was called the 
Geneva Bible, and was the first Bible in 
English in which any division was made 
of chapters into verses. 

1568. That version denominated the 
Bishops' Bible appeared. Archbishop 
Parker was desirous of superseding the 
Geneva Bible, and therefore, engaged 
the bishops, with other learned divines, 
to take each a portion to translate ; and 
these several parts were eventually 
brought together, and published in folio. 
In 1589, it was published in octavo, and 
the chapters divided into verses like the 
Geneva edition. 

1584. The Rheiraish New Testament 
was published. The English Roman 
Catholics at Rheims procured this to 
counteract the influence of the protestant 
versions. About 1609 or 1 6 10 the Ro- 
man catholics of England published a 
translation of the Old Testament at 
Douay. They have therefore now their 
own version of the whole Scriptures in 
the Enghsh language, but are forbidden 
to read it without a special permipsion 
first obtained 

The last English version of the whole 
Scriptures was that which resulted from 
the Hampton Court conference. The 
puritans on that occasion suggested un- 
answerable objections to the Bishops' 
Bible, and king James entertained an 
unconquerable aversion to the Geneva 
Fifty-four men of very considerable clas- 
sical learning were therefore, in 1604, 
nominated to produce a new translation, 
and, in 1607, forty-seven of them entered 
on the actual duties of their office. In 
three years their work was complete, 
and the new version made its appearance 
in 1610. This is the version still autho- 
rized in England by royal authority, 
and is esteemed, next to the Flemish, 
the best extant. Of this version the fol- 
lowing have been issued by the British 
and Foreign Bible Society up to the 
5'ear 1838 : English various editions 
3,208,150 Bibles, 3,626,055 Testaments. 
Total 6,834,205. Psalms 264,154. Gos- 
pels and Acts 5,198. 

o 



BIB 



98 



BIB 



Tlve following is an alphabetical list 
of the other principal translations and 
editions of the Scriptures : — 

Arabic. There is an Arabic trans- 
lation of a part of the Scriptures as early 
as 710. About the year 900, Saadiaa 
Gaon, a Jew, translated the Old Testa- 
ment into Arabic. There was an Arabic 
edition of the Old Testament printed at 
Rome in 1671, by order of the congrega- 
tion de propaganda fide ; it is not, how- 
ever, in much repute, having been alter- 
ed to correspond with the Vulgate. The 
British and Foreign Bible Society have 
issued an edition of the Arabic Bible, 
amounting to 30,558 copies. 

Armenian. The Armenians have a 
translation of the Old Testament done 
from the Septuagint by Moses Gram- 
maticus in the fifth century. In 1666, 
it was collated with, and altered from 
the Vulgate, and printed at Amsterdam 
under the direction of one of their 
bishops. The British and Foreign Bible 
Society have printed the entire Bilile in 
ancient Armenian, and the New Testa- 
ment in modern Arminian, (with ancient, 
in columns,) to be circulated in Armenia 
Proper; and prepared for the Armenians 
of Constantinople, Calcutta, &c.. They 
have also printed the New Testament 
in the Ararat Armenian, to be circulated 
around Mount Ararat, south of Georgia. 
Bohemian. The Bohemian Tabo- 
rites, about 1506, published a Bible in 
their language, done from the Vulgate. 
In the sixteenth c^ntuiy, eight Bohe- 
mian divines, having pre^nously qualified 
themselves by a course of study in the 
original languages at Wirtemberg and 
Basil, pubUshed a version of both Testa- 
ments from the original texts ; this was 
printed in Moravia, 1539. The British 
and Foreign i3ible Society have printed 
the entire Bible in Bohemian, for Tschehs 
of Bohemia, and Slovaks of Hungary. 

Calmuc. The society of united 
brethren at Sarepta, having begun a 
translation of the gospel of St. Matthew 
into this language, the whole New resta- 
ment was completed under the super- 
intendance of the British and Foreign 
Bible Society. As this dialect is likely 
to be understood by other Mongolian 
tribes in Siberia, and on the confines of 
China, the most beneficial eifects are 
anticipated. 

Chinese. The late Dr. Morison, of 
Canton, completed the translation of 
the Bible in the Chinese language { 



and the British and Foreign Bible So- 
ciety have printed the entire Bible 
(Morison's version) to be circulated in 
China Proper, and among the numerous 
Chinese in the Indian Archipelago, and 
the New Testament in the Mantchou, 
to be circulated in Mantchuria; it is 
also the court language in Pekin. 

Danish. In 1550, Peter Paladus, 
Olaus Chrysostom, John Synningius, 
and John Maccabaeus, published the 
first Danish Bible from the German of 
Martin Luther. In 1605, Paul Risenius, 
bishop of Zealand, published another 
Danish Bible; and, in 1624, John Michel 
published a Danish version of the New 
Testament. The British and Foreign 
Bible Society have also pubhshed several 
editions 

Dutch or Flemish. Bibles of tliis 
description done by Roman catholics are 
very numerous; but all of them are 
anonymous except that of Nicholas 
Vinck, printed at Louvaine in 1540. 
The Calvinists of the Low Countries 
used originally a version done from that 
of Luther; but, in 1618, the synod of 
Dort appointed deputies to produce a 
new Flemish translation from the original 
languages. This was published in 1637, 
and is considered a remarkably correct 
version. The British and Foreign Bible 
Society have published the entire Bible 
in Dutch, to be circulated in Holland 
and Dutch colonies ; and in Flemish, to 
be circulated in Belgium. 

French. There are three ancient 
French translations. The first by Peter 
de Vaux, chief of the Waldenses, pub- 
lished in 1160. The next in 1290, by 
Guinard les Moulins. The third in the 
reign of Charles V. of France, about 
1383, by Raoul de Preste, who made a 
new translation into the French. Be- 
sides these there are sevei-al ancient 
French versions of detached books of 
Scripture. There are also a considerable 
number of Bibles and Testaments trans- 
lated by protestants. Faber's version 
of the New Testament was printed for 
those of Piedmont in 1534. The British 
and Foreign Bible Society have pub- 
lished the entire Bible of the versions of 
Martin, Ostervald, and De Sacy, to be 
circulated in France, Switzerland, and 
the French colonies The New Testa- 
ment in the Breton, or Armorican, to be 
circulated in the province of Brittany ; 
the Old Testament being translated, l»ut 
not printed.^ The French Basque, the 



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entire Bible, to be circulated in the de- 
partments of the Pyrenees, and province 
of Navarre. 

Gaelic. A few years ago a version 
of the Bible in this language was pub- 
lished at Edinburgh; and recently the 
British and Foreign Bible Society have 
published and circulated several editions. 

Georgian. The inhabitants of 
Georgia, in Asia, have long possessed a 
version of the whole Scriptures in the 
ancient language of the country. The 
British and Foreign Bible Society have 
printed the New Testament in the 
Georgian, ( Kedvuli, or ecclesiastical 
characters, and also in the civil, or 
common characters,) to be circulated in 
Georgia, south of the Caucasus. 

German and Gothic. The most 
ancient translation in this tongue was 
made about 360, by Ulphilas, bishop of 
the Goths. Between 1527 and 1532, 
Luther composed his translation, and 
published it in seven parcels as it was 
ready. It is agreed by competent judges 
that the language is pure and free from 
intricacies. The British and Foreign 
Bil)le Society have printed the entire 
Bible in German, (Luther's version,) to 
be circulated in protestant Germany, 
Prussia, &c., and the New Testament in 
the three versions of Gosner, Van-Ess, 
and Kistemaker, for Roman catholics 
in Germany. They have also printed the 
Pentateuch, Prophets, and Psalms, for 
German Jews, in the German and He- 
brew, in columns ; and the New Testa- 
ment, the German version in Hebrew 
characters. 

Greek. Although the editions of the 
Greek Bible are very numerous, they 
may all be reduced to four versions. 1. 
The Complutension, published by Car- 
dinal Ximines, in the Complutension 
Polyglot in 1515. 2. The Venetian 
Greek Bible is that printed at Venice in 
1518, from the collation of many ancient 
copies, by Andrea Asulanus. 3. The 
Vatican Greek Bible in 1587- It was 
formed from the Vatican by Cardinal 
Carraffa, and several other eminently 
learned men. 4. The fourth, or Grabe's 
Alexandrian Greek Bible, is that of Ox- 
ford, taken from the Alexandrian manu- 
script, by Dr. Grabe, in 1707. The 
New Testament in its original Greek 
has undergone a great variety of edi- 
tions. Those of Mills, Kuster, Wetstien, 
and Bengelius, are the most valuable, 
aj^having various readings. The British 



and Foreign Bible Society have printed 
the New Testament in the ancient Greek 
version, for students. The entire Bible 
in the Russian Bible Society's version, 
for the Greek churches. The New Tes- 
tament in the modern Greek, and the 
entire Old Testament translated, for the 
Greek people in general. The Albanian 
version, ovith modern Greek,) of the 
New Testament, for the province of Al- 
bania, on the Adriatic. 

Hebrew. The Hebrew Bible, as 
published by Vander Hooght, in 1705, 
is preferable to every printed edition by 
which it is preceded. Dr. Kennicot, 
after a laborious collation of between 
six and seven hundred manuscripts, 
many of the whole, others of only parts 
of the Scriptures of the Old Testament 
in 1780, published his foho Hebrew 
Bible, in two volumes. The text is that 
of Vander Hooght, differing only in the 
disposition of the poetical parts, which 
Dr. Kennicot has printed in hemistics, 
as they naturally divide themselves, but 
still retaining the order of words as be- 
fore. The British and Foreign Bible 
Society have reprinted the Old and New 
Testament in Hebrew, for the Jews, and 
for students. 

Icelandic. The inhabitants of Ice- 
land have a version of the whole Scrip- 
tures in their language, which was made 
by Thorlak, and published in 1584. The 
British and Foreign Bible Society have 
reprinted the entire Bible, to be circu- 
lated in Iceland. 

Irish. About 1630, Bedell, bishop 
of Kilmore, caused the English Bible 
to be translated into Irish. The manu- 
script, however, was not put to press 
till 1685. The British and Foreign Bible 
Society have printed the entire Bible for 
circulation in various parts of Ireland. 

Italian or Grisson. An Italian 
version of the Bible was produced from 
the Latin Vulgate by Nicholas Malerme, 
a benedictine monk, and published at 
Venice in 1471. In 1530, Anthony 
Bruccioli published another translation, 
which was prohibited by the council of 
Trent. The protestants have two Italian 
versions, one by the celebrated Diodati, 
which is rather a paraphrase than a 
translation, of which the first edition 
was published in 1607, and the second 
with corrections in 1641. The other 
translation was executed by Maxim us 
Theophilus, and dedicated to the duke 
of Tuscany, about 1537. A translation 



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corrected by the more recent translation 
of St. Jerome, and this is called the 
modern Vulgate. A modem Vulgate 
was published in folio, 1571, by Arius 
Montanus. A fourth class is the Vul- 
gate edition corrected from the originals. 
Since the reformation there have been 
several Latin versions of the Scriptures 
done by protestants from the original. 
The versions m the highest estimation 
are those of Munster, Leo Juda, Cas- 
talio, and Tremelius, from 1534 to 1573. 
The British and Foreign Bible Society 
have printed a correct edition of the 
whole of the Bible in Latin, chiefly for 
the use of the ecclesiastics in various 
parts of Europe. 

Malayan. About 1670, Sir Robert 
Boyle procured a version of the New 
Testament in the Malayan language. 
The Malayan Bible was also translated 
by Brower and Valentine, two Dutch 
missionaries in the East Indies, 
feet. A third version is the old Vulgate, 

The following are the versions printed and circulated by the British and Foreign 
Bible Society in the Malay language : — 

Versions. What printed. 

Malay, in Roman characters The entire Bible 



of the Bible into the language of the 
Grissons, in Italy, was completed by 
Coir, and published in 1720. The Bri- 
tish and Foreign Bible Society have 
printed the entire Bible, in the two ver- 
cions of Diodati and Martini, to be cir- 
culated in Italy. In the Romanese, for 
the Grissons of Switzerland. Lower 
Romanese, or Enghadine, for the bor- 
ders of the Tyrol. The New Testament 
in Piedmontese, for Piedmont. And St. 
Luke, and St. John, in Vaudois, (with 
French,) for the Vaudois, or Waldenses. 
Latin. The editions of the Bible 
in Latin during the primitive ages of 
Christianity were very numerous, but 
they may all be classified under four 
general distinctions. First, the ancient 
Vulgate which was translated from the 
Septuagint, and used in very primitive 
times. Second, a version by St. Jerome, 
made about 370, far preferable to the 
the old Latin Vulgate, but far from per- 



Malay, in Arabic characters Ditto ditto 



Malay, Low New Testament 



Where circulated. 

For the Moluccas, and eastern 
part of the Archipelago. 

Malay peninsula ; seaports 
and coasts of Sumatra, Java, 
and other islands. 

Batavia, and its neighbour- 
hood. 



Javanese, (Old Testament 
preparing by the Nether- 
lands Society) Ditto ditto Island of Java. 

Persian. The Old and New Testament, in the days of Chrysostom, were 

found in the Persic language. Of those ancient versions nothing now remains. 

The following versions have been printed and circulated by the British and 
Foreign Bible Society in the Persian language : — 

Versions. What printed. 

Persic, (H. Martyn) New Testament. . . . 



EntireOldTestament 



Do. (Archdeacon Robinson) 
Do. (Mr. Glen; the prophets 
translated, but not printed. 
Ditto, (Mirza Ibrahim). . . . 
Ditto, (Mirza Jaffier) .... 

Pushtoo, or Affghan New Testament, and 

history books 



Where circulated . 
For the Mohammedans, Par- 
sees, and Persians of India. 
Ditto ditto. 



Psalms and Proverbs Persia Proper. 

Isaiah Ditto ditto. 

Genesis Ditto ditto. 



Belochee, or Bulochee .... Three Gospels 



Affghanistan, an eastern pro- 
vince of ancient Persia, west 
of the Indus. 
Belochistan, south of ditto, on 
the Arabian sea. 

Polish. The first Polish version of the protestants published another ver- 
the Scriptures is ascribed to Haddewich, sion founded on Luther's German trans- 
wife of Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, who lation. In 1599, a Polish translation 
embraced Christianity, 1390. In 1596, of the Bible was puWished at Cracdw. 



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The British and Foreign Bible Society 
have printed the New Testament in 
Polish, to be circulated in Poland, Posen, 
Silesia, &c., and the New Testament in 
Judaeo-Polish, for Polish Jews. 

Russian. The Russians have their 



Bible in the Sclavonic tongue, done from 
the Greek, by St. Cyril, their apostle, 
and first printed in 1581- That trans- 
lation, however, being too obscure, the 
czar, Peter the Great, ordered another 
in 1722. 



The following are the versions printed by the British and Foreign Bible Society 

for Russia and its dependencies : — 

Versions. What printed. Where circulated. 

Slavonic, ancient and eccle- 
siastical language The entire Bible. , 



Russ. modern New Test., Psalms, 

and Octateuch . . 
Slavonic, and modern Russ. 

(in columns) New Testament. . . . 

Dorpat Esthonian New Test. & Psalms 

Reval Esthonian The entire Bible . . 



For the purposes of the Rus- 
sian church. 
Russia generally. 



Ditto ditto. 

Southern part of Esthonia. 
Northern ditto, on gulf of Fin- 
land. 

ditto Provinces of Livonia & Cour- 

land. 
St. Matthew For a Finnish tribe in go- 
vernment of Tver. 

ditto Ditto, in the government of 

Vologda. 
For a Finnish tribe on the 
banks of the Oka and Volga 
in the government of Nische 
Novogorod and Kasan. 

ters in 1553. The court of Spain, in 
1796, ordered Spanish Bibles to be 
printed under the sanction of royal 
authority. 

The following are the versions of the Bible printed, circulated, or promoted by 
the British and Foreign Bible Society, in the Spanish language : — 



Lettish or Livonian Ditto 

Karelian. 

Zirian or Sirenian Ditto 

Mordvinian or Morduin . . New Testament. . . . 



Spanish. The oldest Spanish Bible 
of which we have any knowledge, was 
published about 1500. The Jews pub- 
lished one of their own in Gothic charac- 



Versions. 
Spanish, the two versions of 
Scio and Enzinas ^ 

Catalan ; Pentateuch and 
Psalms not yet printed. . 

Spanish Basque, or Escuara 



What printed. 
The entire Bible . . 

New Testament. . . . 
Gospel of St. Luke. 



Where circulated^ 

Spain generally, and Spanish 
colonies. 

Province of Catalonia and 

Valencia. 
Provinces of Biscay, Guipus- 

coa, and Alava. 
Spanish Jews in Turkey, &c. 



Judaeo Spanish New Testament. . . . 

Portuguese ; the two ver- 
sions of Pereira and Al- 
meida The entire Bible . . Portugal, & Portuguese colonies. 



Swedish. Olaus and Lawrence pub- 
lished a Swedish translation, done from 
the German version of Martin Luther, 
in 1534. In 1617, Gustavus Adolphus 
ordered some learned men to revise it, 
since which time it has been almost 
universally received in Sweden. The 
British and Foreign Bible Society have 
printed the entire Bible in Swedish, to 
be circulated in Sweden ; in Laponese, 



to be circulated in Russian and Swedish 
Lapland; in Finnish, to be circulated 
in Finland 

Syria c. There are two versions of 
the Old Testament extant in this lan- 
guage, one done from the Septuagint 
about 300 or 350, the other called an- 
tiqua et simplex, supposed to be done 
from the Hebrew about the time of the 
apostles. 



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The following versions have been printed, circulated, &c., by the British and 
Foreign Bible Society : — 

Versions. What printed, 

Syriac The entire Bible 



Where circulated. 
For the Syrian church in Tra- 
vancore, and for those parts 
of Syria where the Turks 
have little intercourse with 
the natives. 



Carshum, (Arabic in Syriac 
characters) 



New Testament. . 



and 



Mesopotamia Aleppo, 
other parts of Syria. 
Syriac and Carshum in 

parallel columns Ditto ditto Ditto ditto 

Syro Chaldaic; (Syriac in ,, , t^. • rr. • , o 

Nestorian characters) . . Gospels Mosul, Djezira. Tolam'.sk, & 

country west of Kurdistan. 
Turkish. In 1666, a Turkish New said, the Grand Signior ordered an im- 
Testament was printed in London for pression of the Bible, that it might be 
dispersion in the east. In 1721, it is confronted with the Koran. 

The following shows the versions printed, and where circulated, by the British 
and Foreign Bible Society :— 

Versions. What printed. 

Turkish The entiie Bible . 



Do. in Greek Characters. 



ditto 



Do. in Armenian character. New Testament. . 

Moldavian, orWallachian. . Th«i entire Bible 

Servian, or Serbian New Testament. . 

Bulgarian Gospels and Acts 



Welsh. The oldest "Welsh transla- 
tion was that in 1563. Another ver- 
sion, generally considered a standard 
translation, was printed in 1690, called 
bishop Lloyd's Bible. The British and 
Foreign Bible Society have printed 
several editions of the whole Bible a- 
mounting to 174,714 Bibles; 247,876 
Testaments. Total 422,590. 

Besides the above, the Bible has been 
translated into the following languages, 
either in whole or in part, under the 
auspices of the British and Foreign Bible 
Society 

India. In the Sanscrit, or Sung- 
skrit, the entire Bible. Hindoostanee, 
or Oordoo, (H. Martyn,) New Testa- 
ment. Ditto, by Mr. Thomason, Bible 
to 2 Kings. Ditto, Serampore version, 
the entire Bible. 

Northern and Central India. 
Bengalee, the entire Bible. Ditto, two 
versions, (EUerton and Yeates,) New 
Testament. Magudha, the New Testa- 
ment. Orissa, or Oreia, or Uteula, the 



Where circulated. 
Turkey in general. 
For Greek Christians using 
the Turkish language, with 
Greek characters. 
For Armenian Christians using 
the Turkish language, with 
Armenian characters. 
Moldavia, Wallachia, and part 

of Transylvania. 
In Servia and some bordering 

Austrian states. 
Turkish provinces E. & S. of 
Hungary. 

entire Bible. Hinduwee, or Hindooee, 
the entire Bible. Ditto, (called Hindee, 
by Ser. Trans.) both in the Nagree and 
Kythee characters, the whole Bible. 

Dialects of the Hinduwee. Bu- 
ghelcundee, the New Testament. Bruj, 
or Brij-bhasa, the New Testament. 
Canoj, or Canyacubja, the New Testa- 
ment. Kousula, or Koshala, St. Mat- 
thew. 

Dialects of Central India, or 
Rajport States. Harrotee, New 
Testament. Oojein, or Oujjuyunee, 
New Testament. Oodeypoora, St. Mat- 
thew. Marwar, the New Testament. 
Juyapoora, St. Matthew. Bikaneera, 
New Testament. Buttaneer, or Virat, 
New Testament. Sindhee, St. Matthew. 
Moidtan, or Wuch, New Testament. 
Punjabee, or Sikh, the entire Bible. 
Dogura, or Jumboo,the New Testament. 
Cashmerian, the New Testament, Penta- 
teuch, and history books. 

GoRKHA Dialects. Nepalese, Khas- 
poora, or Parbutti, the New Testament 



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Palpa, New Testament. Kamaon, the 
New Testament. Gunvhal, or Shreena- 
gur, the New Testament 

Southern India, — Madras Presi- 
dency. Telingei, or Teloogoo, New 
Testament and Pentateuch. Kernata, 
or Canarese, New Testament. Malaya- 
lim. New Testament. — Bombay Presi- 
dency. Kunkuna, New Testament and 
Pentateuch. Mahratta, the entire Bible. 
Gujerattee, the New Testament. Cut- 
chee, or Catchee, Ncv Testament pre- 
paring. 

Ceylon. Pali, New Testament. -Cin- 
galese, the entire Bible. Indo-Portu- 
guese, Pentateuch, Psalms, and New 
Testament. 

Indo-Chinese Countries. Assa- 
mese, the entire Bible. Munqioora, 
New Testament. Khasse, the New 
Testament. Burmese, the entire Bible. 
Siamese, or Thay, Testament not printed. 

Polynesia. Huwaian, New Testa- 
ment. Tahitian, the entire Bible. Raro- 
tonga, the New Testament. Marquesan, 
some portions given, versions preparing. 
Tonga, ditto. New Zealand, New Tes- 
tament. Madagasse, the entire Bible. 

Africa. Ethiopic, New Testament 
and Psalms. Amharic, New Testament 
and Psalms, and greater part of the Old 
Testament. Berber, part of St- Luke. 
BuUom, St. Matthew. Mandingo, St 
Matthew. Namacqua, small portions, 
and others preparing. Se^huana, ditto. 
CafFre, Isaiah, Joel, and Luke. 

North America. Esquimaux, New 
Testament, Genesis, Psalms, and Isaiah. 
Mohawk, St. John. Chippeway, ditto. 
Delaware, Epistles of St.John. Creolese, 
New Testament, 

South America. Negro-English, 
New Testament. Aimara St. Luke. 
Mexican, St. Luke. 

BIBLE. The following is a dissec- 
tion of the Old and New Testament : — 
In the Old. In the New. Total. 

Books 39 27 66 

Chapters.. 929 260 1,189 

Verses 23,214 7,959 31,173 

Words.... 592,493 181,253 773,746 
Letters . . 2,728,100 838,380 3,566,480 

The Apocrypha has 183 chapters, 
6,081 verses, and 125,185 words. 

The middle chapter, and the least in 
the Bible, is the ll7th Psalm. 

The middle verse is the 8th of the 
118th Psalm. 

The middle line is the 2nd book of the 
Chroniclps, 4th chapter, and 16th verse. 



The word and occurs in the Old Tes- 
tament 35,535 times. 

The same word in the New Testament 
occurs 10,684 times. 

The word Jehovah occurs 6,855 times. 

Old Testament. The middle book is 
Proverbs; the middle chapter is the 29th 
of Job ; the middle verse is the 2nd book 
of Chronicles, 20th chapter, and the 18th 
verse ; the least verse is the 1st book of 
Chronicles, 1st chapter, and 1st verse. 

New Testament. The middle is the 
2nd Thessalonians ; the middle chapter 
is between the 13th and 14th of the 
Romans ; the middle verse is the 1 7th 
of the I7th chapter of the Acts ; the 
least verse is the 35th of the 11th chap- 
ter of the gospel by St. John. 

The 21st verse of the 7th chapter of 
Ezra, has all the letters of the alphabet 
in it. 

The 19th chapter of the 2nd book of 
Kings, and the 37th chapter of Isaiah 
are alike. 

The book of Esther has 10 chapters, 
but neither the words Lord no*' God 
in it. 

BIBLE, principal events of, arranged 
in the order of their dates 

A.c. 4003. The birth of Cain, the first 
who was born of a woman. Abel was 
born soon after. 

3875. Abel was murdered by Cain, 
because his sacrifice was more acceptable 
to God 

3874. Seth born, whose offspring 
wei'e the children of God, by way of 
distinction from those of Cain, who were 
named the children of men. 

3017. Enoch, for his piety, was trans- 
lated to heaven. 

2469. The term of 120 years was al- 
lowed by God for the repentance of the 
world, before the deluge. This was com- 
municated to Noah, who was sent to them 
as a preacher of righteousness. 

2349. On the tenth day of the second 
month, which was on Sunday, Nov. 30, 
God commanded Noah to enter into the 
ark with his family, &c., and on Sunday, 
7th Dec, it began to rain, and rained 
40 days J and the deluge continued 150 
days. 

2348. The ark rested on mount Ara- 
rat, on Wednesday, 6th May ; the tops 
of the mountains became visible on 
Sunday, 19th July ; and on Friday, 18th 
Dec. Noah came out of the ark, with all 
that were with him. He built an altar 
and sacrificed to God for his deliverance. 



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A. c. 2247. The Tower of Babel was 
built about this time, by Noah's posterity, 
in the fall of Shinar, upon which God 
miraculously confounded their language, 
and thus dispersed them into different 
nations. 

1996. Abram, the patriarch, born at 
Ur, in Chaldea, died 1821, aged 175. 

1927. Sarah, wife of Abram, born, 
died 1859, aged 127. 

1925, Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, 
subdued the five kings of Sodom, Go- 
morrha, Adam a, Seboim, and Zoar. 

1921. The covenant of God made 
with Abram, when he left Haran to 
go into Canaan, on the 15th of Abib, 
or Wednesday, 4 th May, which began 
the 430 years of sojourning. Abram 
and Lot went into Egypt on account of 
the famine, and returned the next year, 
when they separated, the one for Sodom, 
and the other to Hebron. 

1912 The five kings rebelling against 
Chedorlaomer, were defeated by him. He 
plundered Sodom, and carried off Lot 
captive. Abram pursued, and defeated 
Chedorlaomer, and rescued Lot. On his 
return he received the benediction of 
Melchizedek, king of Salem, the priest 
of the Most High God. 

1 910. Ishmael was born to Abram by 
Hagar; died 1773, aged 137. 

1897. The covenant was renewed with 
Abram, in memorial of which circumci- 
sion was instituted, and his namechanged 
to Abraham. The cities of Sodom, &c. 
were destroyed for their wickedness by 
fire from heaven. Lot, with his wife and 
two daughters, left Sodom beforehand, 
being warned; his wife looking back was 
turned into a pillar of salt. 

1896. Isaac born to Abraham by 
Sarah, 90 years old; died in I7l6, aged 
180- 

1871. The faith of Abraham was prov- 
ed in offering to sacrifice his son Isaac, 
who was then 25 years old. 

1836. Esau and Jacob were bom to 
Isaac by Rebecca, after above I9 years' 
barrenness. 

1821. Abraham died, being 175 years 
old, 

1759. Jacob having received his 
father's blessing, went to Haran to his 
uncle Laban, and married his two daugh- 
ters. 

1739. Jacob returned into Canaan 
after a 20 years' servitude under Laban. 

1731. Dinah, Jacob's daughter, was 
ravished by Shechem. He and all his 



people were treacherously put to death 
on the third day after circumcision, by 
Simeon and Levi. 

A.c. 1728. Joseph was sold into Egypt 
by his brethren. 

1715. Joseph interpreted Pharaoh's 
dreams, and was promoted. The seven 
years of plenty began. 

17O8. The seven years of famine 
began ; and the year after, Joseph's ten 
brethren came into Egypt for com. 

1706. Joseph discovered himself to 
his brethren, and, at Pharaoh's desire 
sent for Jacob and his family into 
Egypt. 

1704. All the money in Egypt and 
Canaan was collected by Joseph into Pha- 
raoh's treasury ; and the year following, 
they sold him their herds and flocks. 

1702. The property of all the lands 
of Egypt was sold to Joseph, who let 
them out with a perpetual tcix of the fifth 
part of their produce. 

1689. Jacob on his death-bed, adopted 
Manasseh and Ephraim, the two sons of 
Joseph, and collecting all his children, 
blessed them, foretelling many things, 
particularly the coming of the Messiah ; 
he died aged 147, ha\'ing resided 17 
years in Egypt. 

1635. Joseph foretold the egress of 
the Israelites from Egypt, and died, aged 
110, having been prefect of Egypt for 
eighty years. His death concludes the 
book of Genesis, which contains a period 
of 2369 years. 

1574. Aaron born; and the year after, 
Pharaoh published an edict for drowning 
all the male children of the Israelites. 

1252. The fourth servitude of the 
Israelites, under the Midianites, which 
continued 7 years. 

1206. The Israelites being given to 
idolatry, were delivered by God into the 
hands of the Philistines and Ammonites. 
This was their fifth servitude and con- 
tinued 18 years. 

1188. Jephtha, the seventh Judge of 
Israel, for six years. He defeated the 
Ammonites, and rashly made a vow, 
which deprived him of his daughter. 
He chastised the insolence of the 
Ephraimites, having kiUed 42,000 of 
them in battle. 

1182. Ibzan the eighth judge of Is- 
rael, for seven years. 

1175. Elon, the ninth judge of Is- 
rael, for ten years. 

1165. Abdon, the tenth judge of Is- 
rael, for eight years. 



BIB 105 

1167. Eli, the high priest, eleventh 
judge of Israel, for 40 years. 

1156. The sixth servitude of' the Is- 
raelites, under the Philistines, which 
continued 40 years. 

1096. The Philistines were defeated 
by Samuel, at Eben-ezer. 

1095. The IsraeUtes asked a king which 
was granted, though with God's displea- 
sure ; and Saul was anointed by Samuel, 
to be their king. 

1093. Saul defeated the Philistines. 
Before this, they did not allow him a 
smith in all his kingdom. Saul was re- 
jected of God for disobedience, with re- 
gard to the Apialekites; and David, 
when 22 years old was anointed by Samuel 
to be king after Saul. 

1062. David, finding that Saul sought 
his life, retired into the deserts of Judah. 

1056. David retired among the Phi- 
listines, who gave him Ziklag, where he 
was one year and four months. 

1055. Saul consulted the witch of En- 
dor, and was totally defeated by the Phi- 
listines next day, upon Mount Gilboa. — 
Three of his sons were slain, upon which 
he killed himself. 

1048. Jerusalem taken by David 
from the Jebusites, and made the seat of 
his kingdom. 

1034. David was reproved by Nathan 
for his adviltery, &c., and repented. 

1023. Absolom rebelled against Da- 
vid, and took Jerusalem, but was defeat- 
ed and killed by Joab. 

1012, Solomon began the building 
of the Temple, 480 years after the going 
out of Egypt. 

1004. The Temple was solemnly dedi- 
cated on Friday, 488 years after the go- 
ing out of Egypt. 

992. Solomon finished the building 
of his palace, which with that of the 
Temple employed him twenty years. 

975. The division of the kingdom 
of Judah and Israel. Jeroboam set up 
two golden calves, one at Dan, and the 
other at Bethel, to prevent his subjects 
going to worship at Jerusalem. 

971. Shishak, king of Egypt, took 
Jerusalem, and carried off the treasures 
of the Temple and of the palace. 

941. Zerah, the Ethiopian, with one 
million men, totally defeated by king 
Asa, in the valley of Zephathah. 

940. Benhadad, king of Syria, at- 
tacked Baasha, king of Israel, and took 
several of his cities. 



BIB 



896. Elijah the prophet was taken 
up into heaven. 

878. Athaliah, queen of Judah, was 
put to death by order of the priest Je- 
hoiada, surnamed Johanan. 

839. The army of Hazael, king of 
Syria, desolated great part of the king- 
dom of Judah. 

807. Ahab was killed by the Syrians 
in the battle of Ramoth Gilead, according 
to the prophecy of Micaiah ; upon this 
the Moabites revolted, having been tri- 
butary from the days of king David. 

787. Amos prophesied against Jero- 
boam, second king of Israel. 

785. Hosea, the prophet, lived, died 
in 721. 

771. Azariah, king of Judah, pre- 
suming to burn incense, was struck with 
leprosy, which continued till his death. 

757. Isaiah the prophet, began to 
prophesy, and continued it for above 60 
years. 

731. Habakkuk, the prophet flourish- 
ed about this time. 

721. Samaria taken after three years' 
siege, and the kingdom of Israel was fi- 
nished by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria. 

717. Tyre was besieged in vain for 
about five years, by Shalmaneser, king 
of Assyria. 

710. Sennacherib's army destroyed 
by an angel in one night, to the amount 
of 185,000 men. 

677. Manasseh, king of Judah, was 
taken prisoner, and carried in chains to 
Babylon. 

641. Amon, king of Judah, was trea- 
cherously put to death by his domestic 
servants. 

627. Jeremiah, the prophet wrote ; died 
577. 

626.Zephaniah, the prophet flourished. 

608. Josiah, king of Judah, was slain 
in battle at Megiddp in the spring, by 
Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt. 

605. The beginning of the captivity. 

597. Jehoiachim, king of Judah, was 
carried away captive by Nebuchadnezzar 
to Babylon. 

587. The city of Jerusalem taken by 
Nebuchadnezzar after a siege of eigh- 
teen months, June 9- 

586. The Temple of Jerusalem was 
burnt on the seventh day in the fifth 
month. 

558. Daniel the prophet lived. 

528. Haggai and Zachariah, the pro- 
phets, flourished about this time. 

F 



BIB • 106 

458. Ezra was sent from Babylon to 
Jerusalem with the captive Jews, and 
the vessels of gold and silver, &c., by 
Artaxerxes, in the seventh year of his 
reign, being 70 weeks of years, or 490 
years before the crucifixion of our Sa- 
viour. 

456. Nehemiah, the prophet lived. 

436. Malachi, the last of the pro- 
phets lived. 

430. The history of the Old Testa- 
ment finished about this time. 

BIBLE SOCIETY, British and 
Foreign, instituted 1804. First anni- 
versary May 1, 1805, at the new London 
Tavern, Cheapside. 1811, In India the 
exertions for rendering the Scriptures 
into the eastern dialects were unremitt- 
ing. In this work the late Dr. Carey, 
Baptist Missionary at Serampore, was 
the most distinguished labourer. A 
Bibliotheca Biblica was established at 
Calcutta, consisting of two departments ; 
a Bible Repository, designed to contain 
bibles and testaments in all languages, 
and a Translation Library. 

1812. The Rev. Mr. SteinkopflF, one 
of the Secretaries of the society, de- 
parted to make a tour through several 
kingdoms on the continent. The com- 



BIB 



England 

Wales 

Berwick upon Tweed 

Scotland . 

Ireland 



mittee considered it expedient to make 
him the fully accredited agent of the 
British and Foreign Bible Society, and 
to authorize him, wherever he should 
visit, to hold ample encouragement for 
the formation of bible societies ; they 
therefore placed the sum of £2000 at 
Mr. Steinkopff's disposal, and subse- 
quently made such communication as to 
induce him in the course of his journey, 
to make grants of money, bibles, and 
testaments, to the amount of £2712 10s. 
A bible society was formed in tlie capi- 
tal of Russia, under the title first of the 
St. Petersburg, and afterwards the Rus' 
sian Bible Society. Hjs imperial ma- 
jesty Alexander, soon after its public or- 
ganization desired to be enrolled as one 
of its members, making a donation of 
25,000 rubles, and promising an annual 
subscription of 10,000 rubles. 

The period from the year 1812 to 
1816, forms an important era in the his- 
tory of this society. In 1812 and 1813, 
among other advances made by the society 
the formation of juvenile and female 
auxiliary societies must be enumerated. 
These were followed by branch societies, 
and bible associations. In 1816, a\ix- 
iliary and branch societies were in 



306 


Isle of Man 


43 


Guernsey 


1 


Jersey 


122 




66 





Total 



544 



The issues of Bibles and Testaments by the British and Foreign Bible Society to 
1816, were as follow : — 



Total issued in Great Britain 
Purchased and issued on the continent of Europe 



Bibles. 

654,427 

25,000 



Test. 
828,546 
50,000 



Total. 
1,482,973 
75,000 



679,427 87,8546 1,557,973 



114,000 188,600 302,600 



Printed and printing on the continent of Europe, ' 
by bible societies, aided by donations from the 
British and Foreign Bible Society, 

Bibles. 
Editions of the Scriptures printed for French 13,000 



the Society, pre\'iously to the 31st of 
March, 1816. 

Bibles. Test. 
Enghsh, various edi- 
tions 563,558 565,097 

Wales 46,242 81,178 

Gaehc 22,000 20,000 

Irish 7,500 

Manks 2,250 



Spanish 
Portuguese. . . . 

Italian 

Dutch 

Danish 

German 

Greek, ancient 

modern . . 

Greek, modern 



and 



5,000 

500 

8,000 



Test. 
79,000 
20,000 
20,000 
11,000 
15,000 
10,000 
13,000 

5,000 
10,000 



BIB 



107 



BIB 



Bibles. 
1,439 



Test. 



Arabic 

Esquimaux the four 

Gospels 1,000 

Mohawk, St. John's 

Gospel 2,000 

Ethiopic Psalter 2,100 

1835. Atthe annualmeeting at Exeter- 
hall, it appeared from the report May 5, 
that the receipts of this society, for the 
last year, exceeded those of any preceding 
year, the total amount collected being 
£107,926, and that, after paying all ex- 
penses, and increasing the number of 
their establishments, the society had a 
balance of £23,676. The number of in- 
dividuals who attended to hear the pro- 
ceedings was so great, that upwards of 
six hundred were accommodated in an- 
other room, to whom a report of what 
was passing was conveyed. 

1839. At the annual meeting held at 
Exeter-hall, May 1, it appeared that the 
receipts of the society during that year 
had amounted to £105,255 2s. lid., be- 
ing £8018 is. Od. more than in the pre- 
ceding year — the free contributions from 
Auxiliary Societies to £33,^46 8s. 9d., 
showing a progressive increase under this 
item of receipts — the legacies to £15,788 
3s. Od., of this sum, £10,000 had been 
received from the executors of the late 
Geo. Hammond, Esq., who, in addition 
to the above, had bequeathed to the 
society one-fourth of the residue of his 
estate, which, it was expected, would 
amount to something considerable. The 
amount received in donations had been 
£3542 10s. Id. 

Bible Societies connected with the 
British and Foreign Bible Society in 
Great Britain in 1838 : AuxiUaries, 352; 
Branches, 327; Associations, 1730: 
total, 3,409. In the colonies and other 
dependencies. Auxiliaries, 88; Branches, 
77; Associations, 139 : total, 304. Con- 
nected with the Hibernian Society, Aux- 
iliary and Branch Societies in 1838, in 
the four provinces, 538. 

Foreign Agencies, connected with 
the British and Foreign Bible Society, 
which have the superintendence of De- 
pots of the Holy Scriptures, in 1838. I. 
In France, at Paris. II. In Germany, at 
Frankfort. III. In Sweden, at Stock- 
holm. IV. In Norway, at Christiania. 
Christiansand, Stavanger, Bergen, and 
Drontheim. V. In Russia, at St. Pe- 
tersburg. The British and Foreign Bi- 
ble Society have also depots of Bibles 



and Testaments in the following places : 
viz., Constantinople, Smyrna, Athens, 
Corfu, Malta, Gibraltar, Sleswick, &c. 

Foreign Societies formerly or at 
present assisted by the British and Fo- 
reign Bible Society, with the amount of 
their issues by themselves and auxiliaries, 
and the date of the institution. 

Western Europe. French, Breton, 
Spanish, Catalonian, Portuguese, Ger- 
man, &c. 

Copies of Scriptures. 
Protestant Bible Society at 

Paris, instituted 1818 176,451 

French and Foreign Bible 

Society at Paris, ... 1833 99,156 

Strasburg, 1815 26,662 

Issued from the Society's 
Depot in Paris from 

April, 1820 1,228,452 

Northern Europe. Iceland, 
Swedish, Finnish, Lapponese, Danish, 
&c. 

Iceland, 1815 10,445 

Swedish 1819 460 434 

The Agency at Christiana 

formed 1832 13,278 

Stavanger 1828 6,643 

Finnish 1812 43,000 

Danish 1814 149,766 

Western Europe. 

Netherlands 182,557 

Belgian and Foreign Bi- 
ble Society, at Brus- 
sels 1834 7,623 

The Agency at Brussels, 

appointed 1835 45,100 

Antwerp 1834 220 

Ghent 1834 7,131 

Sleswig-Holtein 1815 80,488 

Eutin 1817 4,147 

Lubeck 1814 9,097 

Hamburgh 1814 69,169 

Bremen 1815 15,975 

Lanenburgh-Ratzeburgh.l8l6 9,767 

Rostock 1816 8,692 

Hanover 1814 80,330 

Lippe-Detmold I8I6 3,569 

Waldeck 1817 2,800 

Hesse-Cassel 1818 22,981 

Hanau ....1818 3,316 

Marburgh. 1 825 6,110 

Frankfort 1316 73,565 

The Agency at Frankfort 1830 373,561 

Hesse-Darmstadt 1817 31,484 

Duchy of Baden 1720 18,585 

Wurtemberg 1812 347,948 

Bavarian Protestant Insti- 
tution at Nuremburg 1821 69.574 
Saxon 1814 171,469 



BIB 108 

Copies of Script. 

Anhalt-Koethen 1818 

"Weimer 1821 3,773 

Eisenach 1818 4,938 

Brunswick 1815 700 

Prussian 1805 900,304 

Issued to the Prussian 

Troops since 1830 124,314 

Switzerland and Italy. German, 
French, Italian, and Romanese. 

Basle 1804 194,078 

Schaffhausen 1813 7,193 

Zurich 1812 14,656 

St. Gall 1813 34,008 

Aargovian 1815 13,102 

Berne 40,841 

Neufchatel 1816 6,430 

Lansanne 1814 32,000 

Geneva 1814 36,651 

Glarus 1819 5,000 

Coire or Chur 1813 12,267 

Waldenses 1816 4,238 

Greece andTuRKEY. 

Ionian 1819 7,377 

Russia. Russian 1826 861,105 

St. Petersburg 1826 45,543 

India. Calcutta 1811 240,033 

Madras 1820 240,708 

Serampore Missionaries. 200,000 

Columbo.., 1812 36,114 

Bombay 1813 91,011 

America. American Na- 
tional 2,353,298 

Philadelphia 233.029 

Total of Copies of Scripture.. 7,972,275 



Issues of Copies of the Scriptures 

from 1805 to 1808 81,157 

.... 1808 .. 1809 77,272 

.... 1809 .. 1810 64,468 

1810.. 1811 102,618 

1811 .. 1812 106,423 

.... 1812.. 1814 352,569 

1814.. 1515 249,932 

1815.. 1816 248,236 

1816 .. 1817 193,021 

1817.. 1818 194,101 

1818.. 1819 260.031 

1819.. 1820 256,883 

1820.. 1821 246,957 

1821.. 1822 255,739 

1822.. 1823 259,850 

1823 . . 1824 290.495 

1824.. 1825 280,655 

1825 . . 1826 286,402 

.... 1826.. 1827 294,006 

.... 1827.. 1828 336,270 

.... 1828.. 1829 365.424 



BIG 

Purchased and issued pre\'ious 

to 1829 1,114,287 

1829 . . 1830 434,422 

1830 .. 1831 470,929 

1831 .. 1832 583,888 

1832 .. 1833 536,841 

1833.. 1834 393,900 

1834 .. 1835 653,604 

1835 .. 1836 558,842 

1836 .. 1837 541,843 

1837.. 1838 594.398 

1838.. 1839.. 658,068 



Total 11,546,111 



Expenditure of the British and Foreign 

Bible Society. £. s. d. 

1805 619 10 2 

1806 1,637 17 5 

1807 5,063 18 3 

1808 12,206 10 3 

1809 14,565 10 7 

1810 18,543 17 1 

1811 28,302 13 7 

1812 32,419 19 7 

1813 69,496 13 8 

1814.... 84,652 1 5 

1815 81,021 12 5 

1816 103,680 18 8 

1817 89.230 9 9 

1818 71,099 1 7 

1819 92,237 1 4 

1820. 123,547 12 3 

1821 79,560 13 6 

1822 90,445 6 4 

1823 77,076 10 

1824 89,493 17 8 

1825 94,044 S 5 

1826 96,014 13 7 

1827 69,962 12 3 

1828 86,242 9 8 

1829 104,132 6 11 

1830 81,610 13 6 

1831 83,002 10 9 

1832 98,409 10 9 

1833 88,676 1 10 

1834 70,404 16 7 

1835 84,249 13 4 

1836 107,483 19 7 

1837 103,171 5 2 

1338 91,179 14 11 

1839 106,509 6 4 



Total expenditure £2,529,985 4 11 

BIBLE Society, Naval and Mili- 
tary, instituted 1780. 

BICKERTON, Admiral, Sir R. H., 
a 'gallant officer, trained under Duncan, 
born 1760, died 1832. 



BIG 



109 



BIL 



BIDASSOA River, crossed by the 
allied Spanish army, and Lord Welling- 
ton entered France, Oct, 7, 1813. 

BIDDENDEN Cakes, so called from 
a small town of that name, famous for 
giving a 1000 cakes to the parishioners 
on Easter Sunday, impressed with the 
figure of two females joined together. 

BIDDLES, John, the miser; he con- 
gratulated himself that sixpence per day 
was sufficient for his support; he was 
worth a million sterling; died Novem- 
ber 4, 1833. 

B I D L O O, Gregory, celebrated 
Dutch anatomist, bom at Amsterdam 
1649, made professor of anatomy at Ley- 
den 1694, died 1702. 

BIGAMY, Statute, first passed in 
1276. 

BIGGLESWADE nearly destroyed 
by fire June 16, 1785. 

BIGLAND, John, author of letters 
on history, born in 1750. He was a na- 
tive of Slurlough, in Holderness, and the 
greater portion of his life was spent in 
the humble occupation of a village 
schoolmaster. When upwards of fifty 
years of age, he began to write for the 
public. In 1803, he published his first 
work, "Reflections on the Resurrection 
and Ascension of Christ," and in 1805, 
"Letters on the Study and Use of Ancient 
and Modern History ;" and " Letters on 
the Modem History and Political Aspect 
of Europe." From that time he be- 
came an author by profession, and his 
works are very numerous. His subse- 
quent productions are : Essays on vari- 
ous subjects, two vols. 1805; Letters on 
Natural History, 1806; a System of Geo- 
graphy and History, five vols., 1809; 
History of Spain, two vols., 1810; His- 
tory of Europe, from the peace of 1783, 
to the present time, two vols., 1811, (in 
the later edition continued to 1814) ; the 
Philosophic Wanderers, or the History 
of the Tribune of the Priestess of Mi- 
nerva, 1811 ; Yorkshire, being the l6th 
volume of the Beauties of England and 
Wales, 1812; the History of England; 
Letters on Natural History, from the 
earliest period to the close of 1812; two 
vols., 1813, (subsequently continued to 
1814); a System of Geography for the 
use of Schools, 1816; an historical dis- 
play of the eflfects of Physical and Moral 
Causes on the Character and Circum- 
stances of Nations, 1817; Letters on 
French History, 1818: also Letters on 
English History, and a History of the 
Jews. HediedFeb. 22, 1832. 



BILBOA, built by Diego Lopez de 
Haro, 1300, taken and re-taken by the 
French, English, and Spaniards, 1808, 
1 809, and finally evacuated by the French, 
August 11, 1812. Relieved from the 
siege by the Carlists, Dec. 24, 1836. 

BILL OF Rights, deUvered by the 
Lords and Commons to the Prince and 
Princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1688 
passed (1 Will. & Mary, stat. 3,, c. 2,) in 
1689. 

BILLING, Great, Northampton- 
shire, steeple at, destroyed by lightning, 
April, 11, 1759. 

BILLING, Little, Priory, Nor- 
thamptonshire, built 1076. 

BILLINGSGATE, London, supposed 
to be built 370. 

BILLS OF Exchange, first men- 
tioned, 1160; used in England, 1307; 
the only mode of sending money from 
England by law, 1381; regulated, 1698, 
1735 ; made felony to counterfeit, 1734; 
taxed, 1783; tax reduced, 1797, 1804, 
1814; punishment of death for forgery 
of, exchanged for transportation, 1832. 

1838. 2 and 3 Victoria c. 37, enacts 
that bills of exchange and contracts for 
loans or forbearance of money above 
£10, and not having more than twelve 
months to run, shall not be aflfected by 
the usury laws. 

BILLS OF Mortality. These 
' registers took their origin from the great 
plague of 1593; but the continued 
weekly bills did not begin till 1603, when 
another great plague, more tremendous 
than the former, desolated London. See 
Plague. Originally, the bills of mor- 
tality comprehended 109 parishes; but 
in 1660, they were extended to 146 ; and 
that number is now divided into Q7 
parishes within the walls, 17 without the 
walls, 29 out-parishes in Middlesex and 
Surrey, and 10 parishes in the city and 
liberties of Westminster. The great ex- 
tension which London has received since 
the institution of the method of ascer- 
taining the births and deaths, the dura- 
tion of life, and the apparent causes of 
its termination, have, however, rendered 
the bills of mortality very imperfect ; at 
best they can be considered only as ap- 
proximations to the truth. For instance, 
the large parishes of Saint Marylebone 
and St. Pancras, are not comprised in 
them; neither are the accounts of the 
births and deaths amongst the dissenters. 
The classification of the diseases which 
occasion the deaths is also very incorrect, 
being founded entirely on the returns of 



BIL 



110 



BIL 



the sworn searchers, who are a set of ig- 
norant women. 

The general bill of all the christenings 
and burials within the bills of mortality, 
from December 15, 1807, to December 
13, 1808. 

Christened, males, 10,189; females, 
9,717; total,19,906. Buried,males,10,22S; 
females, 9,726: total, 19,954. 

From December 12, 1815, to Decem- 
ber 10, 1816 ; christened, males, 12,132; 
females 11,448: total, 23,581. Buried, 
males, 10,105; females, 10,211: total, 
20,316. 

From December 11, 1821, to Decem- 
ber, 10,1822; christened, males, 11,968; 
females, 11,405 • total, 23,373. Buried, 
males, 9,483 ; females, 9,382 : total, 
18,865. 

From December 10, 1822, to Decem- 
ber 17, 1823; christened in the 97 
parishes within the walls, 1059. Buried, 
1162. 

Christened in the 17 parishes without 
the walls, 5443. Buried, 3990. 

Christened in the 23 out-parishes in 
Middlesex and Surrey, 17,092. Buried, 
10,727. 

Christened in the 10 parishes in the 
city and liberties of Westminster, 4,095. 
Buried, 4,708. 

Diseases this year, 20,279. 

Casualties : — bitten by a mad dog, 1; 
broken limbs, 1 ; burnt, 39 ; drowned, 
118; excessive drinking, 6; executed, 
14; found dead, 12 ; fractured, 1 ; killed 
by falls and several other accidents, 61 ; 
killed by fighting, 2 ; murdered, 2 ; 
overlaid, 1 ; poisoned, 6 ; scalded, 9 ; 
smothered, 3, starved, 1 ; suflfocated, 7 ; 
suicide, 24 : total of casualties, 303. 

Christened, males, 13,945 ; females, 
13,734 : total, 27,679. Buried, males. 



10,455; females, 10,132: total, 20,587- 
whereof have died — under two years of 
age, 5,905 ; between two and five, 1937; 
five and ten, 757; ten and twenty, 757 ; 
twenty and thirty, 1,375 ; thirty and 
forty, 1764; forty and fifty, 1,902 ; fifty 
and sixty, 1,932 ; sixty and seventy, 
1,874 ; seventy and eighty, 1592 ; eighty 
and ninety, 680 ; ninety and a hundred, 
105 ; a hundred, 4 ; a hundred and two, 
1, hundred and seven, 1 ; and a hundred 
and nine, 1 . 

Number of christenings and burials 
within the city of London and bills of 
mortahty, for 1833. 

In the 97 parishes within the walls • 
christened, 835 ; buried, 1336. In the 
17 parishes without the walls; christened, 
4556; buried, 4753. In the 24 out- 
parishes in Middlesex, Surrey, including 
the district churches ; christened, 17,740, 
buried, 16,172. In the ten parishes in 
the city and liberties of Westminster ; 
christened, 3,959 ; buried, 4,316. Total 
number of males christened, 13,553 ; 
females, 13,537: in all, 27,090. Total 
number buried, males, 13,319 ; females, 
13,258 : in all, 26,577. 

Stillborn, 934; under two years of 
age, 6,261 ; two and under five years, 
2,805; five and under ten, 1,145; ten 
and under tv/enty, 970 ; twenty and 
under thirty, 1,700; thirty and under 
forty, 2,225 ; forty and under fifty, 2,615; 
fifty and under sixty, 2,412 ; sixty 
and under seventy, 2,551 ; seventy and 
under eighty, 2,043 ; eighty and under 
ninety, 802 ; ninety and under a hun- 
dred, 107; one hundred, 3; one hundred 
and one, 1 ; one hundred and two, 1 ; 
one hundred and three, 1; and one 
hundred and four, 1. 



Christenings and burials within the city of London and bills of mortality, 
from December 1836, to December, 1838. 

Ending 1837- Ending 1838. 

Chr. Bur. Chr. Bur. 

In the 97 parishes withm the Walls 958 958 794 815 

In the 17 parishes without the Wall 6 363 3,863 4,119 3,558 

In the 24 out-parishes in Middlesex and Surrey 
(the district churches belonging thereto 

being included) : 25,948 13,883 13,303 11,884 

In the 10 parishes of the city and liberties of 

Westminster 2,437 2,359 l,6l7 2,009 

Totals 35,706 21,063 19,833 18,266 



BIR 



111 



B IS 



The bill for 1837 is said to be more 
imperfect than usual, both in the enu- 
merating of christenings and deaths, and 
as a table of medical statistics ; and the 
following explanation is given to ac- 
count for this fact : — " By the operation 
of the new Registration Act, much dif- 
ficulty has occurred in obtaining reports 
of the christenings and burials ; in con- 
sequence of which, in some parishes, the 
reports have been wholly withheld ; and 
in those of several other parishes, wherein 
the office of searcher has been discon- 
tinued, the diseases of which deaths have 
taken place, have been necessarily omit- 
ted. The annual bill of mortality is now 
superseded by the new registration act, 
which came into operation July I, 1837. 
See Registration. 

B ILSTON, StaflFordshire,v/aggon from, 
with coals, drawn by distressed colliers, 
was stopped on Maidenhead thicket, by 
the magistrates, and a compensation 
having been made to the persons drawing 
it, for the coals, they proceeded with it 
quietly on their way home July 6, 1816. 
Another waggon was stopped at St. 
Albans, and quietly returned, having 
been similarly treated. 

BINDON Abbey, Dorsetshire, 
built 1172. 

BINGHAM Priory, Norfolk, built 
1206. 

BINGHAM, Major Gen. Sir Geo. 
had charge of Napoleon, from England 
to St. Helena, born 1777, died 1833. 

BINGHAM'S, Sir John, Castle in 
Ireland burnt, damage estimated at 
£50,000, Nov. 11, 1755. 

BIGN, Borysthenites, the phi- 
losopher, 290. , I 

BIRCH, Dr. Thomas, historical and 
biographical writer, born 1705; took or- 
ders 1732; admitted into the royal so- 
ciety and society of antiquaries, 1735 ; 
died Jan. 19, 1766. His chief work was 
the "General Dictionary, Historical and 
Critical," comprehending a new transla- 
tion of Bayle's, with several thousand 
new lives. 

BIRCH, Mr., and his servant, mur- 
dered at Greenwich, Feb. 12, 1818. 

BIRKENHEAD Priory, Cheshire, 
built 1189. 

BIRMAN Empire. See Burman 
Empire. 

BIRMINGHAM obtained a charter 
to hold markets and fairs, from Henry 
II. and III., and in the reign of Charles 
II., became an asylum for nonconformist 



ministers ; riots at in 1791, at which 
several houses and meetings were de- 
stroyed, on account of some persons 
commemorating the French revolution 
there. Theatre burnt down, Aug. 16, 
1792. Free Chapel began by subscrip- 
tion, 1803. Church of St. Peter's de- 
stroyed by fire, Jan. 24, 1831. Erected 
into a borough, 1832. 

1833. Town-hall completed ; the sa- 
loon or hall is 140 feet in length, 65 feet 
wide, clear of the walls, and 65 feet high. 
It was completed in eighteen months, at 
the cost of £18,000. 

1834. Musical Festival, at which 
£13,400 were collected, and the proceeds 
applied to the use of the Birmingham 
Hospital, Oct. 7. 

BIRNIE, Sir R., many years chief 
magistrate of police in London, died 
April, 1832, aged 72 years. 

BIRON, Duke of, executed in the 
Bastile, Paris, 1602. 

BISHAM Abbey, Berks, built, 1338. 

BISHOPS, their translation first in- 
stituted, 234 ; first in England, 694 ; 
first in Denmark, 939 ; made barons, 
1072 ; precedency settled, 1075 ; ba- 
nished England 1208 ; consented to be 
tributary to Rome, 1245; deprived of 
the privilege of sitting as judges in ca- 
pital offences, 1388 ; the first that suf- 
fered death in England by the sentence 
of the civil power, 1405 ; six new ones 
instituted, 1530; elected by the king's 
conge d'elire, 1535 ; held their sees dur- 
ing pleasure, 1547 ; form of consecration 
ordained, 1549. 

Those who held their sees for life 
obliged to hold them during good be- 
haviour 1552 ; seven deprived for being 
married, 1554; several burnt for not 
changing their religion, 1558 ; fifteen 
consecrated at Lambeth, 1559 ; expelled 
Scotland, 1589. 

Twelve impeached, and committed for 
protesting against any law passed in the 
house of lords, during the time the popu- 
lace prevented their attending parlia- 
ment, 1641 ; their whole order abolished 
by parhament, Oct. 9, 1646; nine re- 
stored, and eight new ones consecrated 
October 25, I66O; regained their seats 
in the house of peers, November 30- 
1661. 

Seven committed to the Tower, for 
not ordering the king's declaration for 
liberty of conscience to be read through- 
out their diocese, 1688 ; six suspended 
for not taking the oaths to king William, 



BIS 



112 



BIS 



1689 1 deprived of their bishopries, 
1690. 

BISHOPRICS of England and Wales, 
according to the antiquity of their insti- 
tution. 

London, an archbishopric and me- 
tropolitan of England, founded by 
Lucius, the first Christian king of Bri- 
tain, 185; LandafF, 185; Bangor, 516; 
St. David's (the archbishopric of Wales 
from 500 till 1,100, when the bishop 
submitted to the archbishop of Canter- 
bury as his metropolitan), 519; St. 
Asaph's, 547. 

St. Augustin, or Austin, made Can- 
terbury the metropolitan archbishopric, 
by order of Pope Gregory, 596 ; Wells, 
604 ; Rochester, 604 ; Winchester, 650 ; 
Litchfield and Coventry, 656 ; Wor- 
cester, 679- 

Hereford, 680; Durham, 690; Sodor 
and Man (with jurisdiction of the Heb- 
rides in Scotland), 838 ; Exeter, 1050 ; 
Sherborne (changed to Salisbury), 1056. 

York, archbishopric, 1067 ; Dorches- 
ter (changed to Lincoln), 1070; Chi- 
chester, 1071 ; Thetford (changed to 
Norwich), 1088 ; Bath and Wells, ib. ; 
Ely, 1109; CarUsle, 1133. 

The following six are founded upon the 
suppression of the monasteries by Henry 
VIII., 1538 : — Chester, Peterborough, 
Gloucester, Oxford, Bristol, Westmins- 
ter. Westminster was united to London, 
1550. 

Estimated revenues attached to the 
several bishoprics of Great Britain and 
Ireland per annum. The real amount is 
far higher. 

England. — Canterbury, 8,000?. ; York, 
7,000/. ; London, 6,200.Z ; Durham, 
8,700/ ; Winchester, 7,400Z. ; Ely, 
4,000/.; Worcester, 3,400Z. ; Salisbury, 
3,500Z. ; • Norwich, 5,000/. ; Lincoln, 
3,200/. : Hereford, 3,000/. ; Chichester, 
2,200/. ; Bath and Wells, 2,400/. ; St. 
Asaph's, 1,500/.; Carlisle, 1,800/.; 
Llandaff", 1,600/.; Peterborough, 1,700/.; 
Gloucester, 2,200/. ; Rochester, 2,400/. ; 
Litchfield and Coventry, 2,900/.; Ban- 
gor, 1,200/. ; Chester, 2,700/. ; Oxford, 
2,800/. ; Exeter, 2,700/. ; St. David's, 
400/. ; Bristol, 1,500/. 

Ireland. — Armagh, 8,000/. ; Dublin, 
5,000/. ; Tuam, 4,000/. ; Cashel, 4000/.; 
Derry, 7,000/. ; Clonfert, 2,400/. ; Clog- 
her, 4,000/. ; Kilmore, 2,600/. ; Elphin, 
3,700/. ; Killala, 2,900/.; Limerick, 
3,500/. ; Cork, 2,700/. ; Cloyne, 2,500/.; 



Down, 2,300/. ; Dromore, 2,000/. ; Leigh 
and Ferns, 2,200/.; Kildare, 2,600/.; 
Raphoe, 2,600/. Meath, 3,200/. ; Killa- 
loe, 2,300/. ; Ossory, 2,000/. ; Water- 
ford, 2,600/. 

Irish sees reduced from 22 in number 
to 12, in 1833. 

BISHOPRICS, Colonial. Bishop 
of Nova Scotia first appointed Aug. 11, 
1787 ; of Jamaica, 1824 ; of Barbadoes 
and Leeward Islands, 1824 ; of Quebec, 
1825; of Calcutta, 1833; of Madras, 
1834; of Bombay, 1834; of Montreal, 
1836; of Australia, 1836. 

BISHOPRICS in Germany, first 
founded by Charlemagne, a.d. 800. 

BISHOP and WILLIAMS executed 
for " burking" the Italian boy, Dec. 5, 
1831. 

BISHOP'S AUCKLAND palace re- 
built, 1665. 

BISHOPSGATE. London, pulled 
down, and sold, 1761. 

BISSET, Robert, LL.D., author of 
" Burke's Life and History of George 
III.," died May 3, 1805, aged 46. 

BISSEXTILE, or Leap Year, a year 
consisting of 366 daj's, happening once 
every four years, by the addition of a 
day in the month of February. Caesar 
having appointed it to be introduced by 
reckoning the 24th of February twice ; 
and as this day, in the old account, was 
the same as the sixth of the kalends of 
March, which had been long celebrated 
among the Romans on account of the 
expulsion of Tarquin, it was called " bis 
sextas kalendas Martii ;" and from 
hence we have derived the name Bissex- 
tile. By the statute de anno bissextile, 
21 Henry III. to prevent misunderstand- 
ings, the intercalary day, and that next 
before it, are to be accounted as one day. 
The astronomers concerned in reforming 
tlie calendar, by order of Pope Gregory 
XIII., in 1582, observing that the bis- 
sextile in four years added forty-four mi- 
nutes more than the sun spent in return- 
ing to the same point of the zodiac, and 
computing that these supernumerary mi- 
nutes, in 133 years, would form a day, 
to prevent any changes being thus in- 
sensibly introduced into the seasons, di- 
rected that, in the course of 400 years 
there should be three bissextiles re- 
trenched ; so that every centesimal year, 
which according to the JuUan account, is 
Bissextile, or Leap Year, is a common 
year in the Gregorian account, unless the 



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113 



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number of centuries can be divided by 4, 
without a remainder. Thus, I6OO and 
2000 are bissextile ; but 1700, 1800, and 
1900 are common. The Gregorian com- 
putation was received in most foreign 
countries ever since the reforming of the 
calendar ; and, by an act of parliament, 
passed in 1751, it commenced in all the 
dominions under the crown of Great 
Britain. 

BITHYNIA, kingdom of, begun by 
Daedalus, a.c 383 ; bequeathed to the 
Romans, A. c 75, by Nicomedes IV.; 
plundered by the Goths about a.d. 253; 
afterwards taken by the Turks, and now 
forms one of the districts of Anatolia. 

BLACK, Dr. Joseph, distinguished 
for his discoveries in chemistry, born at 
Bourdeaux, in France, in 1728. He 
went to the University of Glasgow in 
1746, directed his views to medicine, and 
became a pupil of Dr. CuUen. In 1756, 
having taken his degree of doctor, he 
succeeded Dr. Cullen as professor in me- 
dicine, and lecturer in chemistry. Here 
he made his grand discovery relating to 
fixed air, which was the subject of his 
inaugural dissertation. The essay con- 
taining the account of his experiments 
was published in 1756 ; next year he fur- 
ther enriched his favourite science with 
his experiments on latent heat. In 1765 
he succeeded Dr. Cullen as professor of 
chemistry at Edinburgh. He died Nov. 
26, 1799, aged 71 years. 

BLACK Act passed, 1723. 

BLACK Assize, the Assize held 
at Oxford Aug. 15, 1577, so called, from 
the lieutenant of the county, two knights, 
eight esquires, the justices of the peace, 
and almost all the gentlemen of the grand 
jury dying soon after their return into 
the country, of a disorder occasioned by 
inhaling the noxious effluvia of the town 
gaol. 

BLACK Book, was a book kept by 
the English monasteries in which a detail 
of the scandalous enormities practised in 
religious houses were entered for the in- 
spection of visitors, under Henry VIII., 
in order to blacken them, and hasten 
their dissolution. Hence the vulgar 
phrase, " I'll set you down in my Black 
Book." 

BLACK Eagle, order of knight- 
hood, in Prussia, instituted 1701. 

BLACK Hole, at Calcutta. See 
Calcutta. 

BLACK Prince, son of Edward 
III., of England, obtained a great victory 



over the French at Poictiers, Sep. 20, 1356, 
where John, the French king, and his 
son Philip, were taken prisoners. He 
made his triumphal entry into London, 
1357, with king John, his prisoner, and 
was met by the lord mayor and aldermen 
in all their formalities June 8, 1376. Ed- 
ward, the Black Prince, died in the 46th 
year of his age, and was buned at Can- 
terbury. 

BLACK Rent established in Ire- 
land, 1412. 

BLACK Sea. In the times of queen 
Elizabeth and of Charles II., British 
merchants were permitted to navigate 
the Euxine throughout its whole extent, 
for the purpose of commerce ; yet his- 
tory does not afibrd a single instance of 
a ship of war, antecedent to a short ex- 
cursion made by his Majesty's ship. 
Blonde, in November, 1829, having been 
permitted to navigate the Euxine. 

BLACKBURN, church at, destroyed 
by accidental fire, Jan. 6, 1831. 

BLACKBURN, England, erected into 
a borough, 1832. 

BLACKBURN, archdeacon, born 
1705, died 1787. 

BLACKFRIARS' Bridge, building 
voted for in common council, 1755 ; bill 
passed. May 17, 1756, and the first 
stone laid, Oct. 3, 1760; passable, 1766; 
finished, 1770 ; cost 150,840/. Toll 
houses built, June, 1773 ; burnt by the 
rioters, and re-entered, June 7, 1780 ; 
toll taken off June 24, 1785; Sunday 
toll took place, June 24, 1786 ; bridge 
paved, 1792 ; repaired, 1839. See 
Bridge. 

BLACKLOCK, Thomas, the blind 
poet, born 1721, died 1791- 

BLACKMORE, Sir Richard, phy- 
sician and poet, author of the "Creation," 
born 1650, received the honour of 
knighthood from king William III., 
1697, died, 1729. 

BLACKSMITHS' Company, - Lon- 
don, incorporated, 1577- 

BLACKSTONE, Sir William, born 
July, 1723. He was put to school at 
Charter House, 1735; entered a com- 
moner at Pembroke College, Oxford, 
1738 ; entered in the Middle Temple, 
1741 ; elected into the society of All 
Souls College, Oxford, 1743; com- 
nienced bachelor of civil law, 1745 ; 
called to the bar, 1746; elected recorder 
of the borough of Wallingford, Berk- 
shire, 1749; commenced doctor of civil 
law, 1750. 

Q 



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114 



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He read lectures on the laws of 
England at Oxford, which were attended 
by a very crowded class of young men 
of the first families, characters, and 
hopes, 1753 ; published his Analysis of 
the Laws of England, 1754; was ap- 
pelated one of the delegates of the Cla- 
rendon press, 1755; elected Vinerian 
professor of common law, in the Uni- 
versity of Oxford, 1758. 

He was elected member of the House of 
Commons for Hindon, in Wiltshire, and 
appointed principalof NewInnHall, 176I; 
published in 4to. the first volume of his 
Commentaries on the Laws of England, 
1 765 ; and in the course of the four suc- 
ceeding years, the other three volumes : 
returned a member for Westbury in 
Wiltshire, 1768 ; accepted the office of 
judge of Common Pleas, 1770. He died 
Feb. 14, 1780, aged 56. 

BLACKWELL Hall, first appointed 
repository for woollen cloths, 1515. 

BLACKWOOD, Admiral Sir H., 
a gallant friend of Nelson, born Dec. 28^ 
1770, died Dec. 13, 1833. 

BLAIR, Dr. Hugh, an eminent 
Scottish divine, born at Edinburgh, 
April 7, 17 18; ordained to the ministe- 
rial office, 1742. In 1757,the University of 
St. Andrews conferred on him the degree 
of doctor of divinity; and, in 1758, he 
was promoted to the High Church of 
Edinburgh, the most important eccle- 
siastical charge in the kingdom; in 1759, 
the university instituted a rhetorical class 
under his direction; and, in 1762, his 
majesty was graciously pleased to erect 
and endow a professorship of rhetoric 
and belles lettres in the University of 
Edinburgh, and to appoint Dr. Blair regius 

firofessor thereof. His lectures were pub- 
ished in 1783 ; by a royal mandate in 
1780, a pension of £200 a year was con- 
ferred on him. He expired Dec. 27, 
1800. 

BLAIR, Rev. Robert, the author 
of " The Grave," the best specimen of 
blank verse in the English language, ex- 
cept Milton's Poems, born 1699, died 
1746. 

BLAIR, Dr. John, author of the 
" Chronology and History of the World," 
died 1782, 

BLAKE, Robert, a celebrated En- 
glish Admiral, born Aug. 1589; he was 
elected member for Bridgewater, in 1640; 
In 1643, engaged in the service of parlia- 
•iient and was entrusted with a little fort. 



which he held out against Prince Rupert. 
In 1644, he was appointed governor of 
Taunton, which he found means to keep, 
though not properly furnished with sup- 
plies. In 1648-9 he was appointed, in 
conjunction with Colonel Deane and 
Colonel Popham, to command the fleet; 
and soon after blocked up Prince Mau- 
rice and Prince Rupert, in Kinsale Har- 
bour; and, in 1652, was promoted to 
the rank of sole aimiral for nine 
months. 

1652. When Van Tromp appeared on 
the Downs, with a fleet of 45 men of 
war, Blake, who had then but 20 ships 
engaged him and obtained the mastery. 
In November, he received a check from 
Tromp, Avho however bought this vic- 
tory dear, for in February, 1653, Blake 
gained a signal victory over the Dutch, 
who continued retreating towards Bou- 
logne. 

1654. He humbled Algiers and 
Tunis, bore into the Bay of Porto Ferino 
with his great ships and their seconds, 
assaulted the pirates, and burnt all their 
ships, with the loss of 25 men killed, and 
48 wounded. April, 1567, destroyed or 
took the Spanish fleet in the Bay of 
Santa Cruz. On his return to England, 
as he came within sight of land he ex- 
pired, Aug. 17, 1657, aged 59. 

BLAKE, John Bradley, botr»nist, 
born 1745, died 1773. 

BLANC, Mont, a stupendousmoun- 
tain in SaA'oy, the highest in Europe, 
and probably of the ancient world. Ac- 
cording to the calculations of M. de Luc, 
it is 1 5,304 English feet ; or, according to 
the measurement of Sir George Shuck- 
burgh, 15,662 feet above the sea. It is 
impossible to form any adequate idea of 
the difficulty and danger attending its 
ascent. 

During the last half century, not more 
than twelve persons, exclusive of the 
guides, have ever reached the summit, 
as appears by the following list, extract- 
from the New Monthly Magazine for 
March, 1827; 1. Dr. Paccard, and 
James Balme, a guide, Aug. 8, 1786 ; 2. 
M. Saussure, Aug. 3, 1787 ; 3. Colonel 
Beaufoy, English, Aug. 9, 1787 ; 4. Mr. 
Woodley, Enghsh, Aug. 5, 1788; 5. 
Baron Doothesan, Courland, and M. 
Forneret, Lausanne, Aug. 10, 1802; 6. 
M. Roday, Hamburgh, Sept. 10, 1812 ; 7. 
Count Mateyeski, Aug. 4, 1818; 8. Dr. 
Renselaen, and Mr. Howard, American.s, 



BLI 



1)5 



BLO 



July 12,1819; 9. Captain Uiidrell, R.N. 
English, Au^. 13, 1819; 10. Mr. Clis- 
Bold, English, Aug. 20, 1822; 11. Mr. 
Jackson, English, Sept. 4, 1823; 12. 
Captain M. Sherwill, Aug. 26, 1825. 

BLANCO, Cape, on the coast of 
Africa, discovered, 1441. 

BLANDFORD, assizes at, the judges, 
sheriff, and others, died of the jail dis- 
temper, 1730; burnt June 4, 1731, when 
300 houses were destroyed; and again in 
1775. 

BLANDY, Miss, hanged at Oxford, 
April 6, 1752, for poisoning her father. 

BLANKETS, first made in England, 
1340. 

BLANTYRE, Lord, killed by an ac- 
cidental shot during the insurrection of 
the Belgians, in Sept. 1830. 

BLANTYRE, Priory, Scotland, built 
1296. 

BLAZE, St. order of knighthood at 
Aeon, began, 1250. 

BLENHEIM, a village near Hock- 
stet, Bavaria, remarkable for the defeat 
of the French and Bavarians, Aug. 5, 1 704, 
by the English and their confederates. 
The French army, which amounted to 
60,000, was commanded by Marshal 
Tallard and the duke of Bavaria. The 
allied army, commanded by Prince Eu- 
gene, and the duke of Marlborough, 
amounted to about 52,000 men. Count 
Tallard himself was among the nume- 
rous prisoners of rank; 10,000 men, ex- 
clusive of 1,200 officers, and 3,000 de- 
serters, was the lowest amount of the 
captives, and the total loss, including the 
killed and wounded, was not less than 
40,000 men. There were found in the 
enemy's camp 100 pieces of brass cannon, 
with other warlike stores, and baggage 
in proportion. The loss of the allies 
amounted to 4485 killed, 7525 wounded, 
and 273 prisoners. On the next day, 
when the duke of Marlborough visited 
his prisoner. Marshal Tallard, the latter 
assured him that he had beaten the best 
troops in the world. " I hope. Sir," 
replied the duke, " you will except those 
troops by whom they were conquered." 
In consequence of this victory, the allies 
became masters of a country 100 leagues 
in extent. 

BLI BURGH Priory, Suffolk, 1110. 

BLIGH, Captain^ and nineteen of 
his men, having been comj^elled by the 
mutinous crew of the Bounty, to go into 
an open boat near Anamooka, one of the 
Friendly Isles, arrived at the Island 01 



Timor, after a perilous voyage of 1,200 
leagues, 1789. 

Blind first began to be instructed 
about 1728. 
BLIND, School for the Indigent, 
instituted, 1799. The new building in 
St. George's Fields commenced, April, 
1834. 

BLISTER PLASTERSjinvented A. C.60. 

BLISWORTH, near Northampton, 
fifty dwellings, with their offices, de- 
stroyed by fire. May 28, 1798. 

BLOCK Machinery, for ships, at 
Portsmouth, suggested to government by 
Mr.Brunel, in 1802; forty-four machines 
set to work in 1804, at the dock-yard at 
Portsmouth, seven of which were em- 
ployed as sawing machines for general 
purposes, and the remaining thirty-seven 
for blocks and sheaves only ; altogether 
forming a most complete and perfect 
system of manufacture by machinery. 

BLOCKS, or masses of artificial stone, 
made by mingling together river or sea 
sand, skreened shingle, powdered caustic 
lime, siliceous, or other hard substances 
and boiling water together, 1833. 

BLOIS, Peter of, an eminent writer 
of the twelfth century, was born about 
the year 1 120, at Blois, in France, whence 
he derived his name. Being appointed 
preceptor to Wilham II., king of Sicily, 
1167, he obtained the custody of the 
privy seal, and, next to the archbishop of 
Palermo, the prime minister, he had the 
greatest influence in all affairs. In 1168 
he left the court of Sicily, and returned 
into France. From France he was in- 
vited into England by Henry II., who 
employed him as his private secretary, 
made him archdeacon of Bath, and gave 
him some other benefices. He retired 
into the family of Richard, archbishop of 
Canterbury, who made him his chancel- 
lor, about 1176. After the death of this 
prelate, in 1183, he acted as secretary 
and chancellor to archbishop Baldwin, 
his successor, and was deputed by him 
on an embassy to Rome, 1187, in order 
to plead his cause before pope Urban 
III. in the famous controversy between 
him and the monks of Canterbury. "When 
Baldwin departed into the Holy Land, 
1 1 90, Blois was involved in various trou- 
bles in his old age, the causes of which 
are not distinctly known. He died about 
the end of the twelfth century. 

BLOOD OF Christ, order began in 
Mantua, 1608. 

BLOOD, Colonel, siezed the duktt 



BOA 1!6 

of Ormoml. with an intent to lianp; him 
at Tyburn, but was prevented, Dec. 6, 
1670 ; attempted to steal the crown. May 
9, 1671 ; died Aug. 24, 1680. 

BLOOD, Shower of, fell about the 
beginning of the year 1608, near the 
suburbs of the Aix, and for many miles 
around. 

BLOOD, Circulation of, through 
the lungs, first made public by Michael 
Servetus, a French physician, in 1553. 
Cisalpinus published an account of the 
general circulation, of which he had some 
confused ideas, and improved it after- 
wards by experiments, 1559; but it was 
illustrated by experiments by Hervey, 
1619, and fully confirmed by that emi- 
nent physician, 1628. 

BLOOMFIELD, Robert, author of 
"The Farmer's Boy," &c., born 1766, 
died 1823. 

BLOUNT, Charles, a miscellaneous 
writer, born 1654, died 1693. 

BLOUNT, Sir Thomas Pope, au- 
thor of several learned works, born 1649, 
created a baronet by Charles IL, 1679, 
died 1697. 

BLUCHER, Marshal Prince, born 
1742, visited England, 1814; died 1819. 

BLUE, Prussian, discovered at Ber- 
lin, 1704. 

BOADICEA, queen of the Britons, 
having been insulted by the Romans 
under Nero, incited the Britons to re- 
venge her wrongs and assembled 250,000 
men, attacked the Romans in London, 
Camelodunum, Verulum, and other 
places, and destroyed upwards of 70,000 
Romans, without regard to age or sex. 
But Suetonius Paulinus, the Roman ge- 
neral, returning from the conquest of 
Mona (Anglesea), engaged the Britons 
commanded by Boadicea, and totally 
defeated them, killing 80,000. Boadi- 
cea, to avoid being taken prisoner, poi- 
soned herself, a.d. 61. 

BOADICEA Brig, stranded near 
Kinsale, Ireland, when 200 of the 92d 
regiment perished, Jan. 31, 1816. 

BOARD Wages first commenced 
with the king's servants, 1629- 

BOATS, flat bottomed, invented in 
the reign of William the Conqueror, who 
used them in the Isle of Ely. 

Life Boats. — M. Berniers, director of 
the bridges and causeways in France, in- 
vented a boat not liable to be overset or 
sunk by winds, waves, &c., in 1777- 
Also 1785 a patent was granted to Mr. 
Lionel Lukin, a coach-maker in London, 



BOC 



for his improvement in the constrnclion 
of boats and small vessels, so that they 
will neither overset nor sink. They 
were made with projecting gunwale^, 
sloping from the top of the common gun- 
wale, in a faint curve, towards the water. 
1805 a gold medal was voted by the So- 
ciety for the Encouragement of Arts to 
Mr. Christopher Wilson, for a secure 
sailing boat, balanced exactly according 
to Mr. Lukin's device, byempty project- 
ing gunwales into compartments, by 
which means the failure of one will not 
injure the others, and is, imdoubtedly, 
a material improvement. 

The life boat invented 1789, by Mr. 
Henry Greathead, of South Shields, ranks 
the foremost among the number of use- 
ful inventions of this nature. The in- 
ventor's attention was originally attracted 
to the principle on which the life boat is 
constructed, by observing, as he himself 
expresses it, "that each part of a spheroid 
divided into quarters, nearly resembles 
a wooden bowl having projecting ends. 
If this be thrown into the sea, or broken 
waters, it cannot be upset, or lie with the 
bottom upwards." Mr. Greathead for 
many years derived no pecuniary advan- 
tage from it, untilJune, 1802, when, in 
consequence of a petition to parliament, 
he received a grant of 1,200Z. The So- 
ciety for the Encom-agement of Arts, and 
the Royal Humane Society, also each ac- 
knowledged their sense of its value by the 
presentation of a gold medallion, and 
the latter by various gratuities in money. 

BOCARDO, the ancient prison at 
Oxford, in which Cranmer, Ridley, and 
Latimer were confined, 1554. Bocardo 
was sold by the corporation to the com- 
missioners of the paving act for 306/. In 
pidling it down, several curiosities were 
found in it, particularly a silver coin in a 
recess of an upper room, having on one 
side the figure of an owl, and on the 
other the Greek letters A. 9. E., the ini- 
tials of Athenae. 

BCEOTIAN WAR commenced A. c. 
379, ended 336. 

BOCCACIO, John, an eminent Ita- 
lian writer, and one of the restorers of 
literature in Europe, was bom at Cer- 
taldo, in Tuscany, in 1313. He enjoyed 
the friendship of Petrarch, and in 1351 
was sent to negociate his return to Flo- 
rence- About 1361 he assumed the cle- 
rical habit. He was deputed by his 
countrymen as ambassadoi to pope Ur- 
ban v., at Avignon, and in 1367 he at- 



BOE 



ur 



BOH 



tended the pontiff, under the same cha- 
racter, at Rome. A public lecture on the 
" Comedia" of Dante having been insti- 
tuted at Florence, he commenced his ex- 
])ositions of that author in October, 1373, 
but preferring the retirement of Certaldo, 
his native place, towards the close of his 
life, he died there in December, 1375. 
His most celebrated production is his 
" Decamerone," or collection of one 
hundred stories, or novels, feigned to 
have been recited in ten days by a com- 
pany of ladies and gentlemen who had 
retired into the country from the plague 
of Florence, in 1348. 

BOCHART, Samuel, one of the most 
learned writers of his age, born at Rouen, 
in Normandy, in 1599 ; was for many 
years pastor of a protestant church at 
Caen ; published in 1646 his Phaleg and 
Canaan, which are the titles of the two 
parts of his Geographia Sacra. He ac- 
quired also great fame by his Hierozoicon, 
printed in London in 1675. He died 
May 16, 1667, aged 78. A complete 
edition of his works was published in 
Holland, in two volumes folio, 1712. 

BODIAM Castle, Suffolk, built 
1139- 

BODLEIAN LiBRAKY was founded 
on the remains of that established by 
Humphry, duke of Gloucester, by Sir 
Thomas Bodley, in 1595.' He added to 
the old a new collection of the most va- 
luable books then extant, which he or- 
dered to be purchased in foreign coun- 
tries. The nobility, the bishops, and 
several private gentlemen, made consi- 
derable benefactions in books. The room 
not being large enough to contain them, 
on the 19th of July, 1610, he laid the 
first stone of the new foundation, which 
was finished after his death. 

BODLEY, Sir Thomas, founder of 
the Bodleian Librarj' at Oxford, bom at 
Exeter, in 1544. In 1563 he took his 
degree of master of arts, at Magdalen 
College, Oxford ; in 1565 he obtained a 
fellowship in Merton College; in 1569 
he was elected one of the proctors of the 
university ; and, for a considerable time, 
during a vacancy, he supplied the place 
of university orator. In 1576 he went 
abroad to make the tour of Europe, and 
perfect himself in the modern languages. 
Queen Elizabeth made hina her repre- 
sentative in the counsel of state of the 
United Provinces in 1588. After found- 
ing the library which bears his name, he 
died January 28, 1 6 1 2 . 

BOERHAAVE, Dr. Herman, a ce- 



lebrated physician, born at Voorhout, 
near Leyden, Dec. 31, 1668. In 1693, he 
was created doctor . of medicine at the 
university of Hardenvick ; afterwards 
made professor of medicine, chemistry, 
and botany in the University of Leyden. 
Peter the Great, in 1715, attended Boer - 
haave to receive his lessons. His reputa- 
tion was spread as far as China : a man- 
darin wrote to him with this inscription. 
" To the illustrious Boerhaave, physician 
in Europe." He died September 23, 
1738, in the 70th vear of his age. 

BOETHIUS, or Boetius, Flavius 
Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus, 
an illustrious Roman, was born about 
476. He had the honour of introducing 
to the Romans, in their own language, 
the geometry of Euclid, the music of 
Pythagoras, the arithmetic of Nicoma- 
chus, the mechanics of Archimedes, the 
astrology of Ptolemj?^, the theology oi 
Plato, and the logic of Aristotle. He 
enjoyed the titles of consul and patrician. 
"When Theodoric became king of Italy, 
Boethius for some years enjoyed his 
favour and friendship. He was at length, 
however, suspected of being hostile to 
his government, and after suffering 
many indignities, was put to death, 524. 

BOG IN Ireland, quantity of, 
3,000,000 acres. 

BOG OF Castleguard, or Poule- 
nard, in the county of Louth in Ireland, 
Dec. 20, 1793, moved in a body from 
its original situation to the distance of 
some miles, cro.ssing the high road to- 
wards Doon, covering every thing in its 
way, at least twenty feet in many parts, 
and throwing down several bridges, 
houses, &c, 

BOGOTA, Santa Fe de, capital of 
the republic of Columbia. Bolivar pro- 
claimed dictator at, 1828. National 
Academy opened at, Jan. 6, 1833. 

BOHEMIA, derives its name from 
the Boii, a people of Gaul, who, imder 
their leader Sergovesus, settled in that 
country about 590. They were soon 
after expelled by the Marcomanni, a na- 
tion of the Suevi, who were afterw-ards 
subdued by the Sclavi, a people of Scy- 
thia, whose language is still spoken in 
Bohemia and Moravia. At first they 
were governed by dukes ; but the em- 
peror Otho I. about 932, conquered the 
Duke of Bohemia, and reduced the pro- 
vince under the empire. Afterwards, 
Henry V., about 1106, gave the title of 
king to Ladislaus, Duke of Bohemia, 
and since that time these kings have 



BOL 



113 



COL 



beien electors and chief cup-bearers of 
the empire, and the kingdom has been 
elective. Popery was established by 
Boleslaus, surnamed the Good, and which, 
notwithstanding the attempts of John 
Huss and Jerome of Prague, to effect a 
reformation, in the fourteenth and fif- 
teenth centuries, continued to be the 
prevailing religion, until an edict of to- 
leration was passed by Joseph II. in 178 1, 
^ince which, the Protestant religion has 
been more prevalent. 

BOHEMIA, Queen of, visited Eng- 
land May 17, 1661, died there, Feb. 
1662. 

BOHEMIAN brethren, (the sect of), 
began in Bohemia 1467. 

BOIARDO, an Italian poet, born 
1434, died 1494. 

BOILEAU, Sieur Nicholas Des- 
preaux, a celebrated French poet, born 
at Paris in 1636. After studying suc- 
cessively law and divinity, he betook 
himself entirely to the belles-lettres, and 
took possession of one of the foremost 
places in Parnassus. He was afterwards 
chosen a member of the French Aca- 
demy. He died of a dropsy, March 2, 
l7ll, aged seventy-five. His Lutrin 
was published in 1647- 

BOIS-LE-DUC, in Languedoc, taken 
by the French in 1714, destroyed by vio- 
lent rains, 1776. 

BOL, Cornelius, a Dutch artist, 
who painted views of the fire of London 
in 1666, when he flourished. 

BOLAM, Archibald, clerk in the 
Newcastle Savings' Bank, committed for 
the murder of John Mellie, clerk of the 
same bank, Dec. 7, 1838, found guilty 
of manslaughter July 30, 1839. 

BOLEYN, or Bulleyn, Queen of 
Henry VIII. memorable in English his- 
tory as the first cause of the Reforma- 
tion, and as the mother of Queen Eliza- 
beth, born in 1507. She was tried for 
high treason, and suffered with great 
resolution. May 19, 1536. 

BOLINGBROKE, Henry St. John, 
Lord Viscount, a great statesman and 

fhilosopher, born at Battersea, 1672. 
n 1710 he was made secretary of state. 
He sustained almost the whole weight 
of the difliiculties in negotiating the peace 
of Utrecht. In July 1712, he was cre- 
ated Baron St. John of Lediard-Tregoze 
in Wiltshire, and Viscount Bolingbroke. 
He joined the Pretender in 1715, and 
was attainted of high treason Sept. 10; 
procured a promi se of pardon, upon cer- 



tain conditions, from his majesty King 
George I. in 1716, but a full and free 
pardon was not granted him till 1723. 
He died at Battersea, Nov. 15, 1751. 

" With all his passions, and with all 
his faults, he will perhaps," says the 
writer of his life, " be acknowledged, by 
posterity in general, as I think he is by 
the majority of the present age, to have 
been, in many respects, one of the most 
extraordinary persons who adorned it." 

BOLINGBROKE Castle, Lincoln- 
shire, birth-place of Henry IV., remains 
of, fell down. May, 1815. 

BOLIVAR, the illustrious South 
Amerian patriot, styled the Liberator, 
descended from a family of distinction 
at Caraccas, was born there about the 
year 1785. In his twenty-third year 
contemplated the establishment of the 
independence of his countr)', and all his 
studies and observations were directed 
to that object. In 1817, before the fall 
of Angostura into the hands of the pa- 
triots, wrote to his agent in London, 
Don Luis Lopez Mendez, requesting 
him to send out volunteers. When 
nearly the whole of New Grenada was 
in the possession of the Spaniards, was 
nominated supreme director of Vene- 
zuela. 

1819. He presided at the opening ol 
the congress of Venezuela at Angostura ; 
same year it was decreed that New 
Grenada and Venezuela should form 
one undivided commonwealth, under the 
title of the republic of Columbia; gene- 
ral congress assembled 1821, when he 
was invested with executive power. 

1823, He was despatched to Peru 
with a considerable body of troops from 
Columbia. 

1824. He remained for some time bene- 
ficially employed in subduing the Spa- 
nish force and sustaining thegovernment. 
By the end of 1826, the whole of the 
country was free from the Spaniards. 

1828. Was proclaimed dictator at 
Bogota. Decree issued by him for aug- 
menting the army of the Columbian 
republic to 40,000, in consequence of 
the accumulation of Spanish troops in 
the Havannah, which threatened Colum- 
bia. On Sept. 13, proclamation of Bolivar 
to the Columbians. As the minister of 
the sovereign people, he engaged to obey 
their legitimate desires ; to protect reli- 
gion ; to cause justice to be observed ; 
to exercise economy in the administra- 
tion of the public funds ; to discharge 



BOM 



119 



BOO 



the obligations of the repubUc towards 
foreign states and individuals ; to resign 
the supreme command when the peo])le 
require its restitution ; to convoke the 
national representation within a year un- 
less otherwise commanded by the people. 
Sept. 25. Conspiracy against the life 
and government of Bolivar, directed by 
the late vice-president Santander and 
General Padilla. A part of the garrison 
having been reduced, attacked the resi- 
dence of the general, who narrowly es- 
caped with his life. His aids-de-camp 
Colonels Bolivar and Ferguson were 
killed. The conspiracy was defeated : 
4000 inhabitants rose in favour of the 
general ; and the chief conspirators, 
among whom was Santander, were ap- 
prehended. Padilla was previously in 
prison. 

This extraordinary man after con- 
tinuing to render service to his country 
died Dec. 17, 1831. 

BOLIVIA, (or Upper Peru) new re- 
public, South America, so called in 1825, 
from Bolivar the Liberator. See the pre- 
ceding Article. See also Peru. 

BOLOGNA, University of, (Italy.) 
founded, 423 ; city siezed by the French, 
June 18, 1798 ; taken by the Austrians, 
June 12, 1799; evacuated by Murat, 
and entered by the Austrian army, April 
16, 1815. 

BOLOGNESE, Grimalbi, a cele- 
brated Italian painter of landscape, his- 
tory, and portraits, born 1606, died 1680. 

BOLTON, England, erected into a 
borough, 1832. 

BOLTON, Messrs. Hardcastle's 
bleachworks, nearly destroyed by fire, Oct. 
27, 1825, the loss calculated at £30,000. 

BOLTON ABBEY, Yorkshire, built 
1120; castle built, 1297. 

BOMBAY, taken possession of by the 
Portuguese, from an Indian chief at 
Salsette, in 1530; ceded to Britain in 
1661 ; and, in 1668, placed under the 
control of the East India Company. 
Nearly destroyed by fire, and many 
lives lost, Feb. 27, 1803. 

1838. A public meeting was held at Bom- 
bay, July 8, to consider the best means 
of honouring the memory of Sir Robert 
Grant, G. C. H. the late governor. It 
was resolved to devote the fund pro- 
posed to be collected to the erection of a 
suitable building for the medical college, 
planned by Sir Robert Grant. The Cham- 
ber of Commerce signified its intention, 
(besides contributing to the general sub- 



scription) of raising a monument to his 
memory. 

BOMBS, first invented by a man at 
Venlo, 1588 ; first used in the service of 
France, 1634. 

BOMB Vessels, invented in France 
1681. 

BONAPARTE; See Buonaparte. 

BONAR, Mr. and Mrs. of Chisle- 
hurst, Kent, murdered, by Philip Ni- 
cholson, their servant. May 31, 1813. 

BONDAGE, released by Queen Eliza- 
beth in several of her manors, 1574. 

BONES and teeth of the elephant 
and rhinoceros found in pits of brick 
earth at the village of Fisherton Auger, 
near Salisbury ; the fossil remains of the 
hyaena, in the quarries of Boughton, 
three miles south of Maidstone, 1827; 
and the bones of a rhinoceros and hy- 
aena, in one of the Cefu caves in the 
vale of Cyflfredau, Denbighshire, 1832. 

BONHOMMES, a religious sect, be- 
gan in 1257- 

BONN, town of Prussia, occupied by 
the French, 1703, but though well gar- 
risoned, taken by the duke of Marlbo- 
rough ; taken again by the French, 1794 ; 
university founded by the king of Prus- 
sia, 1818. 

BONNER, bishop of London, enter- 
ed at Oxford about 1512 ; made bishop 
, of London, 1539; deprived. May, 1550, 
died in the Marshalsea, Sept. 5, 1569. 

BONNET, Charles, a naturahst, born 
1720, died 1793. 

BOOKS first supposed to be writ- 
ten in Job's time ; in the present form, 
were invented by Attains, king of Per- 
gamus ; 30,000 burnt by order of Leo, 
761. A very large estate given for 
one on Cosmography, by king Alfred: 
were sold from £10 to £30 each, 1400; 
the first printed one was a vulgate edi- 
tion of the Bible, 1462 ; the second was 
Cicero de officiis, 1466, first began to be 
sold by catalogue, 1676; Cornelius Nepos 
published at Moscow, April 29, 1762, 
was the first classical book printed in 
Russia. 

BOOK-KEEPING, first used after 
the Italian method in London, 1569. 

BOOKSELLERS' Provident Institu- 
tion, established in January, and enrolled 
in May, 1837. 

BOOTH, Barton, the player, born 
1681, died May, 1733. 

BOOTHIA, a newly discovered pe- 
ninsula in the Arctic Ocean, so namedby 
Captain Ross, from Sir Felix Booth, who 



BOR 



120 



BOT 



principally enabled him to equip the ex- 
pedition, discovered Jan. 1830. Tlie 
country, as far north as 72° is inhabited, 
and Captain Ross had communication 
with a very interesting tribe of natives, 
who had never before seen any Euro- 
peans. 

BOOTS were invented, a.c. 907. 

BORGE, a seat near Frederick stadt, 
in Norway, sunk into an abyss 100 fa- 
thoms deep, which instantly became a 
lake, and drowned 14 persons, with 240 
head of cattle, 1702. 

BORGIA, CiBSAR, natural son of 
Pope Alexander VI. was a brave general, 
but a most abandoned villain. Swarms 
of assassins were constantly kept in pay 
by him at Rome, for the sake of remov- 
ing all who were either obnoxious or in- 
convenient to him. In 1503, he very 
narrowly escaped dying by poison ; for 
having concerted with the rope a design 
of poisoning nine newly-created cardi- 
nals at once, for the sake of possessing 
their effects, the poisoned wine, destined 
for the purpose, was, by mistake, brought 
to and drank by themselves. He was 
killed in 1507, as he was serving as a 
volunteer in the army of king John, his 
brother-in-law. 

BORGOGNONE, Jacopo Cortese, 
a celebrated French painter of battle 
pieces, born 1621, died 1676. 

BORING for water, coal, &c,, &c., first 
adopted, 1804. 

BORLASE, Rev. William, the an- 
tiquary, died 1772. 

BORNEO, first known to the Portu- 
guese, in 1513. The inhabitants of the 
north coast have a tradition that their 
country was once subject to China, 
and in modern times it has become a 
grand receptacle for the surplus popula- 
tion of that overflowing empire. The 
Dutch commissioners at Pontiana put 
forth a claim to the whole of the islanil, 
1811 ; the Chinese gold mmers at Sink- 
wang were in a state of insurrection 
against the Dutch, who at the commence- 
ment were unsuccessful, and obliged to 
evacuate that portion of the coast, 1824. 

BORNOU, extensive kingdom of 
Central Africa, till lately but very im- 
perfectly known. First visited by Den- 
ham, Clapperton, and others, in 1823, 
1824, and the situation and Hmits of the 
country ascertained with some degree of 
correctness. Comprehended between 
the 15th and 10th parallel noith latitude, 
and the r2th and 13th east longitude. 



BOROUGH. See Corporations. 

BOSCAWEN, Admiral, died 1761, 
aged 50. 

BOSCOVICH, Joseph Roger, an 
eminent mathematician and philosopher 
born at Ragusa, in 1711- Sent in 1725, 
to the Jesuits' College at Rome. He 
was the author of a new system of phi- 
losophy pubhshed in 1758, entitled Tl»e- 
oria Philosophiae Naturalis. In 1792, 
he went to America, for the purpose of 
observing the expected transit of Venus, 
over the sun's disk; died Feb. 13, 1/87, 
aged 76. 

BO SI A (the village of,) at Piedmont, 
near Turin, suddenly sank, together with 
above 200 of its inhabitants, April 8, 
1679. 

BOSSU, Rene' LE, eminent French 
scholar, born 1631, died 1680. 

BOSSUET, James Benigne, a cele- 
brated French dinne, born at Dijon, 
Sept. 27, 1627; sent to Paris to the 
College of Navarre, 1642; appointed 
preceptor to the dauphin, and afterwards 
bishop of Meaux, 1670; died 1704. His 
writings both in French and Latin were 
collected together, and printed at Paris, 
in 17 vols. 4to., 1743. 

BOSTON, New England, proscribed, 
the port closed by the English parlia- 
ment, as a punishment for a riot, April 
,4, 1744; bill for its removal, 1775; the 
tide breaking do'\\Ti the bank of the sea, 
deluged the town and the country round 
for many miles, Nov. 10, 1810. 

BOSTON, New England, sustained a 
loss by fire of its court-house and re- 
cords, Dec. 23, 1 747 ; again, of above 
100,000;. March 20, 1760 ; again in 1761, 
1763, and 1775 ; again April 20, 1787; 
100 houses burnt ; again, July 23, 1794 : 
when it received damage to the amount 
of 200,000/.; again in Dec. 1797- 

BOSTON Church, Lincolnshire, 
founded 1309; damaged by fire. May 23, 
1803. 

BOSWELL, jAMES,.chiefly celebrated 
as the biographer of Dr. Johnson, born 
at Edinburgh, 1740. In 1773, he ac- 
companied Dr. Jolmson in a tour through 
the Higlilands and the western isles of 
Scotland, of which tour he wrote an en- 
tertaining account, published in 1784. 
In 1790, he published his Memoirs of 
Dr. Johnson, in 2 vols. 4to. and since 
reprinted in 3 vols, 8vo., died May I9, 
1765. 

BOTANY. On this science Hippo- 
crates is the oldest writer extant, who 



BOT 



121 



flourished at the beginning of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, A.c. 431. Aristotle, 
who lived about half a century after, 
left two books now existing, which 
bear his name, but of such inferior merit, 
that they are generally thought to be 
spurious. Theophrastus, a.c. 322, the 
disciple of Aristotle, is the first professed 
writer on plants, whose works have in- 
contestibly descended to modern times. 
From the age of Theophrastus to that of 
Dioscorides and Pliny, there is an in- 
terval of 400 years. Dioscorides was a 
physician, and wrote entirely as such. 
Botany was not studied to much benefit, 
till the time of Gesner, the great natu- 
ralist, who discovered the expedience of 
dividing plants into classes, genera, and 
species. He died of the plague in 1565, 
at the early age of fifty. At this time 
also flourished Dr. William Turner, who 
may be accounted the father of English 
botany. It was he who first gaA'e names 
to many English plants. Ceesalpin was 
the first to execute what Gesner had first 
conceived ; the arrangement of the whole 
vegetable creation in a regular system. 

The publication of Gaspard Bauhins's, 
"Pinax Theatri Botanici," in 1623, may 
be considered a new era in botany. The 
fruit of forty years' labour, it threw over 
the subject, as it then stood, a clear con- 
spicuous light, and showed at one view 
the information which had been given 
by a multitude of scattered authors. 
Botany as a science, made little progress 
for nearly half a century afterwards; 
when Morison, Ray, Rivinus, and Tourne- 
fort, all nearly at the same time, direct- 
ed their attention to the classification of 
plants, and investigated the true princi- 
ples on which it ought to be formed. 

The distinction of sexual parts in plants 
had been discovered, and pretty generally 
admitted, before the time of Linnaeus : 
but he was the first who made it the 
basis of an artificial system. The first 
sketch of his " Systema Naturae," was 
published in 1735, and the "Fundamenta 
Botanica," in 1736. In 1737, they were 
followed by the " Critica Botanica," "Ge- 
nera Plantarum," " Hortus Cliffbrtia- 
nus," " Flora Lapponica," and " Me- 
thodus Sexualis." In 1751, appeared 
his great and most finished elei giat arv 
work, the " Philosophia Botanica|^%nd 
in 1753, the first edition of the " Species 
Plantarum," which completed his system 
by extending to the lowest division under 
which indi^-idual plants were coUec- 



BOU 

tively arranged. Linnaeus devoted the 
greatest part of his life to a system con- 
fessedly artificial, but he has left what he 
calls fragments of a natural order, with- 
out pointing out their peculiar distin- 
guishing characters j and the substance 
of his lectures on natural orders has 
been published, since his death, by his 
pupil Giscke. The most successful at- 
tempt at a natural method was that of 
the Jussieus. The plan of this system 
was originally formed by Bernard Jus- 
sieu, demonstrator of botany at Paris, 
and published by his nephew, Anthony 
Lawrence, in 1789, in a work entitled 
Genera Plantarum, secundum Ordines 
Naturales disposita. Since then, many 
works have appeared, but no material 
changes in the great principles of the 
science. 

BOTANY BAY, a spacious bay on 
the south-east coast of Australia, dis- 
covered, 1770, by Captain Cook, who so 
named it from the number and variety 
of plants, unknown to Europeans, which 
he found there. It was afterwards con- 
verted into a penal settlement for exiled 
criminals. The first expedition, with 778 
convicts on board, to this spot, was placed 
under the command of governor Philip, 
who sailed. May, 1787, and arrived in 
Jan. 1788. As however neither the bay 
nor theland afforded shelter to commerce, 
or hope to the agriculturist, the settle- 
ment was transferred to Port Jackson, 
which was only three leagues distant. 

BOTH, Andrew and John, two 
celebrated Dutch painters. Andrew died 
1656; John died 1650. 

BOTHEL Castle, Northumberland, 
built 1330. 

BOTOLPH'S Priory, Colchester, 
built 1109. 

BOTTLE, containing two hogsheads, 
blo^vn at Leith, Scotland, Jan. 7, 1748-9- 
See Glass. 

BOTTLE Conjurer, imposed on the 
credulous at the Haymarket Theatre, 
Jan. 16, 1748-9. 

BOUGAINVILLE, the navigator, es- 
caped from the massacre at Paris of 
1792, and died Aug. 3, 1811. 

BOULOGNE Flotilla, the unsuc- 
cessful attack on, by Lord Nelson, 1801, 

BOULTER, archbishop of Armagh, 
Ireland, gave 30,000Z. to charitable uses, 
born 1671, died 1742. 

BOULTON, Matthew, the inge- 
nious mechanic and engineer of Soho, 
Birmingham, died 1809- 



BOU 



122 



BOY 



^ 



BOUNDARIES and divisions of coun- 
ties, and limits of cities and boroughs, 
foi the purposes of parliamentary reform, 
1832. 

BOUNTIES, first legally granted in 
England for raising naval stores in Ame- 
rica, 1703 ; for exporting corn, 1689 ; re- 
pealed 1815. See Corn. 

BOURBON, erected into a duchy 1336. 
BOURBONS, family compact, 1761; 
expelled France, 1791 ; restored, 1814; re- 
expelled, and again restored, 1815; the 
Orleans branch elected to a monarchy, 
9th ot August, 1830. 

BOURBON Isle, island in the In- 
dian Ocean, 400 miles east from that of 
Madagascar, discovered by the Portu- 
guese in the year ] 645, and named by 
them Mascarigne ; first taken possession 
of and colonized by the agent of the 
French East India company, and for some 
years it was used as a place of banish- 
ment for criminals. Upon the increase 
of he colony the name of the island was 
changed to Bourbon, in compliment to 
the Royal Family of France, by M. de 
Flacourt, in the year 1 649 ; colony regu- 
larly established by the French, 1672; 
taken by the EngUsh, 1810, restored, 
1814. In 1829, there was a violent hur- 
ricane at the Isle of Bourbon, by which 
upwards of sixty vessels were damaged, 
and the whole of the eastern side of the 
island devastated. 

BOURBON-LES-BAINS, in Bassig- 
ni, France, the vault under the church 
there gave way during mass, when 600 
persons were killed, Sept. 14, 1778. 

BOURDALOUE, Louis, a celebrated 
French preacher, and one of the greatest 
orators that France has produced, born 
at Bourges, Aug. 20, 1632. He fre- 
quently preached before Louis XIV. He 
died at Paris, May, 13, 1704. 

BOURDON, Seb. a French painter of 
history and landscape, born I6I6, died 
1671, 

BOURGEOIS, Francis, an English 
landscape painter, founder of the Dul- 
wich Gallery, born 1756, died 1811. 

BOURIENNE, Mons. de, secretary 
and biographer of Napoleon, died in a 
maison de sante, in Normandv, 1834. 

BOURIGNON, Madam, 'the enthu- 
siast, born 1616, died I68O. 

BOURN, Thomas, an English topo- 
graphical UTiter born 1771, died 1832. 

BOURRALT, Edm. Fr. a French 
writer, born 1632, died 1701. 

BOUTERWEK, Professor of the 



University of Gottingen, died Sept. 2 J, 
1828 
BOW-BRIDGE, first buUt, 1087- 
BOW-CHURCH, Cheapside, built 
1673, tower finished, I68O. 

BOWS and Arrows introduced into 
England, 1066. See Archery. 

BOWYER'S Company, London, 
incorporated, 1620. 

BOWYER, William, the printer, 
born 1669, died Nov. 18, 1777. 

BOXGROVE Priory, Sussex, built 
1110. 

BOYCE, Dr. William, organist and 
composer to his late Majesty George II. 
born in London, 1710, appointed master 
of the king's band, 1757, organist of the 
chapel royal, 1758. He died Feb. 9, 
1779, aged 69. 

BOYDELL, Josiah, alderman of 
London, a portrait and landscape painter 
and engraver, born 1750, died 1817. 

BOYDELL, John, alderman of Lon- 
don, promoter of the graphic art in Eng- 
land, born 1719, died 1805. 

BOYER, Abel, the lexicographer, 
born 1664, died 1729. 

BOYLE, Richard, earl of Cork, born 
1556, died 1643. 

BOYLE, Roger, inventor of the 
orrery, born 1621, died 1643. 

BOYLE, Robert, celebrated philo- 
sopher, born at Lismore, county of Cork, 
Ireland, 1627- He was one of the first 
members of a small but learned body, 
which after the Restoration were incor- 
porated, as the Royal Society- During 
his residence at Oxford, he invented the 
air-pump, which was perfected for him 
by Mr. Hook, in the year 3 658 or 1659. 
Ill 1663, the Royal Society being incor- 
porated, Mr. Boyle was appointed one of 
the council. He died in 1691. 

BOYLE, Charles, earl of Orrery, 
born 1676, died 1731. 

BOYLE, John, earl of Orrery, born 
1707. died 1762. 

BOYLE, Richard, earl of Burling- 
ton, born 1695, died 1753. 

BOYNE, river in Ireland, memorable 
for a battle fought on its banks between 
James II. and king William III. in which 
the former was defeated, July 1, I690. 
BOYNE, man of war, of 89 guns, 
Avas destroyed by fire at Portsmouth, 
whefi*'great mischief was done by the 
explosion of the magazine, onMay 1,1795. 
BOYSB, John, a divine, and one of 
the translators of the Bible, born 1560, 
died 1643. 



BRA 



123 



BRA 



BOYSE, Samuel, a man remarkable 
for the fineness of his genius, for the 
lowness of his manners, and the wretch- 
edness of his hfe, was born at Dubhn in 
the year 1708. About the year 1740, 
he was reduced to the last extremity of 



to his trial. They condemned him to 
the flames; and he was accordingly burnt 
alive in Smithfield, July 1, 1555. 

BRADLEY, Dr. James, a celebrated 
astronomer, was born at Shireborn, in 
Gloucestershire, 1692 ; admitted a cora- 



wretchedness. In May, 1749, he died in moner of BaliolCollege,Oxford, 1710-11. 



obscure lodgings near Shoe Lane. 

BRABANT, province of the Nether- 
lands, erected into a duchy in the 7th 
century, and long subject to the Fran- 
kish monarchy; after which it became a 
German fief. The last duke, a de- 
scendant of Charlemagne, dying in the 
year 1005, Lambert, count of Louvain, 
succeeded him, from whose posterity 



In 1721, he succeeded Dr. John Kiel, as 
Savilian professor of astronomy. In 1727, 
he pubhshed his "Theory of the A- 
berration of the Fixed Stars," which is 
allowed to be one of the most useful 
and ingenious discoveries of modern 
astronomy. See Aberration. He was 
made astronomer royal, 1741-2. In 1742, 
admitted into the council of the Royal 



again it passed to Phihp II., duke of Society; and in 1748, a member of the 



Burgundy, and afterwards to the em^ 
peror Charles V. 

The north portion of the duchy was 
seized by the republic of Holland in the 
I7th century, from which it acquired 
the distinctive appellation of Dutch Bra- 
bant, and in 1810, was annexed to the 
French empire. Upon the formation of 
the kingdom of the Netherlands, it was 
restored to the Dutch, and now forms 
part of the kingdom of Holland. 

South Brabant belonged for a consi- 
derable period to Austria, was occupied 
by the French in 1746, btit restored by 
the peace of Aix-la-ChapeUe. It was a 
second time seized by the French in 
1797, to whom the possession was con- 
firmed by the treaty of Campo Formio, 
in 1797, and of Luneville, in 1801. 



Royal Academy of Sciences and Belles 
Letters, of Berlin; in 1752, a member 
of the Imperial Academy, at Petersburg ; 
and in 1757, of that instituted at Bologna. 
He died 1762, aged 70. 

BRADSHAW, John, one of the 
judges of Charles I., born 1586, died 1659, 

BRADSOLE Abbey, Kent, built, 
1191. 

BRADSTOW Pier, in Kent, destroy- 
ed by a storm, January 2, 1767 ; rebuilt 
1772. 

BRADY, Rev. Db. Nicholas, the 
first protestant bishop of Meath, in Ire- 
land, born 1659, died 1726. 

BRADY, Dr. Robert, physician to 
King James II., and author of the "His- 
tory of England," died 1770. 

BRAHE, Tycho, a celebrated Swedish 



Upon the formation of the kingdom of astronomer, born December 14, 1546. 
the N^etherlands, in 1815, this province The great eclipse of the sun August 21, 



with othei"s was included in that king- 
dom, but it was again separated by the 
Belgian insurrection in 1830, and is now 
the metropolitan province of the king- 
dom of Belgium. 

BRADDOCK, General, killed at 
Du Quesne, July 9, 1755. 

BRADENSTOCK Priory, Wilts, 
built, 1076. 

BRADFORD, in Wiltshire, damaged 
by fire, April 30, 1740, erected into a 
borough, 1832. 

BRADFORD, John, a divine, and 
martyr to the reformation, who flourished 
during the reign of Queen Mary. In 
1550, he was ordained by bishop Ridley; 
and in 1553, he was made chaplain to 
Edward VI., during which time he be- 
caiiie one of the most popular preachers 
in the kingdom. In the early part of 
Queen Mary's reign he was confined to 
the tower for sedition, and at last brought 



1560, happening at the precise time the 
astronomers had foretold, he began to 
study the science. In 1574, by his ma- 
jesty's command, he read lectures on 
the theory of the comets, at Copenhagen, 
Tycho Brahe's skill in astronomy is 
universally known ; and he is famed for 
being the inventor of a new system 
which he endeavoured, though without 
success, to establish upon the ruins of 
that of Copernicus. He died October 
24, 1601, aged 55, and was interred in 
a very magnificent manner in the prin- 
cipal church at Prague. 

BRAHILOW, town of European 
Turkey. Von Stoffel, the Russian general, 
invested this town in the year 1770, and 
set fire to it in many places. June 19, 
1828, after a bloody and unsuccessful 
attempt to take it by storm, a capitula- 
tion for the surrender of the fortress was 
concluded between the grand duke Mi- 



BRA 124 BRA 

cliael, chief in command of the Russian during the 3 years ending with 1789, 

besiegers, and Soliman Pasha, the Tur- and the 1-1 years ending with 1828. 

kish commander of that place. years. hectolitres. 

BRAIN, functions of, first discovered, 1787 305,638 

1792. 1788 221,499 

BRAMAH, Joseph, engineer and 1789 234,500 

mechanist, born 1749, died Dec. 9, 1814. 

BRAMBER Castle and Church, 1815 154,160 

Sussex, built before the conquest. 1816 137,398 

BRANCEPETH Castle, Durham, 1817 61,697 

built 1140. 1818 99,402 

BRANCH Banks, establishment of, 1819 231,652 

at Gloucester, Manchester, Swansea, 1820 253,349 

Birmingham, Liverpool, Bristol, Leeds, 1821 .... : 153,408 

Exeter, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Ports- 1822 230,186 

mouth, Plymouth, Hull, and Norwich, 1823 310,059 

1834. 1824 317,347 

BRANDENBURG, created a mar- 1825 250,937 

quisate, 926 ; created a dukedom, 1526. 1826 194,110 

BRANDENBURG House, residence 1827 273,574 

of Queen Caroline, taken down, 1824. 1828 403,207 

BRANDY has always formed a very Which, as the hectolitre is equal to 
prominent article in the exports of 26.42 wine gallons, shows that the ex- 
France. The following is an account of portation in 1828, was equivalent to 
the exportation of brandy from France 10,252,728 gallons; but it has since de- 
clined considerably. 

The number of gallons (imperial measure) of foreign brandy which entered for 
home consumption in Great Britain and Ireland since 1814. 

quantity entered for home consumption. 



Years. 


Great Britain. 


Ireland. 


United Kingdom. 


■ 


Imp. gals. 


Imp. gals. 


Imp. gals. 


1814 


500,592 


7,169 


507,76] 


1815 


656,555 


5,160 


661,715 


1816 


657,062 


5,275 


662,337 


1817 


634,017 


3,875 


637,892 


1818 


531,583 


6,232 


537,815 


1819 


787,422 


7,080 


794,502 


1820 


842,864 


6,025 


848,889 


1821 


914,630 


6,001 


920,631 


1822 


1,001,607 


7,308 


1,008,915 


1823 


1,083,104 


17,118 


1,100,222 


1824 


1,226,715 


984 


1,227,699 


1825 


1,321,327 


3,550 


1,324,877 


1826 


1,473,243 


7,371 


1,480,614 


1827 


1,313,217 


7,271 


1,320,488 


1828 


1,327,929 


7,556 


1,335,485 


1829 


1,301,450 


8,529 


1,309,979 


1830 






1,285,967 


1831 


1,226,280 


8,821 


1,235,101 


1832 


1,570,075 


31,577 


1,601,652 



BRASIL.— See Brazil. 

BRASS exported in 1799, amounted 
to 77,033 cwt. 3qr. l61b., at 7^. 14s. 8d. 
per cwt. amounted to 595,728Z. 15s. 5d. 

BRAY, Dr. Thoma.s, deviser of pro- 



pagating the gospel in foreign parts, born 
1656, died 1730. 

BRAY, William, an English anti- 
quary, born 1736, died 1833. 

BRAY, Berks., famous in song for 



BRA 



125 



BRE 



its vicar ; who, from the reign of Henry 
to Elizabeth, changed his religion three 
times, and being called a turncoat, said 
he kept to his principle, that of living and 
dying vicar of Bray. 

BRAZEN-NOSE College, Ox- 
ford, founded 1513. 

BRAZIL, South America, discovered 
April 24, 1500, by Alvarez de Cabral, a 
Portuguese, who was driven on its coasts 
by a tempest. He called it the land of 
the Holy Cross. It was subsequently 
called Brazil, on acount of its red wood, 
and was carefully explored by Amerigo 
Vespucci, from 1500 to 1504. It was 
settled by the Spaniards, 1515 ; settled 
by the Dutch, 1624 ; taken from Holland 
by the Portuguese, 1654 j government 
fixed at Rio, 1763. January 19, 1808, 
the royal family of Portugal landed at 
Bahia. 

In 1808 the ports were first opened 
for the unconditional entrance of all 
friendly vessels, and the exportation of 
all Brazilian produce, under certain du- 
ties, except Brazilian wood. A treaty of 
alliance and commerce was concluded 
with England in 1810. 

In 1815 Brazil was declared a monar- 
chy, and its connexion with Germany 
drawn closer by the marriage of the 
crown prince, Don Pedro, afterwards 
emperor, with the daughter of Francis I. 
of Austria. After the close of the con- 
gress of Vienna, the same year, a despe- 
rate struggle took place between Brazil 
and the republic of Buenos Ayres. In 
1817 an insurrection broke out in Per- 
nambuco, which was suppressed by the 
garrison stationed there. 

In 1821, after the revolution of Portu- 
gal, Don Pedro accepted the Portuguese 
constitution in the name of his father and 
himself. Don Pedro was elected con- 
stitutional emperor, October 12, 1822; 
abdicated in favour of his son, Don Pe- 
dro, then five years old, April 7, 1831. 
The representatives of the nation imme- 
diately met, and appointed a regency to 
act in the name of the young emperor. 

In 1833, a conspiracy, concocted in 
March, by the governor of the young 
emperor, to overthrow the constitution 
and restore Don Pedro, was discovered 
and defeated. In April a bill was brought 
in to prohibit Don Pedro from ever en- 
tering the territories of Brazil, even as a 
foreigner and private individual. In Au- 
gust, 1834, the legislature and the re- 
gency ratified a measure for establishing 



a federal form of government through- 
out the entire Brazilian territory, upon 
principles similar to that of the United 
States. In the beginning of the year 
1835 an insurrection of the negro slaves 
broke out. They attacked simultaneously 
the different barracks in the city ; but 
the military, having been forewarned, 
were prepared to receive them. They 
took the town of Para, whicL had been 
rising into importance during late years 
as a place of consumption for British 
manufactures. Then followed an indis- 
criminate massacre of all white men who 
fell into their hands, without regarding 
to what nation they might belong. 

In 1836 Brazil recovered the town of 
Para, of which the insurgent Indian po- 
pulation in the previous year had taken 
possession. When the city fell into the 
hands of the insurgents it was said to 
have contained British property to the 
amount of 300,OU0Z., of which scarcely a 
trace remained. In 1837, Feijo, regent 
of Brazil, resigned his post. A new go- 
vernment was installed, of which Senhor 
Galvao was named president. Although 
this revolution was effected without 
bloodshed, great alarm existed lest fur- 
ther trouble should arise, and the negro 
slaves be mduced to take their part like- 
wise in the conflict. In 1838 Bahia, to- 
wards the latter end of December, was 
retaken by the imperial troops under 
General Callado by storm, which put an 
end to the revolt. In the province of 
Rio Grande the insurrection continued 
during the year, and the attempts on 
the part of the government to suppress 
it were less successful than at Bahia. 

BRAZIL diamond mines discovered, 
1730. 

BREAD. Origin of the art of mak- 
ing bread not known. Unleavened 
bread was common in the days of Abra- 
ham (Gen. xviii. 8). Leavened bread was 
used in the time of Moses (Exod. xii.15). 
The Greeks affirmed that Pan had in- 
structed them in the art of making bread ; 
but thej', no doubt, were indebted for 
this art, as well as for their knowledge 
of agriculture, to the Egyptians and 
Phoenicians, who had early settled in 
their country. The method of grinding 
corn by hand mills was practised in 
Egypt and Greece from a very remote 
epoch ; but for a lengthened period the 
Romans had no other method of making 
flour than by beating roasted corn in 
mortars. The Macedonian war helped 



BRE 



12G 



BRE 



to make the Romans acquainted with the 
arts and refinements of Greece ; and 
Phny mentions that pubUc bakers were 
then, for the first time, established in 
Greece. 

The use of yeast, in the raising of 
bread, seems to have been practised by 
the Germans and Gauls before it was 
practised by the Romans. It was not 
practised in France in modem times, till 
towards the end of the seventeenth cen- 
tury ; introduced into England, 1656. 

Wherever it is easily and success- 
fully cultivated, wheaten bread is used, 
to the nearly total exclusion of most 
others. In the reign of Henry VIII. the 
gently had wheat sufficient for their own 
tables, but their household and poor 
neighbours were usually obliged to con- 
tent themselves with rye, barley, and 
oats. In 1596, rye-bread and oatmeal 
formed a considerable part of the diet of 
servants, even in the great families, in 
the southern counties. Barley bread is 
stated, in 1626, to be' the usual food of 
the ordinary sort of people. 

In 1758 wheat had become much more 
generally the food of the common peo- 
ple ; but even then not more than half 
the people of England fed on wheat. 
About the middle of the last century 
hardly any wheat was used in the north- 
ern counties ; but wheaten bread is now 
universally made use of in towns and 
villages, and almost every where in the 
country. 

At the middle of the last century, 
Scotch agriculture was in the most de- 
pressed state. In 1780 no wheaten bread 
was to be met with in the country places 
and villages of Scotland ; oat cakes and 
barley bannocks being universally made 
use of. But at present the case is widely 
different ; the upper, and also the mid- 
dle class, and lower classes in towns and 
villages, use only wheaten bread ; and 
even in farm houses it is very extensively 
consumed. 

In many parts of England it is the 
custom for private families to bake their 
own bread. This is particularly the 
case in Kent, and in some parts of Lan- 
cashire. In 1804 there was not a single 
baker in Manchester ; and their number 
is still very limited. 

Owing to the vast importance of bread, 
its manufacture has been subjected, in 
most countries, to various regulations, 
some of which have had a beneficial, 
and others an injurious operation. 



Assize of Bread. From the year 1 265, 
in the reign of Henry III., do^vn to our 
own days, it has been customary to re- 
gulate the price at which bread should 
be sold according to the price of wheat 
or flour at the time. But in consequence 
of the increase of intelligence as to such 
matters, the practice of setting an assize 
was gradually reUnquished in most 
places; and in 1815 it was expressly 
abolished, by an act of the legislature 
(55 Geo. III. c. 99), in London and its 
environs. In other places, though the 
power to set an assize still existed, it 
was seldom acted upon, and had fallen 
into comparative disuse. 

Lastly, it. was entirely set aside by 6 
and 7 Will. IV. c. 37— July 28, 1836, 
entitled, an " Act to repeal the several 
Acts now in force relating to bread to be 
sold out of the City of London and the 
Liberties thereof, and beyond the Weekly 
Bills of Mortality and ten miles of the 
Royal Exchange ; and to provide other 
regulations for the making and sale of 
Bread, and for preventing the adultera- 
tion of meal, flour, and bread, beyond 
the limits aforesaid." This act recites 
that it is expedient (as in the title) to 
proceed forthwith to repeal all acts re- 
lating to the making and selling of bread, 
or to the punishment for adulterating 
meal, &c. out of the City of London and 
beyond the Bills of Mortality, and e- 
nacts that there shall be no longer any 
assize of bread beyond such limits, or 
any regulation respecting the price there- 
of. It authorizes bread to be sold 
beyond those limits, if made of flour 
or meal, of wheat, barley, rye, oats, buck 
wheat, Indian corn, peas, beans, eggs 
milk, barm, leaven, potato, or other 
yeast, and mixed in such proportions as 
the bakers shall think fit. 

Adulterating Bread, by mixing other 
ingredients than those mentioned, to be 
punishable by a fine not exceeding 10/., 
nor less than 5l., or imprisonment for 
not exceeding six months ; and the 
names of such offenders are to be pub- 
lished in a local newspaper. Adulter- 
ating corn, meal, or flour, or selling 
flour of one sort of corn as the flour of 
another sort, subject to a penalty not ex- 
ceeding 20/., nor less than 5/. 

Price of Bread. In the year 1754, 
the quartern loaf was sold for 4c/. ; three 
years afterwards, in the year 1757, it 
rose to lOd. ; in March 1800 to Is. od., 
when new bread was forbidden, under 



BRE 



127 



BRE 



the penalty of 5s. per loaf, or if the baker 
sold it until twenty-four hours old. In 
March 1809 the quartern loaf was sold 
for Is. 3d.; in June 1810, for Is. 5rf. ; in 
July 1812, for Is. 8d. ; from January to 
September, 1813, for Is. 6|d. ; in 1813, 
1814, and 1815, from \l\d. to Is.J ; in 

1816, from 10c?. to Is. 5|d. ; in June, 

1817, for Is. 8rf. ; in 1836, for ^d; in 
1839, from 9^. to lOjrf. 

BREAD, made from the fibres of 
wood in Germany, 1834. 

BREAD Fruit Tree, first intro- 
duced into the West Indies by Captain 
Bligh, Jan. 1793. 

BREAKWATER, at Plymouth, com- 
menced Aug. 10, 1812. March 31, 
1813, made its appearance above the 
surface of the Sound at low water of the 
spring-tide. 

The quantity of stone deposited in 
1812 was 16,045 tons; in 1813, 71,198 
tons; in 1814, 239,480 tons; in 1815, 
264,207 tons; and in 1816, up to Aug. 
12, 206,033 tons; at which time, the 
total quantity of stone sunk, amounted 
of 896,963 tons; and at the conclusion 
of the year, to upwards of 1,000,000 
tons. The total quantity of stone re- 
quired for the construction of the break- 
water, as originally estimated by Messrs. 
Rennie and Whidbj"-, amounted to 
2,000,000 tons ; and the probable ex- 
pense to £1,171,100. 

1817- A decided proof was afforded 
of its benefit, by its sheltering the Sound 
and Catwater from the furj' of one of 
the most tremendous hurricanes remem- 
bered by the oldest inhabitant. 

BREAST-PLATES for armour first 
invented, a.c. 397. 

BRECKNOCK Castle, buUt 1089, 
priory buUt 1100. 

BREDA. Since the establishment 
of a town here in 1534, it has frequently 
been attacked and occupied by the French 
and Spaniards. It was surprised and 
taken by the Spanish general Cloud de 
Barlaimont in 1581 ; by Maurice, prince 
of Orange, in 1590. Again taken by 
the Spaniards under Spinola 1625, after 
a siege of ten months; and by Henry 
of Orange 1637, after four months' siege. 
In 1667, it was the seat of the famous 
conference, in which a general peace 
was established between Louis XIV. of 
France, Charles II. of England, Frede- 
rick III. of Denmark, and the governor 
of the United Provinces. In 1793, 
Dumouriez, the French general, made 



himself master of the town and citadel, 
but was compelled to abandon his ad- 
vantages owing to a defeat which the 
French sustained at Neerwinden. In 
1794, in the month of September, Pi- 
chegru made an attack on Breda, but 
did not succeed in getting possession 
until the following winter, when it sur- 
rendered to France with the rest of 
Holland. In 1813, when the Russian 
army approached this place, the French 
sallied out to oppose them, and the 
towms-people, taking advantage of the 
opportunity, shut the gates against them, 
and prevented their re-admission. Since 
then, it has continued under the Dutch 
government. 

BREECHES, first introduced into 
England, 1654. 

BREEDING of Cattle. In 1710 
the average weight of bullocks was 370 
lbs., of calves 50 lbs., of sheep 28 lbs. ; 
but in 1832, that of bullocks was 800 
lbs., of calves 140 lbs , and of sheep 
80 lbs. The Chatsworth ox, which was 
four years and a half old, weighed 
3,080 lbs. 

BREMEN, fortified 1010; damaged 
by an explosion of gunpowder, 1000 
houses destroyed and 40 persons killed, 
Sept. 10, 1739 ; capitulated to the 
Russian general Tettenborne, Oct. 14, 
1813. 

BRENNUS, a celebrated captain 
among the Gauls, who, about a.c. 338, 
entered Italy with a powerful army, 
made great conquests there, defeated the 
Romans, and sacked Rome 

BRERE, a village in Dorsetshire, 
several fires broke out at, and threaten- 
ed the total destruction of the place, 
July, 1816. 

BREREWOOD, Edward, mathe- 
matician and antiquary, bom 1565, died 
1613. 

BRERETON, Lieut. Col., destroyed 
himself while a court-martial was sitting 
on his conduct, after the riots at Bristol, 
Jan. 11, 1832. 

BRESCIA, in Italy, seriously da- 
maged by an explosion, Aug. 8, 1779. 

BRESLAU, taken by the Austrians, 
1758 and 1761, entered by the French, 
June 1, 1813. 

BREST, seaport town of France, in 
the department of Finisterre. The En- 
glish, under Lord Berkeley and General 
Talmache attempted to take possession 
of this harbour in 1694, but were de- 
feated with the loss of 900 soldiers, and 



BRI 



128 



BRI 



400 seamen. The magazine, 400 yards 
long, was destroyed by fire, to the value 
of 7,000,000f. in stores, besides the 
building, Jan. 19, 1744. Marine Hos- 
pital burnt, with fifty galley-slaves, Dec. 
1, 1766 ; magazine, &c. destroyed by 
fire, July 10, 1784, to the value of 
l,000,000f. The French fleet were 
beaten, and lost seven of their ships off 
this harbour, by the British under Howe, 
June 1, 1794. 

BREVAL, John Durant, dramatic 
writer, died 1739. 

BREVIARIES, first adopted, 1080. 

BREWER'S Company, London in- 
corporated 1438. 

BREWER'S license taxed, 1781. 

BREWERY. See Beer. 

BREWHOUSE of H. Meux, two 
large vats in, suddenly burst, deluging 
and destroying several neighbouring 
houses, Oct. 17, 1814. Several lives 
were lost, and the total loss of beer was 
estimated at between 8000 and 9000 
barrels. 

BRIBERY, first practised in Eng- 
land 1554. 

BRIBERY AT Elections, forbidden 
by law, 1696, 1729, 1735. The act 2 
Geo. II. c. 24, inflicts a penalty of £500 
on any person bribing voters at elec- 
tions. In the Cambridge election 1835, 
the case Henslow v. Fawcett was decided 
against tVie defendant, and the penalty 
enforced. 

.BRICHIAN, order of knighthood 
began in Sweden, 1366. 

BRICKLAYERS' Company, Lon- 
don, incorporated 1568- 

BRICKS, first used in England by 
the Romans ; the size ordered by Charles 
I. 1625, duties regulated July, 1839. 

BRICKS AND Tiles taxed 1804. 

BRIDE-CAKE, originated in the Ro- 
man custom, called Confarreation, of 
dividing a cake of wheat and barley, as 
a firm alliance between man and wife. 

BRIDEWELL, formerly a palace of 
King Henry VIII., London, built 1522, 
converted to an hospital 1558. 

BRIDGE. The first stone one in 
England was at Bow, near Stratford, 
1087. The first bridge of cast-iron was 
the arch at Colebrook Dale, in Shrop- 
shire, thrown over the Severn, in the 
year 1779, under the direction of Mr. 
Abraham Derby. It consists of a single 
arch, lOOi feet in width, composed of 
five ribs, each rib formed of three con- 
centric arcs, connected together by ra- 



diating pieces ; another iron bridge, was 
that over the Wear, at Sunderland, 
commenced in 1790, and completed in 
three years. 

Suspension Bridges In 1816-17, 
three suspension bridges of iron were pro- 
jected. The first at Galashiels, in Scot- 
land ; the second, Dryburgh, over the 
Tees; and the third, the famous bridge 
over the Menai, connecting England and 
Wales. 

The Menai Suspension Bridge, begun 
May 1819, completed Jan. 30, 1826, 
was the design of Mr. Telford, and was 
built under his direction. It has justly 
been considered as one of the most stu- 
pendous monuments of modern art in 
the world. The narrowest part of the 
strait is 500 feet in width, and it is now. 
crossed by this magnificent bridge, 
thirty feet in breadth, suspended 100 
feet above the surface of the water, from 
enormous stone buttresses 152 feet in 
height. The extreme length of the 
chains from the fastenings in the rocks, 
is about 1600 feet. The height of the 
roadway from the high-water line, is 
100 feet. Each of the seven small 
piers from high-water line to the spring 
of the arches, is sixty-five feet. The 
space of each arch is fifty feet ; each of 
the two suspending piers is fifty-two feet 
above the road. The carriage-roads pass 
through two arches, in the suspending 
piers, of the width of nine feet, by fif- 
teen feet in height to the spring of the 
arches. The chains, sixteen in number, 
contain five bars each. The suspending 
power is calculated at 2,016 tons, and 
the weight to be suspended, exclusive of 
the cables, is 342 tons, leaving a dis- 
posable power of 1674 tons. The weight 
of the whole bridge between the points 
of suspension, is 489 tons. 

Hammersmith Suspension Bridge was 
erected by Captain Brown, in 1828, cost 
£180,000. It was opened for the first 
time October 6. Two piers, or suspen- 
sion towers, 400 feet from each other, 
and about 143 feet from either shore, 
have been built in the river, where at 
this place it is about 750 feet wide. The 
suspension towers are of stone, 48 feet 
high above the railway, making a total 
height of 64 feet above the highest level 
of the river. The total weight of metal 
employed was 472 tons. The length of 
the chains themselves, from the cuter 
face of one retaining or shore pin, to 
that of the other, is 841 feet, 7 inches. 



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being 18 feet 11 inches longer than the 
strait hne or chord. 

Besides the above, the following are 
the principal bridges of this kind : over 
the Avon, at Clifton, erected by Mr. 
Brunei ; over the South Esk, near 
Montrose ; Galton bridge, Birmingham, 
erected in 1826 ; over the Aire, near 
Leeds, 1832 ; over the Trent, near Dur- 
ham, 1832. A steel one has been erected 
over the Danube, near Vienna. 

The credit of having first suggested 
the practicability of constructing bridges 
of iron, has been claimed for Thomas 
Paine, who is said to have conceived the 
idea, from contemplating the fabrication 
of a spider's web, in America. What- 
ever may be thought of this assertion, 
it is certain that, in 1787, Paine pre- 
sented to the Academy of Sciences, at 
Paris, the model of a bridge which he 
had invented ; and it is equally a fact 
that, during the greater part of the year 
following, he resided at Rotherhara, in 
Yorkshire, where a bridge, chiefly of 
wrought iron, was constructed, under 
his direction, by Messrs. Walker. What- 
ever may have been the precise principle 
of this pattern bridge, it was taken to 
London, exhibited there for a time, re- 
turned again to Rotherham, and broken 
up at that place. 

Bridges of London. Up to the 
close of the last century there were only 
three over the lliames, in London ; there 
are now six. 

Vauxhall Bridge, the uppermost, con- 
sists of 9 cast iron arches, of 78 feet 
span. Its length is 800 feet, and it 
cost about £150,000; it was completed 
about 1805. 

Westminster Bridge, began l708, com- 
pleted in 1750, consists of 15 arches, 
the centre being 76 feet in width. The 
length of the bridge is 1,223 feet, and it 
cost £389,000. 

Waterloo Bridge has 9 elliptical arches, 
each 120 feet span. With the abut- 
ments, it measures 1,242 feet, but with 
the dry arches on each side of it, it ex- 
tends 2,900 feet. Itcostabove£l,000,000. 
It was begun in 1811, and finished in 
1817, by public subscription. 

Blackfriars' Bridge consists of 9 arches, 
the centre 100 feet wide, and its length 
is 995 feet. It cost £152,840; and was 
finished in 1768. See Blackfriars. 

Southwark Bridge consists of 3 cast 
iron arches, the centre 240 feet span ; 
each of the others 210 feet. Its length 



is 708 feet, and it cost £800,000. It 
was begun in 1815, and finished in 1819, 

London Bridge was originally buUt of 
timber about 1000 ; it was carried away 
by the flood February 13, 1098, and 
about 200 years after, was entirely re- 
built of stone, being begun 1176, and 
completed 1200 ; had originally 20 small 
arches, with houses and shops upon it, 
but both the latter were removed in 1758, 
when the avenues to the bridge were 
enlarged, and the two middle arches 
thrown into one. This was the only 
bridge across the Thames at London 
during 750 years. 

New London Bridge. About 1820, an 
opinion having prevailed that the old 
London bridge was in a dangerous state, 
an act of parliament was passed for the 
"rebuilding the same, and improving 
and making suitable approaches thereto." 
The government contributed £200,000 
towards the undertaking. Mr. Rennie's 
estimate for the new bridge was £430,000, 
with £20,000 for the temporary bridge. 
The change in the site, with the new 
approaches, added £456,000 to this esti- 
mate ; but in consequence of the nature 
of these approaches, others had after- 
wards to be submitted, which increas- 
ed the actual expenditure to nearly 
£2,000,000. 

The first pile of a cofferdam for the 
south pier was driven March 15, 1824. 
The first coflFerdam was completed April 
27, 1825; the first stone laid, June 15 
The first arch was keyed in, August 4, 
1827 ; and so much progress had been 
made in the other arches, that the last 
was keyed November 19, 1828. The 
last day of July, 1831, saw the bridge 
finally completed The time occupied in 
its erection, from the driving the first 
pile, March 15, 1824, was seven years, 
five months, and thirteen days. 

The ceremony of opening the bridge 
to the public, took place August 1, 1831. 
The solemnity was graced with the pre- 
sence of the late king, William IV., and 
his court, who came and went by wa- 
ter ; and a banquet was given on the 
bridge by the civic authorities, to their 
illustrious visitors. 

The bridge consists of 5 semi-elliptical 
arches. The least of these is larger than 
any stone arch of this description ever 
before erected. The centre arch is 152 
feet span, with a rise above high-water 
mark of 29 feet 6 inches; the two arches 
next the centre are 140 feet in span, 
s 



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and rise 27 feet 6 inches; and the two 
abutment arches 130 feet span, rising 
24 feet 6 inches. The length of the 
bridge, from the extremities of the abut- 
ments, is 928 feet; within the abutments, 
782 feet. The road-way is 53 feet, be- 
tween the parapets, being 8 feet wider 
than the old bridge, and 11 feet wider 
than any other bridge on the Thames. 
Of this width the foot-ways occupy 9 
feet each, and the carriage-way 35 feet. 
The whole of the bridge, including the 
dry arches over Thames and Tooley 
streets, is constructed of the finest gra- 
nite, selected from the quarries of Aber- 
deen, Heytor, and Penryn. The arches 
over which the approaches, on each side, 
are carried, with the exception of the 
two above-mentioned, are built of brick. 
The total quantity of stone employed in 
the structure was about 120,000 tons. 
The raising and blasting at the quarries, 
the loading, removing, preparing, and 
Betting the stones, together with other 
operations connected with the bridge, 
gave daily employment to upwards of 
800 men, during the whole time the 
work was in progress. 

BRIDGE of Puerta de St. Maria, 
near Cadiz, fell down as soon as finished, 
while receiving the benediction, and kill- 
ed several hundred persons that were 
over and under it, February 22, 1779. 

BRIDGENORTH Castle, Salop, 
built 800. 

BRIDGE TOWN, Barbadoes, de- 
stroyed by fire, April 1668 ; had 160 
dwelling houses destroyed by fire, Feb- 
ruary 8, 1756 ; again, 120, February 14, 
1758 ; again. May 14, 1766 ; again, De- 
cember 27, 1767. 

BRIDGEWATER Castle and 
Bridge, Somersetshire, built 1204. 

BRIDGEWATER, Duke of, cele- 
brated as the patron of canal navigation, 
born 1736, died 1803. See Canal. 

BRIDGEWATER Treatises, a 
series of scientific works lately presented 
to the public under the following pecu- 
har circumstances. The right honourable 
and reverend Francis Henry, Earl of 
Bridgewater, who died February 1829, 
by his will dated February 25, 1825, 
directed certain tnastees to invest in the 
pubhc funds £8000 ; this sum, with the 
dividends thereon, to be at the disposal 
of the president for the time being of the 
Royal Society of London, to be paid to 
the persons nominated by him. The 
testator further directed that the persons 



selected by the president should be ap- 
pointed to write, print, and publish one 
thousand copies of a work " On the 
Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, 
as manifested in the Creation ;" illus- 
trating such work by all reasonable argu- 
ments ; as for instance, the variety and 
formation of God's creatures, in the ani- 
mal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms ; 
the eflFect of digestion, and thereby of 
conversion; the construction of the hand 
of man, and an infinite variety of other 
arguments ; as also, by discoveries an- 
cient and modern in arts, sciences, and 
the whole extent of literature. He de- 
sired, moreover, that the profits arising 
from the sale of these works, should be 
paid to their respective authors. 

In consequence of this bequest, the 
following interesting tracts were succes- 
sively published : " The Adaptation of 
External Nature to the Moral and Intel- 
lectual Constitution of Man," by Rev. 
Dr. Chalmers, Professor of Divinity in 
the University of Edinburgh, in 1833. 
" Adaptation of External Nature to the 
Physical Constitution of Man," by J, 
Kidd, M.D., Regius Professor of Medi- 
cine in the University of Oxford, 1833. 
** On Astronomy and General Physics," 
by Rev. Wm. Whewell, F.R.S., Fellow 
of Trinity College, Cambridge, 1833. 
*' On the Hand, its Mechanism and 
Vital Endowments as evincing Design," 
by Sir Charles Bell, F.R.S., 1833. "On 
Animal and Vegetable Physiology," by 
P. M. Roget, M.D., Secretary to the 
Royal Society, 1834, "On Chemistry, 
Meteorology, and the Function of Diges- 
tion," by W. Prout, M.D., F.R.S., 1834. 
" On the History, Habits, and Instinct 
of Animals," by Rev. W. Kirby, F.R.S., 
1835. " On Geology and Mineralogy," 
by Rev. Dr. Buckland, Professor of 
Geology in the University of Oxford, 
1837. 

BRIGANTINES, a sect that began, 
1370. 

BRIGGS, Henry, a celebrated ma- 
thematician, born 1556. In 1596, he 
was chosen the first professor of geome- 
try at Gresham college. In 1615, he was 
employed about the noble invention of 
logarithms, then lately discovered; in 
the improvement of which, he had after- 
wards a large share. In 1619, he was 
made Savilian professor of geometry at 
Oxford ; and resigning his professorship 
of Gresham college, he removed to Ox- 
ford ^ died January 26, 1630. He was 



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the inventor of the common logarithms, 
that system of which 1 is the logarithm 
of 10, 2 of 100, 3 of 1000, &c. 

BRIGGS, Dr. William, physician 
to king William III., born 1650, died 
1714 

BRIGHT, Edwakd, of Maiden, in 
Essex, was supposed to have been the 
largest man living, or perhaps that had 
ever lived in this island. He weighed 
forty-two stone and a half. He was 
active till a year or two before his death, 
when his corpulency so overpowered his 
strength, that his life became a burden, 
and his death a deliverance to him ; he 
died November 10, 1750, aged 30. 

BRIGHTON, or Brighthelmstone, 
although a place of considerable anti- 
quity, was little noticed till last century ; 
erected into a borough, 1832 ; chain pier 
at, blown down October 15, 1833. 

BRINDLEY, Mr., the Duke of 
Bridgewater's engineer, born 17 16, died 
September 27, 1772. See Canal. 

BRINKBURN Priory, Northum- 
berland, built 1331. 

BRINKLEY, Dr., bishop of Cloyne, 
died in Dublin September 14, 1835. 
Previous to his promotion to the bishop- 
ric of Cloyne, Dr. Brinkley held the 
astronomical chair in Trinity college, 
Dublin. Cloyne is one of the sees 
abolished by the Irish Church Tempo- 
ralities Act. 

BRISSOT, James Peter, one of the 
principal agents in the French revolu- 
tion, and from whom a party of the revo- 
lutionists derived the name, Brissotines. 
He was born at Chartres, in the Or- 
leannois, in 1754. In 1780, he entered 
most entirely into the views of the revo- 
lutionary party, and published several 
works, the tendency of which was, ac- 
cording to his own account, the extirpa- 
tion of political and religious tyranny. 
In 1791, he was chosen one of the repre- 
sentatives in the legislative assembly, of 
which he was also appointed secretary. 
The party of the Mountain imder Marat, 
Robespierre, and Danton predominating, 
the arrest of the Brissotines was decreed, 
and Brissot was condemned to the guil- 
lotine ; his execution took place October, 
1793. 

BRISTOL was a place of importance 
during the Roman invasion. Gildas, as 
early as 430, reckons this among the 
fortified and eminent cities of Britain, 
under the name of Caer Brito. Nennius 
also, 620, mentions it in his enumera- 



tion of 28 cities of Britain. It was first 
encompassed with a strong wall by Ro- 
bert, the illegitimate son of Henry 1., in 
1130, who also rebuilt and improved 
the castle, which, excluding the out- 
works, was 450 feet in length, and 300 
in breadth. The fortress was razed to 
the ground by order of Oliver Cromwell, 
in 1665. The town surrendered to the 
king's forces under Prince Rupert, July 
26, 1643. 

Riot at Bristol, when the turnpikes 
were demolished, and many houses de- 
stroyed, July 20, 1749. The floating 
harbour effected by damming up the bed 
of the Avon and Frome nearly as far 
down as the HotweUs, and cutting a new 
channel for the river from near Totter- 
down to Rownham Ferry, was completed 
in 1809. 

1831. Reform riots at Bristol, Oc- 
tober 29, on the entrance of Sir 
Charles Wetherell, as recorder, com- 
menced, and continued through Sunday 
until Monday morning; during which, 
the gaols were broken open and burnt, 
the mansion house and custom house 
destroyed, the toll-gates pulled down, 
and many private houses plundered and 
set on fire. The loss of lives, either by 
the rioters perishing in the flames they 
had thennselves created, or from the ex- 
ertions of the soldiery to repress the 
tumult, has been roughly estimated at 
two or three hundred. The most me- 
lancholy part of the calamity was the 
deaths of several females and children, 
who, on the attack of the rioters, had 
retreated to the upper part of the houses, 
and were consumed in the flames applied 
by the miscreants at the bottom. 

1832. Opening the commission for 
the trial of the Bristol rioters, by Chief 
Justice Tindal, January 2. Of the nu- 
merous rioters taken into custody during 
the insurrection, four were subsequently 
executed, and twenty-two transported. 
Trial of Pinney, the mayor of Bristol, 
for neglect of duty during the riots, 
Oct. 26. He was acquitted Nov. 1. 

BRISTOL Cross built, 1373 ; taken 
down and removed to Sturhead, 1760; 
exchange buUt, 1741 ; bridge biU passed. 
May 22, 1760. 

BRITAIN, Ancient. The Britons 
were of the same stock with the ancient 
Gauls or Celtae. a. c. 55, Julius Caesar 
first invaded Britain with two legions, 
August 20 ; he landed at Dover, and 
the first battle was fought at Deal. 



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Britain was at this time divided into 
several petty kingdoms, which were now 
united under Cassivelaunus. a. c. 54, 
Cgesar made a second descent with a 
fleet of 600 vessels and twenty- eight 
gallies, in which he embarked five legions 
and 2000 horse, near Canterbury. He 
defeated the Britons, May 20 ; he passed 
the Thames at Cowey Stakes, and pene- 
trated as far as Verulam (St. Albans). 
Csesar imposed a tribute of £3,000 on 
the Britons, and Cassivelaunus and the 
princes of South Britain having submit- 
ted, and given hostages, the Romans 
returned to the continent, September 26. 

A.D.46. Claudius, the Roman emperor, 
sent Plautius into Britain with an army, 
who attacked and defeated Caractacus 
in three successive battles. See Carac- 
tacus. 

48. Christianity first introduced into 
Britain. It is said that the wife of Plau- 
tius and a British lady Claudia Ruffina, 
were Christians. In 51, Ostorius Scapula, 
a Roman general, was sent to Britain 
in the room of Plautius ; he defeated 
Caractacus. In 53, Ostorius died in Bri- 
tain, and Claudius sent Aulus Didius in 
his room, who, the same year, was re- 
moved, and Veranius succeeded him, 
who dying in 58, Suetonius Pauhnus 
took the command. In 61, defeat of 
Boadicea, the British queen. See Boa- 

DICEA. 

78. Julius Agricola, who succeeded 
Fontinus, reduced South Britain in 83, 
into the form of a Roman province, in- 
troducing the laws, customs, &c., of the 
Romans; he also defeated Galgacus in 
North Britain. In 84, Agricola built a 
chain of castles from the Clyde to the 
Forth. He afterwards subdued the Ork- 
ney Islands, and reduced the Caledo- 
nians. At this time Britain Avas first 
discovered to be an island. In 104, the 
emperor Adrian, landed in Britain, and 
in 121, built a wall of earth from Car- 
lisle to the river Tyne, containing eighty 
miles in length, as a defence against the 
Caledonians. 

208. The emperor Severus came into 
Britain, repulsed the Caledonians, and 
built a wall of stone where the emperor 
Adrian's wall of earth stood. He was 
killed at York. In 211, Severus dying 
at York, his brother Caracalla, was cho- 
sen, who ordered his brother Geta and 
others to be put to death. In 270, Con- 
stantine, afterwards the Great, was born 
at York. In 284, Carausiua arrived, and 



was proclaimed emperor in Britain, and 
is said to be the first who bestowed Scot- 
land on the Picts, as a recompense for 
their assistance. In 294, Constantius 
repulsed the Scots. He married Helena, 
daughter of Coilus, duke of Colchester, 
by whom he had Constantine the Great ; 
she first walled the city of London. 

306. Constantius died at York, and 
was succeeded by his son Constantine. 
He embraced the Christian religion, and 
was unanimously saluted by the name of 
Constantine the Great. In 310, he di- 
vided Britain into four governments, 
viz., Britannia Prima, comprehending 
the country between the river Thames 
and the sea ; Britania Secunda, consist- 
ing of all that lay west of the Severn to 
the Irish sea ; Flavia Csesariensis, com- 
prehending Cornwall, Devonshire, So- 
mersetshire, and part of Wilts and 
Gloucestershire ; and the fourth division 
was named Maxima Csesariensis, includ- 
ing the northern counties of England, 
with Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Staf- 
fordshire, and Lincolnshire. In 337, 
Constantine died. May 22, and was 
buried at Constantinople. In 365, the 
Britons rebelled against the Romans, in 
conjunction with the Picts. In 393, the 
Northern Britons joined the Picts, and 
determined to expel the Romans from 
the island. In this the inhabitants of 
the south refused to concur, and even 
implored the assistance of Rome against 
the Picts, which induced the northerns 
to treat them as common enemies, and 
lay waste their flourishing provinces. 
In 427, and the year following, was the 
last assistance the Romans afforded the 
Britons. In 428, the emperor Honorius 
abandoned Britain, and discharged the 
Britons from their allegiance. This was 
480 years after the first attempt of Julius 
Caesar against this island. 

447. When the Romans abandoned 
South Britain, Vortigern, a prince of the 
Dunmonii, (inhabitants of Devon and 
Cornwall,) was elected sole monarch of 
South Britain. He invited over the 
Saxons (who inhabited the north-west of 
Germany) to defend them against the 
ravages and devastations of the Picts 
and Scots. In 449, the first embarkation 
of the Saxons, who arrived at Ebbsfleet, 
in the isle of Thanet, in three gallies, 
being commanded by Hengist and Horsa, 
two brothers. In 454, Vortigern was 
compelled by his subjects to admit his son 
Vortimer partner in the throne^ and was 



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deprived of all authority. The Britons 
endeavoured to rid the kingdom of the 
Saxons, but were resisted by them, when 
a war commenced, which terminated in 
favour of the latter. In 455, the first 
battle was fought at Aylesford, in Kent, 
when the Saxons were commanded by 
Hengist and Horsa, and the Britons by 
Vortimer. Immediately after the battle, 
Hengist first took upon him the title of 
king of Kent. In 458, numbers of the 
Britons retired into Wales, and some 
went to Holland, and landed near Ley- 
den. Thus the unhappy Britons, for 
seven or eight years, suffered all the 
calamities of a civil war, till, by agreement, 
a division of the kingdom put an end to 
their animosities. In 466, the wai*-was 
again renewed against their common 
enemy, the Saxons. It was in this war 
the famous Arthur, at fourteen years of 
age, first made his appearance. He was 
king of Cornwall and Devon, and gained 
many victories. See Arthur. 

547. Ida, an Angle, landed at Flam- 
borough, and became the first king of 
Northumberland. In 571, Ufia assumed 
the title of king of the East Angles. In 
584, Crida, a Saxon chief, arrived in 
Britain with a large fleet, and made great 
conquests, which obliged the Britons to 
retire entirely into Cambria, and Crida 
founded the kingdom of Mercia, which 
was the last of the seven Saxon king- 
doms. About the same time the Anglo- 
Saxons unanimously agreed to call the 
seven kingdoms in general by the name 
of England, that is, the country of the 
Angles. This government was called 
the Saxon Heptarchy, and lasted till 
827, when Egbert having subdued and 
united Ihem under one government, he 
was crowned king of England. See 
England. 

BRITAIN, Great. The appellation 
of Great Britain seems to have been in- 
troduced chiefly by the union of the 
kingdom of England, and the princi- 
pality of Wales, with the kingdom of 
Scotland, under the reign of the Scot- 
tish monarch, James VI., who succeeded 
to the throne of England after the death 
of Queen Elizabeth, by the title of 
James I. 

For the chronology of the three coun- 
tries to the time of James I., see Eng- 
land, Scotland, and Wales. From 
the period of Queen Elizabeth's death, 
and the accession of King James I., we 
are now therefore to trace the principal 



events under the heads of the different 
sovereigns, to the present time. 

James I. was born at Edinburgh, 
June 19, 1566, crowned king of Scot- 
land July 22, 1567, married Anne, prin- 
cess of Denmark, Aug. 10, 1589. 

1603. James was proclaimed king 
by the council, March 24. He was the 
son of Henry Stuart Lord Darnley, and 
Mary Queen of Scots, the only child of 
James V. king of Scots, who was son of 
James IV. and Margaret his queen, the 
eldest daughter of Henry VIII. king of 
England. Set out from Edinburgh, 
April 5, in order to take possession of the 
crown of England, Arrived at Theobalds 
in Hertfordshire, May 3, a seat of 
Secretary Cecil's, where he was met by 
the privy council ; and the Duke of 
Lenox, the Earl of Mar, the Lord Hume, 
Sir George Hume, Sir James Elphin- 
stone, and Lord Kinlass, all Scots, were 
called to the council-board. The plague 
being in London (of which 30,244 per- 
sons died), a person was whipped 
through the town for going to court when 
his house was infected, June ], On 
July 25, the king and queen were crown- 
ed at Westminster, by Archbishop Whit- 
gift. Nov. 4. Lord Cobham, Lord Grey, 
and Sir Walter Raleigh, were tried for 
high treason, in conspiring against the 
king, and condemned on the I7th, but 
reprieved ; the treason they were prin- 
cipally charged with, was conspiring to 
set the lady Arabella Stuart, the king's 
cousin-german, upon the throne, and 
inviting the Spaniards to assist them. 

1604. Jan. 14. A proclamation was 
issued for banishing priests and Jesuits, 
and another for enforcing the act of 
uniformity; out of 10,000 ministers of 
parishes, only forty-nine refused to con- 
form, and were deprived. March I9. 
The first Parliament met and recog- 
nized the king's title. The king granted 
a I'oyal license to Lawrence Fletcher, 
William Shakespeare, and others, to act 
comedies, tragedies, &c., at their usual 
house, the Globe, or elsewhere. An 
Act passed this year, appointing com- 
missioners to treat of an union of the 
two kingdoms of England and Scotland. 
Tonnage and poundage were granted to 
the king for life, as they had been to his 
predecessors from Henry VII. to Queen 
Elizabeth, for defence of the realm, and 
the guard of the seas. On June 16, the 
commons addressed the king concern- 
ing certain grievances, and represented 



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their grievances, which displeased the 
king, and ho prorogued them to the 
7 th of February. 

1605. Nov. 5. The gunpowder plot 
was first discovered by one of the con- 
spirators, who, through a desire to save 
William Parker, Lord Monteagle, wrote 
him a letter of caution. The Earl of 
Northumberland was suspected, by be- 
ing related to Percy, who was at the 
head of the plot ; and was committed to 
the tower, and fined £30,000, for ad- 
mitting Percy into the band of pension- 
ers without tendering him the oath of 
supremacy. Lord Monteagle had a 
grant of £200 per annum in land, and a 
pension of £500 per annum, as a reward 
for discovering the letter concerning the 
conspiracy. 

1606. Jan. 27. The conspirators in 
the gunpowder plot were convicted. 
Jan. 30. Some of them were executed 
at the west- end of St. Pauls, and in 
Palace-yard, Westminster. The con- 
spirators were attainted in parliament, 
and an act was made for annually so- 
lemnizing the 5 th of November, as a 
day of thanksgiving for the discovery of 
the powder-plot. Another act passed, 
empowering the crown to levy twenty 
pounds a month on Popish recusants 
absenting themselves from church, or to 
seize two-thirds of their lands, and de- 
claring it to be a premunire to refuse 
the oath of allegiance. Nov. 18, an act 
passed, (4 Jac. 1, cap. 1.) repealing all hos- 
tile laws made against the Scots ; and in 
Calvin's case soon after, it was resolved 
that all Scotchmen, born after the acces- 
sion of King James to the crown, should 
enjoy all the privileges of denizens. 

1610. The king issued a proclama- 
tion, commanding all the Jesuits to de- 
part the kingdom, and all recusants not 
to come within ten miles of the court, 
and caused all his subjects to take the 
oath of allegiance. James put the go- 
vernment of Ireland under the English 
laws, and caused justice to be adminis- 
tered with the utmost impartiality. 

1612. Prince Henry died November 
5, aged 19, and was buried at West- 
minster Abbey, Dec. 12. His funeral 
charge, amounted to £l6,Ol6. The 
king would allow no mourning to be 
worn on this occasion. 

1613. Frederick Prince Palatine of 
the Rhine, married the king's daughter, 
the princess Elizabeth, Feb. 14, and 
carried her over to Germany, April 10. 



1614. The second parliament of this 
reign met April 5 ; but beginning to 
debate on their grievances, viz., the 
king's profuseness to the Scots, and the 
increase of the Popish recusants, they 
were dissolved June 7, without passing 
one act ; after which, the king commit- 
ted several members of the commons, 
for the freedom they had taken, and 
raised money on the subject by way of 
benevolence, to the amount of £52,909. 

1615. George Villiers, afterwards 
duke of Buckingham, taken into favour, 
and appointed a gentleman of the bed- 
chamber, with £1000 salary. 

1616. The earl of SuflFolk, being con- 
victed of taking bribes, and embezzling 
the fling's treasure, was disgraced and 
fined £30,000, and Sir John Bennet, 
judge of the prerogative court, was con- 
victed of bribery, and fined £20,000 by 
the covurt of the star chamber. The king 
delivered up Flushing, Ramekins, and 
the Brill, to the states of Holland, for 
less than a tenth part of the charges 
they were to pay for the assistance 
Queen Elizabeth gave them. 

1617. The king resolved to compel 
the Scotch to conform to the church of 
England. He met with great opposition. 
This year the book of sports was pub- 
lished, giving leave for innocent recrea- 
tions after evening prayers on Sundays ; 
and the clergy were enjoined to read the 
book in their churches, for neglect 
whereof, some of them were prosecuted 
in the star chamber. 

August. Sir Walter Raleigh sailed to 
America in search of a gold mine. Oct. 
29. At the instigation of the Spanish 
ambassador. Sir Walter Raleigh was 
executed, (by virtue of his former sen- 
tence) for high treason. 

16 19- Queen Anne died at Hamp- 
ton Court, in the forty-sixth year of 
her age, March 2. 

1621. The third parliament of this 
reign met Jan. 30, when the lord chan- 
cellor Bacon was convicted of bribery, 
fined £40,000, and imprisoned du- 
ring the king's pleasure. The seals 
were taken from him, and given to Dr. 
Williams, dean of Westminster, who 
was made bishop of Lincoln, and af- 
terwards archbishop of York. See 
Bacon. 

In this parliament were first formed 
the parties of court and country. Great 
heats arose in the house of commons, 
and they drew up a remonstrance, and 



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135 



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protested in vindication of their pri- 
vileges. The parliament again met in 
November, and insisted on their pri- 
vileges in freedom of speech, and James 
sent for the journal of the house, and 
tore out the leaf containing their pro- 
testation. The king dissolved the par- 
liament by proclamation ; many were 
confined, and the earls of Oxford and 
Southampton were sent to the tower. 

1623. The king made a declaration in 
favour of the Roman Catholics. The bi- 
shop of Chalcedon came into England to 
exercise jurisdiction over the Catholics, 
and a chapel was begun to be built at 
St. James's for the infanta's use. 

1624. James put in force the laws 
against the Popish recusants, particu- 
larly against friars and priests, some of 
whom were imprisoned. August. A 
match was proposed and concluded be- 
tween Prince Charles and the Princess 
Henrietta of France, daughter of Henry 
IV., but was not consummated till King 
James's death. After the treaty of mar- 
riage was signed, the recusants were no 
longer prosecuted. 

1625. King James died at Theo- 
bald's March 27, in the 59th year of 
his age, and the 23rd of his reign, of 
a tertian ague, and was interred (May 7) 
with great state in Westminster Abbey, 
Prince Charles being chief mourner. 
His wife, Anne, was the daughter of 
Frederick H. king of Denmark. His 
issue were Henry Robert, who died 
young; Charles, who succeeded him; 
Ehzabeth, who married the elector Pa- 
latine, from whom her present Majesty's 
family is descended ; also Margaret, 
Mary, and Sophia, who died young. 

Charles I, the third, but only 
surviving son of James I. by queen 
Anne, daughter of Frederick 11. king 
of Denmark, succeeded to the crown 
on the demise of his father, March 27, 
1625. On May 11, King Charles's mar- 
riage with the princess Henrietta Maria, 
youngest daughter of Henry HI., of 
France, was solemnized at Paris. June 
16, their majesties arrived in London. 
A great plague raged at this time in 
London, which swept away 35,417 per- 
sons. Buckingham became a favourite 
with the new king. The first parliament 
in this reign met at Westminster, June 
18, and his majesty, and the lord- 
keeper each of them made a speech to 
both houses. The parliament was ad- 
journed from Westminster, July 11, on 



account of the plague, and met at Ox- 
ford, Aug. 1. The parliament petition- 
ed the king against recusants. Aug. 
12. The parliament having refused to 
settle the revenue of tonnage and poun- 
dage on his majesty for more than one 
year, or to grant supplies sufficient to 
maintain the war with Spain, and em- 
ploying their time in finding out griev- 
ances, and arraigning the conduct of 
the king's ministers, particularly of the 
duke of Buckingham, they were this 
day dissolved, both at Westminster and 
Oxford, not having sat three weeks, 
nor having passed a single act. The 
parliament having made no provision 
for the civil list, the Spanish war, or the 
guard of the seas, the king found him- 
self under the necessity of ordering the 
officers to continue to collect the usual 
duties settled on his predecessors, by 
his own authority. 

The king entered into an offensive and 
defensive alliance with Holland against 
Spain, to which France and Denmark 
acceded. 

1626. King Charles L was crown- 
ed at Westminster, Feb. 2, with his 
Queen, by Archbishop Abbot ; his 
majesty chose to be clothed in white, 
rather than purple, as his predecessors 
usually were at a coronation. Feb. 6, 
the second parliament in this reign met 
at Westminster. Committees were ap- 
pointed, one for religion, one for redress 
of grievances, and one for secret affairs. 
May 8. Articles of impeachment were 
preferred against the duke of Bucking- 
ham by the commons, for several high 
crimes and misdemeanours, committed 
in his administration ; to which the duke 
put in his answer. Sir Dudley Diggs 
and Sir John Elliot, two of the mem- 
bers of the commons, who carried up 
the impeachment against the duke of 
Buckingham were committed to the 
tower, for some obnoxious expressions 
that fell from them on that occasion 
(the first began, and the other ended 
the impeachment) but they were released 
soon after, and explained themselves. 

1627- The king of France broke the 
treaty of peace, and seized 120 En- 
glish ships. Charles declared to his coun- 
cil the cause of his making war with 
France. June 27. The duke of Buck- 
ingham, with 100 sail of ships of all 
sorts, and 7000 land forces on board, 
set sail from Portsmouth, for the city of 
Rochelle, in France, where, being re- 



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136 



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fused admittance, he landed on the isle of 
Rhe, but not l)eing able to make him- 
self master of the fort La Prce, he re- 
turned to England in November, with 
some disgrace, having lost one-third of 
his troops. 

1628. The third parliament of this 
reign met, March 17, and preferred a 
petition of right to his majesty, praying. 
That no loan or tax might be levied but 
by consent of parliament, 2. That no 
man might be imprisoned but by legal 
process. 3. That soldiers might not 
be quartered on people against their 
wills. 4. That no commission be grant- 
ed for executing martial law. To which 
the king answered, " I will that right 
be done according to the laws and cus- 
toms of the realm." June 7- Both houses 
addressed his majesty for a fuller answer 
to their petition of right, whereupon 
they received this satisfactory answer, 
viz .- Soitfait comme il est desire. June 
26. The commons being about to re- 
monstrate against his majesty's receiv- 
ing tonnage and poundage, the king 
came to the house of peers, and ha^dng 
passed the act confirming the rights 
and liberties of the subject, (as above 
demanded,) and two other acts, whereby 
the clergy and laity respectively granted 
five entire subsidies, &c. the parliament 
was prorogued to Oct. 20, and then by 
proclamation to Jan. 10, following. Aug. 
The duke of Buckingham being at 
Portsmouth, equipping another fleet for 
the relief of Rochelle, was stabbed by 
John Felton, a discontented lieutenant. 
Sept. 8. The fleet set sail for Rochelle, 
under the command of Robert, earl of 
Lindsey,butwasobliged to return without 
effecting any thing; Rochelle was ulti- 
mately taken, and out of 15,000 persons 
in the city, only 5,000 remained alive, 
the rest being starved by famine. 

1629. Jan. 20. The parliament met. Jan. 
21. The commons proceeded again on 
their grievances, and debated concerning 
the increase of Arminians and Papists, 
and Mr. Pym moved, that a covenant 
might be taken, to maintain their reli- 
gion and rights. March 2. The speaker 
being called upon to read a remonstrance, 
and put the question, said he dared not, 
the king having commanded the con- 
trary ; and endeavouring to leave the 
chair, was held in by force, and the 
doors locked, till a protestation was 
read, "That whoever should bring in 
innovations in religion, or seek to bring 
in Popery or Arminianism ; and whoever 



should advise the taking of tonnage or 
poundage, not granted by parliament, 
or that should pay the same, should be 
accounted enemies to the kingdom." 
On March 5, warrants were issued by the 
privy council for seizing the opposing 
members of the commons, and Mr. 
Holies, Mr. Coriton, Mr. John Elliott, 
and Mr. Valentine, appearing before the 
council, refused to answer for what was 
said or done in the house, and were 
thereupon committed close prisoners to 
the tower. The king came to the house 
of peers, March 10, and in a speech 
declared that the seditious behaviour 
of some of the commons, obliged him 
to dissolve the parliament, though he 
commended the behaviour of some mem- 
bers of that house. 

1634. Mr. Pryn prosecuted in the 
star-chamber, July 2, for publishing his 
book called Histriomastix, being a libel 
on the administration for sufi"ering and 
countenancing plays, masquerades, &c. 
Pryn was fined 5000/., expelled the 
university of Oxford, and Lincoln's-inn, 
disabled to profess law, to stand twice 
on the pillory, lose his ears, and remain 
a prisoner for life. 

1636. The book of common prayer, 
composed for the church of Scotland, 
being appointed to be read by the 
dean of Edinburgh in his surplice, 
at St. Giles's, July 23, he was inter- 
rupted, and had a stool thrown at his 
head ; it was with some difficulty that 
the magistrates of Edinburgh dispersed 
the mob ; after which the service was 
read through, in that and the rest of the 
churches in Edinburgh ; but the bishop 
of Edinburgh was in danger of being 
murdered on his return to his house. 

1638. An insurrection in Edinburgh 
July 19, by the presbyterians. The 
Scots threw off" their allegiance, and en- 
tered into a covenant or association 
against the government, which they com- 
pelled all people to subscribe. Arch- 
bishop Spotswood and several other 
Scotch bishops fled into England. April. 
The case of ship-money, between the 
king and Mr. Hampden, was argued 
before all the judges of England in the 
Exchequer chamber; and Mr. Hamp- 
den was cast. He was adjudged to pay 
twenty shillings, being the sum he was 
charged with, towards fitting out a fleet 
for the guard of the seas. 

1639. The king marched towards 
the Scots, March 27, with an army of 
6000 horse, and as many foot, attendee? 



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by great numbers of the nobility and 
gentry. The earl of Arundel was general, 
the earl of Essex lieutenant-general, and 
the earl of Holland general of the horse: 
also a fleet of sixteen men of war, fitted 
out under the marquis of Hamilton. 
June 1, the Scots preferred a petition 
to the king, professing all obedience and 
submission ; whereupon the king con- 
sented to a treaty with them. The king 
having disbanded his army, Aug. 1, re- 
turned to Theobald's, and two days after 
to Whitehall. 

1640. The parliament of England 
met, April 13, when the earl of Straf- 
ford acquainted the house that tbe par- 
liament of Ireland had granted the king 
four subsidies for the maintaining 
10,000 foot, and 1500 horse, which was 
urged as a good precedent for the par- 
liament of England. The long parlia- 
ment of England, which began the re- 
volution in 1641, met Nov. 3, this year, 
and the commons chose William Len- 
thal, esq. for their speaker. 

1641. The earl of Stafford was be- 
headed on Tower-hUl, May 12. The 
king departed for Scotland, Aug. 10. 
The king passed an act of pacification 
between the kingdoms of England and 
Scotland, to effect which, all the Scots' 
demands were granted ; and it was com- 
puted their coming into England and 
stay here, cost this nation 100,000Z. be- 
sides the damages they did to private 
men. The Irish rebellion and massacre, 
Oct. 23. The Scotch first incited this 
rebellion in Ireland, suggesting there 
was a design to eradicate all the Irish 
catholics. The latter surprised and put to 
death upwards of 10,000 English in cold 
blood. There were since the rebellion 
broke out in Ireland, from Oct. 23, to 
March 1, following, 154,000 protestants 
cruelly massacred ; and until the cessa- 
tion, Sept. 15, 1 643, above 300,000 mur- 
dered in cold blood, destroyed, and ex- 
pelled their habitations. The king re- 
turned from Scotland, and was splen- 
didly treated by the city of London, 
Nov. 25. 

1642. The king ordered lord Kim- 
bolton to be apprehended, Jan. 3 , to- 
gether with Mr. Pym, Mr. Hampden, 
Mr. Holies, Sir Arthur Haslerig, and 
Mr. Stroud, and their trunks and papers 
to be sealed up ; whereupon the com- 
mons resolved, that whoever should at- 
tempt to seize any of their members, or 
their papers, they should stand upon 



137 BRI 

their defence. The same day the com- 
mons voted it a breach of privilege. 
The commons ordered the seals to be 
taken off. The king went to the com- 
mon council of London, and demanded 
the five members out of the city, when 
one Henry Walker threw into the king's 
coach a paper, wherein was the city pe- 
tition to the king, who sided with the 
commons, written, " To your' tents, O 
Israel," This may be considered as the 
origin of the civil war. May 19, the par- 
liament published a manifesto, under 
the name of remonstrance or a declara- 
tion, setting forth the reason of their 
conduct. The parliament voted, that 
whoever should serve or assist his ma- 
jesty in raising forces, were traitors : 
and sent their Serjeants to York, to ap- 
prehend some gentlemen that attended 
the king there, as delinquents. Oct. 23, 
being Sunday, about two in the after- 
noon, began the battle of Edge-hill, 
near Keynton, in War^vickshire, where 
the king's horse beat the parliamentarian 
cavalry out of the field; but pursuing 
them too far from the field of battle, 
left the king's infantry exposed to the 
enemy's foot, who were more numerous; 
however they maintained their ground 
till night parted them, when both armies 
drew off : and the next day both claim- 
ed the victory, and gave thanks for it, 
but neither of them thought fit to renew 
the fight. On the king's side were 
killed the earl of Lindsey the general. 
Lord Aubigny, son of the duke of Le- 
nox, and Sir Edmund Verney, the stan- 
dard bearer. On the other side were 
killed only lord St. John of Bletso, and 
colonel Charles Essex, of any note. 
The royal standard was taken, but after- 
wards rescued by Captain John Smith, 
who was knighted for it, and made 
standard bearer. The king advanced 
towards London, Nov. 16, whereupon 
the parliament ordered the earl of Essex 
to march towards the city for their pro- 
tection, and invited the Scots into Eng- 
land again. 

1643. Reading surrendered to the 
earl of Essex, April 26, the parliamen- 
tary leader, after a siege of ten days ; 
the garrison consisted of 4000 men, and 
were permitted to march out with their 
arms, &c., but all deserters were given 
up ; colonel Fielding, deputy governor, 
who hung out a flag of truce, was con- 
demned to lose his head, but afterwards 
pardoned by the king. Prince Rupert, 



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and the marquis of Hertford invested 
Bristol, and storming the place, it sur- 
rendered on the 26th ; the garrison con- 
sisting of about 3000 men, being per- 
mitted to march out with their swordsand 
baggage July 22. The two houses having 
made a new great seal, Nov. 11, declar- 
ed that aU letters, patents, and grants, 
passed the great seal by the king, after 
May 22, 1642, should be void, and that 
henceforward their own great seal should 
be of the same authority as any great 
seal of England had formerly been ; 
they committed the custody of it to the 
earls of Bolingbroke and Kent, and to 
Mr. St. John, Serjeant Wild, Mr. Brown, 
and Mr. Prideaux. The parliament's 
forces seized the regalia and plate in 
Westminster Abbey, and sold them, 

1644. The royalist members who 
had deserted the parliament at West- 
minster being summoned by the king to 
appear at Oxford, assembled there, Jan. 
22, to the number of 44 lords and 118 
commoners. 

1645. General Fairfax invested Ox- 
ford, May 22. The king took Leicester 
by storm, and marched to Daventry in 
Northamptonshire, May 31. Fairfax re- 
tired from Oxford, June 9. Fairfax ob- 
tained an intercepted letter, which made 
him resolve to give the king battle. Both 
armies met near Naseby, in Northamp- 
tonshire, where the king was defeated, 
lost all his foot, artillery, arms, &c.,with 
his cabinet of papers, and retired to 
Lichfield, and from thence to Ragland 
Castle, the seat of the old marquis of 
Worcester. The parliament took 5,000 
prisoners. There wereslain,on the king's 
side, about 600 men ; and, out of these, 
150 officers. On the parliament's side, 
there were about 1,000 officers and men 
slain. 

1646. Exeter surrendered to the par- 
liament, April 13. Oxford surrendered 
upon articles dated at Water Eaton, 
June 20. The number of the soldiers 
and scholars in pay, amounting to about 
7,000 men, were allowed to march out 
with marks of honour, and returned to 
their respective dwellings. Upon the 
surrender of Oxford, the great seal, and 
all the other seals of state, were sent to 
Westminster, where they were broken 
in the presence of the two houses. 

1647. The Scots, in consideration of 
400,000Z. of their arrears paid them by 
the English parliament, delivered up the 
king to the English commissioners, Ja- 



138 



B RI 



nuary 30. The king was brought to 
Newmarket, June 8, where he was per- 
mitted his recreations, and the gentry to 
resort to him, with his chaplains and 
servants ; and Cromwell made great pro- 
fessions of serving him. The king was 
removed from Newmarket to Royston, 
June 24 ; the 26th to Hatfield house ; 
July 1 to Windsor ; July 3 to Caver- 
sham ; July 22 to the earl of Devon- 
shire's ; from thence to Woburn ; then 
to Stoke Pogis and Oatlands. The king 
having for the most part marched with 
the army after he left Newmarket, was, 
on the 16th of August, fixed at Hamp- 
ton Court, and afterwards conducted to 
Carisbrook Castle. The parliament al- 
lowed him 5000/. for his expenses there. 
His household was all dissolved. The 
king made his escape to Titchfield, No- 
vember 11, a seat of the earl of South- 
ampton, and was afterwards persuaded 
to trust himself with Hammond, gover- 
nor of the Isle of Wight, who detained 
his Majesty in the island, and gave ad- 
vice to the parliament where he was. 
The parliament sent the king four bills to 
the Isle of Wight for his royal assent, 
Dec. 24. 1. He was to acknowledge the 
war raised against him to be just. 2. To 
abolish episcopacy. 3. To settle the 
power of the militia in persons nominated 
by the two houses. 4. To sacrifice all 
those that had adhered to him. 

1648. Upon the king's refusal to 
pass the four bills, the commons, on the 
3d of July, voted that they would make 
no more addresses to the king, but pro- 
ceed to settle the kingdom without him, 
and to this resolution the lords, on the 
l7th, gave their concurrence, and his 
Majesty was made a close prisoner. 
Cromwell's troops engaged sir Marma- 
duke Langdale near Preston, in Lanca- 
shire, August 17, and the Scots, not 
supporting him, after an obstinate fight, 
sir Marmaduke was routed. Afterwards 
Cromwell engaged the Scots, and routed 
them, the Scots making a very faint re- 
sistance. Duke Hamilton fled, and was 
taken at Uttoxeter, with 3,000 horse, 
surrendering upon no better conditions 
than that of quarter. November 30, the 
king was taken out of the hands of co- 
lonel Hammond, and carried to Hurst 
Castle, by an order of the council of of- 
ficers of the army. December 4, the 
commons voted that the seizing the 
king's person and carrying him to Hurst 
Castle was \vithout the consent of the 



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house. December 6, Colonel Pride was 
sent with a strong detachment to West- 
minster, who seized and imprisoned for- 
ty-one of the members as they were 
going to the house, and stopped above 
one hundred and fifty permitted to sit 
in the house ; and these were most of 
them officers of the army. December 21, 
the king was brought by colonel Har- 
rison from Hurst Castle to Windsor. 
December 28, a committee was appoint- 
ed to consider of drawing up the charge 
against the king. 

1648-9. The names of the commis- 
sioners that were to try the king amount- 
ed to 150. January 10, John Bradshaw, 
of Gray's-inn, a sergeant lately created, 
was made president of the intended high 
court of justice, there were but about 
seventy-nine of the commissioners named 
for the king's judges that acted. Janu- 
ary 20, the king was brought from St. 
James's to Sir Robert Cotton's house at 
Westminster, from whence he was car- 
ried before the high court of justice in 
Westminster-hall the same day ; and re- 
fusing to acknowledge their jurisdiction, 
he was remanded to Cotton-house. Ja- 
nuary 22, the king was brought before 
the court a second time, and objected to 
their jurisdiction again. January 23, 
the king appeared in Westminster-hall 
the third time, and persisted in denying 
the jurisdiction of the court ; whereupon 
Bradshaw ordered his contempt to be 
recorded. The king's refusal to answer 
before the high court was taken, accord- 
ing to the laws of England, as a confes- 
sion. A little before his sentence was 
pronounced he earnestly desired to be 
heard before the two houses, saying, he 
had something of importance to offer 
them ; but his desire was rejected. Ja- 
nuary 27. The king being brought into 
Westminster-hall the fourth day, the 
clerk was ordered to read the sentence 
which concluded, " For all such treasons 
and crimes this court doth adjudge, that 
he, the said Charles Stuart, as a tyrant, 
traitor, murderer, and a public enemy, 
shall be put to death, by severing his 
head from his body." The warrant for 
the king's execution was signed by fifty- 
nine of his judges. 

Jan. 30. The king being ordered to 
be put to death this day, about ten in 
the morning, he walked from St, 
James's to Whitehall, under a guard, 
being allowed some time for his devo- 
tions ; he was afterwards led by colonel 
Hacker, through the banqueting-hous ; 



139 BRI 

to the scaffold erected m the open street, 
where, having made a speech, he sub- 
mitted to the block, and his head was 
severed from the body at one blow, about 
two in the afternoon, in the 49th year 
of his age, and tlie 24th of his reign. 
His body was put into a coffin covered 
with black velvet, and removed to his 
lodging-room in Whitehall, being 
embalmed ; it was delivered Feb. 7, to 
four of his servants, and by them that 
day was removed to Windsor ; he was 
silently interred Feb. 9, in a vault about 
the middle of the choir, over against the 
seventh stall on the sovereign's side, 
near Henry VIII., and Jane Seymour, 
with this inscription on a fillet of lead 
"King Charles, 1648." 

The king was married in the year 
1625, to the Princess Henrietta Maria, 
youngest daughter of Henry IV., sur- 
named the great king of France, and sis- 
ter to Louis XIII, arid had issue by this 
princess, 1. Charles, who died the 
same day he was born ; 2. Charles, 
who succeeded his father by the name 
of Charles II ; 3. James, who succeeded 
his brother Charles by the name of 
James II ; 4. Princess Mar)^, married 
to William of Nassau, Prince of Orange, 
by whom she had issue, William of 
Nassau, prince of Orange, afterwards 
king of England ; 5. The Princess 
Elizabeth, who died a prisoner in Caris- 
brook castle, in the Isle of Wight, Sep. 
8, 1650, in the 15th year of her age ; 6. 
The Princess Anne, who died about 
three years of age, and, 7. The Princess, 
Henrietta Maria, born at Exeter, June 
15, 1644, and married to Philip, duke of 
Anjou, afterwards duke of Orleans, by 
whom she had issue Anna Maria, mar- 
ried to Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, 
and king of Sardinia. 

The Commonwealth. — 1649. The, 
commons in January passed an act, de- 
claring it high treason to proclaim the 
prince, or any other person, king of 
England, without consent of parUament, 
and styled themselves the common- 
wealth of England. March 17, an act 
was passed for abolishing kingly govern- 
ment, and the house of peers. 

1650. An act was passed June 26, con- 
stituting Ohver Cromwell captain-gene- 
ral of all the forces raised, and to be 
raised, by authority of parliament, with- 
in the commonwealth of England ; with 
a power of granting, and altering the 
officers' commissions. July 22, Crom- 
well passed the Tweed, and invaded 



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140 



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Scotland, wliereuponthe Scots destroyed 
their country, and retired before him, 
till he came within sight of Edinburgh. 
Dec. 24, Edinburgh Castle surrendered 
to Cromwell, said to be the first time 
that ever it was taken. 

1651. King Charles II. was 
crowned, Jan. 1, at Scone in Scotland, 
and again subscribed the covenant, and 
swore to promote it, and to establish the 
presbyterian religion, &c.j in Scotland. 
Charles set up his standard at Aberdeen, 
and made duke Hamilton Ueutenant- 
general. He put himself at the head of the 
Scotch army, consisting of 18,000 horse 
and foot, and encamped at Torwood. 
On July 31, Cromwell being now further 
northward than the Scotch army, the 
king suddenly decamped with the Scots, 
and marched for England; Argyle and 
many others of the army leaving him, 
and retiring home. Aug. 6, the king 
entered England by Carlisle, with an 
army of 16,000 men, Scotch and English, 
at the head of which he was proclaimed 
king of Great Britain. Sep. 3, the 
battle of Worcester was fought, where 
the king's forces were entirely routed, 
about 3000 of them killed, and 6000 or 
7000 taken prisoners, with all their 
cannon, ammunition, and baggage ; in 
this action, WiUiam, duke of Hamilton, 
was mortally wounded, taken prisoner, 
and died the next day. The king's 
standard and 158 colours were taken. 
The king himself, with the duke of Buck- 
ingham, the earls of Derby and Lauder- 
dale, the lords Talbot, Wilinot,and about 
50 horse, after the battle was lost, 
about seven in the evening, marched out 
of St. Martin's gate, Worcester, and ar- 
rived at White-ladies, twenty-five miles 
from Worcester about four the next 
morning ; the earl of Derby and the other 
lords took their leave of his majesty, and 
"left him to the care of the Pendrils (five 
brothers) who concealed him, in the 
night-time, in their barns, and in the 
day-time, in the woods, till he had an 
opportunity of making his escape farther. 
In these woods was a thick oak, within 
which his majesty often stood concealed, 
which from thence was called the Royal 
Oak. Sep. 12, Cromwell was met at 
Acton by the speaker and members of 
parliament, and the council of state, and 
rode in triumph into London, whither 
the Scotch prisoners were brought up, 
and sold to the West Indies for slaves. 
Oct. 15, after the king had wandered 



about si.x weeks, from the house of one 
loyalist to another, he embarked near 
Brighton, in Sussex, with lord Wilmot, 
and arrived at Foscan, near Havre de 
Grace in Normandy, October 22. Hos- 
tiUties commenced Avith the Dutch; an 
English man-of-war meeting with some 
Dutch fishermen, demanded the tenth 
herring, which they refused ; the English 
sunk one of their ships, and all the men 
perished. 

1652. There was an engagement, 
Oct. 28, between the English fleet under 
Blake, and the Dutch under De Witt, 
upon the coast of Kent, where the Dutch 
rear-admiral was taken, and two more of 
their men-of-war sunk, and they were 
driven home to their own coasts, without 
the loss of one English ship. Nov. 29, 
Van Tromp, with eight sail of Dutch 
men-of-war, fell upon Blake, who was 
riding with forty sail of English in the 
Downs ; six of the English ships were 
taken and destroyed, and the rest drove 
into the Thames ; after which Van Tromp 
sailed in triumph through the channel, 
with a broom at the topmast-head. 

1653. A fight between the English 
and Dutch fleets, Feb. 18, 19, and 20, 
off Portland, where the English ob- 
tained a great victory, taking and destroy 
ing eleven Dutch men-of-war, and thirty 
merchantmen, out of 300 the Dutch had 
under their convoy: Van Tromp was 
admiral of the Dutch, and Blake of the 
English ; generals Monk and Dean com- 
manded under Blake in this engage- 
ment. April 20, Cromwell went to the 
house of commons with a guard, and 
turned out the members, and locking 
the doors, declared the parliament dis- 
solved. April 22, Cromwell, with his 
council and officers, published a decla- 
ration, with reasons for dissolving the 
parliament, and authorizing all civil of- 
ficers to proceed, as formerly, in the ex- 
ecution of their respective offices. June 
2, the Dutch fleet under Van Tromp, 
and the English under general Monk, 
being about 100 men on a side, engaged 
off the North Foreland. At the first 
broadside, admiral Dean was killed with 
a cannon ball. The fight lasted two 
days, and the English obtained a great 
victory, taking and destroying twenty of 
the enemy's ships, and pursuing them 
to their own harbours. June 8, Crom- 
well issued his letters of summons to 
about 140 persons to appear at White- 
hall July 4, to take upon them the ad- 



BR I 



ministration of the government, July 
4, the persons summoned by Cromwell 
met in the council-chamber at White- 
hall, to the number of 120. Cromwell 
produced an instrument under his own 
hand and seal, whereby he did, with the 
advice of his officers, devolve and en- 
trust the supreme authority and govern- 
ment of the commonwealth into the 
hands of the persons met ; and that they, 
or any forty of them, should be acknow- 
ledged the supreme authority of the na- 
tion. July 29, the English fleet under 
Monk and Blake, fought the Dutch, 
commanded by Van Tromp, upon their 
own coasts, and obtained a great victory, 
destroying thirty of the Dutch men-of- 
war, and Van Tromp himself was killed 
in the engagement with a musket-shot. 
This was the seventh and last fight 
between the two Commonwealths ; all 
fought within little more than the com- 
pass of a year. 

Oliver Cromwell. December 16, 
1653, the council officers sent for the 
commissioners of the great seal, with the 
lord mayor and aldermen of London, and 
caused to be read a writing, called " The 
Instrument of Writing," and CromweE 
was made protector. He was proclaim- 
ed in London and Westminster, and 
throughout England afterwards, with the 
same solemnity as the kings of England 
were heretofore. 

1654. The Dutch ambassadors 
having audience of the protector, March 
4, in the banqueting-house, acquainted 
him that aU the provinces had consented 
to articles of peace, and desired a cessa- 
tion of arms. September 4, Cromwell 
went to Westminster abbey, in the same 
state as the king used to go to the par- 
liament house. The members having 
retired to the house, chose Mr. Lenthal 
their speaker, who had been speaker of 
the long parliament. 

1656. A plot was discovered against the 
protector, Jan. 19. Miles Syndercombe, 
who had been cashiered in Scotland, 
conspired with one Cecil, and a troop of 
Cromwell's life-guard, to kill the pro- 
tector; but Syndercombe was betrayed 
by the confederates, and condemned to 
die, the judges declaring it to be high 
treason by the common law, to conspire 
the death of any chief magistrate whe- 
ther king or protector, and that the 25th 
Edw. III. was but the declaration of the 
common law. 

1657. Cromwell was inaugurated in 



141 BR I 

his office of protector, June 26, in 
Westminster-hall. The ceremony was 
performed with great pomp. 

1658. Cromwell being taken ill of 
a fever, Aug. 12, at Hampton Court, 
returned to Whitehall, where he died, 
Sept. 3, aged 60, having enjoyed the 
title of protector four years, eight months 
and eighteen days. On the day he 
died, there happened the greatest storm 
of wind that ever was known. ^He ap- 
pointed his son Richard his successor. 

Richard Cromwell, the late pra- 
tector's eldest son, was proclaimed lord 
protector, Sept. 4, 1658. He received 
the compliments of condolence and con- 
gratulation from the foreign ministers, 
and numerous addresses from all parts 
of England of the same tenor, with 
promises of adhering to his Highness 
with their lives and fortunes against all 
opposers. The late protector was buried 
with great pomp, Nov. 23, in Henry 
VII's. chapel, in Westminster Abbey, 
after lying in state in Somerset house, 
at the expence of 60,000Z. Richard 
called a parliament after the ancient 
form, Dec. 4, and summoned his house 
of peers, to meet Jan. 27, following. 

1659. The officers petitioned the 
protector, April 6, desiring Fleetwood 
for their general, which was rejected. 
Desborough with a strong retinue, de- 
manded an audience of the protector, 
and required him, in the name of the 
army, to dissolve the parliament, which 
if not speedily done, they threatened to 
fire the house, and kill all who should 
resist. By commission under the great 
seal, the parliament was dissolved, April 
22, at which time Richard's authority 
was reckoned to expire. The officers 
seized the government, chose Fleetwood 
their general, and discharged several 
colonels. Fleetwood and the general 
officers of the army published a decla- 
ration. May 6, inviting the members of 
the long parliament to return to their 
seats in parliament, and exercise their 
former power. Lenthal the speaker, 
and several of the members of the long 
parliament met in the house of com- 
mons. May 7, to the number of about 
forty-one; but several of the members 
who were excluded in the year 1648, 
attempting to enter with them, they 
were stopped. The officers constituted 
a council of twenty-three men, Oct. 26, 
most of them general officers, to take 
upon them the exercise of the govern- 



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ment. Letters arrived that general 
Monk had summed a convention in 
Scotland, Nov. 17. and told them, he 
had a call from God and man to march 
into England, to settle the peace there ; 
he required them to suppress all insur- 
rections in his absence, and demanded 
money for his troops, which they pro- 
mised to levy. 

1660. King Charles II. was pro- 
claimed in Ireland, May 14. His ma- 
jesty being invited into Holland, May 
16, by the States, came to the Hague 
from Breda. A committee of six lords 
and twelve commons attended the king 
at the Hague with an invitation to re- 
turn and take the government of the 
kingdom into his hands. A deputation 
of the city of London attended his ma- 
jesty at the same time, with assurances 
of their duty and affection. 

Charles II. May 23, 1660, king 
Charles II. embarked at the Hague, for 
England, and arrived at Dover the 25th, 
where he wasmetbygeneral Monk, whom 
he honoured with the order of the garter. 
The king went to the house of peers, 
Aug. 29, and having made a speech, he 
passed the act of indemnity; out of 
which most of the regicides. Sir Henry 
Vane, Lambert, and Hugh Peters, were 
excepted. The convention parliament 
was dissolved, Dec. 29, having first 
passed several acts for increasing the 
king's revenue, and another for esta- 
blishing the post-office, &c. 

1661. The new parliament met, May 
8, and the king rode from his palace, 
"Whitehall, attended by the nobility in 
their robes to Westminster abbey, and 
heard a sermon before he went to the 
house. 

1662. The marriage between king 
Charles and the infanta of Portugal, was 
solemnized May 21, by Dr. Gilbert 
Sheldon, bishop of London, at Ports- 
.mouth. She was then about 24 years of age. 
1664. War was declared against the 
Dutch. The duke of York returned 
from cruising, Dec. 4, having taken 
about 130 Dutch merchant-ships, and 
particularly their Bourdeaux fleet, as 
they were returning home, laden with 
wine and brandy, before the war was 
declared. This was sufficiently justified 
by the Dutch admiral, De Ruyter's 
faUing upon our factories at Cape Verd, 
on the coast of Africa ; his attempting 
the island of Barbadoes, and several 
other of the English plantations ; and 



142 B R I 

the depredations of the Dutch in the 
East Indies, and on the high seas 
upon the Enghsh merchants, in the time 
of fuU peace. 

1665. The plague broke out in Lon- 
don about April, and an order of council 
was issued, requiring the lord chief jus- 
tice to take proper measures to prevent 
the spreading of the infection. June 3, 
the English obtained a victory over the 
Dutch, oflF Harwich, taking eighteen 
capital ships, and destroying fourteen 
more. Admiral Opdam was blown up 
with all his crew. The English lost only 
one ship, but several commanders and 
men of honour were killed in the action ; 
amongst the rest, the earls of Falmouth, 
Portland, and Marlborough ; lord Mus- 
kerry, and rear-admiral Sanson ; and 
admiral Lawson died soon after of his 
wounds- September 28, the king and 
court arrived at Oxford. October 9, 
the parliament met at Oxford, and the 
king made a speech to both houses in 
the great hall of Christ church, desiring 
supplies for the war. 

1666. The Dutch fleet, consisting 
of ninety sail, under the command of De 
Ruyter and Tromp, fell upon that part 
of the English fleet commanded by the 
duke of Albemarle, consisting of about 
fifty sail, June 1, who maintained the 
fight for three days, though the Dutch 
were joined by sixteen sail more, the 
second day. July 25, 26, the English 
and Dutch fleets engaged again, and the 
English gained a complete victory, de- 
stroying about twenty Dutch men-of- 
war, and driving the rest into their har- 
bours. In this action the Dutch lost 
four of their admirals, besides 4000 
other officers and seamen ; and the loss 
on the side of the English is said to have 
been inconsiderable. September 2, the 
great fire of London broke out where the 
Monument now stands, which destroyed 
in the space of four days, eighty-nine 
churches, among which was the cathe- 
dral of St. Pauls, the city gates, the Ex- 
change, Custom-house, Guildhall, Sion 
college, and many public structures, 
hospitals, schools, libraries, a vast number 
of stately edifices, 1 3,200 dwelling-houses, 
in all 400 streets. The ruins of the city 
were 436 acres, extending from the 
Tower along the Thames' side, to the 
Temple church, and from the north-east 
gate, along the city-wall to Holborn- 
bridge or Fleet-ditch. 

1667. The Dutch sailed up the Med- 



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143 



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way, June 11, as far as Chatham, and 
made themselves masters of Sheerness, 
and burnt the Royal Oak, the Loyal 
London, and the Great James, with se- 
veral other English men-of-war. They 
likewise burnt a magazine full of stores, 
to the value of £40,000, and blew up the 
fortifications, and retired with the loss 
onl»y of two of their ships, which ran 
aground, and were burnt by themselves. 
The English, fearing their coming up to 
London bridge, sunk thirteen ships at 
Woolwich, and four at Blackwall. June 
29, peace was concluded with the French, 
Danes, and Dutch, at Breda. 

1668. Treaty of alliance concluded, 
Jan. 23, with the states- general against 
France, for the preservation of the 
Spanish Netherlands. Jan. 26, Sweden 
entered into the alliance with England 
and Holland, from whence it obtained the 
name of the triple league. 

1672. A declaration of war pub- 
lished against the states -general March 
17. The duke of York engaged the 
Dutch in Southwould-Bay, May 28. 
In the beginning of the action the IDutch 
had some advantage by having the wea- 
thergage ; but in the evening they fled, 
and were pursued by his royal highness 
to their own coasts. The battle was 
very obstinately fought from morning to 
evening; several great ships and some 
thousands of men were destroyed, and 
among the rest the earl of Sandwich, 
admiral of the blue, whose ship was set 
on fire and blojvn up. The French lost 
their rear-admiral, monsieur De la Rabi- 
nere ; and the Dutch lost De Ghent, 
admiral of their blue squadron. 

1674. A treaty of peace was signed 
by his majesty's commissioners at Lon- 
don, Feb. 9, with Spain and the states- 
general. Feb. 28, the peace with Hol- 
land proclaimed ; by this peace the 
Dutch agreed to strike to the English in 
the British seas ; to settle the commerce 
with the Indies, and that the English 
planters at Surinam (which the Dutch 
had possessed themselves of) should have 
liberty to sell their effects, and retire ; 
and that the Dutch should pay the king 
of England £200,000 in heu of the claims 
his majesty had on them. 

1678. Titus Oates's plot. Aug. 11, 
Dr. Tongue, a physician, laid certain 
papers before the lord-treasurer Danby, 
pretending a conspiracy against his ma- 

i'esty's life, and the protestant religion, 
)y the Jesuits, afterwards called the po- 



pish plot. Sep. 6, Dr. Tongue and 
Titus Oatcs having drawn up a narrative 
of the plot, Oates made oath of the truth 
of the narrative, before Sir Edmondsbury 
Godfrey, a justice of peace of St. Martin 
in-the-Fields ; but it was afterwards 
proved that he was perjured. 

1681. The commons resolved Jan. 
7, that until a bUl was passed for exclud- 
ing the duke of York, they could not 
give any supply without danger to his 
majesty, and extreme hazard of the 
protestant religion. March 28, the bill 
of exclusion was read the first time, and 
ordered a second reading; whereupon 
the king came to the house of lords, and 
having sent for the commons, he told 
them, he observed such heats amongst 
them, and such differences between the 
two houses that he thought fit to dis- 
solve the parliament. 

1683. The plot or conspiracy to as- 
sassinate his majesty at the Rye-house, 
in Hertfordshire, was discovered, June 
14, by a letter from Joseph Keeling to 
Lord Dartmouth and secretary Jenkins. 
By Reeling's deposition, the conspira- 
tors were to seize the king and duke of 
York, and to massacre the magistrates 
of London, and the officers of state. 

Nov. 21, colonel Algernon Sidney was 
brought to trial, for high treason, and 
convicted : he was condemned on the 
26th, and on the 7th of December, was 
beheaded on Tower-hill, glorying that 
he died for the good old cause in which 
he had been engaged from his youth. 

1685. His Majesty, king Charles II. 
died at Whitehall, February 6., in the 
55th year of his age, and the 37th of his 
reign, about 25 years after his restora- 
tion, and was buried in Westminster 
Abbey. He had but one wife, Catharine, 
infanta of Portugal, who survived him 
many years. He had no issue by her, 
but his natural children were numerous.. 

The natural issue of king Charles II. 
were as follows : — James, duke of Mon- 
mouth his eldest son (by Mrs. Lucy 
Walters), born at Rotterdam, in Hol- 
land, 1649, married to the sole 
daughter and heiress of Francis, earl of 
Buccleugh, in Scotland ; Mary, his na- 
tural daughter, by the said Mrs. Lucy 
Walters, married first to Mr. WiUiam 
Sarsfield, of the kingdom of Ireland, and 
afterwards to William Fanshaw, Esq. ; 
Charlotte Jemima Henrietta Maria Boyle, 
alias Fitzroy, his daughter by Elizabeth, 
viscountess Shannon, married first to 



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144 



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James Howard, Esq., grandson to the 
earl of Suffolk, and afterwards to Sir 
Robert Paston, Bart., created earl of 
Yarmouth ; Charles, surnamed Fitz- 
Charles, by Mrs. Catharine Pegg, who 
died at Tangiers ; a daughter also by 
Mrs. Pegg, who died in her infancy ; 
Charles Fitzroy, duke of Southampton, 
his eldest son by BarbaraVilliers, daugh- 
ter and heir to William Villiers, vis- 
count Grandison, and wife to Roger 
Palmer, earl of Castlemain, who was 
created baroness of Nonsuch, countess 
of Southampton, and duchess of Cleve- 
land, with remainder to Charles and 
George Fitzroy, her sons, and their heirs 
male respectively ; Fitzroy, duke of 
Grafton, his second son by the said Bar- 
bara Villiers ; George Fitzroy, duke of 
Northumberland, his third son by the 
said Barbara ; Charlotte Fitzroy, his 
daughter by the said Barbara, married to 
sir Edward Henry Lee, of Ditchley, in 
the county of Oxon, afterwards created 
earl of Litchfield ; Charles Beauclair, 
duke of St. Albans, his son by Mrs. 
Eleanor Gwyn, the player, who refused 
all titles of honour ; Charles Lennox, 
duke of Richmond, his only son by 
Louisa Queroualle, a French lady, maid 
of honour to the duchess of Orleans, the 
king's sister, afterwards created duchess 
of Portsmouth ; Mary Tudor, his daugh- 
ter by Mrs. Mary Davis, married to 
Francis, lord RadclifFe, son and heir of 
Francis, earl of Derwentwater, whom he 
succeeded in that honour. 

James H. February 6, 1685, James 
IL, the third, but only surviving son of 
king Charles L, and brother and heir to 
king Charles H., succeeded to the crown, 
and was proclaimed with the usual so- 
lemnity. May 8, Titus Gates, the au- 
thor of the pretended popish plot, was 
tried on two indictments for perjury, and 
convicted. June 11, the duke of Mon- 
mouth landed at Lyme, in Dorsetshire, 
with about 150 followers, and arms for 
5,000 more. He published a declara- 
tion reviling the king, and charging him 
with introducing popery and arbitrary 
power. June 18, the duke of Mon- 
mouth having increased his forces to 
about 3,000 men, took possession 
of Taunton Dean. June 20, the 
duke was proclaimed king at Taunton. 
June 21, the duke marched to Bridge- 
water, his army being increased to 
5,000 men. He was there proclaimed 
king, and marched towards Bristol ; but 



hearing of the king's army advancing 
towards him, he retired back to Bridge- 
water, and defeated a body of the king's 
horse quartered at Philips Norton. June 
22, the duke of Monmouth published a 
declaration setting a sum of 5,000?. on 
king James's head ; and another declar- 
ing the parliament of England a sedi- 
tious assemblj', and the duke of Albe- 
marle a traitor. July 6, the duke of 
Monmouth was defeated by the earl of 
Feversham and lord Churchill at Sedge- 
moor, near Bridgewater, in Somerset- 
shire. July 15, the duke was beheaded 
on Tower-hill. He was about 36 years 
of age. August 37, Lord chief justice 
Jeflferies was sent into the west with four 
other judges to try the rebel prisoners. 
At Dorchester JefFeries condemned twen- 
ty-nine, who were immediately executed. 
In another place 200 persons were in- 
dicted, and four score were executed ; 
in all, 500 were condemned, and 200 of 
those were executed, and their quarters 
set up in the highways. Many pur- 
chased their lives of the judge ; and one 
Mr. Prideaux alone gave him 14000?. 
for his life. Major General Kirk, who 
was sent down with the judge, commit- 
ted many cruelties. He caused 19 per- 
sons to be executed at Taunton without 
any trial, with the drums, &c. playing 
at the time of execution. In the same 
town, whilst at dinner with his officers, 
he ordered 30 condemned persons to be 
executed while he was at table. October 

11, Colonel Talbot was made earl of 
Tyrconnel, and lieutenant-general of the 
Irish army. He had no sooner arrived 
in Ireland than he began breaking the 
protestant officers and soldiers, and put- 
ting Roman catholics in their places. 
Two or three hundred English who had 
laid out fortunes in purchase of their 
posts were arbitrarily disbanded. 

1686. The earl of Tyrconnel having 
modelled the Irish army according to the 
king's mind, came to England, February 

12, and was appointed lord lieutenant of 
Ireland, in the room of the earl of Cla- 
rendon. Things were carried to such 
extremes against the protestants in Ire- 
land, that many English merchants with- 
drew their effects. 

1687. The king sent his mandate to 
Magdalen college, 0.xon, April 11, to 
elect Mr. Anthony Farmer president, 
who had promised to become a papist, 
which they rejected, and selected Dr. 
Hough, who was chosen by a great ma- 



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14fi 



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jority. The bishop of Winchester swore 
him in, and admitted him to his office. 

1688. The prince of Orange, after- 
wards William III., in order to concert 
measures for the English protestants, 
assembled his army at Nimeguen, Sep- 
tember 10; and, under colour of electing 
an archbishop of Cologne, encaniped an 
army, and prepared a fleet. September 
21, the king published a declaration, 
setting forth that he intended a legal es- 
tablishment of liberty of conscience; that 
he would inviolably preserve the church 
of England; and that he was content 
that the Roman catholics should remain 
incapable of being members of parlia- 
ment. September 23, the king received 
certain intelligence that the preparations 
of the Dutch were intended against Eng- 
land. He put Portsmouth and Hull 
under the government of papists, and 
took care to have the majority of officers 
and soldiers in those garrisons of the 
Romish religion. October 19, the 
prince of Orange set sail from Holland, 
with about 50 men of war, 300 tran- 
sports, and about 14,322 land forces on 
board, accompanied by the earls of 
Shrewsbury and Macclesfield, and se- 
veral other English gentlemen of quali- 
ty ; but they were driven back by a 
storm. November 1, the prince of 
Orange, with the Dutch fleet, set sail 
again, and on the 5 th landed with his 
forces at Torbay, in Devonshire. No- 
vember 3, the prince's fleet entered the 
channel and passed the gun-fleet in a 
foggy day ; the English could not weigh 
their anchors, and were kept in by eas- 
terly winds. The prince of Orange pub- 
lished a letter to the officers of the En- 
glish army containing his reasons for un- 
dertaking the protestant cause. He also 
sent one to the fleet. November 22, 
the king published a pioclamation of 
pardon to all that had deserted him, pro- 
vided they would quit the prince of 
Grange's service again in twenty days. 
December 10, the king embarked for 
France, accompanied by sir Edward 
Hales, Mr. Sheldon, and a Frenchman. 
He sent orders to the earl of Feversham 
to disband the army. 

1689- Both houses agreed Feb. 7, 
that the prince and princess of Orange 
should be king and queen of England ; 
but the sole and regal power should be 
in the prince, only in the name of both ; 
It was carried in the house of lords by 
two or three voices only- 



King James reigned three years nine 
months, and eleven days. Married first 
Anne, eldest daughter of Edward Hyde, 
earl of Clarendon, lord high chancellor 
of England, Nov. 24, 1659, by which 
lady, (who lived not to be queen, but 
died March 31, 1671,) he had eight 
children, two only of whom survived. 
Mary, afterwards queen Mary I., Anne, 
afterwards queen Anne. 

King James H. married secondly, 
Nov. 21, 1673, Mary Beatrix Eleanora 
d'Este, daughter of Alphonso, second 
duke of Modena (who survived him, 
and died May 8, 1718,) and by whom 
he had issue, James Francis Edward, 
born June 10, 1688. After his father's 
death he was proclaimed at Paris king 
of England, and was designated in Eng- 
land by the name of " The Pretender ;" 
married 1719, Mary Clementina, daugh- 
ter of prince James Sobieski, and gran- 
daughter of John Sobieski, king of Po- 
land; died June 1, 1766, leaving issue 
two sons : 1. Charles Edward Louis Cas- 
simer, (commonly called the Chevalier 
St. George, or, in England " The Young 
Pretender,") born Nov. 1720. 2. Henry 
Benedict, (called the Cardinal York,) 
born March 25, 1728; elevated to the 
purple by Pope Benedict XIV., 1747; 
died 1807, when the whole issue of king 
James II. became extinct. 

William and Mary. 1689. The 
princess of Orange having arrived at 
Whitehall, from Holland, Feb. 12 ; both 
houses attended the prince and prin- 
cess with a declaration asserting the 
rights and liberties of the subject. The 
prince refused the crown, unless the 
power, as well as the name of king, 
was conferred upon him, to which the 
house consenting, William Henry, and 
Mary, prince and princess of Orange, 
were proclaimed king and queen with 
the usual solemnity. 

1691. King William went over to 
Holland, Jan. 16, attended by the dukes 
of Norfolk and Ormond, the earls of 
Devonshire, Dorset, Essex, Nottingham, 
Scarborough, and Selkirk, the bishop of 
London, and many other persons of 
quality ; and after encountering a se- 
vere storm, on the 21st arrived at the 
Hague. The king made his triumphal 
entry at the Hague the 26th, and was 
complimented and congratulated on his 
narrow escapl. He took his seat as Stadt- 
holder in the assembly of the States. 
King William placed himself at the bead 



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14G 



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of the confederate army in the Nether- 
lands, in order to relieve Mens, April 9. 

1693. The confederate army com- 
manded by the king, was entirely de- 
feated by the French, July 29, under the 
command of Luxemburgh at Landen. 
The French, under the command of 
Monsieur Catinat, defeated the confede- 
rates under the command of the duke 
of Savoy and prince Eugene, at Marsig- 
lia, near Turin. Duke Schomberg, who 
commanded the troops of England, was 
mortally wounded and taken prisoner. 
This was the first battle where the foot 
charged with baj'onets on their loaded 
muskets, to which stratagem the success 
of the French in this battle was attri- 
buted. Soon after this action pikes were 
laid aside, and bayonets used in their 
room, all over Europe. The parliament 
of England met, and king William made 
a speech, wherein having mentioned the 
defeats the confederates had met with 
by land, and the miscarriages and losses 
at sea ; he imputed the first to the su- 
perior number of the enemy, and as- 
sured them the other should be enquired 
into. He acquainted them also, that 
there was a necessity of increasing their 
forces by sea and land, and desired 
suitable supplies. 

1694. The queen was taken ill of the 
small-pox, at Kensington, Dec. 21 ; she 
died, Dec. 28, aged 33, in the 6th year 
of her reign. 

William III. Dec. 31, 1694, the 
lords and commons waited on the king 
with an address of condolence, upon 
the death of his queen, which was fol- 
lowed with an address from other parts 
of the kingdom. 

1695. The parliament of Scotland 
met. May 4, the marquis of Tweedale 
being his majesty's high commissioner. 
In this parliament the massacre at Glen- 
coe one of the greatest stains on the 
character of William III, was enquired 
into. The castle of Namur capitulated 
to the confederates, Sept. 2, and the 
garrison marched out, when marshal 
Boufflers was arrested, to procure sa- 
tisfaction of the French king for the 
garrisons of Dixmude and Dbinse, whom 
he detained prisoners contrary to the 
cartel. Boufflers was carried to Maes- 
tricht, but soon after released on his 
parole of honour given, that the garri- 
sons of Deinse and Dixmude should be 
sent back. The confederates did not 
lose less than 12,000 men before Namur. 



1697- King William had an inter- 
view with the Czar Peter I, emperor of 
Russia, June 26, who in disguise had 
accompanied his ambassadors to Hol- 
land, where he discovered himself to 
king William. The peace was signed 
at Ryswick, between France, England, 
Spain, and Holland ; and ratified by 
king William at Loo the 15th. By the 
treaty between France and Spain, France 
was to restore to the king of Spain, 
Barcelona, Roses, Girone, and all that 
had been taken this war in Catalonia; 
as also Luxemberg, Mons, Charleroy, 
and all other towns in the Low Countries, 
as well as in America. 

1700. The long expected death of 
Charles II. king of Spain, happened 
Nov. 1 ; he died in the 39th year of his 
age, and the 36th of his reign ; and hav- 
ing been provoked by the partition of 
his dominions by the English and Dutch, 
he made his will the preceding month, 
and disposed of his crown to Philip 
duke of Anjou, second son to the dau- 
phin of France ; and in case he died 
without issue, or the crown of France 
should descend to him, Spain to pass to 
the duke de Berri, his youngest brother j 
and in case he died, &c., or France de- 
scended to the duke de Berri, then Spain 
to go to the archduke Charles ; then to 
the Duke of Savoy, without any par- 
tition or dismemberment of the mo- 
narchy. 

1701. It was resolved in parliament, 
March 12, that England should not be 
bound to engage in a war for the defence 
of the foreign dominions of any succeed- 
ing monarch ; that future kings should 
join in communion with the English 
church ; that no sovereign of England 
should quit his dominions without con- 
sent of parliament ; that after king Wil- 
liam and princess Anne the crown should 
be limited to Sophia of Hanover, and 
the heirs of her body, being protestants. 
A protest was put in by the duchess of 
Savoy, daughter of princess Henrietta, 
duchess of Orleans (who was youngest 
daughter of Charles I.), and next in 
blood to the British crown, against al- 
tering the succession. July 15, an al- 
liance was formed between kingWilliam, 
the king of Denmark, and the States, 
whereby the Danes engaged to furnish 
3,000 horse, 1,000 dragoons, and 8,000 
foot, on receiving a subsidy of 300,000 
crowns per annum during the war. The 
British fleet consisted of 48 ships, be- 



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147 



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sides frigates, &c., which was ready at 
Spithead, under the command of Sir 
George Rooke. Sept. IG, King James 
II. died of a lethargy at St. Germain en 
Laye, near Paris, aged 68. James Fran- 
cis Edward, immediately on the demise 
of James, was, by the king of France, 
proclaimed monarch of England, &c., by 
the name of James the third. King 
William, in consequence, commanded 
the earl of Manchester, his ambassador 
at Paris, to return to England, and or- 
dered Monsieur Poussin, the French se- 
cretary, to depart from Great Britain. 
December 30, King William, in a speech 
to parliament, stated that the setting up 
the prince of Wales was not only an in- 
dignity offered to himself, but concerned 
every man who regarded the protestant 
succession ; that the French king had 
made himself master of the Spanish mo- 
narchy, which would aiFect British trade 
abroad, and peace and security at home ; 
to guard against which, he had entered 
into alliances which he trusted parlia- 
ment would enable him to make good. 

1702, King WiUiam, while riding 
from Kensington towards Hampton 
Court, February 26, was thrown from 
his horse, and dislocated his right collar 
bone, upon which he was transported to 
the latter palace, where the bone was 
set ; after which, he, the same evening, 
returned to Kensington. March 8, King 
WiUiam expired at Kensington, about 
eight o'clock in the morning, in the 52d 
year of his age, and the fourteenth of 
his reign, and was interred in Henry the 
Seventh's chapel, Westminster. He was 
posthumous son of William, prince of 
Orange, by princess Mary, eldest daugh- 
ter of Charles I. On the 4th of Novem- 
ber, 1677, he espoused his first cousin, 
princess Mary, eldest daughter of James, 
duke of York, afterwards James II. 
Mary died December 28, 1695, by whom 
he left no issue ; neither does it appear 
William had any natural oflFspring. 

Anne. March 8, 1702, Anne, second, 
and only surviving daughter of James 
II., succeeded to the English throne, 
being the twenty-ninth sovereign from 
the Norman conquest. April 23, being 
St. Geoi'ge's day. Queen Anne was 
crowned at Westminster. May 4, the 
queen of England, the emperor, and the 
States, declared war against France and 
Spain. May 25, by an act of parlia- 
ment her Majesty's person and succes- 
sion to the crown in the protestant line 



were rendered more secure, in order that 
the hopes of the Pretender and his abet- 
tors might be altogether extinguished. 
An act was passed obliging the Jews to 
provide for their protestant children. 
July 9, the States gave the command 
of their forces to Marlborough, who 
compelled the French troops to evacuate 
Spanish Guelderland. Oct. 8, Admiral 
Sir George Rooke, and the confederate 
fleet, attacked the French under Cha- 
teaurenard, and the Spanish galleons, in 
the port of Vigo, while Ormond landed 
his troops, attacking the castle, and se- 
curing the harbour. The English cap- 
tured four galleons and five men of war, 
and the Dutch five galleons and one man 
of war ; six galleons and fourteen men 
of war being also destroyed, with im- 
mense riches. 

1703. The allied forces under general 
Opdam, Jime 30, were surrounded by 
the French under Boufflers, at Eckeren, 
when the former fled to Breda. The 
otherDutch commanders, however, stood 
firm, on which occasion there was a 
great slaughter on both sides; and 
night coming on, the French retired. 
The elector of Bavaria invaded the Ty- 
rol, to open a communication with the 
French in Italy, but the Imperalists hav- 
ing made a division in Bavaria, the for- 
mer was obliged to retire for the defence 
of his territories. November 26, dur- 
ing the night, commenced the most 
dreadful tempest ever known in England. 

1704. The A.ctof Security was passed 
in Scotland, July 6, whereby it was spe- 
cified, in case of the queen's death, with- 
out issue, that the states of that king- 
dom should have power to name a suc- 
cessor, provided such person was no^ 
the successor to the English crown. Foi 
security against England, they also en- 
acted that all the protestant heritors and 
the burghs should provide themselves 
with fire-arms for such as were protest- 
ants, and that they should be disciplined 
once a month. August 5, the allies, 
under prince Eugene and Marlborough, 
fought the French and Bavarians, under 
marshal Tallard, at Blenheim, near Hock- 
stet, where the former gained a signal 
victory, the latter losing 40,000 in killed, 
wounded, and drowned in the Danube, 
with 13,000 prisoners. See Blenheim. 

1707. During the month of March 
it was settled that the peers of Scotland 
should sit in the upper house, and 45 
Scottish commoners in the lower house. 



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That all the Scotch peers were to rank 
as British peers, and enjoy the same 
privileges and immunities, except sitting 
in the house of lords, and on the trial 
of peers. The churches of England and 
Scotland were confirmed in tlieir several 
rights and privileges, as fundamental 
and necessary conditions of the union. 

1709. Preliminaries were arranged 
between the combined powers and 
France, April 28, whereby the latter ac- 
knowledged king Charles the Third for 
king of Spain, and surrendered up all 
the Spanish possessions to the house of 
Austria. In case of the refusal on the 
part of king Philip, the allies were then 
to concert measures for securing the full 
execution of that article, the French mo- 
narch agreeing to withdraw his troops 
from the Spanish territories within two 
months. The French equally agreed to 
put Strasburg, Barissac, &c. into the 
hands of the emperor; to acknowledge 
queen Anne of England, and the pro- 
testant succession, and to demolish Dun- 
kirk. In addition to which, Namur, 
Mons, Charleroy, Luxemburgh, Furnes, 
Menin, Lisle, Ypres, Douay, Tournay, 
Conde, and Maubeuge, in the Nether- 
lands, were also to be relinquished to the 
allies. These pacific measures were, 
however frustrated. 

1712. Richard Cromwell, who suc- 
ceeded Oliver in the protectorate of 
England, died at Cheshunt, in Hertford- 
shire, July 12, aged 90 years. July 17, 
a cessation of arms between Great Bri- 
tain and France was proclaimed in the 
duke of Ormond's camp, and that of the 
French on the same day. The British 
forces, under the duke of Ormond, march- 
ing towards Dunkirk, were denied en- 
trance into Bouchain and Douay by the 
Dutch in which last place was the En- 
glish hospital. In consequence, the duke 
directed his march towards Ghent and 
Bruges, of both which places he took 
possession, and, on the 23d, sent six 
battalions to reinforce the garrison of 
Dunkirk. 

1713. The chief preliminary articles 
of the peace between Great Britain and 
France were entered into April 10, for 
the security of the protestant succession, 
the disuniting the French and Spanish 
crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the 
enlargement of the British colonies and 
plantations in America, and fully satis- 
fying the claims of the allies. The pri- 
mary articles between France and Savoy 



148 BRI 

stipulated the cession of Sicily to the 
duke of Savoy, thus giving the latter a 
defence against France, as well as the 
limitation of the crown of Spain to the 
duke of Savoy, on failure of heirs to king 
Philip. July 13, Great Britain and 
Spain signed the treaty of peace at 
Utrecht, where that between Sjiain and 
the duke of Savoy was also ratified. 

1714. Died June 8, in the 84th year 
of her age, princess Sophia, electress and 
duchess dowager of Hanover. Princess 
Sophia was fourth daughter of Frederick, 
king of Bohemia, and Elizabeth of Eng- 
land, daughter of James the First. She 
was born at the Hague in 1630, and mar- 
ried in 1658, to Ernest Augustus, duke 
of Brunswick and Lunenburgh. 

July 29. The queen, was seized 
with a dangerous illness. August 1, 
Queen Anne died a little after seven in 
the morning, in the 50th year of her age, 
and the 13th of her reign. She was se- 
cond daughter of James, duke of York, 
afterwards James the Second, by his first 
wife, lady Anne, daughter of Edward 
Hyde, chancellor of the exchequer, and 
afterwards lord chancellor of England. 
She was married on the 28th of July, 
1683, to prince George of Denmark, se- 
cond son of Frederick the Third, king of 
Denmark, and had issue by that prince 
a daughter, still-born, on the 12th of 
May, 1684 , the lady Mary, born at 
Whitehall, who died in 1685 ; lady Anne 
Sophia, whose death occurred in 1686; 
William, duke of Gloucester, born in 
1689, who attained his eleventh year; 
the lady Mary, born in 1690, who ex- 
pired shortly after ; and prince George, 
another son, born the l7th of April, 
whose dissolution occurred immediately 
after his birth. 

George I., duke of Brunswick Lu- 
neburgh, and elector of Hanover, suc- 
ceeded to the crown of Great Britain on 
the death of queen Anne, May 1, 1714, 
according to the various acts of parlia- 
ment for securing the protestant succes- 
sion, being thirtieth monarch of England 
from the Norman conquest. He was 
the eldest son of Ernest Augustus, bi- 
shop of Osnaburgh, duke of Hanover, 
and elector of Brunswick Luneburgh, 
by princess Sophia, daughter of Frede- 
rick the Fifth, elector palatine, and king 
of Bohemia, and the princess Elizabeth, 
daughter of James the First of England. 
September 16, George the First, and 
the prince, his son, embarked for Eng- 



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149 



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land, and arrived at Greenwich on the 
] 8th. He was received by the duke of 
Northumberland, captain of the life- 
guards, and the lord chancellor Har- 
court, at the head of the lords of the re- 
gency. October 20, George the First 
was crowned at Westminster, with all 
the usual solemnities, when several peo- 
ple were killed in the procession, and 
many dangerously wounded by the fall- 
ing of scaffolding in palace yard. 

1715. The Pretender was proclaimed 
king by the earl of Mar, September 3, 
who assembled his forces at Aboyne, in 
Aberdeenshire, and erected his standard 
upon the 6th. On the 9th,the duke of Ar- 
gyle was appointed commander in chief 
of the forces in Scotland, and set out 
for that kingdom, where he arjived on 
the 14th. October 6, the general of 
the Pretender's forces, Mr. Forster, as- 
sembled his army at Greenrig, in Nor- 
thumberland, upon which the English 
government sent a body of troops to 
guard Newcastle. On the 1 9th, the lord 
viscount Kenmure, the earl of Derwent- 
water, the earls of Nithisdale, Carnwath, 
and Wintoun, joined Mr. Forster, with 
2,000 Scotch horse they had raised in 
Nithisdale and the west of Scotland. 
November 13, the battle of Sheriff Muir 
was fought in Scotland. General Willes 
was joined by general Carpenter, with 
800 dragoons, when lord Derwentwater, 
conceiving it impossible to resist such 
accumulated forces, proposed a capitula- 
tion without the consent of the other re- 
bel leaders. Nov 30, the duke of Argyle 
having advanced within eight miles of 
Perth, the rebels immediately abandoned 
that place, and passed over the river 
Tay upon the ice. 

1716. The earl of Derwentwater and 
viscount Kenmure were beheaded on 
Tower-hill, February 24. General Ca- 
dogan, in April, completed the reduc- 
tion of the Highland clans and the rest 
of the Scottish insurgents, who laid down 
their arms and sued for mercy. July 7, 
the prince of Wales having been ap- 
pointed guardian to the kingdom, George 
the First set out from St. James's, and 
landed in Holland on the 9th, through 
which country he passed incognito, 
and arrived at Hanover on the 15th, 
from whence he set out to drink the 
waters at Pyrmont. 

I7l7- King George the First landed 
at Margate, from Holland, January 18. 
1718. The treaty of alliance, July 22, 



between the emperor. Great Britain, and 
France, to settle the terms of peace be- 
tween the emperor and the king of 
Spain was signed this day. The chief 
design of which was, to guarantee the 
succession in Great Britain and France, 
and to settle the partition of the Spanish 
monarchy. 

1726. Sophia Dorothy, queen of 
England, died November 2, at the castle 
of Ablen, in the electorate of Hanover, 
where she had been confined for many 
years. She was only daughter of George 
William, duke of Brunswick Zell, was 
born in 1666, and married George Louis, 
elector of Hanover, afterwards king of 
Great Britain, by whom he had issue, 
George Augustus, king of Great Britain, 
born October 30, 1683, and Sophia 
Dorothy, born March 1685, who was 
married to the late king of Prussia, in 
1706. 

1727. Articles for a general pacifica- 
tion were signed at Paris, May 20, by 
the ministers of the emperor, the king 
of England, the king of France, and the 
States General. By that treaty his im- 
perial Majesty agreed that every species 
of trade from the Austrian Netherlands 
to the East Indies should be suspended 
for seven years, and that all privileges 
of commerce which the English and 
French nations, and the subjects of the 
States General had previously enjoyed, 
as well in Europe as in the Indies, should 
be restored to the same usages and re- 
gulations as had been stipulated between 
each of them by treaties antecedent to 
the year 1725. 

June 10, George I. died at Osnaburgh 
in Germany, in the night between the 
10th and 11th of June, aged 67. Mar- 
ried Sophia Dorothy, daughter and sole 
heiress of George William, duke of Zell 
and by her (from whom he was divorced, 
and who died November 13, 1726) had 
issue, 1. George Augustine, prince of 
Wales, afterwards George II. ; 2. Sophia 
Dorothea, born March 16, 1685, 
married November 28, 1706, Frederick 
WillJam, afterwards king of Prussia? 
1706, created duke of Cambridge, &c. 
October 5. Princess Sophia, his queen, 
mother of George II. died June 8, 
aged 83. 

George TI June 14, 1727, a cou- 
rier arrived with the intelligence of the 
death of his Majesty, George the First, 
when a proclamation was drawn up an- 
nouncing his Majesty George the Second 



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as king of these realms, who caused the 
members of the late cabinet to be sworn 
of his own privy council. 15th, the 
king was proclaimed in the court before 
Leicester-house, and afterwards at Cha- 
ring-cross. Temple-bar, Cheapside, and 
the Royal Exchange, by the title of 
George the Second, king of Great Bri- 
tain, France, and Ireland, defender of 
the Faith, and so forth, being the thirty- 
second monarch from the Norman con- 
quest. The lord high chancellor then 
resigned the great seal into the king's 
hands, which his Majesty was pleased to 
redeliver to him, upon which his lord- 
ship took the oath of lord chancellor; 
the lord Trevor, lord privy seal, the duke 
of Newcastle, secretary of state, and lord 
viscount Lonsdale, constable of the 
tower, likewise took the oaths. 19th, 
the king was also proclaimed at Edin- 
burgh and Dublin. 

1740. Upon the deathof the emperor 
Charles the Sixth, October the 20th, his 
eldest daughter, MariaTheresaWalpurge, 
married to tiie duke of Lorraine and 
Tuscany, was proclaimed queen of Hun- 
gary and Bohemia, princess of Transyl- 
vania, archduchess of Austria, and uni- 
versal successor to all the hereditary do- 
minions of the house of Austria, in pur- 
suance of the Pragmatic sanction made 
by the late emperor, in the year 1713, 
which was guaranteed by Spain in 1725, 
then by England, and soon after by the 
United Provinces in 1731; by the diet 
of the empire, 1732 ; and by France, 
Savoy, and Spain, a second time, in 1739. 
This succession was disputed by the 
kings of Spain and Poland, while the 
elector of JBavaria founded his preten- 
sions on the will of Ferdinand the First, 
who had married his eldest daughter to 
the duke of Bavaria. The king of Prus- 
sia also pretended to an indisputable 
right to certain provinces m Silesia. 
This conflict created a sanguinary strug- 
gle, called " the seven years' war," in 
which Great Britain and most of the 
other powers of Europe were engaged, 
the issue of which answered to the mag- 
nanimity and heroism displayed by the 
illustrious Maria Theresa. Her right 
was ultimately acknowledged and con- 
firmed by the treaties of Breslau, Dres- 
den, and Aix- la-Chapelle. 

17^3. A desperate battle was fought, 
June 16, between a body of the forces 
commanded by his Majesty in Germany, 
and the French, under M. Noailles, near 



Dettingen, when victory was declared in 
favour of the Hessians and Hanoverians. 
The king of England was in the heat of 
battle the whole time, in perfect safety, 
and the duke of Cumberland received a 
wound in the leg. The French had 3,000 
men killed, besides a great many prison- 
ers, amongst whom were numerous field 
officers. The allies had nearly 1,500 
killed, and among them general Clayton, 
who was much regretted. Universal re- 
joicings were subsequently testified in 
all parts of London for his Majesty's 
success in Germany. 

1745. The number of forces voted to 
be employed in Flanders for this year 
was 28,107, being 7,000 more than the 
year preceding. The number and amount 
of prizes taken from the 1st of March, 
when war was declared against France, 
to the 1st of April, 1745, were 695 ves- 
sels, valued at 4,924,000?., of which 286 
were captured by privateers. April 30, 
a battle was fought between the allied 
armies and the French, at Fontenoy, 
when the former were defeated, with 
great slaughter, losing 12,000 men, ow- 
ing to the cowardice of the Dutch. 

Aug. 30, while the king was at Utrecht 
an express arrived, stating that several 
persons of distinction had joined the 
Pretender, whose son had set up his 
grand standard on the 11th, and pub- 
lished a manifesto, in which lie took the 
title of Carolus Princeps Custos Pregnj. 
September 4, a detachment of the re- 
bels took possession of Perth, and pro- 
claimed the Pretender the same evening. 
The young chevalier also granted passes 
to people journeying from Perth, couch- 
ed in these words ; " Charles, prince of 
Wales, and regent of Scotland, England, 
France, and Ireland, and of the domi- 
nions belonging thereto." 21st. Early 
in the morning about 1,000 Highlanders 
peaceably entered Edinburgh. Soon af- 
ter, their commander arrived, in a High- 
land habit, and proceeded to Holyrood 
palace, where he changed his dress, when 
the pursuivants being sent for, and 
clothed, proclaimed the Pretender. The 
king's troops were defeated, and Sir 
John Cope, with 450 dragoons, retired 
to Lander. November 18, the rebels 
entered Carlisle, the Pretender being 
then six miles from that place. 25, His 
royal highness the duke of Cumberland 
set out from St. James's to take the com- 
mand of the royal army on its march to- 
wards Lancashire. 



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1746. The arrival of the duke of 
Cumberland at Edinburgh, January 29, 
animated the royal army, and struck the 
rebels with terror and confusion. April 
16. This day the battle of Culloden was 
fought, when the duke of Cumberland 
obtained a complete victory. See Cul- 
loden. 

The greatest part of the rebel chiefs 
were killed or captured, and the young 
Pretender was wounded, who fled by In- 
verness, being pursued by the light 
horse. June 28, trial of three rebel 
lords, prisoners in the Tower, the earl of 
Kilmarnock, the earl of Cromartie, and 
lord Balraerino. They proceeded, under 
a strong guard, to Westminster-hall, 
where the trial took place, August 12. 
The young Pretender, with a few of his 
deluded followers, escaped from the isle 
of Uist, in an Irish vessel, and another 
ship of the same nation landed several 
of the lebels at Morlaix in France. Au- 
gust 18, the execution of the earls of 
Kilmarnock and lord Balmerino took 
place. See Balmerino. Lord Kilmar- 
nock was executed first. The earl of Cro- 
martie was pardoned. 

1747. Lord Lovat was executed, 
April 9. As soon as he came upon the 
scaffold, he asked for the executioner, 
and presented him with ten guineas in a 
purse then desiring to see the axe, he 
felt the edge saying, " He believed it 
would do ;" and after saying a short 
prayer, and throwing his handkerchief 
on the floor as a signal, the executioner, 
at one blow, severed his head from his 
body, 

1748. A courier arrived from Aix-la- 
Chapelle, October 21, with an account 
that the plenipotentiaries of his Catholic 
majesty had acceded on the 20th instant, 
to the definitive treaty of peace ; that of 
the empress queen arrived on the 23rd ; 
the duke of Modena's on the 25tl:||^ and 
those of the Sardinian and Genoese 
plenipotentiaries soon after completed 
the treaty of Aix-le-Chapelle. 

1752. New Style adopted in Britain. 
See Style. In 1755, Lord Clive ob- 
tained Bahar and Orissa in Bengal. See 
East Indies. In 1759, battle of Que- 
bec, death of Wolfe. See Quebec. 

1760. Between seven and eight o'clock 
in the morning, October 25, King George 
the Second was suddenly seized at his 
palace at Kensington, with a violent dis- 
order, when he fell speechless, and not- 
withstanding every medical aid, almost 



immediately expired. His Majesty de- 
parted this life in his 77th year, and the 
34th of his reign, beloved, honoured, and 
regretted by his subjects, for his many 
eminent and princely virtues. 

George III., son of Frederick, prince 
of Wales, born June 4, 1738, created 
prince of Wales, 1751, succeeded his 
grandfather October 25, 1760, was pro- 
claimed the next day. Married Sophia 
Charlotte, princess of Mecklenburg Stre- 
litz, September 8, I76l, who was born 
May 19, 1744, and ded November 19, 
1818, and both were crowned September 
22, 1761. 

1763. Peace of Paris, Feb. lO.*' France 
ceded to England, Canada, Cape Breton, 
St.Vincent, St.Domingo,Tobago, and the 
coast of Senegal. Spain ceded Florida. In 
1764, taxes were increased to the En- 
glish Colonies of North A merica, which 
afterwards gave rise to the American 
war. In 1770, tax upon tea in North 
America. 

1774. Revolt of the American Colo- 
nists began the latter end of this year. 

1775. The two Houses of Parhament 
presented an address to his Majesty, ^^gjj- 
ruar^^ condemning the conduct of the 
American colonies, and promising to 
stand by his Majesty in the maintenance 
of the just rights of the Crown. .^b- 
ru^^^JLO, a bill to restrain the trade and 
commerce of Massachussets bay, and 
New Hampshire, the colonies of Con- 
necticut and Rhode Island, &c., and to 
prohibit such provinces and colonies 
from carrying on any fishery on the banks 
of Newfoundland ; this bill created very 
animated discussions in the House, but 
was eventually carried by a very large 
majority in both Houses. 

1775. The City of London presented 
an address, remonstrance, and petition, 
on the subject of American affairs, April 
JO^ justifying the resistance of the co- 
Ibhies, and praying the dismissal of the 
ministers who advised coercive measures. 
4iy''l-JJ:> a detachment of 900 men, 
under the command of leutenant- colonel 
Smith, and major Pitcairne, marched to 
Lexington, where they found the mihtia 
of the town embodied, who, being ordered 
to disperse, and refusing, the detachment 
fired upon them, and killed eight of the 
militia, and wounded several ; this was 
the first blood drawn in the unhappy 
contest between Great Britain and her 
American colonies. June 17 . battle of 
Bunkers'-hiU, in which major-general 



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152 



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Howe, and brigadier general Pigot, with 
2000 troops, after a severe and sangui- 
nary engagement, defeated the Ameri- 
cans ; the works were carried, and the 
Provincials driven out; the loss of the 
king's troops in killed and wounded, 
amounted to 1045, of whom 226 were 
killed, of the latter were 19 commissioned 
officers, and 70 officers were wounded. 
During the contest, Charlestown was set 
on fire and totally consumed ; the loss 
of the Provincials, as stated by them- 
selves, amounted only to 450 killed, 
wounded, and missing. J^ji^jabec 23, 
bill to prohibit all trade and intercourse 
with the revolted provinces during the 
continuance of the rebellion, also for re- 
pealing the Boston port bill, and the 
fishery restraining bills. 

1776. The lord mayor, aldermen, and 
common council of the city of London, 
went in procession, J^^ay 22, from Guild- 
hall to St. James's, and presented an ad- 
dress to his Majesty, praying a speedy 
termination to the war with America. 
July 4, the Congress of North America 
issued their declaration of independence, 
and published their articles of confedera- 
tion and perpetual union between the 
thirteen United States, under the title of 
" The United States of America." See 
United States. 

1778. Lord North presented a con- 
ciliatory bill, Eebyyi^ry lQ. with reference 
to the dispute withtHe American co- 
lonies, enabling his Majesty to appoint 
commissioners to treat with the colonies 
in rebellion, and giving the commission- 
ers full power to treat of all matters what- 
ever ; to suspend, pro tempore, all the 
acts since the year l7M2j and to declare 
a cessation of arms as soon as they shall 
land; to grant pardons to whomsoever 
they think proper, and to appoint go- 
vernors, &c. March IJ j, the corporation 
of the city of London presented an ad- 
dress to his Majesty, deprecating the 
American war, and the manner in which 
it was carried on, and hoping that no- 
thing might stand in the way of con- 
ciliatory arrangements with the colonies. 
June 1^ the American Congress, after 
several debates upon the subject of the 
conciliatory proposition offered by the 
British commissioners, returned answer, 
that they were ready to enter into a treaty 
of peace and commerce, when the King 
of Great Britain should demonstrate a 
sincere disposition for that purpose, the 
only proof of which would be the explicit 



acknowledgment of their independence, 
and the withdrawal of his fleets and 
armies. 

1780. War of England against Hyder 
Ali. See East Indies. Riots in Lon- 
don. See London. England acknow- 
ledged the independence of the United 
States of North America, November 30, 
1782. Peace of Versailles between Eng- 
land, and North America, France, and 
Spain, September 3, 1 783 ; with Holland, 
May 20717841 — — ^ 

]f/94 IffaGeas Corpus Act suspended 
on account of disturbances in England. 
Lord Howe's victory, June 1 . American 
minister received at Paris. Retreat of the 
British army in Flanders. Trial of John 
Home Tooke, Thomas Hardy, and other 
members of the Corresponding Society, 
on a charge of high treason. 

1795. The English took the island 
of Ceylon. The French entered Holland, 
and the Stadtholder arrived in England. 
Suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act 
continued. Warren Hastings acquitted. 
Mungo Park began his travels. Mobs 
and riots in various parts of England. 
Assault on George III. 

1796. Irish Insurrection Act passed, 
English goods prohibited in France. 
French fleet destined to invade Ireland 
dispersed, after having touched at Ban- 
try Bay. Several victories at sea. 

1797. Peace of Campo-Formio. Vic- 
tory of St. Vincent, F^gb. 14. Various 
petitions for the dismissal of ministers. 
Mutiny at Sheerness. Battle of Cam- 
perdown. Political discontent in Eng- 
land. Death of John Wilkes. Rebel- 
lion in Ireland. 

1798. Rebellion in Ireland continued. 
A detachment of French landed in Ire- 
land. Battle of the Nile. Income Tax 
imposed. 

1799. Tipoo Saib conquered by the 
Engli^. Division of Mysore. Buona- 
parte in Syria and Egypt. Sir Sydney 
Smith at Acre. Seringapatam taken. 
Expedition to Helder, and the Texel. 
Suvvarrow's campaign. British and 
Russians leave Holland. Mr. Canning's 
first official appointment. 

1800. The East India Company took 
possession of the Carnatic. Great scar- 
city of provisions. Peace of El Arisch, 
by which the French evacuated Egypt. 

1801. Peace of Arcot,&c. The English 
took possession of Malta. Nelson be- 
fore Copenhagen. Peace of Luneville. 
Union with Ireland. Expedition to 



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153 



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^gypt. Battle of Alexandria. Death 
of general Abercromby. 

1802. Peace of Amiens. Execution of 
governor Wall for cruelty. Depard's 
conspiracy. 1803. War between France 
and Great Britain. Victories in India. 
1805. Trial of Lord Melville. Battle of 
Trafalgar. Death of Nelson. SeeNei,- 

SON. 

1806. Mr. Pitt died. Mr. Fox and 
his friends in office. British manufac- 
tures prohibited in America. 

1807. Peace of Tilsit. Bombardment 
of Copenhagen. The Slave-trade abo- 
lished by the English parliament. 
Monte Video taken. Buonaparte de- 
clared Britain in a state of blockade. 
Change of the administration. Duke 
of Portland took office. 

1808. Alhance with Spain and 
Portugal. Convention of Cintra. 
1809. Retreat and death of Sir John 
Moore. Colonel Wardle's charges 
against the duke of York. Battle of 
Talavera. Mr. Perceval prime minister. 
Expedition to Walcheren. 1810. Sir 
Francis Burdett committed to the 
Tower. 

1812. War between France and Rus- 
sia. Retreat of the French, Oct. 18. 
War between England and North 
America. Mr. Perceval assassinated. 
Battle of Salamanca. 

1813. All Europe took arms again 
to recover their independence. The 
English passed the Bidassoa, October 
17, and entered France. Treaty of Va- 
lencia. William, Prince of Orange, re- 
called. 

1814. Peace of Kiel, Jan. 14. Nor- 
way ceded to Sweden. Britain retained 
Heligoland. The allied Sovereigns en- 
tered Paris, March 31. Abdication of 
Napoleon, April 11. Louis XVIII. en- 
tered Paris, May 3. Ferdinand VII. 
entered Madrid, May 14. Peace between 
France and the allied Sovereigns, May 
30. France confined ■within her fron- 
tiers, as at January 1, 1792. Hanover 
made a kingdom, October 26. Congress 
of Vienna, Nor. 3. Indictment of Lord 
Cochrane and others. 

1815. Napoleon Buonaparte returned 
to France, March 1. Battle of Waterloo, 
June 18. See Waterloo. Paris sur- 
rendered the second time, to the allied 
Powers, July 3. Louis XVIII. made his 
second entry, July 8. Buonaparte ban- 
ished to St. Helena, Aug. 12. The holy al- 
liance concluded between the emperors of 



Austria and Russia, and the king of Prus- 
sia, Sept. 26. Foundation of the republic 
of the Ionian Islands, Nov. 5. Peace 
between the allied Powers and France, 
Nov. 20 ; the frontiers to remain as in 
1790. Riots about the corn laws. Em- 
bassy to China, Lord Cochrane escaped 
from the King's Bench pi'ison, and voted 
in parliament. 

1816. Algiers bombarded by the fleet 
under Lord Exmouth. The captives set 
free, Aug. 27. See Algiers. Riots 
in London. Spafields meeting, Nov. 1 5, 
at which Hunt harangued the populace. 

1817. Disturbance in various parts of 
England. Habeas Corpus Act suspended. 
Cash payments resumed at the Bank. 
Princess Charlotte died. Abolition of 
the slave trade by France, Spain, and 
Holland. 

1818. Negotiation between the allied 
Powers and France, concerning indem- 
nities, April 25. Congress of Aix-la- 
Chapelle. Evacuation of the French ter- 
ritory. Distress of the disbanded sea- 
men. 

1819. Discontent in the manufactu- 
ring districts of England. Southwark 
bridge opened. 

King George III., after a reign of 59 
years, 3 months, and 7 days, (being 3 
years longer than that of Henry III., 
and 8 years longer than Edward III.,) 
died at Windsor, Jan. 29, 1820, and 
was buried at Windsor. See Geokge 
III. 

George IV., eldest son of George 
HI., born Aug. 12, 1762. Appointed 
regent, 1811. Succeeded his father, 
George III., Jan. 29, 1820. July 5, 
act of accusation against the Queen of 
England; her trial, August. See Ca- 
roline. 

1821. Coronation of George IV., July 
19. Queen Caroline died August 7. 
George IV. visited Dublin, October 10, 
public entry of George IV. into Hano- 
ver. Catholic Bill passed the Com- 
mons; lost in the lords. See Ca- 
tholics. 

1822. Great distress in Ireland. 
George IV. visited Scotland. Death of 
Lord Castlereagh. 

1823. The government of Great Bri- 
tain sent consuls to the new states of 
South America, Oct. 30. London 
Bridge ordered to be rebuilt. See 
Bridge. 

1824. Jan- 21, the EngHsh troops de- 
feated by the Ashantees. March 5, 

X 



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154 



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Lord Hastings, the governor-general of 
India, declared war against the Burmese. 
April 30 till May 9, disturbance in Lis- 
bon ; departure of Prince Miguel. May 
5, English took Rangoon. June 16, 
commercial treaty between Great Britain 
and Denmark. July 22, peace between 
Great Britain and Algiers. The English 
drove the Ashantees from Cape Coast 
Castle. Nov. 19, hurricanes on the 
coasts of England, Holland, Denmark, 
Sweden, and Russia. Inundation of 
Petersburg. Chancery Commission ap- 
pointed. Mechanics' Institutions began. 
Union of the Scotch dissenters. Catho- 
lic rent collected. 

1825. Communication by Mr. Can- 
ning of the intention of Great Britain to 
negociate treaties of commerce with the go- 
vernments of Colombia, Mexico, Buenos 
Ayres, &c., upon the basis of recogni- 
tion of their independence respectively. 
Feb. 2, treaty of commerce concluded 
at Buenos Ayres between Great Britain 
and the united provinces of Rio de la 
Plata. February 28, convention con- 
cluded between Russia and Great Bri- 
tain, for the freedom of navigation, the 
commerce, and fishery on the Pacific 
Ocean, and the frontiers of the north- 
west coasts of America. April 18, treaty 
of amity, commerce, and navigation con- 
cluded between Great Britain and Co- 
lombia. 

1826. Commercial distresses. Bill 
brought in to prohibit the circulation of 
small notes after Feb. 5, 1829. Excep- 
tion in favour of the Bank of England. 
Bill brought into the House of Lords to 
enable private banks to have an unlimited 
number of partners ; clause introduced 
authorizing the Bank of England to es- 
tablish branch banks. Hostilities car- 
ried on with the Burmese. Military 
operations in the neighbourhood of 
Prome. Defeat of the Ashantees. 

1827. Illness and death of the duke 
of York. Succeeded by the duke of 
Wellington in the command of the army. 
Illness of the earl of Liverpool. Mr. 
Canning was made prime minister. 
Coalition with the Whigs. Death of 
Mr. Canning. See Canning. Forma- 
tion of a new ministry under Lord 
Goderich. Changes in the cabinet. 

1828. Duke of Wellington appointed 
first lord of the treasury, Jan. 25, and 
formed anew ministry. Mr. Goulburn, 
chancellor of the Exchequer ; Mr. Peel, 



secretary to the Home Department ; Mr; 
Harris, master of the Mint ; the earl of 
Aberdeen, chancellor of the duchy of 
Lancaster. Repeal of the Corporation 
and Test Acts. 

1829. Bill for suppressing the Catho- 
hc Association ; voluntary dissolution of 
the same. Mr. Peel introduced the Ca- 
tholic Relief Bill, March 5. Bill passed 
the Commons, March 30. Bill passed 
the Lords, April 10. See Catholics. 

1830. Death of George IV. at Wind- 
sor, June 26, who was there buried. 
Succeeded by his next surviving bro- 
ther. 

William IV., third son of George 
III., born August 21, 1765; succeeded 
his brother, George IV., June 26, 1830. 
The session of parliament opened by the 
king in person, Nov. 2. The duke of 
Wellington and Sir Robert Peel in the 
house of Lords and Commons respec- 
tively announced the resignation of the 
ministry, Nov. 22 ; the king commis- 
sioned Earl Grey to form a new adminis- 
tration. 

1831. The ministerial measure for 
parliamentary reform introduced to the 
house of Commons, March 1, by Lord 
John Russell. April 20, ministers de- 
feated in the house of Commons, on the 
reform bill. April 22, parliament pro- 
rogued by the king in person, and dis- 
solved on the 23rd, by proclamation. 
New reform bill introduced Dec. 12. 

1832. Reform bill thrown out by the 
Lords, May 7 ; resignation of ministers. 
May 9 ; afterwards recalled, and the bill 
passed both houses, June 5. Scotch re- 
form bill passed, July 13. Irish bill, 
July 30. See Reform. 

1833. Ministerial Changes, March. 
Irish Church Bill passed. May. Bill for 
abolition of slavery under the appren- 
ticeship system. See Slavery. 

1834. The Melbourne administration. 
Poor Law Amendment Bill. 1835. Muni- 
cipal Reform Act. See Municipal 
Reform. 

1836. Lord John Hay, the com^ 
mander of the British naval squadron, 
stationed oflfthe northern coast of Spain, 
intimated to general Cordova, the com- 
mander-in-chief of the Spanish forces, 
that he had received orders from the 
British government, to aid and protect 
the operations of the Spanish army, on 
that part of the coast, against the Car- 
lists. 



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155 



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1835^. May 24, being the eighteenth 
anniversary of the birthday of the prin- 
cess Victoria, and also the day on which, 
by act of parUaraent, she attained her 
majority in the event of the demise of 
the crown, a great number of congratu- 
latory addresses were presented to her, 
and the daywas very generally celebrated 
throughout the country. During the 
spring and early part of the summer, 
trade, especially in the manufacturing 
districts, was very much depressed, ow- 
ing chiefly to an almost totEil derange- 
ment of commercial affairs in the United 
States. All the American banks sus- 
pended specie payments, and very ex- 
tensive failures occurred ; the effect of 
which was felt to a considerable extent 
in Britain. 

William IV. died at W^indsor, June 
20, 1837, leaving no legitimate issue; 
was buried in St. George's Chapel, 
Windsor, July 8, and succeeded by his 
niece. See William IV. 

Alexandrina Victoria I., daugh- 
ter of the duke and duchess of Kent, 
born at Kensington, May 24, 1819, pro- 
claimed queen, June 21, 1837. The pro- 
clamation of queen Victoria took place 
on the anniversary of a day not less me- 
morable in the annals of British fame, 
than for the fact that it bears the same 
name as the queen of England herself — 
the battle of Vittoria, in 1813. It is also 
singular that the young queen should 
have been called to the high station of 
royalty within a few days of the exact 
time (18 years of age) granted to her by 
law to prepare for it. 

The following have been queens of 
England in their own right since the 
conquest : — 1. Mary, reigned from July 
6, 1553, to November 7, 1558. 2. Eh- 
zabeth, reigned from November 7, 1558, 
to March 24, 1603. 3. Mary, reigned 
from February 13, 1684, to March 8, 
1702. 4. Anne, reigned from March 8, 
1702, to August 1, 1714. 5. Victoria, 
began to reign June 20, 1837. 

Alteration in the royal arms. The 
royal arms of England will vary much 
from those borne by her Majesty's five 
predecessors. The sovereign being a 
female, they will be borne on a lozenge, 
instead of a shield, and the imperial 
crest of a lion surmounting the crown 
will be discontinued, as will also the es- 
cutcheon of pretence bearing the arms 
of Hanover surmounted by the crown of 
that kingdom. The arms will in future 



consist of the four grand quarters only, 
namely, England in the first and fourth; 
and Scotland and Ireland in the second 
and third quarters. 

Lineal descent of her Majesty queen 
Victoria, from William the Conqueror. 
A.D. 1060. William I. 
1100. Henry I. 
Matilda Empress of Ger- 



many. 



March 



bridge. 



VII. 
IV. 



1154. Henry II. 
1199. John. 
1216. Henry III. 
1272. Edward I. 
1 307. Edward II, 
1327. Edward III. 

Lionel, duke of- Clarence. 

-■ PhiUippa, countess of 

Roger, earl of March. 

Anne, countess of Cam- 
Richard, duke of York. 

1461. Edward IV. 

Ehzabeth, queen of Henry 



Margaret, queen of James 

of Scotland. 

James V., of Scotland. 

Mary, queen of Scots, 

1603. James I. 

Elizabeth, queen of Bohe- 



Sophia, electress of Hano- 



1714. 
1727. 



George I. 

George II. 

Frederick, prince of Wales. 
1760. George III. 

Edward, duke of Kent. 

1837. Victoria. 
Insurrection in Canada commenced 
December, 1837; continued in 1838; 
Lord Durham appointed governor. See 
Canada. 

1838. Coronation of queen Victoria 
was celebrated, June 28. Marshal Soult, 
the old opponent of the duke of Welling- 
ton, was the French ambassador, and 
much interest was excited in witnessing 
the cordial reception he met with. 
See Coronation. July 29, the Bri- 
tish ambassador at the court of Persia 
threw up his diplomatic relations in 
consequence of the siege of Herat under- 
taken by Mahomet. August 1. The co- 
lonial government of Jamaica, and other 
of the West India islands, abolished the 
apprenticeship system, and gave full 
emancipation to the slaves. See Sla- 



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156 



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VERY. September 18. A treaty of com- 
merce between Austria and England was 
concluded at Milan. In this month the 
treaty of commerce between Turkey and 
England was also concluded, and signed 
by Mehemet Ali and Mr. Bulvver; finally 
ratified, November 16. By this treaty 
all British articles imported into the Ot- 
toman dominions are subject to an ad 
valorem duty of 3 per cent ; and in lieu 
of all other inland duties heretofore re- 
quired previous to the sale of the goods 
by the importer, one fixed duty of 2 per 
cent, is to be levied, after which the 
goods may be sold and resold in the in- 
terior without any further duty being re- 
quired. English vessels are also free 
from any charge on passing the Darda- 
nelles, the Bosphorus, and the Black 
Sea ; and a free transit is granted to all 
foreign goods passing through Turkey 
for exportation. By other articles, the 
provisions of former treaties (except as 
affected by the present) are confirmed ; 
and any advantages which may hereafter 
be granted to other powers by the Porte 
are claimed for a British trader. 

1839. Lord Melbourne announced 
in the house of peers. May 7, that in 
consequence of the division in the house 
of commons on the 6th, on the Jamaica 
bill, when the majority of ministers was 
only five, they had determined to resign. 
On the 8th, Sir Robert Peel received her 
Majesty's commands to form an admi- 
nistration, but owing to a refusal of the 
queen to dismiss the ladies of her house- 
hold, on which Sir Robert Peel insisted, 
he declined the commission, and on the 
10th, lord Melbourne was reinstated. 
July, victory in India. See Cabool. 
Attack on Newport by the chartists, 
Nov. 4. See Chartists. 

1840. Marriage of Queen Victoria, 
to Prince Albert of Saxe Coburg, Feb. 
10. See Coburg and Victoria. 

BRITAIN, NEW. This island, and 
the straits which separate it from New 
Guinea, discovered by Dampier, in 
1699. This enterprising seaman made 
a voyage round the world at the period 
of this discovery. 

BRITISH ASSOCIATION, for the 
advancement of science, instituted 1831. 
Annual meetings, lasting for a week each, 
have been held successively during the 
summer of each year from the com- 
mencement at the following places : 
Oxford 1831, Cambridge 1832, York 
1833, Edinburgh 1834, DuUin 1835, 



Bristol 1836, Liverpool 1837, Newcastle 
1838, and Birmingham 1839. The meet- 
ing for 1840, to be held at Glasgow, 
Sept. 17. 

At the fifth annual meeting held at 
Dublin, Aug. 15, 1835, the provost of 
Trinity College gave an entertainment 
to about 300 members, including all the 
foreigners then in the city. Before 
dinner the company assembled in the 
library of the University, when the lord 
lieutenant, who was one of the guests, 
conferred the honour of knighthood upon 
professor, now Sir William Hamilton, 
(the professor of astronomy in the Uni- 
versity.) Mr. Thomas Moore, who had 
been admitted a member of the associa- 
tion by acclamation, and without pay- 
ing the usual fees, was also among the 
guests, and an entire absence of party 
feeling and political allusion distinguisg- 
ed the entertainment. 

During the eighth meeting of this 
association, held at Newcastle, 1838, the 
general meeting assembled on the Mon- 
day evening, May 20, in the Central Ex- 
change, when there were more than 
3,200 persons present. It appeared from 
the report of the treasurer, that the re- 
ceipts for the past year amounted to the 
sum of 2,410/. 13s. Among the nume- 
rous papers read in the successive sit- 
tings, many were of high scientific in- 
terest. On this occasion 1,000 local 
members were enrolled, which exceeded 
by above 300, either of the two preceding 
meetings at Bristol and Liverpool, and 
more than 2,500/. was obtained by local 
subscription. 1,000 ladies' tickets were 
issued, and they were admitted to two of 
the sections. There was an exhibition 
of models, philosophical instruments, 
and products of national industry, 1. 
Local. Articles manufactured in the 
district, showing the nature of the pro- 
ducts of local industry, the present state 
of the manufactures, specimens illus- 
trating the improvement or progress of 
the several branches. 2. General. 
Products of industry from all parts of 
the kingdom, specimens illustrating the 
different steps, from a raw material, to 
a finished article, and raw materials of 
a less common kind, which are or may 
be applied to useful purposes in the 
arts. 3. Mechanical and Philosophical, 
consisting of models of machines, or 
parts of machines, old, new, or improved; 
or illustrating the giadual progress of 
invention ; models of working in mines. 



BRI 



W 



BRi 



philosophical instruments, remarkable 
minerals, interesting geological sections, 
fossils, rare or curious specimens in any 
branches of natural history. 

BRITISH Consuls, appointed to 
South American States, Oct. 30, 1823. 

BRITISH Islands. See Britain. 

BRITISH Queen, packet, from Os- 
tend to Margate, wrecked on the Good- 
win Sands, and all on board perished, 
Dec, 16, 1814. 



BRITISH Q,UBBN, steam vessel, one 
of the largest in the world, was launched 
May 24, 1838. This steam ship, was 
intended to carry goods and passengers 
between London and New York. She 
had accommodation for 280 passengers. 
The following particulars of the dimen- 
sions, given by the builders, may be 
thought worth recording. 



Length, extreme, from figure-head to taffrail 

Length on upper deck 

Length of keel . . . . , 

Breadth within paddle boxes 

Breadth including paddle boxes 

Depth 

Tonnage ...... 

Power of engines .... 

Diameter of Cylinders .... 

Length of stroke . . : . 

Diameter of paddle wheels 

Estimated weight of engines, boilers, and water 

Ditto of coals for 20 days' consumption 

Ditto of cargo ...... 

Draught of water with the above weight and stores 



275 feet. 
245 feet. 
223 feet. 

40 feet 6 in. 

64 feet. 

27 feet. 
1,862 tons. 
500 horse. 

77i inch. 
7 feet. 

30 feet. 
500 tons. 
600 tons. 
500 tons. 

16 feet. 



BRITISH Herring Fishery, in- 
corporated in 1750. 

BRITISH Institution, founded 
June 4, 1805 ; opened Jan. 18, 1806. 

BRITISH AND Foreign Bible 
Society. See Bible Society. 

BRITISH AND Foreign School 
Society, instituted in 1815. See 
Schools. 

BRITISH Linen Company, erect- 
ed 1746. 

BRITISH MiNERALOGICAL SOCIE- 
TY, commenced 1799. 

BRITISH Museum, contains the 
largest collection of antiquities, natural 
curiosities, natural history, and books, 
in the metropolis. It is situated in 
Great Russel Street, Bloomsbury. This 
establishment originated in the munificent 
bequest of Sir Hans Sloane, who, hav- 
ing at a vast expence formed a museum 
of natural and artificial curiosities, left 
it at his death, in 1753, on certain terms 
to the nation ; in consequence of which 
an act of parliament was passed for the 
foundation of the British Museum, for 
adding to it the Cottonian library, which 
was previously public property, and for 
making future augmentations. Monta- 
gue house. Great Russell Street, Blooms- 
bury, a mansion built by the duke of 
Montague, in the reign of William III, 



was purchased for the use of the esta- 
lishment, and other buildings were sub- 
sequently erected. 

Vast additions have been recently made 
both to the library and the museum, and 
the whole now forms a uniform and 
magnificent structure. The new build- 
ings for the reception of the King's 
Library and the manuscripts of that in- 
stitution were ready for the public ac- 
commodation in 1828. The new library 
is a room of great extent and magnifi- 
cence. 

BRITISH Residents in France 
made prisoners by Buonaparte, 1803. 

BRITISH Lying-in Hospital, 
Brownlow Street, London, instituted 
1749. 

BRITONS, Ancient. See Britain. 

BRITTANY founded as a kingdom, 
383 5 made a duchy, 874. On the mar- 
riage of Francis I. of France, to the 
grandaughter of one of the dukes, in the 
year 1532, it was incorporated with the 
French territory. Reorganized at the 
period of the French revolution, about 
1792, when it was divided into the fol- 
lowing departments : — viz. Lower Loire, 
Ille et Vilaine, Finisterre, Morbihan, 
and Cotes du Norde. 

BRITTON, Thomas, the musical 
small coal man, died 17 14. 



BRO 



158 



BRO 



BRIXTON, in Norfolk, the ground 
for a considerable extent sunk near 30 
feet, June, 1788. 

BROAD Seal of England first used 
1050. Stolen from the Lord Chancellor's 
house, in Ormond street, March 24, 
1784. A new one brought into use on 
the union of Ireland with Great Britain, 
January 1, 1801. 

BROAD Swords forbidden to be 
worn in Edinburgh, July 26, 1724. 

BRODIE Castle, Scotland, built, 
1113. 

BRODY in Galicia, 1500 houses burnt 
at. May 5, 1801. 

BROKERS regulated in London by 
law, 1697. 

BROMFIELD, William, surgeon, 
born 1712, died 1762. 

BROOKE, Lord, Fulk Greville, stab- 
bed by his servant, September 30, 1628, 
aged 70. 

BROOKE, John Charles, Somer- 
set herald, crushed to death at the Hay- 
market theatre, February 3, 1794, aged 
45. 

BROOKE, Henry, an ingenious but 
eccentric writer, author of the Fool of 
Quality, born in Ireland 1706, died Oct. 
1783. 

BROOKES, Joshua, an eminent 
English anatomist, F. R. S., F. L. S., &c., 
born Nov. 24, 1761. During the forty 
years he publicly taught anatomy at his 
theatre, in Blenheim street, Marlborough 
street, he educated no less than 7,000 
pupils. His museum, which was second 
only to that of the illustrious Hunter, 
was the admiration of all who had the 
gratification to witness it. In 1826, he 
retired (on account of ill-health) from 
his arduous duties. In the classification 
of his museum, he followed the nomen- 
clature of Cuvier, Mac Leay, Temminck, 
Gray, Vigors, (M.P.), Horsfield, and the 
most esteemed modern naturalists ; died 
January 10, 1833. So much esteemed 
were his talents by Sir Astley Cooper, 
that when the baronet concluded his 
spring lectures, at St. Thomas's hospital, 
he made it a constant practice to exclaim 
to his pupils, — '• Now, Gentlemen, if you 
want to learn anatomy go to Joshua 
Brookes." 

BROOME, Rev. William, joint 
translator of the Odyssey with Pope, 
died 1745. 

BROOMHOLME Priory, Norfolk, 
built 1113. 

BROOMSGROVE nearly destroyed 



by an inundation from a waterspout, 
April 13, 1792. 

BROOM-FLOWER, order of knight- 
hood in France, began 1234. 

BROTHELS were allowed in London 
as necessary evils, 1162; suppressed 
1545; tolerated in France, 1280; Pope 
Sixtus IV. licensed one at Rome, and the 
prostitutes paid him a weekly tax, which 
amounted to twenty thousand ducats a 
year, 1471. 

BROTHERLY Love, order of knight- 
hood, began 1708. 

BROTHERS, Sworn, probably arose 
from a custom in Morlachia, and other 
places, where friendship between the same 
sex are like manages ratified at the altar. 
Others say, from persons covenanting 
formerly to share each other's fortunes in 
any expedition to invade a country, as 
were Robert d' Oily, and Robert d' Ivery, 
in the first expedition of William I. into 
England. Hence the term of " brethren 
in iniquity," because of their dividing 
plunder. 
BROUGHAM, Henry, Lord, born in 
Edinburgh, September 19, 1779. First 
sat in Parliament in 1 8 10, for the borough 
of Camelford; afterwards forWinchelsea; 
returned for Yorkshire in the memorable 
election of 1830. In that year he was 
raised to the chancellorship, and to the 
peerage by the title of Baron Brougham 
and Vaux, of Brougham, in Westmore- 
land. He held office till the change of 
administration, in 1834. October, 1839, 
an accident occurred which caused a 
false report of his death. 

BROUGHAM Castle, Westmore- 
land, built in 1070. 

BROUGHTON. Lancashire, suspen- 
sion bridge at, fell while a party of the 
60th rifles were passing over ; six had 
limbs broken, but no lives were lost, 
April 11, 1831. 

BROUWER, Adrian, a celebrated 
Flemish painter of scenes from low life, 
born 1608, died 1640. 

BROWN, Robert, founder of the 
Brownists, in the reign of Queen Eliza- 
beth. In 1585, he was cited to appear 
before archbishop Whitgift. Towards 
the close of his life, having some dispute 
with the constable of his parish, he pro- 
ceeded to blows, and was so insolent to 
the justice, that he committed him to 
Northampton jail, where he died in 1630, 
aged 80. 

BROWN, Dr. William Law- 
rence, a Scotch writer on divinity. 



BRU 



159 



BRU 



and metaphysics, born 1753, died 
1830. 

BROWNE, Isaac Hawkins, the 
poet, born 1703, died 1760. 

BROWNE, William, poet, born 
1590, died 1645. 

BROWNE, Sir Thomas, author of 
" Vulgar Errors," died 1645. 

BROWNE, Edwakd, natural his- 
torian, died 1682. 

BROWNISTS, sect began in the l6th 
century. Two persons of this sect were 
hanged, in 1583, at Bury, for dispersing 
Brown's books, against the established 
church. See Brown. 

BROWNRIGG, Sib Robert, Bart, 
governor of Ceylon, born 1759. He ac- 
companied the duke of York to Holland 
in 1799. In 1813, he was appointed go- 
vernor and commander-in-chief of the 
island ol Ceylon; 1815, successfully in- 
vaded and conquered the kingdom of 
Candy, (situated in the interior of the 
island of Ceylon,) now annexed to the 
possessions of Great Britain. Created a 
baronet 1816; and continued governor 
of Ceylon until the year 1820. Died 
April 27, 1833. 

BRUCE, Robert, Scottish general 
and king, landed in Ireland with an 
army. May 25, 1315. Soon after crown- 
ed at Dundalk; slain 1318. See Scot- 
land. 

BRUCE, James, the celebrated tra- 
veller, discoverer of the Nile, born at 
Kinnaird, Stirling, Scotland, December 
14, 1730. Set out on his grand expedi- 
tion, the accomplishment of which had 
been ever nearest his heart, the discovery 
of the sources of the Nile, June 15, 1768, 
and after various dangers and difficulties, 
arrived, on February 15, 1770, atGondar, 
the capital of Abyssinia. Arrived at the 
sources of the Nile, November 14. On 
his return to Gondar, November 1 9, he 
was detained by the king. He at length 
obtained permission to depart, and left 
Gondar on December 16, 1771, taking 
the dangerous way of the desert of Nubia; 
and on January 10, 1773, after more than 
four years' absence, he arrived at Cairo. 
His work on Abyssinia appeared in 1790, 
five large quarto volumes, embellished 
with plates and charts. The very singu- 
lar and extraordinary picture which he 
gives of Abyssinian manners, startled 
the belief of some. But the accounts of 
recent travellers confirm almost every 
particular he narrates. The first impres- 
sion of his work being almost wholly dis- 



posed of within a short time, a second 
was preparing for the press, when he 
was removed by death, on April 26, 
1794. 

BRUCE, Major-General Sir Charles, 
a brave and distinguished British officer, 
born 1777, died 1832. 

BRUDENELL. In acquitting Cap- 
tain Wathen, of the 15th or King's Hus- ' 
sars, of the insubordinate and un-officer- 
like conduct with which he was charged,' 
the court martial, held at Cork, expres- • 
sed so unfavorable an opinion of the course 
pursued by the accuser. Lieutenant Colo- 
nel Lord BrudeneU, that his majesty 
directed his removal from his command, 
February 1, 1834. 

BRUEGHEL or Breughel, Peter, 
the elder, an eminent Dutch painter of 
landscapes, bom 1510, ^Jied 1570, 

BRUEGHEL, Peter Petersz, the 
younger, a Dutch painter of extravagant • 
allegorical subjects, died 1642. 

BRUEGHEL, John, or Velvet 
Brueghel, a Dutch painter of land- 
scapes, fruits, and marine subjects, born 
1560, died 1625. 

BRUEGHEL, Abraham, called the 
Neapolitan, a Dutch painter of still life, 
bom 1762, died 1690. 

BRUGES founded, 700; fortified 890. 
Erected into a bishopric by Paul IV. 
1559, and continued so untU it was taken 
by the French in 1794, when it was in- 
corporated with the French empire, and 
remained united until the fall of Napo- 
leon. In 1798, an English force under 
Gen. Coote, destroyed the sluices be- 
tween this place and Ostend, but the 
greater part of them were taken pri- 
soners, being assailed by a superior 
force. 

BRUGES, University of, French 
Flanders, founded in 1665. 

BRUN, Charles Le, a celebrated 
French painter, descended of a Scots 
family, and born at Paris, 1619- A 
painting of St. Stephen finished in 1651, 
raised his reputation to the highest pitch. 
About 1662, he began his five large 
pieces of the history of Alexander the 
Great. When Louvois succeeded Col- 
bert as superintendent of the royal edi- 
fices, Mignard was set up as a rival to 
Le Brun, and the mortification he ex- 
perienced preyed upon his spirits, so that 
he fell into a decline, and died in 1690. 

BRUNCHAUT, widow of Sigebert, 
king of Austrasia, put to a cruel death, 
613. 



BRU 



160 



BRU 



BRUNO, founder of the Carthusians, 
died 1101. aged 71. 

BRUNSWICK, city of, built in 261 ; 
duchy of, had its origin in the 10th cen- 
tury. See the next article. Seized by 
the French, 1806; restored 1814. 

1830. A tumult and partial revolution 
began, Sept. 8, which continued for some 
days, during which the palace was set on 
fire and destroyed, together with much 
valuable property. The duke Charles 
fled to England, but at length Prince 
WiUiam, his brother, with the assistance 
of the burgher guard, succeeded in re- 
storing tranquillity. He was afterwards 
invested with the sovereignty of the 
states of Brunswick, with the consent of 
William IV. of England, and his bro- 
thers, the dukes of Cambridge, Sussex, 
and Cumberland^ which was given in 
February, 1831. The diet of Frankfort, 
also gave its approbation to this en- 
gagement, in May. Ex- duke Cliarles 
afterwards took refuge in France. 

1835. The duke of Cambridge as 
viceroy of Hanover, instituted proceed- 
ings, January 26, against Charles, ex- 
duke of Brunswick, for the purpose of 
having all the property of the latter 
placed in his hands, according to arrange- 
ments to that effect which were repre- 
sented to have been made between his 
late Majesty, William IV. of England, 
the reigning duke of Brunswick, the 
duke of Cambridge, and other members 
of the family, and by which the duke of 
Brunswick was also placed under the 
tutelage of the duke of Cambridge. 
The tribunal, according to the directions 
of M. Glaudaz, Avocat du Roi, decided 
that it had no power to interfere as 
prayed for, and authorized the duke of 
Brunswick to retain possession of all 
property belonging to him in France, 
and condemned the plaintiflf to pay the 
costs of the suit. 

BRUNSWICK, HousB of, owes its 
origin to Azo IV. of the family of Este, 
son of Hugo HI., marquis of Ferrara, 
in Italy. About 940, he married Cu- 
nigunda, or Cuniza, heiress of the first 
Welphs, or Guelfs, earls of Altorf, in 
Suabia ; and their son Welph, or Guelf, 
obtained the duchy of Brunswick of 
Henry IV., in 1071. His grandson, 
Henry, duke of Bavaria, acquired Bruns- 
mck, along with Saxony. In 1 1 65, WU- 
liam, son of Henry the Lion, and of 
Matilda, eldest daughter of King Henry 
II. of England, in whom was united the 



Anglo-Saxon and Norman blood, ac- 
quired Lunenburg ; and his son Otho, in 
1235, was the first duke of Bruns\vick 
and Lunenburg. From him all the suc- 
ceeding dukes of this family have de- 
scended. The house of BrunsAvick has 
since then divided into several branches, 
from one of which sprang the elector of 
Hanover, and the illustrious family now 
seated on the British throne. 

BRUNSWICK, Duchess of, sister 
to George III., died March 23, 1813. 

BRUNSWICK Club. The first gene- 
ral meeting of the Brunswick Club of 
Ireland, held in the Dublin Rotunda, 
Nov. 4, 1828. 

BRUNSWICK Theatre, Wellclose 
square, fell down on the fourth day after 
its opening, February, 1828. On its site 
" the Sailors' Home," or Brunswick Ma- 
rine establishment, for the reception of 
imemployed seamen in the port of Lon- 
don is erected. 

BRUNSWICK, New, province of 
British North America, originally formed 
part of Nova Scotia, but separated from 
it in 1785. In 1825, this colony suffered 
from one of the most extraordinary con- 
flagrations recorded in history. The 
summer was unusually warm. During 
July and August, extensive fires raged 
in different parts of Nova Scotia, and the 
protracted drought, acting upon the 
aridity of the forests, had rendered them 
more than naturally combustible. On 
October 7, the heat increased, a tremen- 
dous roaring in the woods, was succeeded 
by volumes of dense smoke that darkened 
the face of day; then burst forth the ter- 
rific element above the trees, rolling for- 
ward with impetuous fury, till in an hour, 
the towns of Douglas and Newcastle, 
situated on tlie river Miramichi, were en- 
veloped in the vortex. The whole north- 
ern side of the river, extending from 
Bortibog to the Naashwaak, a distance 
of more than 100 miles in length, became 
enveloped in an immense sheet of flame, 
that spread over nearly 6000 square 
miles. The country has not yet recover- 
ed from the desolating effects of the great 
fire, but the recent establishment of 
the New Brunswick Company, will, it 
i^ hoped, facilitate the settlement of so 
fine a territory. In 1829, the exports 
were stated at £346,000, and the imports 
at £483,000. 

1838. The colonial government of 
New Brunswick expressed itself strongly 
in opposition to the Canadian revolt. 



BUG 



161 



BUG 



Early in January, both houses concurred 
in a series of resolutions, thanking Sir 
Francis Head and the militia of Upper 
Canada, for their conduct in suppressing 
the insurrection of Toronto. A bill pas- 
sed for placing at the disposal of Sir John 
Harvey, the Lieutenant-governor, a force 
of 1,200 militia volunteers, with a view 
to give assistance, if required, to the 
support of the royal authority in any 
part of British North America. On 
March 8, they passed a resolution, pla- 
cing £10,000 at his disposal, " to meet 
any emergency which the public interests 
of this province, or the welfare of the 
British colonies may appear to require." 

BRUSSELS, formerly the capital of 
the Austrian Netherlands, but now of 
the Belgian kingdom. Damaged by fire, 
and the ducal palace consumed, January 
31, 1730. It was several times captured 
by the French, and in 1789-90, took the 
lead in the troubles which broke out in 
the Netherlands. During 20 years, from 
1794 to 1814, it was in the possession of 
the French, and the chief town in the 
department of the Dyle. Since 1831, 
it has been the seat of the Belgian go- 
vernment and the residence of king 
Leopold. 

BRUTUS, Lucius Junius, a Roman 
patriot, and founder of the Roman repub- 
lic. Delivered Rome from Tarquinius's 
tyranny, and with GoUatinus was elected 
magistrate of the state, a. c. 509. The 
same year, Brutus and Arnus Tarquinius 
fell by mutual wounds. 

BRUTUS, Marcus Junius, an illus- 
trious Roman, and chief conspirator 
against Gaesar. At the instigation of 
Gassius, he engaged in the conspiracy 
against Gsesar's life, which proved fatal 
March 15, A.c. 44. At the battle of 
Phillippi, Gassius being slain, and Bru- 
tus being surrounded by the enemy, he 
threw himself on the sword of Strato, a 
Greek, who had formerly been his fellow 
student, and expired, in the 43rd year of 
his age. 

BRYANT, Thomas, shot by the mili- 
tary that escorted Sir F. Burdett, to the 
Tower of London, April 9, 1810. 

BRYANT, Jacob, an eminent scholar, 
died Nov. 14, 1804, aged 88. 

BUBBLE Years; 1722, when the 
South Sea bubble took place. — 1792, 
when the canal mania prevailed. — 1825, 
when hundreds of absurd projects were set 
on foot by scheming and fraudulent men. 

BUCGANEERS, daring piratical ad- 



venturers, who infested the West Indian 
and American coasts. In 1632, they 
drove the Spaniards out of the small 
island of Tortuga; and fortifying them- 
selves there, with amazing intrepidity, 
made excursions against the common 
enemy. The buccaneers, when they had 
acquired a considerable booty, at first 
held their rendezvous at the island of 
Tortuga, in order to divide the spoil; 
but afterwards the French went to St. 
Domingo, and the English to Jamaica. 

Each person, holding up his hand, so- 
lemnly protested that he had secreted 
nothing of what he had taken. Montbar, 
a gentleman of Languedoc, particularly 
distinguished himself about the middle 
of the 17th century. Bartholomew, L'OIo- 
nois, and De Balca,also in their turn sig- 
nalized themselves by their rourage and 
their cruelty. Sir Henry Morgan, at- 
tacked Portobello, a strongly fortified 
town in the province of Costa Pica, in 
1688, and compelled the inhabitants to 
ransom their city from the flames, by the 
enormous sum of 100,000 crowns. In 
1697, the buccaneers attacked Cartha- 
gena, and acquired booty to the amount 
of £1,750,000. At length they met with 
a fleet of Dutch and English ships, both 
which nations were then in alliance with 
Spain. Several of the pirates were either 
taken or sunk, Avith all the cargo they 
had on board their ships, and from this 
time the buccaneers were annihilated. 
Without any regular system, without 
laws, without any degree of subordina- 
tion, and even without any fixed revenue, 
they became the astonishment of the age 
in which they lived, as they will be also 
of posterity. 

BUCER, Martin, an eminent German 
reformer, born in 1491, at Alsace. In 
1548, was sent for to Augsburg, to sign 
the agreement between the papists and 
the protestants, called the interim. His 
warm opposition to this project, led him 
to retire to England, in 1549, where he 
died in 1551. 

BUCHAN, Dr. William, author of 
Domestic Medicine, &c., died Feb. 26, 
1805, aged 76. 

BUCHANAN, Rev. Claudius, au- 
thor of " Christian Researches," born 
1766, died Feb. 9, 1815. 

BUCHANAN, George, Latin poet, 
born 1506, died 1582. 

BUGKFASTLEIGH Abbey, Devon, 
built in 918. 

BUCKINGHAM , tower at, fell dowa^ 

Y 



BUE 



162 



BUG 



and destroyed the church, March 26, 
1776. 
BUCKINGHAM Castle built, 918. 
BUCKINGHAM House, in St. 
James's park, built 1703. Bought for 
the residence of queen Charlotte, for 
£24,000, in 1760. Her first residence 
there May 19, 1762. Between 1825 and 
1830, it was taken down, and rebuilt, at 
the cost of above half a million. The 
residence of Queen Victoria in 1837. 

BUCKINGHAM, duke of, killed at 
Portsmouth, by Felton, August 23, 1628. 
BUCKINGHAM, GeorgeVilliers, 
duke of, born 1627, died 1640. 

BUCKINGHAM, John Sheffield, 
duke of, born 1649, died 1721. 

BUCKINGHAM, late duke of, born 
March 20, 1776, died July 17, 1839. 
BUCKLAND Priory, built 1278. 
BUCKLES were invented about 1680. 
BUDA, the ancient capital of Hungary, 
believed to have been the residence of 
Attila, the chieftain of the Huns. See 
Attila. The castle was chosen as a 
palace for the Emperor Louis I. before 
800. The Turks occupied Budain 1530, 
and after other devastations, were at 
length expelled, in 1686, by the duke of 
Lorraine. The university was removed 
hither from Tyrnau, in 1777, and subse- 
quently transferred to Pest. 

BUDE Light, partially discovered 
and recommended by Sir D. Brewster at 
the beginning of the present century ; 
invention completed by Mr. G. Gurney, 
and examined by a select committee of 
the House of Commons, 1839- 

BUENOS AYRES, city of South 
America, formerly capital of the Spanish 
viceroyalty of La Plata, now of the new 
republic of the United Provinces. City 
taken by the English 1806, abandoned 
the same year. Junta of Buenos Ayres 
commenced its functions on May 25, 
1810. Congress of Tucuman issued a 
declaration on July 9, 1816, formally an- 
nouncing the independence of the pro- 
vinces of Rio de la Plata. Tranquillity 
interrupted by the contest into which 
Buenos Ayres entered against Brazil, for 
the possession of the Banda Oriental, in 
1825. War contmued in a feeble and 
inefficient manner, and with doubtful 
success by both powers for several years. 
Oct. 12, 1829, treaty, by which the whole 
of the Banda Oriental, with its capital, is 
an independent power, under the direct 
guarantee of Great Britain. October, 



1833, an attempt was made to effect a 
revolution in Buenos A)Tes. In June, 

1834, the government resigned spontane- 
ously. The internal provinces were, as 
usual, the theatre of petty dissensions and 
skirmishes. Don Rosas elected governor 
and captain-general of the province for 
five years, March 7, 1835, with extraor- 
dinary powers, while he was at liberty to 
surrender whenever he might judge fit, 
and only restricting him in one point, by 
obliging him to maintain and uphold the 
catholic religion. March 10, 1839, war 
was declared by the Uruguay republic, 
against Buenos Ayres. 

BUFFALO Town, North America, 
taken by the British, and burnt Dec. 30, 
1813. 

BUFFON, George Louis le Clerc, 
Count of, a celebrated French naturalist, 
bom at Montbard, in Burgundy, Sept. 
7, 1707. His first publication was a 
translation from the English of Hales'a 
Vegetable Statics, in 1735, followed, in 
1740, by a translation from the Latin of 
Newton's Fluxions. He was appointed 
in 1739, superintendent of the royal gar- 
den and cabinet, which, as he came to be 
known, he enriched with the productions 
of all parts of the world. In 1747, he 
made an extraordinary discovery of a spe- 
culum which set objects on fire at the 
distance of 120 yards; he also published 
a dissertation, to prove that there was 
nothing either false or absurd in the ac- 
count handed down by historians, of the 
burning Roman ships at the siege of Sy- 
racuse, by Archimedes. His Natural 
History commenced in 1749, and was 
completed in 1767. In 1774, he began 
to publish a supplement to his Natural 
History, consisting of the History of 
Minerals. Hedied April 16, 1788, agedSl. 

BUGDEN PALACE,Huntingdonshire, 
built 1480. 

BUGRIAH, This to^vn, said to have 
the finest anchorage on the coast of 
Africa, taken by the French, after a san- 
guinary conflict of three days with a tribe 
of barbarians, Oct. 2, 1833. 

BUGS are generally supposed to have 
been first introduced to this country in 
the fir timber which was imported, for 
the purpose of re-building London, after 
the great fire of 1666. It is said that 
bugs were not known in England before 
that time; and many of these insects 
were found, almost immediately after- 
wards, in the newly erected edifices. 



BUL 

BUILDERS' Act passed, 1764, a- 
mended 1766. 

BUILDING with stone first brought 
into England by Bennet, a monk, 670 ; 
with brick, first introduced by the Ro- 
mans into their provinces, first in Eng- 
land about 886 : introduced here by the 
earl of Arundel, 1600, at which time the 
houses in London were chiefly built of 
Avood. The increase of buildings in 
London prohibited, within three miles 
of the city gates, by queen Elizabeth, 
and ordered that only one family should 
dwell in one house, 1580. The build- 
ings from High Holbom, north and 
south, and Great Queen Street, built 
nearly on the spot where stood the elms 
or the ancient Tyburn in Edward III, 
were erected between 1607, and 1631. 
The number of houses in London and 
its suburbs, in 1772, was computed at 
122,930 ; but in 1791 they amounted to 
above 200,000. In St. George's Fields 
near 7000 have been erected within the 
above period, and of late years the build- 
ings round London have increased to a 
great extent, 

BUILDINGS regulated by law, 1764, 
1770, 1772. 

BUILDWAS Abbey, Shropshire, 
built A.D. 1153, 

BULGARIANS ravaged Thrace, 499; 
settled in the country now called Bul- 
garia, in the seventh century; were de- 
feated by the emperor Justinian 706; 
ravaged Greece 889; besieged Constan- 
tinople 917 ; Bulgaria made a Roman 
province 1119; threw off the Roman 
yoke 1186; defeated the emperor Bald- 
win, 1205; was conquered by Bajazet 
1396, and now remains a province of 
European Turkey. 

BULKELEY, the benevolent lord, 
died 1822 

BULKELEY Hill, Cheshire, clothed 
with trees, sank down into a pit of 
water, so that the tops of the trees were 
invisible, July 8, 1657. 

BULL, Dr. John, musician, born 
1563, died 1621. 

BULL, a, named Comet, the property 
of Mr. Collin, of Ketton, near Darling- 
ton, sold by public auction for 1,000 
guineas, Oct. 11, 1810. 

BULL, the famous popish, called 
Unigenitus, was received in France, Dec. 
11, l7l5, which subsequently created 
a great ferment in that country. 

BULL Golden, is a denomination 
peculiarly given to an ordinance, or 



163 BUO 

statute, made in Germany, by the em- 
peror Charles IV. in 1356, reputed the 
magna charta, or fundamental law of the 
empire, 

BULL-BAITING, first at Stamford, 
Lincolnshire,1209 ; at Tutbury, Stafford- 
shire, 1374. 

BULL-FIGHTING, in Spain first 
practised, 1560. 

BULL-RUNNING, at Tutbui:y, Staf- 
fordshire, introduced first 1374. 

BULLETS of stone used instead of 
iron, 1514; of iron first mentioned in 
the Fadua, 1550. 

BULLION of gold and silver, first 
method of assaying, 1354. See Bank. 

BULMER, William, celebrated 
English typographer, born 1751, died 
1 8.^0. 

BUMPER, a corruption of bon-pere 
good father, i.e. the pope, whose health 
was always drank by the monks after 
dinner, in a full glass. 

BUNGAY, Suffolk, built 1689. 

BUNKER'S Hill, America, battle 
of, fought 1775. 

BUNYAN, John, the well known 
author of the Pilgrim's Progress, born 
at Elstow, near Bedford, in 1628, Ad- 
mitted a member of the Baptist congre- 
gation at Bedford, 1655 ; indicted as an 
upholder and maintainer of unlawful 
assemblies and conventicles, and for not 
conforming to the church of England, 
1660, He was kept in prison for twelve 
years together. During this period he 
wrote many of his tracts ; but he was at 
length discharged by the humane inter- 
position of Dr. Barlow, Died of a fever 
at London, Aug. 31, 1688, aged 60. All 
his works were collected together in two 
vols, folio, London, 1736, 1737- 

BUONAPARTE, Napoleon, bom 
at Ajaccio in Corsica Aug. 1769. His 
father Carlo Buonaparte, was a lawyer of 
that town in moderate circumstances ; 
but the talents evinced by Napoleon at 
an early age, attracted the notice of 
general count Marboeuf, then governor 
of the island, who patronised him, and 
procured his admission, as an eleve du 
roi, into the royal military school at 
Brienne in 1779- He was sent to 
L'Ecole Royal Militaire at Paris, in 
1784, where he passed his first examina- 
tion with honour, and entered the regi- 
ment of artillery De la Fere, in garrison 
at Auxone, as lieutenant, in 1785. In 
1790, he was appointed to the command 
of a battalion of national guards at Ajac- 



BUO 



164 



BUO 



cio, his native town. In 1793-4, he was 
promoted to the rank of general by the 
convention. In 1794, obtained the com- 
mand of an expedition against Ajaccio, 
the island of Corsica having been sur- 
rendered to the British. In this, how- 
ever, he was repulsed, and returned to 
Paris. 

1795. While the forty-eight sec- 
tions of Paris seemed unanimous in 
their acceptance of a new constitution, 
forty-six of them rejected the decree that 
the two-thirds of the members of the 
convention should be re-elected for the 
new legislature, and the decree which de- 
clared, that if the departments did not 
re-elect two-thirds, the convention would 
form an elective body, and supply the 
deficiency by its own nomination. In 
consequence of this a scene of horror and 
tumult prevailed in Paris. Barras gave 
him the second command of the conven- 
tional troops, employed to quell the tu- 
mult. In 1 796, he became commander- 
in-chief of the army of Italy. His army 
was very inferior in point of numbers to 
that of his enemies : " But, if we are 
vanquished," said he, " I shall have too 
much ; if conquerors, we stand in need 
of nothing." Having crowned his con- 
quests in Italy by the peace of Campo 
Formio, he returned to Paris. 

"When it was resolved to seize upon 
the territory of Egypt, Buonaparte was 
appointed to the command, and on May 
20, 1798, put to sea from Toulon on 
board the L'Orient, of 120 guns. June 
10, the Toulon fleet appeared before 
Malta, which soon capitulated, when 
three millions in specie fell into the hands 
of Buonaparte. There was also found 
one frigate, four galleys, twelve hundred 
pieces of cannon, forty thousand muskets 
and one million five hundred thousand 
pounds weight of powder. July 21, 
between the villages of Embabch and 
Gizah, near the Nile, and in the sight of 
the Pyramids, was fought the battle so 
designated, where Napoleon commanded 
in person. On that memorable occasion 
he used the following emphatic exclama- 
tion ; " Frenchmen remember that from 
the summit of yonder monuments forty 
centuries are looking down upon you." 
The French were victorious, and on the 
following day entered Cairo. 

1799- Buonaparte finding the tenure 
of Egypt exposed on the side of Syria, 
Feb 10, resolved to undertake an expe- 
dition to those territories, (which was 



called the Syrian Expedition,) in order to 
seize the treasures and destroy the do- 
minion of the Djezzar Pacha, who, from 
his residence at Acre, despatched bands 
to the western borders of the Desert of 
Bahama, which had afforded a retreat to 
Ibrahim Bey. After several successes 
in Syria, on the l6th of April, generals 
Kleber and Junot, with 2000 French, 
sustained a most obstinate contest against 
the combined Turks and Arabians, at the 
battle of Mount Tabor. On that occa- 
sion, Buonaparte with a small troop, 
overthrew 25,000 cavalry and a host of 
infantry, which had collected from va- 
rious parts. May 21, the army of the 
east, under Buonaparte, raised the siege 
of Acre, after the trenches had been 
open for 60 days, the besiegers having 
repeated the assault eight times. The 
loss of the French was estimated at 7000 
men ; among whom, Buonaparte had 
to regret the death of Caffarelli Dufal- 
gar. 

Napoleon instantly commenced hia 
march for Egypt, in order to oppose the 
Turks who intended to effect a landing. 
June 25, the battle of Aboukir, between 
Buonaparte and the Turks, was fought, 
in which the latter lost 18,000 men, and 
the former not 1,000 in killed and pri- 
soners. Five thousand Turks, who had 
shut themselves up in the fortress of 
Aboukir, Aug. 2, all perished by famine 
or the sword, with the exception of a 
trifling number made prisoners. The 
army having suffered from repeated de- 
feats and the climate, on August 23rd 
Buonaparte left the army in Egypt to 
General Kleber and embarked for France. 
He landed at Saint Raphau, near Frejus, 
Oct. 9, with his staff from Egypt, and 
on the sixteenth, arrived at Paris. 

Nov 4, Buonaparte, indignant on 
finding that all his conquests in Italy 
had been lost by the mal-administra- 
tion of the directory, and that France 
was on the point of once more falling 
into a state of anarchy, dismissed the 
council of Five Hundred at Saint Cloud. 
Nov. 9, the director Abbe Sieyes and Buo- 
naparte i)lanned a new form of govern- 
ment for France. The two councils de- 
creed the abolition of the directory. May 
11, when Napoleon, aided by his bro- 
ther Lucian, and Abbe Sieyes, instituted 
a provisionary government, composed of 
three consuls ; namely Sieyes, Roger 
Ducos, and General Buonaparte. Na- 
poleon Buonaparte was chosen first con- 



BUO 



165 



BUO 



sal. Dec. 24, and soon after formed his 
plan for attacking Italy. 

1800. The famous battle of Marengo 
was fought, June 16, and gained by 
Buonaparte over the Austrians, com- 
manded by General Melas, when the 
latter had 6,000 killed, and 12,000 made 
prisoners. Dec. 24, an attempt was 
made on Buonaparte's life in Paris, by 
means of a machine called the Infernale, 
whereby several lives were lost. 

1802. Buonaparte convoked a con- 
sulta of the Cisalpines at Lyons, Jan. 26, 
when he was named president of the 
Italian republic, which was no longer to 
be styled Cisalpine, but receive a consti- 
tution analagous to that established in 
France. The famous Legion of Honour 
was created by Buonaparte, May 1 9, des- 
tined to reward such as rendered them- 
selves conspicuous in a civil or military 
point of view. The senatus consultum 
conferred on Napoleon Buonaparte the 
title of consul for life, AugJ^ In his 
reply to the message oT tnesenate, he 
stated, "The life of a citizen belongs to 
his country ; the French people are desi- 
rous that mine should be entirely conse- 
crated to its service. I obey the will of 
the people — the liberty, the equality, and 
the prosperity of France shall be secur- 
ed ; the best of people shall be the hap- 
piest." Sept. 30, Buonaparte declared 
himself mediator of the Helvetic repub- 
lic. Napoleon reinstated the pope at 
Rome, and restored peace to his holiness 
for his having made a trifling sacrifice to 
the French republic, in ratifying the con- 
cordat. 

1803. In February Buonaparte of- 
fered provision for life to Louis the 
Eighteenth, if he would renounce his 
pretensions to the throne of France, 
which the latter refused. The reply to 
Napoleon's proposal contained the fol- 
lowing paragraphs of Louis the Eigh- 
teenth : " I do not mean to confound 
Monsieur Buonaparte with those who 
have preceded him ; I esteem his bravery 
and military talents, and I only have to 
complain against some acts of his ad- 
ministration, — but he deceives himself if 
he imagines I can renounce my rights ; 
far from that being the case, he would 
reestablish them himself, if he could be 
litigious, by the proceedings which he 
adopts at the present moment." 

1804. Cambaceres waited upon the 
first consul, at St. Cloud, May 1 8, and 
there made known to him the wish of 



the senate that he would accept the im- 
perial title; upon which Napoleon made 
answer ; " Every thing that can contri- 
bute to the welfare of the state is essen- 
tially connected with my hapjjiness. I 
accept the title which you deem of utility 
to the glory of the nation. I submit to 
the sanction of the people the law as re- 
lates to heriditary possession. I trust 
that France will never have, cause 
to repent the honours with which she 
may environ my family. At all events 
my spirit will no longer influence my 
posterity, the day when it shall cease to 
deserve the love and confidence of the 
great nation." May 20, Napoleon Buona- 
parte, first consul of the French republic, 
was proclaimed emperor of the French. 
Dec. 2, the coronation of Napoleon 
and the Empress Josephine was solem- 
nized, in the cathedral of Notre Dame, at 
Paris, by Pope Pius the Seventh, with 
the greatest pomp and solemnity possi- 
ble. One of the first acts of the new 
emperor was to alter the name of the 
Civil Code of the French, introduced 
under the consular government, to that of 
The Code Napoleon. His two brothers 
Joseph and Louis, and his two colleagues, 
Le Brun and Cambaceres, were declared 
grand elector, constable, arch-chancellor, 
and arch-treasurer of the empire. 

For the political events of the reign 
of Buonaparte, See Britain, France, 
&c. The following are the principal 
events of his personal history. 

Divorced from the Empress Josephine 
Dec. 17, 1809. Manied to Maria Louisa 
of Austria, April 1, 1810. Son born 
April 20, 1811, and entitled king of 
Rome. Made overtures of peace to 
England, which were rejected April 17, 
1812 Quitted his army in Russia, on 
the 5th, and arrived in Paris, Dec. 18, 
1812. Quitted Paris, Jan. 15, and join- 
ed his army at Mentz, April 20, 1813.'^ 
Quitted his army at Eh-esden, to return 
to Paris, Oct. 7, 1813. 'Quitted Paris to 
rejoin the army, Jan. 25, 1814.*-^Re- 
nounced for himself and heirs the thrones 
of France and Italy, and accepted the 
Isle of Elba, April 28, 1814. Arrived 
at Elba, May 3. AU artists forbidden, 
by the mayor of Lyons, to engrave or 
paint his Ukeness, Dec. 3, 1814. Quitted 
Elba, and landed at Cannes, March 1, 
1815. Arrived at Fontainbleau, Match 
20, 1815. Joined by the army and ar- 
rived at Paris, March 22, 1815. Allied 
sovereigns signed a new treaty for his ex- 



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termination, March 25, 1815. Abolished 
the slave trade, March 29, 1815. Left 
Paris to join the army at Laon, June 12, 
1815. Defeated at Waterloo, returned 
to Paris, June 20, and abdicated on the 
23rd, in favour of his son. Arrived at 
Rochefort, intending to sail to America, 
July 3, 1815. Failing in his design, he 
surrendered himself and suite of forty 
persons, to Captain Maitland, of the 
Beilerophon, July 15, 1815. Trans- 
ferred at Torbay from the Beilerophon 
to the Northumberland, which sailed 
with him for the island of St. Helena, 
decreed by the allied sovereigns to be his 
place of residence for life, Aug. 8, 1815. 
Arrived at. St. Helena Oct. 16, 1815. 
His relatives of every description ex- 
cluded for ever from France, by the law 
of amnesty, Jan. 12, 1816. Died 1821, 
and was buried at St. Helena. His 
statue set up in Paris again, 1833. His 
mother, Marie Letitia, died Feb. 4, 
1836. 

BUONAPARTE, Jerome, made king 
of Westphalia, 1807. 

BUONAPARTE, Joseph, made king 
of Naples, 1806, transferred to Spain, 
1808. 

BUONAPARTE, Louis, created 
king of Holland, 1806; abdicated, 1810. 
BUONAPARTE, Prince Louis, a 
nephew of Napoleon, and son of Louis 
the ex-kmg of Holland, attempted an in- 
surrection in France, Oct. 1836. Early 
on the morning of the 30th he appeared 
at Strasburgh, dressed in an uniform 
somewhat resembling that which his 
uncle used to wear. Accompanied by 
Colonel Vaudrey, he proceeded to the 
barracks of the artillery. The colonel 
told his men that a revolution had been 
accomplished in Paris — that Louis 
Phillippe was no more — that Napoleon H., 
the descendant of the " great man" had 
been proclaimed, and thathere, presenting 
prince Louis, was Napoleon IL One body 
of the mutineers marched to the house of 
general Voirol, the commander of the divi- 
sion, informed him ofthenews,and request- 
ed him to do his duty to the emperor. The 
general addressed the soldiers and soon 
succeeded in convincing them that they 
had been imposed upon An aid- de- 
camp of general Voirol, who had made 
his escape, while the general was haran- 
guing the soldiers, gave notice to the colo- 
nel of that regiment. The gates were 
immediately closed, and the whole party 
arrested. The other persons implicated 



were detained for trial ; but prince Louis 
was allowed to go to the United States, 
and a French frigate sailed with him 
from L' Orient, Nov. 21. 

BUONAPARTE, Lucien, put him- 
self under the protection of the British 
at Malta, 1810 ; brought to England the 
same year ; created a Roman prince by 
the Pope, Aug. 1814; refused passports 
for himself and family to North Ame- 
rica, by the allied sovereigns, March 18, 
1817. 

BUONAROTTI, Michael Angelo, 
a most incomparable painter, sculptor, 
and architect, born 1474, in the territory 
of Arezzi, in Tuscany. His most capital 
performances are " The Crucifixion," 
and "The Last Judgment," which last 
is the ornament of the chapel of Sixtus 
V. in the Vatican. He discontinued paint- 
ing in the seventy-fifth j'ear of his age, 
and died at Rome, aged 90, 1563. 

BURCKHARDT, J. Lewis, the eas- 
tern traveller, born in Switzerland, 1784, 
died April 15, 1817. 

BURDER, Rev. George, author of 
some valuable works on divinity, bom 
1754, died April 15, 1832. 

BURDETT, Sir Francis, committed 
to the To^Ver, by the House of Commons 
April 9, 1810. Liberated June 21, fol- 
lowing. On the commitment of Mr. 
Gale Jones for a libel in the House of 
commons. Sir Francis Burdett, on the 
12th of March, delivered an elaborate 
speech, tending to prove, that although 
the house possessed the power of com- 
mitting its own members, it had not the 
like power over others. Sir Francis sent 
the substance of his speech to Cobbett's 
Weekly Register which on account of 
its radical sentiments was declared by 
the house to be a libellous and scanda- 
lous paper, reflecting upon the just 
rights and privileges of that house on 
which account he was committed to the 
Tower, 

On the change in the worthy baronet's 
political sentiments in 1838, attended by 
Lord Maidstone and Sir George Sinclair, 
he made a " Conservative progress" 
through the northern provinces. A 
series of political banquets awaited him 
in the course of his tour, at Leeds, Sal- 
ford, Manchester, and other large towns. 
BURDETT, Captain Geo., R.N., 
killed by drinking oil of tar by mistake. 
May 22, 1832. 

BURDOCK, Mary Ann, was tried 
at Bristol for poisoning an old lady who 



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had lived with her. The trial lasted two 
days, and excited more than ordinary 
interest. It appeared that the lady who 
was poisoned was possessed of a con- 
siderable sura of money, which excited 
the cupidity of the prisoner, who de- 
stroyed her, October 23, 1833, by mixing 
arsenic in some milk or gruel. Circum- 
stances having subsequently excited 
suspicion, the body was, fourteen months 
afterwards, taken out of the grave and 
examined, when the appearances pre- 
sented led to the apprehension of the 
prisoner. She was executed March 15, 
1835, and it is stated that the crowd as- 
sembled on the occasion was calculated 
to amount to upwards of 50,000 persons. 
BURGESSES were first appointed in 
Scotland, 1326. See Municipal Cok- 

PORATIONS. 

BURGH, James, ingenious Scotch 
author, born 1714, died 1775. 

BURGLARY was formerly considered 
felony in all cases. The laws, however, 
have lately been considerably amended. 
By 7 and 8 Geo. IV., c. 29, passed June 
21, 1827, entitled an act for consolidating 
and amending the laws in England, rela- 
tive to larceny and other offences con- 
nected therewith. Also by 1 Victoria, c. 
86, July 17, 1837, which recites that it is 
expedient to amend so much of the 7 and 
8 Geo. IV., c. 29, as relates to the punish- 
ment of any person convicted of burglary, 
&c., and accordingly, 1. repeals such pro- 
visions after Sept. 30, 1837, except as to 
offences on or before that day. 2. Bur- 
glars using violence to suffer death. 3. Pu- 
nishment of burglary, transportation for 
life, or for not less than ten years, or im- 
prisonment for not exceeding three years. 
4. And so fat as the same is essential to 
the offence of burglary, the night shall 
be considered and is hereby declared to 
commence at nine o'clock in the evening 
of each day, and to conclude at six 
o'clock in the morning of the next suc- 
ceeding day, 5. Stealing in a dwelling- 
house with menace or threat, shall be 
felony, and punishable by transportation 
for not exceeding fifteen years, nor less 
than ten years, or imprisonment for not 
exceeding three years. 6. And every 
principal in the second degree, and every 
accessary before the fact, shall be punish- 
able with death or otherwise in the same 
manner as the principal in the first de- 
gree ; and every accessary after the fact 
(except only as receiver of stolen pro- 
perty] shall be imprisoned for not ex- 
ceeding two years. 



BURGO, Luc. DE, the first European 
writer on Algebra, died 1494. 

BURGOS, siege of, abandoned by 
the allied army under Lord Wellington, 
Oct. 20, 1812. Castle, and works of, 
blown up by the French, June 13, 1813. 

BURGOYNE, General, who sur- 
rendered himself and the British army 
to the Americans, at Saratoga, 1777> 
author of the " Heiress," &c., died the 
some year. 

BURGUNDIAN Cross, order of 
knighthood, began 1535. 

BURGUNDY, the dukedom of, es- 
tablished, 890; the kingdom founded, 
413, again in 814, united to the German 
empire, 1035 ; disunited by a revolt, and 
divided into four sovereignties, 1074; 
organized by Charles V., 1548; is now 
included in the kingdom of France, and 
divided into the departments of Cote 
d'Or, Saone and Loire, Ain and Yonne. 

BURGUNDY Canal, which has 
been many years in progress, was opened 
for navigation, July 16, 1834. 

BURIAL-PLACE, first christian one 
in Britain, 596. Burial-places first per- 
mitted in cities in England, 742. Bu- 
rials first permitted in consecrated places, 
750, ; in church-yards, 758 ; taxed, 1695, 
1783 ; forbidden within towns in Poland, 
1792. 

BURIALS AND Christenings. 
See Bills of Mortality. 

BURKE, Edmund, born at Dublin, 
January 1, 1730. He was chosen mem- 
ber for Wendover, 1765, and his first 
speech was on the stamp act. He 
maintained a steady and uniform oppo- 
sition to the American war ; and his 
speech against the Boston port bill was 
one of the most perfect specimens of 
oratory that had ever been exhibited in 
the British senate. In 1774, elected 
member for Bristol ; 1775, brought for- 
ward his thirteen celebrated propositions, 
which were intended to close the fatal 
breach between America and the mother 
country. His impeachment of Warren 
Hastings was one of the next and most 
important events of his life, 1789. In 
1790, he published his Reflections on 
the Revolution in France. He died 
July 8, 1797. " The qualities of his 
heart," says one of his biographers, 
"were not less amiable and estimable 
than his talents were astonishing — bene- 
volent, just, temperate, and magnani- 
mous. His principles were as strict, and 
habits as virtuous, as his dispositions 
were kind." 



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IGS 



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BURKETT, Rev. William, author 
of the Commentary on the New Testa- 
ment; born 1650, obtained the vicarage 
of Dcdham, Essex, 1692, died 1703. 

BURLEIGH, Cecil Lord, the ce- 
lebrated minister of queen Elizabeth, 
born 1520. In 154/, appointed by the 
protector master of requests ; 1548, made 
secretary of state ; but the following 
year, the duke of Northumberland's fac- 
tion prevailing, he suffered the disgrace 
of the protector Somerset, and was sent 
prisoner to the Tower. On queen Eliza- 
beth's accession, in 1558, he came into 
power; 1572, was honoured with the 
garter and raised to the office of lord 
high treasurer of England. Having filled 
the highest and most important offices of 
the state for forty years, and guided the 
helm of government during the most 
glorious period of English history, he 
died August 4, 1598, in the 78th year of 
his age. 

BURLINGTON, American camp at, 
surprised by Colonel Vincent, June 5, 
1813. 

BURLINGTON Pier built, 1797. 

BURLINGTON House, grand 
fete given at, by White's club, to the 
duke of Wellington, June 30, 1815; — 
grand fete given at, by the officers of the 
army to the duke of Wellington, July 
18, 1815. 

BURMAN, Peter, the commenta- 
tor, born 1668, died 1741. 

BURMAN, or Birman Empire. 
Little is known of the ancient history of 
the Burmans, except that they were go- 
verned by a long line of kings, subject 
to the king of Pegu. The empire, in the 
present form, originated about the mid- 
dle of the sixteenth century, when the 
Birmans effected a revolution, and made 
themselves masters of Ava. In 1740, se- 
veral provinces revolted, and a civil war 
ensued, which was prosecuted on both 
sides with great fury. In 1752, the capital 
of Ava was invested by the Peguers, and 
the BirmaAs, after a short siege, were 
compelled to surrender at discretion. 
The Pegu sovereign when he had com- 
pleted the conquest of Ava, returned to 
nis own country. 

1753. Alompra (the founder of the 
present dynasty), a person of low ex- 
traction, gained possession of Ava, and 
founded the town of Rangoon. In 1756 
he advanced against the city of Pegu, 
and took possession of it in a few months, 
giving up the city to pillage and massa- 



cre, and taking the king himself prisoner 
After repeated triumphs, and the capture 
of several important towns, he died 
May 15, 1760. He was succeeded 
by his eldest son, Namdogee Praw, 
who, after suppressing several insur- 
rections, died 1764, leaving an infant 
son, named Momien. His uncle, Shem- 
buan, second son of Alompra, usurped 
the royal power, and sent the minor to 
be educated in obscurity among the 
Rhahaans, or monks. After various 
military exploits, in the course of which 
he subjected to a state of permanent vas- 
salage several of the neighbouring pro- 
vinces, the emperor Shembuan died in 
1776, and was succeeded m the govern- 
ment by his son, Chengeuza. He was 
slain in 1781, and fell unlamented, as he 
lived despised. 1782, his uncle, Minde- 
rajee Praw, the fourth son of Alompra, 
thie founder of the dynasty, ascended 
the throne. The Burmese arms were 
then turned towards the Siamese, from 
whom, between 1784 and 1793, they 
conquered the provinces of Tavoy, Te- 
nasserim, Junk Ceylon, and the Mergui 
isles. In 1795, a Burmese army of 
5,000 men pursued three distinguished 
robbers into the British district of Chit- 
tagong, where their progress was op- 
posed by a strong detachment from Cal- 
cutta, and, after much negociation, re- 
treated within their own limits ; the then 
refugees were subsequently given up, and 
two out of the three executed with tor- 
tures. This acquiescence on the part of 
the British government had a prejudicial 
effect on the subsequent conduct of the 
Burmese. From the year 1795, until 
1809, when captain Canning's mission 
took place, the condition of this empire, 
both moral and political, had been pro- 
gressively deteriorating. 

1814. This barbarous court formed a 
confederation of all the native princes of 
India to effect the expulsion of the Bri- 
tish. In 1817, and the following years, 
they directed their arms towards the 
north, where they made a conquest of 
the extensive jungle countries of Assam 
and the adjacent petty states south of 
the Brahmaputra, where they established 
and retained a permanent military force, 
and threatened the north-western quar- 
ter of the Bengal province, hitherto re- 
puted unassailable. Minderajee Praw 
died in 1819, and was succeeded by his 
grandson, Madu Chew, and son of the 
Engy Tekien, or heir apparent, favour* 



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169 



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aMy mentioned by colonel Symes in 
1795. 

1824. The unprovoked aggressions 
of the Burmese troops on the south- 
eastern frontier of Bengal, and the con- 
temptuous silence of the court to every 
remonstrance on the subject, led to a 
rupture with the British, which com- 
menced in May, and lasted until the 24th 
of February, 1826, when a treaty of 
peace was concluded by Sir Archibald 
Campbell at Yandaboo. By the condi- 
tions of this treaty the king of Ava re- 
nounced all claims on Assam, Cacliar, 
Gentiah, and Munipoor ; ceded the pro- 
vinces of Arracan, Ye, Tavoy, Tenesse- 
rim, and Martaban, south of Saluen ri- 
ver ; engaged to pay one crore of rupees 
as an indemnity, and to receive a resi- 
dent British ambassador in his capital. 
This war was distinguished from every 
other by its duration, by its great priva- 
tions, by difficulties of every kind, aris- 
ing from the climate and nature of the 
country. All these the British army, 
never exceeding 5,000 fighting men, 
surmounted, and distated peace almost 
at the gates of the enemy's capital. 

1837. A revolution took place; the reign- 
ing sovereign having been deposed by his 
brother,Therawadee, theheir presumptive 
to the throne. The new monarch exhi- 
bited a decided aversion to the British, 
and seemed disposed rather to contract 
than extend his relations with them. He 
gave the British resident to understand 
that he would not tolerate an English 
spy in his dominions, and his conduct 
became so violent in 1838 as to render 
a rupture with Burmah highly probable. 
BURNET, Gilbert, an eminent 
English prelate, born at Edinburgh, 
1643. In 1679, he published his His- 
tory of the Reformation, for which he 
had the thanks of both houses of parlia- 
ment ; the same year he became ac- 
quainted with the earl of Rochester, with 
whom he spent one evening in a week, dis- 
coursing with him seriously on the great 
truths of the christian religion. The 
happy eflfects of these conferences oc- 
casioned the publication of his account 
of the life and death of that earl. In 
1688, finding King James plainly sub- 
verting the constitution, he omitted no 
method to support and promote the design 
which the Prince of Orange had formed 
for delivering Great Britain, and came 
over with him in quality of chaplain. 
He was soon advanced to the see of 



Salisbury. In 1698, appointed precep- 
tor to the duke of Gloucester, in whose 
education he took great interest. In 1699, 
he published his exposition of the Thirty- 
nine Articles ; which occasioned a re- 
presentation against him in the lower 
house of convocation, in the year 1701 ; 
but he was vindicated in the upper 
house. He died in 1715. 

" Bishop Burnet," says the marquis of 
Halifax, "makes many enemies by setting 
an ill-natured example of living, which 
they are not inclined to follow. His in- 
difference for preferment, his contempt 
not only of splendour, but of all unne- 
cessary plenty, his degrading himself 
into the lowest and most painful duties 
of his catling, are such unprelatical qua- 
lities, that let him be never so orthodox 
in other things, in these he must be a 
dissenter. Virtues of such a stamp, are 
so many heresies, in the opinions of 
those divines who have softened the 
primitive injunctions so as to make them 
suit better with the present frailty of 
mankind. No wonder, then, if they are 
angry, since it is in their own defence; 
or that, from a principle of self-preserva- 
tion, they should endeavour to suppress 
a man, whose parts are a shame, and 
whose life is a scandal to them." 

BURNET, Thomas, a learned and 
ingenious divine, born at Croft, in York- 
shire, in 1635; entered, in 1651, at Clare- 
hall, in the University of Cambridge. 
Of his celebrated work, entitled, " Tel- 
luris Theoria Sacra," &c., the first two 
books were published in 1680, and the 
two remaining books in 1689, in 4to. 
To the 6th edition in 1726, is added, 
the " Author's defence of the Work from 
the Exceptions of Mr. Warren, and the 
Examination of Mr. Keil." In 1685, Dr. 
Burnet was elected into the mastership 
of the Charter-house. In 1692, he 
published his " Archeologise Philoso- 
phicse," in which he not only questioned 
the literal history of the fall, but impru- 
dently introduced an imaginary dialogue 
between Eve and the serpent, which gave 
great offence. So sensible was he of 
the imprudence of this dialogue, that 
when a new edition of the "Archeologiae" 
was printed in Holland, he desired that 
it might be suppressed ; and it was like- 
wise omitted in the second edition, of 
the year, 1733. He died September 27, 
1715. 

BURNEY, Charles, Mus. Doc. 
born 1726, died 1814. 

z 



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170 



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BURNEY,Dr.Charles, an eminent 
classical scholar, died Dec. 28, 1817. 

BURNHAM Priory, Bucks, built, 
1266. 

BURNING-GLASSES. Their use 
appears to be of great antiquity. Ari- 
stophanes, who flourished a. c. 400, 
makes mention of them as far as relates 
to refraction, in his comedy of the 
Clouds. Euclid, a. c. 280, notices in 
his optics, the burning power of refrac- 
tors. Archimedes, as we are informed 
by Tezetzes, set fire to the Roman fleet 
under Marcellus, which had assembled 
before the city of Syracuse, " by means," 
says Kircher, " of a burning-glass, com- 
posed of small square mirrors, moving 
every way upon hinges ; which, when 
placed in the sun's rays, directed them 
upon the Roman fleet, so as to reduce it 
to ashes, at the distance of a bow-shot," 
A.c. 210. We are likewise informed by 
Zonaras, that, when Vitalianus besieged 
Byzantium, a.d. 514, his ship experi- 
enced a similar fate, by means of a 
brazen speculum, contrived and managed 
by Proclus. The most remarkable 
burning-glasses of modern date, are those 
of Magine, Sapatala of Milan, Settala, 
Villette of Lyons, Newton, Tschirnhau- 
sen, Buffon, Trudaine, and Parker. Mr. 
Parker's lens, made about 1800, was 
two feet and a half in diameter, its weight 
was 212 pounds ; focal length, six feet 
eight inches, and the diameter of the 
focus one inch. 

BURNING-HILL, or Cliflf, on the 
north-eastern coast of Weymouth Bay, 
opposite the island of Portsmouth, ap- 
peared March 16, 1827. 

BURNING Alive, on account of 
religious principles, the first was Sir 
William Sawtree, Feb. 19. 1401. 

BURNS, Robert, the celebrated 
Scottish poet, born January 25, 1759, of 
humble parents. Published the first 
edition of his poems, in 1786, which pro- 
duced him nearly twenty pounds. In 
1787, the second edition made its pubhc 
appearance. The fame of our poet, which 
had hitherto begun to dawn, now burst 
forth in meridian splendour. Having 
settled accounts with his publisher, 
in February, 1788, Burns became master 
of £500, when he fell into dissipation. 
Received an appointment as an excise- 
man, about 1789. At last, crippled, 
emaciated, having the very power of 
animation wasted by disease, quite 
broken-hearted by the sense of his er- 



rors, and of the hopeless miseries in 
which he saw himself and hi§ family 
plunged; he died at Dumfries, in July, 
1796, in the 38 th year of his age. 
A monument to his memory at Ayr, 
was completed July 4, 1823. 

BURR, Colonel Aaron, who made 
himself conspicuous in the American 
war, was born in 1756, and joined the 
army under general Washington, then 
before Cambridge, as a volunteer, in Aug. 
1775. He was aid-de-camp to general 
Montgomery on the remarkable night of 
the 31st December, 1775, when the as- 
sault was made on the city of Quebec. 
After serving the campaign of Canada, 
he returned to New York, and entered 
the family of general Washington ; ap- 
pointed aid-de-camp, to general Put- 
man, and fought bravely in the battle 
of Long Island; after which he was 
made colonel in 1777, remained in the 
army, and was a conspicuous officer in 
the battles of New Jersey. In 1780, 
retired in consequence of illness. As 
soon as peace was declared, he was ap- 
pointed a judge of the supreme court of 
the state of New York, which honour he 
decUned. Was chosen United States' 
senator, which he held from 1793 to 
1799- In 1801, he was chosen vice- 
president, which teiTTi expired in 1805. 
On the 10th of July, 1804, he killed, in 
a duel, general A. Hamilton, who had 
been ambassador from the United States 
to France. This unfortunate occurrence 
put an end to his official career, and 
in fact drove him from his country. 
He then engaged in the celebrated 
Burr's expedition destined to Mexico, 
was arrested, tried for high-treason, and 
acquitted at Richmond in 1807- He 
soon after left the country, but returned 
in 1811, and re-commenced his profes- 
sion as counsellor-at-law. Died at the 
Richmond House, Mesereau's Ferry, 
Staten Island, October, 1836, aged 80. 

BURROUGH Chapel, Somerset- 
shire, was standing 900. 

BURROW, Sir James, law writer, 
born 1701, died 1782. 

BURTON, Robert, author of the 
Anatomy of Melancholy, born Dec. 8, 
1576. 

BURTON Abbey, Staflfordshire, 
built, 1040. 

BURWELL, in Cambridgeshire, had 
a barn with 160 persons in it, to see a 
puppet-show, set fire to, when all, ex- 
cept six, were burnt, Sep. 8, 1727. 



BUT 



171 



BUT 



BURY, in Lancashire, its playhouse, 
containing upwards of 300 persons, fell 
down during the performance, and bu- 
ried the audience under its ruins. Five 
persons were killed on the spot, and 
many had their limbs broken, July 1, 
1787. 
BURY CASTLE, SuflFolk, built 1020. 
BUSBY, Rev. Dr. R., master of West- 
minster school, born 1606, died 1695. 

BUSBY, Dr., author of " Lucretius," 
&c., died April 28, 1838. 

BUSCH, John G., a German political 
economist, born 1728, died 1800. 

BUSHES of evergreen, such as ivy, 
cypress, &c., were anciently signs where 
wine was sold. Hence the proverb, 
" Good wine needs no bush." 

BUTCHERS COMPANY, London, 
incorporated 1604 ; hall burnt down, 
1829 ; rebuilt, 1833. 

BUTLER, Charles, king's counsel, 
and voluminous writer, born 1750, edu- 
cated at the Roman Catholic academy at 
Hammersmith, and at the English col- 
lege at Douay. First appeared before 
the public in 1773, in an anonymous es- 
say on " Houses of Industry." His 
next publication was an essay on the le- 
gality of impressing seamen, 1778. In 
1797, he printed his "Horae Biblicae," in 
1804, his "Horse Juridicse Subsecivae. 
He died June 2, 1832, aged 82. 

BUTLER, Samuel, author of Hudi- 
bras, born 1612. The first part of Hu- 
dibras was published in 1663, in 8vo., 
and afterwards came out the second part, 
and both were printed together, with se- 
veral additions and annotations. The 
third and last part was published some 
time after, and a complete edition of 
the whole was printed under the author's 
inspection in 1678. He died in poverty 
in 1680. 

A monument, raised by private sub- 
scriptions, was erected to his memory in 
Westminster-abbey, on which are in- 
scribed the following lines : — 
" A few plain men, to pomp and pride unknown. 
O'er a poor bard have raised tliis humble stone. 
Whose wants alone his genius could surpass. 
Victim of zeal ! the matchless Hudibras I 
"What ! tho' fair freedom suffered in his page 1 
Reader ! forgive the author — for the age — 
How few, alas ! disdain to cringe and cant, 
When 'tis the mode to play the sycophant ! 
But oh ! let all be taught from Butler's fate 
Who hope to make their fortune by the great. 
That wit and pride are always dangerous things 
And little faith is due to courts and kings." 

Mr. Granger observes, that Butler 
stands withoutarival in burlesque poetry. 
" His Hudibras," says he, " is in its 



kind almost as great an effort of genius 
as the Paradise Lost itself. It abounds 
with uncommon learning, new rhymes, 
and original thoughts. Its images are 
truly and naturally ridiculous. There 
are many strokes of temporary satire, 
and some characters and allusions which 
cannot be discovered at this distance of 
time." 

BUTLER, Bishop, born 1692, died 
1752. 

BUTLEY PRIORY built l77l. 

BUTTER. According to Beckmann, 
butter was not used either by the Greeks 
or Romans in cooking, or the preparation 
of food, nor was it brought upon their 
tables by way of dessert, as is every where 
customary at present. We never find 
it mentioned by Galen and others as a 
food, though they have spoken of it as 
applicable to other purposes. No notice 
is taken of it by Apicius, nor is there 
any thing said of it in that respect by 
the authors who treat of agriculture, 
though they have given us very particu- 
lar information with respect to milk, 
cheese, and oil. This, as has been re- 
marked by others, may be easily account- 
ed for, by the ancients having accustom- 
ed themselves to the use of good oil ; 
and, in the like manner, butter is very 
little employed at present in Italy, Spain, 
Portugal, and the southern parts of 
France. Considerable quantities of but- 
ter are made in Ireland, and it forms a 
prominent article in the exports of that 
country. 

The production and consumption of 
butter in Great Britain is very great. 
In the metropolis it may be averaged at 
about one half pound per week for each 
individual, being at the rate of 261bs. a 
year ; and, supposing the population to 
amount to 1,450,000, the total annual 
consumption would, on this hypothesis 
be, 37,700,000lbs., or 16,830 tons. To 
this may be added 4000 tons for vic- 
tualling ships, &c., making a total of 
about 21,000 tons. The average pro- 
duce of each cow in the dairies is 168 
lbs. per annum. It has, therefore, been 
estimated that it requires 280,000 cows 
to produce an adequate supply for the 
London markets. 

The total quantity (in hundred weights) 
of butter imported into Great Britain 
from foreign countries and Ireland in 
each year, from the 5th of January, 
1801, to the 5th of January, 1832, was 
as follows : — 



BYR 



172 



BYR 





Quantity of 
Butter imported 


i 


Years. 


into Great Britain 
from Ireland. 


Total from all parts, except Ireland. 




Cwt. 


Cwt. 


1801 


186,821 


115,130 


1802 


254,248 


93,018 


1803 


246,388 


104,120 


1804 


196,037 


126,734 


1805 


242,441 


96,843 


1806 


261,911 


85,657 


1807 


314,386 


87,346 


1808 


312,408 


79,590 


1809 


317,676 


76.283 


1810 


311,551 


33,244 


1811 


353,791 


2,810 


1812 


311,475 


25,894 


1813 


351,832 


Records were destroyed by fire. 


1814 


315,421 


115,798 


1815 


320,655 


125,300 


1816 


280,586 


64,143 


1817 


305,662 


20,690 


1818 


352,538 


83,694 


1819 


429,614 


66,050 


1820 


457,730 


68,557 


1821 


413,088 


115,827 


1822 


377,651 


118,420 


1823 


466,834 


122,331 


1824 


431,174 


160,654 


1825 


425,670 


279,418 


1826 


No account 


196,200 


1827 


received. 


211,141 


1828 




201,673 




1829 




148,164 




1830 




108,854 




1831 




123,670 




1832 : 




131,202 





BUTTONS covered mth, and button- 
holes of cloth prohibited by law, 1721. 

BYE LAWS of corporations restrain- 
ed, 1534; regulated by Municipal Re- 
form Act, 1836. 

BYLAND ABBEY, Yorkshire, built, 
1134. 

BYNG, admiral, misbehaved off Mi- 
norca, May 20, 1756; brought prisoner 
to Greenwich, August 9, 1756 ; tried at 
Portsmouth, and condemned, January 
28, 1757; shot at Portsmouth, onboard 
the Monarch ship of war, March 14, 
1757. 

BYRNE, William, an English en- 
graver, born 1743, died Sept. 24, 1805. 

BYRON, Lord, tried for murder 
and acquitted, April 16, 1765. 

BYRON, George Gordon Noel 



Lord, born at London in 1788, and suc- 
ceeded to the title and estates of Wil- 
liam, the 5th Lord Byron, at the early 
age of ten years. His lordship's mother 
died in 1811. Lord Byron spent some 
of the first years of his life in Aberdeen- 
shire. His frame, which was delicate, 
was invigorated by the keen air of that 
mountainous district, and in 1798, he was 
sent to Harrow School. He became a 
student at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
1804. While enthusiastically attached 
to classical pursuits, he caught all the 
inspiration to be derived from the poets 
and historians of Greece and of Rome. 
In 1807, he took up his residence at 
Newstead Abbey, and in about a year 
afterwards, embarked at Falmouth for 
Lisbon, and travelled in Spain, Portu- 



BYR 



173 



By z 



gal, and his beloved Greece. In 1811, 
he published the "Giaour," the "Bride 
ofAbydos," and the "Corsair." Jan. 
2, 1815, he married at Seham, in the 
county of Durham, the only daughter of 
Sir Ralph Milbanke Noel, but shortly 
after a separation took place, and he 
suddenly left the kingdom, with the re- 
solution never to return. 

During his travels while at Rome, he 
completed his "Childe Harold," thelast 
canto of which was published in 1818. 
His lordship proceeded to Greece, to 
take part in the cause of freedom there : 
the chivalrous ardour with which he had 
engaged in the cause, manifested itself 
even on his death-bed. " He began," 
says Count Gamba, (who attended him 
in his expedition) " to talk wildly, as if 
he was mounting a breach in an assault. 
He called out half in English, half in 
Italian, ' Forward ! forward ! Courage ! 
Follow my example!— don't be afraid !' 
&c. At another time, on recovering his 
faculties, he spoke of Greece, saying, 
* I have given her my time, my means, 
my health, and now I give her my life — 
what could I do more.' " 

The immediate cause of his lordship's 
death was inflamatory rheumatic fever, 
supervening on a previous attack of ill- 
ness, brought on by perturbation of mind, 
and from which he had only partially 
recovered. Refusing to be bled, the dis- 
order made a rapid progress, and in ten 
days he was no more. His lordship's 
decease took place at Missolonghi, April 
19, 1824. 

The remains of this illustrious noble- 
man were conveyed to England, and de- 
posited in the church ol Hucknal Tor- 
card, in Nottinghamshire, about four 
miles from Newstead Abbey, where an 
elegant Grecian tablet of white marble, 
is erected to his memory. It bears the 
following inscription : — " In the vault 
beneath, where many of the ancestors of 
his mother are buried, lie the remains of 
George Gordon Noel Byron, Lord Byron 
of Rochdale, in the county of Lancaster, 
the author of ' Childe Harold's Pilgrim- 
age.' He was born in London, on the 
22nd January, 1788 ; he died at Misso- 
longhi, m Western Greece, on the 19th 
of April, 1824, engaged in the glorious 
attempt to restore that country to her 
ancient freedom. His sister, the Hon- 
ourable Augusta Maria Leigh, placed 
this tablet to his memory," 



The following is a list of his principal 
works, not already mentioned : — The 
Prisoner of Chillon, a drama ; Manfred, 
a dramatic poem ; and the lament of 
Tasso, 1817; Beppo> a Venetian Story; 
1818; Mazeppa; Don Juan; Marino 
Faliero, the Doge of Venice, an historical 
tragedy ; Sardanapalus, a tragedy ; the 
Two Foscari; and Cain, a Mystery, 
about 1819. The last works of his lord- 
ship were, Werner, a tragedy ; Heaven 
and Earth, a Mystery ; and the De- 
formed Transformed. In 1823, he was 
invited to Missolonghi, by the heroic 
Marco Botzari, who fell soon after. 

BYSHAM Abbey, Berks, built 1338. 

BYZANTINE Historians. The 
whole of the Byzantine series (36 
volumes in folio,) was published at Paris, 
1 643, from the royal press of the Louvre, 
with some collateral aid from Rome and 
Leipsic ; the Venetian edition was pub- 
lished 1729 ; though cheaper and more 
copious it is inferior in correctness as 
well as magnificence to that of Paris. 
The merits of the French editions are 
various ; but the value of Anna Com- 
nena, Cinnamus, Villehardouin, &c., is 
enhanced by the historical notes of 
Charles du Fresne du Cange. His sup- 
plemental works, the Greek Glossary, 
the Constantinoplis Christiana, the Fa- 
miliae Byzantinse, diffuse a steady light 
over the darkness of the Lower Empire. 
(Gibbon.) 

BYZANTIUM, an ancient city of 
Thrace, situated on the Bosphorus, now 
known by the name of Constantinople. 
According to Diodorus Siculus, this city 
was founded about a.c. 1263. 

Byzantium underwent many revolu- 
tions, and frequently changed masters, 
having been sometimes in the posses- 
sion of the Persians, sometimes of the 
Lacedaemonians, and also of the Athe- 
nians, who took it about the year A.c. 
407. It was attacked by Philip of Ma- 
cedon, a.c. 339, and reduced to the form 
of a Roman province, a.d. 71- 

In 194, this city, being invested by 
Severus, the inhabitants defended them- 
selves with the greatest resolution. In 
323, it was taken from Licinius by Con- 
stantine the Great, who enlarged and 
beautified it. The removal of the im- 
perial seat from Rome to Constantinople, 
happened in the year 330, the 25th of 
Constantine's reign, and 1128 after the 
foundation ot Rome. 



CAB 



174 



CAB 



c. 



CABINET Council first instituted, 
April 25, 1670. 

CABLES, a method of making them, 
invented 1792, by which 20 men were en- 
abled to do the work of 200. The machine 
is set in motion by 16 horses, for the cable 
is of the dimensions of the largest ship. 

Chain cables were invented in the I7th 
century, and gradually introduced in the 
navy. About the year 1838, an improved 
French cable was invented consisting of 
a combination of the hempen with the 
chain cables ; it has been introduced into 
the French navy, with some success ; the 
chain cable bemg affixed to the anchor 
in the usual way, in length from twenty- 
five to forty fathoms. The object of this 
arrangement, is to allow the chain to drag 
along the bottom of the sea, and prevent 
abrasion to the hempen cable. Thus, it 
is supposed, that greater elasticity is pro- 
duced than can be obtained by a chain 
cable alone, and the durability of the 
hempen cable is prolonged. The cable 
also being lighter ^nd more manageable, 
is more favorably adapted for the evolu- 
tions of the ship, either in casting or 
weighing anchor, likewise for kedging : 
the advantages of lightness are evident ; 
and there are other recommendations 
besides cheapness. 

CABOOL or Cabul, kingdom of, 
central Asia, comprising a large part of 
Afghanistan. The Afghans, are a robust 
hardy race ; originally lived in the moun- 
tains between Persia, Hindoostan, and 
Bactria. In 997, Cabool was invaded by 
Sebuctaghi, the first sovereign of the 
Ghizni dynasty. The whole was finally 
subdued by Sultan Mahmood about 1008. 
Cabool attracted attention in 1809, 
when the French projected the invasion 
of Hindostan through the Afghan do- 
minions, to counteract which, Mr. El- 
phinstone was sent to Peshawer, by the 
Bengal government, and concluded 
arrangements which completely neu- 
tralized the projected expedition. In 
1826, Cabool was partitioned amongst 
the sons of the late Vizier Futteh Khan, 
who were always at variance. 

1838. The Chief of Cabool, Dost Ma- 
homed Khan joined the Persians in their 
attack upon Herat, and advised that the 



troops of Persia and Cabool should 
march upon the Indus. The ruler of 
Herat, Shah Soojah, having defeated 
the Shah of Persia, attempted the re- 
covery of the crown of Cabool which he 
had lost. In consequence, a treaty was 
concluded between the British and Sikh 
government on the one part, and Shah 
Soojah, the dethroned sovereign of Ca- 
bool, on the other, to restore this prince 
to his rightful power. The British troops 
entered Afghanistan as auxiliaries of the 
legitimate king of Cabool, at the close of 
the year. 

1839. In July, the British army which 
marched from Candahar, in four divi- 
sions, on May 27, 28, and 29, and June 
3, was concentrated at Nanee, 12 miles 
from Ghizny. At two o'clock on the 
morning of the 23rd, the troops under 
the command of Sir J. Keane, com- 
menced an attack on the citadel of 
Ghizny, (one of the strongest places in 
Asia,) defended by a garrison of 3,500 
men, and commanded by a son of the 
ex-king of Cabool. At 3 o'clock, the 
gates were blown in by the artillery, and 
under cover of a heavy fire, the infantry 
forced their way into the place, and suc- 
ceeded at five o'clock in fixing the Brit- 
ish colours on the tower of the citadel. 
Five hundred of the garrison were killed, 
and the remainder, with their command- 
er, made prisoners. The loss on the 
English side was 191, killed and wound- 
ed. When the news of this event reached 
Cabool, Dost Mahomed sallied forth with 
13,000 men, but was shortly deserted 
by the greater part of his army, and com- 
pelled to fly with only 300 men, abandon- 
ing his artillery, ammunition, baggage, 
&c. Shah Soojah was consequently res- 
tored to the sovereignty of Cabool. 

CABOT, Sebastian, the first disco- 
verer of the continent of America, born at 
Bristol in 1477. He sailed in 1497, and 
discovered Newfoundland, and afterwards 
the coast, as far as Cape Florida. In 1552, 
he laid proposals before the king for a dis- 
covery of the north-east passage to China 
and the Indies, which produced the first 
voyage the English made to Russia, and 
the beginning of that commercewhich has 
ever since been carried on between the 



CAE 



175 



CAF 



two nations. Tbe Russian company was 
also founded, of which he was appointed 
governor. He was the first who took 
notice of the variation of the compass. 
He died about 1557. 

CABRIOLETS, Hack, the first in- 
troduced into London, and 50 started, 
1823 and 1824. 

CADE, Jack, the rebel, killed by 
Alexander Iden, 1451. 

CADIZ. The origin of the city, is re- 
ferred, by tradition, to the Phoenicians, 
who are said to have settled a colony 
there, giving it the name of Gadir, which 
the Romans changed into Gades. This 
city was taken and pillaged in 1596, by 
the English, under the earl of Essex, 
and the lord-high admiral Howard ; was 
attempted again in 1626, by lord Wim- 
bledon, who was sent hither with a fleet 
of eighty ships; again in 1702, by the 
duke of Ormond, and sir George Rooke. 

Cadiz was bombarded by the English, 
in 1800, and it was from its bay that 
Villeneuve sailed in 1805, to fight the 
battle of Trafalgar. In 1808, the French 
fleet here surrendered to the Spaniards ; 
and in 1809, Cadiz became the seat, first 
of the central Junta, and afterwards of 
the Cortes. It was blockaded by the 
French, from February 6, 1810, to Aug. 
25, 1812, and not released until sifter the 
battle of Salamanca. The French occu- 
pied it after a short siege, in 1823. 

1829. Cadiz was made a free port,- 
that is, a port where goods may be con- 
sumed and bonded, without paying 
duty. This afforded opportunity for 
smuggling. The government having 
seen this effect of the franchise, it was 
withdrawn on December 22, 1832. 

CADMUS, founder of Thebes, intro- 
duced letters into Greece a.c. 1493. 

CADOUDAL, George, the French 
royalist, guillotined, 1804. 

CAEN, in Normandy, is of very great 
antiquity ; it is known to have been a 
place of note in the time of William the 
Conqueror, who chose it for his favorite 
residence, and who lies buried in the 
Abbaye aux Honames. Edward III. of 
England, in advancing to fight the battle 
of Cressy, in 1346, took it after a des- 
parate resistance. Caen was taken by 
the English in 1417, and continued in 
their hands until 1448, when it was re- 
taken by Charles VII. of France. Ad- 
miral de Coligni took it for the Protest- 
ants, in 1562. It was occupied by the 
Prussians in 1815. 



CAERLAVERVE Castle, Scotland, 
built 1638. 

CAERNARVON, North Wales, ori- 
ginally erected by Edward I., in 1282, 
and completed in a year. In 1283, Ed- 
ward I. constructed a strong castle, where 
his son Edward II., the first prince of 
Wales, was bom. In 1294, the town 
and castle were suprised by the Welsh, 
and many Englishmen slain. Long af- 
terwards, it participated in the civil wars 
of Charles I , and was twice captured and 
retaken before his death. 

CAERNARVON, second earl of, born 
bom June 3, 1772, died April 16, 1833. 

CiESALPINUS, And., the first sys- 
tematic writer on botany, born 1519, 
died 1603. 

C^iSAR. See Julius C^sar. 

CJESAR, Sir Julius, the antiquary, 
bom 1557, died 1636. 

CJSSAREA Stratonis, built after 
twelve years' labour by Augustus Caesar, 
a.c. 7 ; afterwards enlarged by Herod 
the Great. In this city, Peter was the 
means of converting Cornelius and his 
kinsmen to Christianity. Here Paul de- 
fended himself against the Jews and their 
orator TertuUus ; seethe Book of Acts. 
Dr. Clarke, who visited the ruins of Cae- 
sarea, thus expresses his feelings on be- 
holding it : " But as we viewed the ruins 
of this memorable city, every other cir- 
cumstance respecting its history was ab- 
sorbed in the consideration, that we were 
actually beholding the very spot where 
the scholar of Tarsus, after two years' 
imprisonment, made that eloquent ap- 
peal, in the audience of the king of 
Judea, which must ever be remembered 
with piety and dehght." The city is now 
in utter desolation. 

CiESARIAN Section, first perform- 
ed in midwifery, on living persons, in 
the sixteenth century. 

CAFFA or KAFFA, (ancient Theo- 
dosia), town in the Crimea, formerly a 
rich and populous place. It was plun- 
dered by the English in 1346; and cap- 
tured by the Turks, 1475. The Tartars 
called it Little Constantinople, but from 
the period of its capture by the Turks, it 
began to decline. In 1783, it was ceded 
to Russia, and the empress called it 
Feodocia, from its ancient name of The- 
odosia. 

CAFFRARIA, a name adopted by the 
Portuguese, from the Arabs, who called 
all the African continent south from 
Sofala (their most southerly settlement^ 



CAI 



17 o 



CAL 



the land of Cafirs, (Infidels). Caffraria 
was at first applied, in the I7th cen- 
tury, to the whole width of the conti- 
nent, but the name is now restricted to 
the territory on the north-east border of 
the Cape Colony. See Cape of Good 
Hope. 

CAGLIARI, called Paul Veronese, 
an Italian historic painter, born 1532, 
died 1588. 

CAGNOLA, Marquis Luigi, one of 
the most eminent Italian architects, of 
the present age. Besides various other 
structures executed by him, the Arch of 
Siinplon, one of the noblest and most 
clussical pieces of architecture Italy can 
boast of, will remain an enduring monu- 
ment of his ability and taste. At the 
time of his death, he was occupied in 
erecting for himself, a villa of extraordi- 
nary beauty and splendour. He died 
August 18, 1833, aged 74. 

CAILLE, Nicholas Louis de la, 
an eminent mathematician and philoso- 
pher, born at Rumigny, in the diocese of 
Rheims, in 1713. In 1739, he was con- 
joined with M. deThury, son of M. Cas- 
sini, in verifying the meridian of the 
royal observatory, through the whole ex- 
tent of the kingdom of France. In 1741, 
he was admitted into the Royal Academy 
of Sciences. Besides many excellent pa- 
pers of his, dispersed up and down in 
their Memoirs, M. dela Caille published 
Elements of Geometry, Mechanics, Op- 
tics, and Astronomy. He also compiled 
a volume of astronomical ephemerides 
from the year 1745 to 1755; another 
from the year 1755 to 1765; a third 
from the year 1765 to 1775; an excel- 
lent work, entitled Astronomise Fun- 
damenta, novissimis Soils et Stellarum 
observationibus stabilita, and the most 
correct solar tables that ever appeared. 
On November 21, 1750, he sailed for the 
Cape of Good Hope, to observe the 
southern stars, and arrived there on 
April 19, 1751. During his residence 
there, he observed more than 10,000 
stars; and made important observations 
on the parallax of the Moon, Mars, Ve- 
nus, and the Sun. He returned to Paris 
1754, where he settled the results of the 
comparison of his own with the observa- 
tions of other astronomers, for the par- 
allaxes. He was elected a member of 
the Royal Society of London ; of the 
Institute of Bologna; of the Imperial 
Academy of Petersburgh ; and of the 
Royal Academies at Berlin, Stockholm, 



and Gottingen. He died March21, 1762 

CAILLET, M., a young Frenchman, 
arrived at Toulon, on his return from 
Africa, October 2, 1828, having pene- 
trated to Timbuctoo. 

CAIN born, a.c. 4003. 

CAINAN born, a. c. 3679, died a. c. 
2769. 

CAIRO, Grand, founded by the 
Saracens, 969, nearly destroyed by an 
earthquake, and 40,000 inhabitants lost, 
June 2, 1754; taken by the French 1798; 
there was an insurrection there, the same 
year; recovered by the French, 1800, 
who were expelled by the British, 1801; 
restored to the Turks, 1803. 

CAISSAR, in Turkey, ruined by an 
earthquake, when 6,000 persons were 
killed, April, 1794. 

CAIUS, or Kaye, John, an anti- 
quary, born 1510, died 1573. 

CAIUS C^sAR went as general to the 
Armenian war, a.c. 2; his interview with 
Tiberius, a. d. 1. 

CAIUS L^Lius, the Roman orator, 
flourished 196. 

CAIUS Marius, imprisoned Metellus 
119. 

CAIUS Martius RuTiLius, the 
first dictator at Rome, 356. 

CALABRIA, a country of Italy, in 
the kingdom of Naples, divided into 
Calabria Ultra, and Calabria Citra, or 
Farther and Hither Calabria. It has been 
in all ages convulsed and desolated by 
earthquakes. Those in 1783 were the 
most ruinous in their effects. The re- 
iterated shocks extended from Cape 
Spartivento to Amantea above the Gulf 
of St. Eufemia, and also affected that 
part of Sicily, which lies opposite to the 
southern extremity of Italy. In 1832, 
on March 8, an earthquake was felt in 
the Calabrias ; the centre of which ap- 
peared to be in that part of the second 
Calabria Ultra, where Calanzaro, the 
chief town, is situated. The shock lasted 
about eleven seconds, and took place in 
a direction south east and north west. 
The commune of Cutro was reduced to 
a heap of ruins. The number of the 
dead was said to exceed sixty. On Nov. 
12, 1835, a strong .shock was felt in Ca- 
labria Citra. Castiglioni, a commune in 
the district of Cosenza, was levelled to the 
ground, and 100, out of a population of 
1,000, met an untimely death. The vil- 
lages of Bovello, Leppano, Rende, and 
Casole, all sviffered severely. 

CALAFAT abandoned by the Turks, 



CAL 177 

and occupied by the Russians under 
general Geismar, Oct., 1828. 

CALAIS. In the twelfth century it 
was but a village, belonging to the counts 
of Bologne, but was afterwards forfeited ; 
taken by the English army, under Ed- 
ward III., 1347, continued in the pos- 
session of the English until 1558, when 
it was taken by surprise by the duke of 
Guise. It has since frequently changed 
masters, and was bombarded by Sir 
Cloudesly Shovel, in 1694 and 1696, but 
without receiving much damage. At the 
restoration of the Bourbon dynasty, in 
1814, Louis XVIII. landed here, and a 
monument is erected on the spot to com- 
memorate the event. 

CAL AMY, Edvp-ard, born 1600, 
ejected from his living 1662, died 1666. 

CALAMY, Edmund, son of the pre- 
ceding, and an eminent nonconformist 
divine and writer, born at London, April 
5, 1671. In 1694, he was ordained at 
Mr. Annesly's meeting-house, in Little 
St. Helens, London, In 1702, chosen 
to be one of the lecturers in Salters'Hall; 
and in 1703, succeeded Mr. Vincent Al- 
sop, as pastor of a large congregation in 
"Westminster. He drew up the table of 
contents to Mr. Baxter's History of his 
Life and Times, which was sent to him 
in 1696 ; to which he added an account 
of other ejected ministers; an apology 
for themselves and adherents ; and a con- 
tinuation of their history to the year 1691- 
In 1728, appeared his further continua- 
tion of the account of the ministers, lec- 
turers, masters, and fellows of colleges, 
and schoolmasters, who were ejected, 
after the restoration in I66O, by or be- 
fore the act of uniformity. He died, 
June 3, 1732, regretted not only by the 
dissenters, but also by the moderate 
members of the established church, both 
cler^ and laity, with many of whom he 
lived in great intimacy. 

CALATRAVA, order of knighthood 
instituted in Spain, 1158. 

CALCUTTA, founded on the site of 
a small village, 907. The English first 
obtained permission to settle in this 
place in 1690. In 1717, it was still little 
more than a village, appertaining to the 
district of Nuddea, the houses of which 
were scattered about in clusters of ten 
and twelve each, inhabited principally 
by husbandmen. In 1742, a ditch was 
dug round a considerable portion of the 
town, to prevent the incursions of the 
Mahrattas ; at that time there were 



CAL 



about seventy houses in the town belong'- 
ing to the English. 

1 756. Calcutta was taken by the na- 
bob Surajah Dowla, who marched against 
it with 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 
elephants. In the evening of June 20, 
the English prisoners, to the number of 
146, were about eight o'clock crammed 
together in the Black Hole prison, a 
dungeon about 18 feet square, in. a close 
sultry night, in Bengal, shut up to the 
east and south, the only quarter from 
whence air could reach them, by dead 
walls, and by a wall and door to the 
north. They had been but a few minutes 
confined before every one fell into a per- 
spiration so profuse, that no idea can be 
formed of it. This brought on a raging 
thirst, which increased in proportion as 
the body was drained of its moisture. 
Before nine o'clock every man's thirst 
grew intolerable, and respiration diffi- 
cult. Before eleven o'clock, one-third 
of the whole number were dead. When 
the day broke, the Soubah, who had 
received an account of the havoc death 
had made among them, sent one of his 
officers to inquire if the chief survived, 
Mr. Hoi well was shown to him, and 
near six in the morning an order came 
for their release. Thus they had re- 
mained in this prison from eight at night 
until six in the morning, when the poor 
remains of 146 souls, being only 23, 
came out alive ; but most of them in a 
high putrid fever. The place was re- 
taken by Admiral Watson and Colonel 
Clive, early in 1757 ; Surajah Dowla 
was defeated, deposed, and put to death, 
and the triumph completed at the battle 
of Plassey, after which Fort William was 
built. 

The Asiatic society planned by Sir 
William Jones, was formed here into a 
regular institution January 15, 1784. 
In 1825, there were three daily, two 
three-day papers, besides one published 
weekly, and four native newspapers, two 
in the Persian and two in the Bengalese 
languages. The principal merchants 
and traders of Calcutta consist of the 
following classes, viz., British and other 
Europeans, Portuguese born in India, 
Armenians, Greeks, Jews, Persians from 
the coast of the Persian gulf, commonly 
called Persees, Moguls, Mohammedans 
of Hindostan, and Hindoos ; the latter 
usually either of the Brahminical or mer- 
cantile castes, and natives of Bengal. 
In 1813, the total number of adult male 
2a 



CAL 



178 



CAL 



British subjects, in the Bengal provinces 
(the great majority being in Calcutta,) 
engaged in trade or agriculture, was 
1,225; in 1830, it was 1,707. 

1829. December 26, great confusion 
prevailed among the trading classes at 
Calcutta, in consequence of the discovery 
of a series of forgeries practised by some 
of the natives, to the amount, as esti- 
mated, of £180,000. In 1836, very great 
improvement was effected in the do- 
mestic economy of our Indian empire, 
and of Calcutta in particular, by the 
abolition of the duties on the transit of 
goods from one part of the country to 
another. The new customs law was 
enacted in May. 

GALDER Priory, Cumberland, built 
in 1134- 

CALDERONE, Spanish dramatist, 
flourished about 1640. 

CALEDONIA, Ancient, compre- 
hended all the country lying to the north 
of the rivers Forth and Clyde ; or, as 
others state its boundaries, from the 
wall of Severus, connecting the east 
coast near Tinemouth with the Solway 
Frith, at Boulness, on the west coast to 
the northern shore. As early as the 
reign of Constantine, the inhabitants of 
Caledonia were divided between the two 
great tribes of the Scots and of the Picts ; 
the former possessing the western, and 
the latter the eastern division of that 
country. 

CALEDONIA, New, discovered by 
Captain Cook, 1774. 

CALEDONIA East Indiaman, ac- 
cidentally burnt. May 29, 1804. 

CALEDONIAN Canal, the greatest 
tmdertaking of the sort attempted in the 
British empire. It stretches S.W. and 
N. E. across the island from a point 
near Inverness to another near Fort 
William. It is chiefly formed by Loch 
Ness, Loch Oich, and Loch Lochy. The 
total length of the canal, including the 
lakes, is 58 1 miles; but the excavated 
part is only 2I5 miles. At the summit 
it is 96 1 feet above the level of the Wes- 
tern Ocean. It has been constructed 
upon a very grand scale, being 20 feet 
deep, 50 feet wide at bottom, and 122 at 
top; the locks are 20 feet deep, 172 
long, and 40 broad. Frigates of 32 guns, 
and merchant ships of 1,000 tons bur- 
den may pass through it. 

This canal was opened in 1822, having 
been executed entirely at the expense 
of government. The cost has been 



£986,924 ; it promises to be a very un-. 
profitable speculation. During the yeaf 
1829, the total revenue of the canal, 
arising from tonnage dues and all other 
sources, amounted to only £2,5/5 6s. 
4d., while the ordinary expenditure, du- 
ring the same year, amounted to £4,573 
Os. Igd. The twenty-eighth report states 
that during the year, from May 1, 1831, 
to May 1, 1832, the number of passen- 
gers were 1,246, of which 325 only were 
through the canal, viz., 143 from west 
to east sea, and 182 from east to west 
sea; 143 passengers were made on part 
of the line by steam vessels, and the re- 
maining 778 passengers were by ordi- 
nary vessels, likewise on parts of the 
canal. The amount of tonnage rates col- 
lected in this period was £2029 18s.; in 
addition to which a further sum of £289 
5s. 7d. was received by the commis- 
sioners for rents, and from the sale of 
decayed vessels. The expenditure for 
the year amounted to £3,742 5s. 7d., 
showing a balance of expenditure over 
income to the amount of £1,423 2s. 

CALENDAR, received its name from 
calendse, a word which among the Ro- 
mans denoted the first days of every 
month, and was written in large charac- 
ters at the head of each month. The 
calendar varies in diflferent countries, 
according to the different forms of the 
year, and distributions of time ; as the 
Jewish, the Roman, the Julian, the 
Gregorian, &c. The Jewish calendar 
was fixed by Rabbi Hillel, about 360, 
from and after which the days of their 
year may be reduced to those of the 
Julian calendar. 

The Roman Calendar, which has 
in great part been adopted by almost 
all nations, is stated to have been intro- 
duced by Romulus, the founder of the 
city. He divided the year into ten 
months only; Mars, Aprilis, Maius, 
Junius, Quintilis, (afterwards called 
Julius,) Sextilis, (afterwards called Au- 
gustus) September, October, Novem- 
ber, December. Mars, Maius, Quin- 
tilis, and October contained 31 days, and 
each of the six other months 30 days ; 
so that the ten months comprised 304 
days. The year of Romulus was, there- 
fore, of 50 days less duration than the 
lunar year, and of 61 days less than the 
solar year ; and its commencement of 
course did not correspond with any fixed 
season. 
Numa Pompilius corrected this ca- 



CAL 



179 



CAL 



lendar a.c. 709, by adding two months, 
Januarius, and Februarius, which he 
placed before Mars. 

JuUus Caesar, a.c. 46, being desirous 
to render the calendar still more correct, 
consulted the astronomers of his time, 
who fixed the solar year at 365 days, 
6 hours, comprising, as they thought, the 
period from one vernal equinox to 
another. The six hours were set aside, 
and, at the end of four years, forming a 
day, the fourth year was made to con- 
sist of 366 days. The day thus added 
was called intercalary, and was added 
to the month of February, by doubling 
the 24th of that month, or, according to 
their way of reckoning, the 6th of the 
calends of March. Hence the year was 
called bissextile. This almost perfect 
arrangement, which was denominated 
the Julian style, prevailed generally 
through the christian world till the time 
of Pope Gregory XIII. 

The Gregorian Calendar, a. d. 
1582. The calendar of Julius Caesar 
was defective in this particular, that the 
solar year, consisting of 365 days, 5 
hours, and 49 minutes, and not of 365 
days, 6 hours, as was supposed' in the 
time of Julius Caesar, there was a dif- 
ference between the apparent year and 
the real year of eleven minutes. This 
difference, at the time of Gregory XIII., 
had amounted to ten entire days, the 
vernal equinox falling on the 11th, in- 
stead of the 21st of March, at which 
period it fell correctly at the time of the 
council of Nice, in the year 325. To 
obviate this inconvenience, Gregory or- 
dained, in 1582, that the 15th October 
should be counted instead of the 5th for 
the future ; and to prevent the recur- 
rence of this error, it was further deter- 
mined that the year beginning a century 
should not be bissextile, with the excep- 
tion of that beginning each fourth cen- 
tury. Thus, 1700 and 1800 have not 
been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so, but 
the year 2000 will be bissextile. In this 
manner three days are retrenched in 
four hundred years, because the lapse 
of the eleven minutes makes three days 
in about that period. The year of the 
calendar is thus made as nearly as pos- 
sible to correspond with the true solar 
year, and future errors of chronology are 
avoided. 

The adoption of this change, which is 
called the Gregorian or New Style, (the 
Julian being called the old style,) was 



for some time resisted by states not 
under the authority of the see of Rome. 
The change of the style in England was 
established by an act of parliament 
passed in 1752. It was then enacted 
that the year should commence on the 
1st of January, instead of March, 25; 
and that in the year 1752, the days 
should be numbered as usual until Sept. 
2, when the day following- should 
be accounted the 14th September, omit- 
ting eleven days. The Gregorian prin- 
ciple of dropping one day in every 
hundredth year, except the fourth hun- 
dredth, was also enacted. The altera- 
tion was for a long time opposed by the 
prejudices of individuals ; and even 
now, with some persons, the old style is 
so pertinaciously adhered to, that rents 
are made payable on the old quarter- 
days, instead of the new. 

The Russians still retain the old style, 
thus creating an inconvenience in their 
public and commercial intercourse with 
other nations, which we trust that the 
growing intelligence of the people will 
eventually correct. 

French Calendar. During the 
period in which France was a republic, 
the authorities introduced an entire 
change in the calendar, which was in 
existence more than twelve years ; and is 
important to be noticed, as all the pubhc 
acts of the French nation were dated 
according to this altered style. The 
National Convention, by a decree of the 
5th October, 1793, estabhshed a new 
era, which was called, in the place 
of the Christian era, the era of the 
French. The commencement of each 
year, or the first " Vendimiaire," was 
fixed at the midnight commencing the 
day on which the autumnal equinox fell, 
as determined at the observatory at 
Paris. This era commenced on Septem- 
ber 22, 1792, being the epoch of the 
foundation of the Repubhc ; but its es- 
tablishment was not decreed till the 4th 
" Frimaire," of the year II., (November 
24, 1793.) Two days afterwards, the 
public acts were thus dated. This ca- 
lendar existed till the 10th "Nivose," 
year XIV., (Dec. 31, 1805,) when the 
Gregorian mode of computation was re- 
stored. 

CALENDS, Calends, in the Ro- 
man chronology, denoted the first days in 
each month. The Romans reckoned 
their calends backwards, or in a retro- 
grade order; thus, the 1st of May, for 



CAL 



180 



CAL 



instance, being the calends of May, the 
last, or 30th of April, was the pridie 
calendarum, of end of the calends of 
May ; in like manner the 29th of April 
was the 3id of the calends of May, 
and so on back to the 13th, when the 
ides commenced ; which were likewise 
numbered backwards to the 5th, when 
the nones began ; and these were likewise 
reckoned backwards in the same manner 
to the 1st day of the month, which was the 
calends of April. To find the day of 
the calends answering to any day of the 
month, the nile is as follows : — Subtract 
two from the date, and subtract the re- 
mainder from the number of days the 
month contains ; this last remainder 
will be the number of or before the 
calends. 

CALIBER instrument invented at 
Nuremhurg, 1540. 

CALICO first imported by the East 
India Company, 1631. Printing, and the 
Dutch loom engine first used in JEngland, 
1676. Prohibited from being printed 
or worn, 1700 — 21. First made in Lan- 
cashire, 1772. See Cotton. 

CALICUT, an ancient Hindoo king- 
dom, ceded to the British in 1792. From 
this port the first vessel was freighted 
with Indian produce and manufactures 
for England, by Vasco de Gama, in 1498. 

CALIFORNIA. This peninsula was 
probably first discovered by Sir Francis 
Drake, 1577, and by him called New 
Albion. The Jesuits made their first 
establishment here in 1742. 

CALIGULA, Caius C^sar, the 
fourth Roman emperor, began his reign 
in 37- After having murdered many of 
his subjects with his own hand, and 
caused others to be put to death without 
any just cause, he was assassinated by a 
tribune of the people as he came out of 
the amphitheatre 41, in the 29th year of 
his age, and the fourth of his reign. 

CALIPPUS, cycle of, commenced 
A.c. 330. 

CALLIMACHUS, the inventor of the 
Corinthian order of architecture, flou- 
rished A.c 540. 

CALLIMACHUS, the author of 
" Greek Hymns and Epigrams," flou- 
rished A.c. 300. 

CALLIMACHUS, the inventor of 
wildfire, died ad. 670. 

CALLISTHENES, the philosopher, 
flourished A.c. 333. 

CALMAR, union of, between Den- 
mark, Sweden, and Norway, 1 397 ; the 



league dissolved, 1448. The town was 
nearly annihilated by a fire in 1800; the 
public buildings, including the maga- 
zine, academy, and 200 houses, were 
totally destroyed. 

CALMET, Augustine, the cele- 
brated commentator on the Bible, born 
at Mesnil le Horgne, a village in the 
diocese of Toul, in France, in the year 
1672, and took the habit of the Bene- 
dictines in 1688. In 1704 he settled as 
sub-prior in the abbey of Munster, in 
Alsace. After a long course of literary 
labour, he died, highly esteemed, in 
1757. Among the many works he pub- 
lished are, — 1. A Literal Exposition in 
French, of all the' books in the Old Tes- 
tament, in nine volumes folio. 2. An 
Historical, Critical, Chronological, Geo- 
graphical, and Literal Dictionary of the 
Bible, in four volumes folio, enriched 
with a great number of figures of Jewish 
antiquities. 3. A Civil and Ecclesiasti- 
cal History of Lorraine, three volumes 
folio. 4. A History of the Old and New 
Testament, and of the Jews, in two vo- 
lumes folio, and seven volumes duode- 
cimo. 5. An Universal Sacred and Pro- 
fane History, in several volumes, quarto. 
A new and valuable edition of his Dic- 
tionary, with considerable retrench- 
ments and additions, and a new set of 
plates, under the direction of Mr. C. 
Taylor, appeared in London in 1797, &c. 

CaLMUCS, a people and country of 
central Asia. Piior to the time of 
Genghis Khan a part of this people made 
an expedition towards the west, as far 
as Asia Minor, and being lost amongst 
the CaucasianMountains, never returned. 
In the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- 
turies the Soongar Calmucs subdued 
the other tribes, and made a desperate 
war upon the Chinese ; but this ter- 
minated in the dispersion and ruin of 
the whole tribe. In 1759, about 2,000 
families of the Choschot tribe settled on 
the banks of the Wolga, and submitted 
voluntarily to the Russian monarch. 

CALONNE, Charles Alexandre 
DE, minister to Louis XVI., died Octo- 
ber 30, 1802, aged 68. 

CALORIC Engine, by which, the 
heat required to give motion to the en- 
gine at the commencement of its opera- 
tion is returned, and made to act over 
and over again ; by which application of 
heat an almost unlimited quantity of 
mechanical power may be obtained ; in- 
vented, 1833. 



CAM 

CALPEE, or Kalpee, town, Hin- 
doostan, in the province of Agra. In 
1203 the Mahommedans overran this 
country; and in this district occurred 
the first engagement between the British 
and Mahrattas in 1765. The Calpee 
chief having joined the enemies of the 
British in 1804, his fort and territory at 
Calpee were immediately occupied by 
the latter, but were subsequently restored 
to him, with the exception of the fort of 
Calpee. In 1806 he exchanged the 
whole of his chieftainships with the Bri- 
tish for an equivalent in Bundelcund. 

CALSHOT Castle, Hampshire, 
built in 1540. 

CALTHORPE Street (Cold Bath 
Fields) riot, 1833. 

CALVI, in Corsica, surrendered to 
the British forces, after a siege of fifty- 
nine days, AugustlO, 1794. 

CALVIN, John, the eminent refor- 
mer, and founder of the sect since called 
Calvinists, was born at Noyon, in Pi- 
card}', in 1509. The persecution against 
the protestants in France (with whom he 
was now associated) obliged him to re- 
tire to Basle, in Switzerland, where he 
published his famous " Institutes of the 
Christian Religion," in 1535. In 1537 
he obliged all the people solemnly to 
ewear to a body of doctrines which he 
had framed. He arrived at Geneva, 
September 13, 1541, and established a 
form cf ecclesiastical discipline, and a 
consistorial jurisdiction. He died May 
27, 1564, in the 55th year of his age. 
Although he had his failings, which 
were chiefly those of a dogmatical and 
irritable temper, the general and just 
opinion of him is, that he was "a man 
whose extensive genius, flowing elo- 
quence, immense learning, extraordinary 
penetration, indefatigable industry, and 
fervent piety, placed him at the head of 
all the reformers." All his treatises 
were collected in 1560, in nine volumes 
folio. 

CALVINISM originally subsisted in 
its greatest purity in the city of Geneva, 
and, from thence, it was first propagated 
into Germany, France, the United Pro- 
vinces, and England. In France it was 
abolished by the revocation of the edict 
of Nantz in 1685. It has been the pre- 
vailing religion in the United Provinces 
ever since the year 1571- 

CAMBODIA, a country of India be- 
yond the Ganges, extending from Cape 
St. James in the China sea, to near the 



181 CAM 

same parallel in the Gulf of Siam. In 
1590, the king of Cambodia sent a mis- 
sion to the governor of the Phillippines, 
begging his assistance against the king 
of Siam. This country is now divided 
into three parts : one tributary to Siam, 
another to Cochin Chma, and a third 
independent. In 1819, the king of 
Cochin China interdicted to foreigners 
all direct commerce with his poYtion of 
Cambodia. Shortly after this, the Ame- 
ricans despatched some vessels to make 
their way up the Douay River, which 
falls into a bay close to Cape St. Jacques, 
and is a branch of the great river Cam- 
bodia. One of these, named the Frank- 
lin, was commanded by Captain White, 
who published a history of this voyage in 
the year 1823. Captain White describes 
the natives as being in a state of deplor- 
able barbarism, but their country is little 
known. 

CAMBRAY, town of France, in the 
early ages, successively the capital of the 
kingdom of the Nervii, of Belgic Gaul, 
and of the kingdom of the Franks. Since 
the sixteenth century it has been the 
see of an archbishop, and is celebrated 
as the residence of Fenelon, the author 
of Telemachus, who once filled that 
dignity. See Fenelon. 

Cambray is memorable in history as 
the scene of various important negotia- 
tions, and, as a frontier town of consi- 
derable strength, was subjected to nu- 
merous sieges. Near it are the remains 
of a Roman entrenchment, to which the 
French retired after their reverses in 
1793. On April 23, 1794, they received 
a check at the same place by the allied 
army under the late duke of York. It 
was taken by the English, under general 
Sir Charles Colville, June 24, 1815. 
The citadel surrendered the next day, 
and was occupied by Louis XVII I. and 
his court from Ghent. 

CAM BRICKS from France prohibited, 
1745; totally, 1758; re-admitted, 1786. 
CAMBRIDGE, esteemed the site of 
the Roman Granta, in the year 1010, was 
burnt and plundered by the Danes, 
Henry I., in 1101, made it a corporation 
on payment to the exchequer of 100 
marks annually. In 1174, nearly the 
whole of the town was consumed by a 
fire " so merciless," says Fuller, " that 
it only stopt for want of fuel to feed its 
fury." Richard the Second, summoned 
a parliament here in 1383. In 1630, it 
was visited by a dreadful plague, which 



CAM 



182 



CAM 



occasioned the business of the University 
to be suspended. The town was first 
paved in the reign of Henry VIII., who, 
in his 36th year, about 1544, caused it 
to be enacted by Parhament, that all per- 
sons who had any houses, lands, &c., in 
Cambridge, bordering on the highways, 
should pave them to the middle of the 
said ways. In 1787, an act passed "for 
the better paving, cleansing, and lighting 
the town, and widening the streets, lanes, 
and other passages." Many improve- 
ments in each of these respects have 
since been eflfected. See the next 

ATtlClG 

CAMBRIDGE, University of, first 
rendered a seat of learning by Sigebert, 
king of East Angba, who instituted a 
school for the instruction of youth in the 
year 631. Edward the Elder, erected 
halls for the teachers. In 1534, the 
university renounced the supremacy of 
the Pope, and, in 1535, resigned all its 
statutes, charters, and muniments to the 
king, who, soon after restored them 
and reinstated the university in its pri- 
vileges. James I. granted the university 
the privilege of sending two members to 
parliament in 1604. In consequence of 
the part taken by the university in favour 
of Charles I. against the parliament, 
every member who refused the covenant 
was expelled, most of whom were rein- 
stated at the Restoration. 

The thirteen colleges of Cambridge 
are, 1. St. Peter's, founded in 1257. 

2. Corpus Christi, established in 1344. 

3. Gonville, or Caius college, founded 
in 1348. 4. King's college, founded by 
Henry IV. in 1441, the chapel of which 
is considered one of the most beautiful 
specimens of architecture in the king- 
dom. 5. Queen's college, founded in 
1448. 6. Jesus college, founded in 1 495. 

7. Christ's college, founded in 1505. 

8. St. John's, founded in 1509. 9. Mag- 
dalen, founded in 1519- 10. Trinity 
college, the richest and most extensive 
of the whole, founded in 1546. 11. Ema- 
nuel college, established in 1584. 12. Sus- 
sex college, founded in 1598. 13. Dow- 
ning college, of recent erection, pursuant 
to the will of Sir George Downing, in 
1749 ; the first stone was laid in 1807, 
and, in 1821, the students were first ad- 
mitted ; the expense of the buildings is 
estimated at £60,000. 

Chancellors since the Revolution. — 
Charles Seymour, duke of Somerset, 
installed in 1688. Thomas Holies Pel- 



ham, duke of Newcastle, 1748. Augus- 
tus Fitzroy, duke of Grafton, 1768. 
Duke of Gloucester, June 29, 1811. 
Marquis Camden, 1834. July 4, the 
usual ceremonies commenced on the in- 
stallation of the Marquis Camden as 
chancellor. A great many distinguished 
individuals were present ; among others. 
Prince Pozzo di Borgo, the Dukes of 
Cumberland, Wellington, and Grafton, 
the Archbishop of Canterbury, Lords 
Lyndhurst, Abinger, &c. &c. 

CAMBRIDGE, University of. New 
England, projected in 1630. 

CAMBRIDGE CASTLE,built 1068. 
CAMBYSES, king of Persia, over- 
ran Egypt, A. c. 525. 

CAMDEN, William, the celebrated 
antiquarian and historian, born in Lon- 
don, 1551. Entered as serAdtor of Mag- 
dalen college, Oxford, in 1566. About 
two years after, he removed to Christ- 
Church. In 1571, came to London, 
where he prosecuted his favourite study 
of antiquity, and was made second mas- 
ter of Westminster-school in 1575. From 
the time of his leaving the university to 
this period, he took several journeys to 
different parts of England, to make ob- 
servations and collect materials for his 
Britannia, the first edition of which he 
pubhshed in 1586. In 1593, he suc- 
ceeded Dr. Grant in the head-mastership 
of Westminster- school. In this oflSce 
he continued till 1597, when he was 
promoted to be Clarencieux knight-at- 
arms. In I6l7, his work on the history 
of the reign of Queen Elizabeth was 
finished. He died at Chislehurst in 
1623, in the 73rd year of his age. 

CAMDEN, Earl, chancellor of Eng- 
land, died in 1794. 

CAMELEON, revenue cutter, was 
run down, in the day-time, off Dover, by 
the Castor frigate, and only five persons 
were saved out of nineteen on board the 
cutter. The officers of the frigate were 
brought before a court-martial, and the 
lieutenant of the watch was sentenced to 
be dismissed his Majesty's service, Au- 
gust 27, 1834. 

CAMERA Obscura. The first in- 
vention ascribed to Baptista Porta. See 
his Magia Naturalis, lib. xvii. cap 6., 
first published at Frankfort about the 
year 1589, or 1591. The first four books 
of his work were published at Antwerp, 
in 1560. But Dr. Freind, in his " His- 
tory of Physic*' (vol ii. p. 236), observes, 
that Friar Bacon, who flourished in tlie 



CAM 



183 



CAM 



beginning of the thirteenth century, de- 
scribes the camera obscura, and all sorts 
of glasses which magnify or diminish any 
object, bring it nearer to the eye, or re- 
move it farther off. Various improve- 
ments, particularly by the introduction 
of a double convex lens, were made in 
the year 1758 ; noticed by Mr. Hooper, in 
his " Rational Recreations," vol.ii. p. 29. 

CAMERA LuciDA, invented by Dr. 
Hook, in the eighteenth century, for 
making the image of any thing appear 
on a wall in a light room, either by day 
or night. 

1839. A Report was received from 
the academy at Paris, January 7, on 
a new invention of M. Daguerre, by 
which the pictures of the camera lucida 
are rendered permanent. See Da- 

GUERRETYPE. 

CAMERON, Mary, a remarkable 
instance of longevity, died at Inverness, 
May 1783, aged 130. 

CAMERONIANS, a sect in Scotland, 
who separated from the presbyterians in 
1666, took their denomination from Ri- 
chard Cameron, a famous field preacher, 
who refusing to accept the indulgence 
to tender consciences granted by king 
Charles II., made a defection from his 
brethren, and even headed a rebellion, 
in which he was killed. The Camero- 
nians adhered rigidly to the form of go- 
vernment established in 1648. 

CAMERONIANS, also the denomi- 
nation of a party of Calvinists in France, 
who asserted that the cause of men's 
doing good or evil proceeds from the 
knowledge which God infuses into them. 
They had this name from John Cameron, 
one of the most famous divines amongst 
the protestants of France, born about 
the year 1580. 

CAMILLUS, the Roman dictator and 
general, took Veil a.c. 396 ; forced the 
Volsci to surrender, a.c. 386 ; defeated 
the Gauls in Albania, a.c. 367; died, 
A.c. 365. 

CAMOENS, Lewis de, a Portu- 
guese poet, author of the " Lusiad," was 
descended of an ancient family of Gali- 
cia, in Spain, under the name Caamans, 
but changed to Camoens in 1370, when 
a branch of the family left Spain and at- 
tached itself to the king of Portugal. 
Camoens, the poet, sprang from a young- 
er branch of this family, which had been 
unfortunate, his father having suffered 
shipwreck at Goa, with the loss bf his 
whole property. He was born, some 



say, in 1517 ; or, according to others, in 
1526. Disgusted with an inactive life, 
he went to sea in 1553. During a resi- 
dence of five years at Macao, he finished 
his " Lusiad," which he had begun some 
years before in Portugal. He arrived in 
Lisbon in 1569, after an absence of six- 
teen years, and published his " Lusiad" 
in 1572. This poem, which caijie to a 
second edition in the same year, was de- 
dicated to king Sebastian, who, it is said, 
allowed him a small pension of 4,000 
reals, on condition of his living at court. 
He died in poverty in 1579. Some years 
afterwards a respectable monument was 
erected over his remains, at the expense 
of a Portuguese nobleman. His memory 
was honoured by numerous eulogies 
from the poets of Spain and Portugal, 
and the name of Camoens is still 
pronounced with enthusiastic venera- 
tion by all the votaries of Portuguese 
literature. 

CAMPBELL, Dr. John, an mgeni- 
ous writer, born at Edinburgh in 1708. 
He was engaged as chief contributor to 
the " Biographia Britannica," the pub- 
lication of which commenced in 1745. 
Also to the " Modern Universal His- 
tory," to which he contributed the his- 
tories of the Portuguese, Dutch, Spa- 
nish, French, Swedish, Danish, and Os- 
tend settlements in the East Indies ; and 
the histories of the kingdoms of Spain, 
Portugal, Algarve, Navarre, and that of 
France, from Clovis, to the year 1656. 
He was appointed, in 1765, his majes- 
ty's agent for the province of Georgia, 
in North America, which employment 
he held till his decease, which happened 
December 28, 1775, aged 68. 

CAMPBELL, George, an eminent 
metaphysician, divine, and biblical cri- 
tic, born at Aberdeen, December 25, 
1719. In 1759 he was presented by his 
majesty to the office of principal of Ma- 
rischal college. In 1763 he published 
his celebrated "Dissertation on Mira- 
cles," in answer to Mr. Hume's essay 
on this subject, and thus deservedly 
gained the reputation of a most acute 
metaphysician, and a well-bred polemi- 
cal writer. He died March 31, 1796. 
His character is thus summed up in a 
few sentences by his biographer, Mr. 
Keith. " His imagination was lively 
and fertile, his understanding equally 
acute and vigorous, and his eruditioa 
was at once very deep and wonderfully 
diversified. His piety was unfeigned. 



CAN 



184 



C A N 



his moral* unimpeached, his temper 
cheerful, and his manners gentle and 
unassuming.'' His different publica- 
tions, besides the Dissertation on Mira- 
cles, are as follows. In 1771, sermon 
on the Spirit of the Gospel. 1776, Phi- 
losophy of Rhetoric. 1776, a sermon 
on the National Fast. 1777. sermon on 
the success of the first publishers of the 
Gospel. 1779, an address to the people 
of Scotland on the alarms which had 
been raised by the bill in favour of the 
Roman Catholics. His last work was 
his "Translation of the Four Gospels, 
with preliminary Dissertations and ex- 
planatory Notes," in two quarto volumes. 
CAMPERNILE of St. Mano at Ve- 
nice, built 1134. 

CAMPO FoRMio, treaty of, October 
17, 1797, between France and Austria, 
the latter power yielding the Low Coun- 
tries and the Ionian Islands to France, 
and Milan, Mantua, and Modena, to the 
Cisalpine republic. 

CANAAN cursed by Noah, a. c. 2341. 
CANADA, discovery of the coast of, 
according to the most authentic state- 
ments, was made by the Cabots; who, 
having visited Newfoundland in 1497, 
coasted the continent of North America 
as far north as latitude 67° 50'. John 
Verrazani, a Frenchman, took possession 
of it in the name of his sovereign, Fran- 
cis I., about 1520, and called it la Nou- 
velle France. In 1540, Cartier succeed- 
ed in forming a settlement at St. Croix's 
harbour. After his death it was neglected, 
till Henry IV. of France ordered it to 
be divided into seigniories and fiefs, to 
be held under feudal tenure, and a com- 
pensation for military service when re- 
quired. Such was the origin of the Ca- 
nadian seigneurs. In 1576, Martin Fro- 
bisher discovered Elizabeth's Foreland, 
and the Straits which bear his name. In 
1578 Frobisher again sailed for the Ame- 
rican continent, with fifteen ships, in 
search of gold, to the ruin of many ad- 
venturers, who received nothing but 
mica, instead of gold ore. Quebec, the 
capital of the future New France, was 
founded January 3, 1608. The Indian 
tribes contiguous to the new settlement 
obtained the aid of the French; Champ- 
ain taught them the use of firearms, 
and hence began the ruinous wars which 
have ended in the nearly total extermina- 
tion of the Indians of the North Ameri- 
can continent. 

1627. The commerce of Canada was 



transferred to a powerful association, 
called the Company of a Hundred Part- 
ners, under the special management of 
the celebrated cardinal Richelieu. In 
1628 a squadron of English vessels, un- 
der the command of David Kertk, a 
French refugee, visited Tadoussac. Met 
M. de Roquemont, one of the Hundred 
Partners, commanding a squadron of 
vessels -freighted with emigi'ant families, 
and all kmds of provisions. Roquemont 
was provoked to a battle, and lost the 
whole of his fleet, provisions, &c. Kertk 
afterwards captured Quebec ; but at the 
peace of 1632 that city, Acadia (Nova 
Scotia), and Isle Royal (Cape Breton), 
were all ceded to France. From this pe- 
riod to the final British conquest in 
1760, a growing hostility took place be- 
tween the French and Enghsh settlers in 
North America. 

1663. The proceedings of the com- 
pany became so obnoxious that the king 
of France decided upon erecting Ca- 
nada into a royal government. The 
French West India Company was re- 
modelled, and Canada subsequently 
added to their possessions, and in I666, 
the royal arret of the council of state 
granted to the Canadians the trade 
in furs. 

1674. The king of France resumed 
his rights to all territories ceded to the 
West India Company, and appointed a 
governor, council, and judges, for the 
direction of the Canadian colonies. 
The French settlement in Canada ra- 
pidly progressed, and as it rose in 
power, and assumed offensive operations 
on the New England frontier, the jea- 
lousy of the British colonies was roused, 
and both parties, aided alternately by 
the Indians, carried on a destructive and 
harrassing border warfare. 

1690. The French sent a strong force 
who massacred the greater part of the 
Indians of Skenectadaj', This had the 
effect of inducing the Iroquois and other 
nations to become more closely attached 
to the English. The French pushed on 
their outposts by means of the fur tra- 
ders ; but while preparing to take the 
field, the news of the treaty of peace be- 
tween France and England arrived. 

1702. The renewal of the war be- 
tween great Britain and France, led to 
hostilities in America. Under several 
French governors, the warfare was con- 
tinued till the year 1755, when the ad- 
ministration of the Marquis de Van- 



CAN 



185 



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dreuil de Cavagnal was auspiciously 
opened by the defeat of the brave but 
rash general Braddock, in one of the 
defiles of the Aleghany mountains. The 
campaign was closed in October by the 
British retiring to Albany. ITie cam- 
paign of 1759, opened with a plan of 
combined operations by sea and land 
against Canada, and the capture of Que- 
bec, decided the fate of the French do- 
minions in Canada. See Quebec. 

1775. The American forces invaded 
Canada by Lake Champlain, and from 
the sources of the Kennebec river. 
Montreal, Chambly, St. John's, Lon- 
gueuil, and other important posts soon 
fell into their hands. The Canadians 
exerted themselves to preserve Canada 
for England, and with success, the Ame- 
ricans being obliged to evacuate the pro- 
vince. From this period (1776) to 1812, 
Canada remained free from a foreign 
enemy, and rapidly rose in population 
and prosperity. 

1791. The territory was divided into 
the two governments of Upper and 
Lower. The boundary between the 
provinces commenced at Pointe au Bau- 
det, on Lake St. Francis, about 55 miles 
above Montreal, running northerly to 
the Ottawa river, up that river to its 
source in Lake Temiscaming, and thence 
due N. to the Hudson's Bay boundary. 

Origin of the Canadian War. 
Since the year 1791, by the 31st Geo. 
IIL cap 13, each province had a deputy- 
governor, a legislative council, and a 
house of assembly. An intelligent Bri- 
tish traveller, speaking of the house of 
assembly, says : *' The events of the 
last war gave ample opportunity for a 
display of popular feeling in the acts of 
this assembly. The Canadians have 
shown, both during the war with Ame- 
rica, and since its termination, that they 
have appreciated the value, and imbibed 
the spirit of the constitution which Bri- 
tain has bestowed upon them." The 
house of assembly consisted almost en- 
tirely of French Canadians. The legis- 
lative council was composed chiefly of 
British colonists. Jealousies between 
the two bodies existed almost from the 
first ; and they have been repeatedly at 
open variance. Under the judicious 
administration of Sir John Sherbrooke, 
much was done to allay party feeling 
and remove irritation. Under the go- 
vernment of the late duke of Richmond 
differences between the two houses 



first arose respecting the voting of the 
supplies. On his death Lord Dalhousie 
succeeded, who appeared to have had 
recourse to vigorous measures. 

The house of assembly having (Nov. 
20, 1827,) elected, as a speaker, the 
notorious agitator Papineau, his lord- 
ship refused to sanction the appoint- 
ment, and, on the 22nd, prorogued the 
assembly. The excitement produced 
was extreme ; and the late contest may 
be traced to this event. 

1834. Tumults commenced in Lower 
Canada, Feb. 15, in consequence of the 
unpopularity of the legislative council, 
which the home government had de- 
clined to alter according to the wishes 
of many of the colonists. Seventy re- 
solutions were this day proposed in the 
legislative assembly, strongly condem- 
natory of the conduct of the governor 
(Lord Aylmer,) and of the despatches 
of Mr. Stanley, the language of which 
was characterised as " insulting and in* 
considerate." Articles of impeachment 
against Lord Aylmer were afterwards 
added to the above ; and a vote to mode- 
rate their warmth was negatived by a ma- 
jority of 52 to 19. 

1835. Earl Gosford, having been ap- 
pointed go vernor-in -chief of Canada^ 
and head of the commission sent out by 
the British government to investigate, 
and endeavour to redress, the grie- 
vances complained of by the Canadians, 
opened the parliament of Lower Canada 
Feb. 27, by a speech addressed to the 
two houses, in which he assured the 
members of his anxiety and determina- 
tion to effect, if possible, a satisfactory 
termination to their differences. 

1837. Lord John Russell, March 6, 
brought forward a series of resolutions 
respecting Lower Canada, rendered ne- 
cessary, he said, by the discontented and 
agitated state of the province, and the 
refusal of the colonial legislature to vote 
the supplies of money requisite for carry- 
ing on the government. One of the 
resolutions declared it to be unadvisable 
that the legislative council of Lower 
Canada should be an elective body. 

Aug. 18. An extraordinary session of 
the parliament of Lower Canada was 
opened by the earl of Gosford, the go- 
vernor-in-chief. In this speech, allu- 
sion was made to the resolutions re- 
specting Canada, which had been passed 
by the British legislation. The assem- 
bly was soon after dissolved by lord 

2 B 



CAN 



186 



CAN 



Gosford, on account of its refusing to 
accede to the measures proposed. 

The law officers having applied to Sir 
John Colborne, commander of the forces 
in Lower Canada for a militar)- force to 
assist the civil power in apprehending 
Papineau and some of his adherents, 
hostilities commenced at the close of 
the month of November by the capture 
of the villages of St. Denis and St. 
Charles, where the insurgents had taken 
up strong positions. Dec. 14, the Ca- 
nadian insurgents came to an engage- 
ment with the royalists at Eustace, 
Lower Canada; were beaten from their 
entrenchments, and dispersed. The in- 
surgents next day laid down their arms, 
their chiefs saving themselves by flight. 
During the same year, the revolt broke 
out also in Upper Canada. But the 
queen's troops were every where suc- 
cessful, and strong hopes were enter- 
tained that the insurrection would soon 
be completely put down. 

1838. The insurgents of Upper Ca- 
nada, under the command of JDr. Mac- 
kenzie, surrounded Toronto, Jan. 5, 
but were repulsed from the town by the 
governor. Sir Francis Head. Procla- 
mation was issued by the president of 
the United States of America against the 
citizens who had taken, or might take, 
arms in favour of the insurgents of Ca- 
nada ; and message to the senate on the 
subject of a revision of laws, to pre- 
vent the attacks on neighbouring nations 
by the citizens of the United States. 

Jan. 16. The Right Hon. John George 
Earl of Durham was appointed gover- 
nor-general, &c., of her Majesty's 
provinces within and adjacent to the 
continent of North America, and also 
" High Commissioner for the adjust- 
ment of certain important affairs affect- 
ing the provinces of Upper and Lower 
Canada." His instructions were to as- 
certain the wishes of the people of both 
the provinces in regard to some legis- 
lative measure of a comprehensive 
nature for the permanent adjustment of 
the grievances. He was empowered to 
select three members from the legislative 
council of Upper Canada, the House 
of Assembly also to nominate ten of its 
members, to form a committee. And 
during the suspension of the legisla- 
ture, in Lower Canada, to select three 
members of the body at present com- 
posing the legislative council, and to 
take measures for calling on the electors 



in each of the five districts into which 
Lower Canada is now divided, to elect 
the persons to sit on the committee. 

Feb. 10. The act 1 Victoria, c. 9, 
passed to make temporary provision for 
the government of Lower Canada, sus- 
pends the powers of the present legis- 
lature of Lower Canada ; and empowers 
her majesty to appoint a special council 
for the affairs of Lower Canada ; who 
are to take the same oath as is now re- 
quired to be taken by the members of 
the legislative council and assembly 
The governor and council may make 
laws or ordinances for the government 
of Lower Canada ; but such laws must 
first be proposed by the governor, and 
none shall last beyond Nov. I, 1842. 
This act was amended by 2 and 3 Vic. 
passed Aug. 17, 1839, which permits 
the council to impose taxes, but they 
must be for public works and objects of 
municipal government, and must not be 
appropriated by the government. It 
also repeals the provision prohibiting 
the alteration of acts of parliament ; but 
no laws shall be made affecting the tem- 
poral or spiritual rights of ecclesiastics, 
or the law of tenure. 

Oct. 9- Lord Durham issued a docu- 
ment on the occasion of proclaiming 
the indemnity act passed during the 
last session, in which he justified the 
policy pursued by him since his arrival 
in Canada, and announced his determi- 
nation of resigning his government. 

1839. The spirit of rebellion again 
manifested itself in Beauharnais, Lower 
Canada. Sir John Colborne, in his de- 
spatch of Nov. 11, says, "The habitans 
generally, of Beauharraais, La Prairie, and 
L'Acadie, were in arms on the night of 
the 23rd ult. and attacked all the loyal 
subjects residing in their neighbour- 
hood, and either drove them from their 
homes or made them prisoners. At Beau- 
harnais, Chateauquay, and Napierville, 
the rebels assembled in great numbers ; 
about 4,000 of them were concentrated 
at Napierville, under the command of 
Dr. Robert Nelson, Dr. Cote, and Gug- 
non, between the 3rd and 6th inst." 
The governor having despatched some 
troops to that quarter, the rebels dis- 
persed ; but collecting again, 900 of 
them attacked Odel town, but were re- 
pulsed with some loss by the volunteers 
stationed there. A detachment of troops 
was also sent to Beauharnais, and some 
companies to other disturbed parts. 



CAN 



187 



CAN 



where some skirmishing took place. 
The loss of the loyalists was not severe 
but several of the rebels were killed and 
wounded, and many hundred prisoners 
were taken by the queen's troops. 

About the same time, some bands of 
persons disaflFected to the government, 
aided by a number of American citizens, 
having assembled on the borders of 
Upper Canada, Sir George Arthur issued 
a proclamation, calling upon the in- 
habitants to assist him in the steps he 
had taken to repress their outrages, 
which was promptly responded to, and 
the rebels and invaders ultimately sup- 
pressed. 

October. Despatches from Canada, 
announced the total suppression of the 
rebellion. The insurgents having mus- 
tered in considerable numbers at Wind- 
mill Point, near Prescott, in Upper 
Canada, were attacked by the troops 
under the command of Major Young, 
and (on the following day) by lieu- 
tenant-colonel Dundas, who, after an 
obstinate resistance, succeeded in dis- 
persing the rebels, several of whom 
were killed, and many taken prisoners ; 
the troops, however, also suffered con- 
siderably. After the attack of lieu- 
tenant-colonel Dundas, the remainder 
of the rebels surrendered. In these en- 
gagements they were aided by Ameri- 
cans of the United States, who invaded 
the Canadian territory in great numbers, 
and appear to have been the principal 
instigators of the outrages committed 
upon the peaceable inhabitants. When 
the news reached New York, a strongly 
worded ])roclamation, was however, 
issued by the president, condemnatory 
of such actions, and holding out to the 
invaders no hopes of assistance on the 
part of their government. In Lower 
Canada, no further tumults of import- 
ance occurred, and the rebellion was con- 
sidered at an end in both the Cana- 
das. 

Oct. 18. The arrival at Quebec and in- 
stallation of the new governor-general, 
Mr. Poulett Thompson, took place. He 
issued a proclamation calling on the 
inhabitants to assist in the preservation 
of peace and amity. 

Dec. 20. The union of the two pro- 
vinces, agreeably to resolutions of the 
British government, was carried in the 
legislative council by a majority of 
seven. 

CANALS. Navigable canals were 



known to the ancients. From the most 
early accounts we read of attempts to 
cut through large isthmuses, in order to 
make a communication by water, either 
betwixt different nations, or distant 
parts of the same nation. The inhabi- 
tants of Babj'lon or Chaldsea guarded 
against the detrimental inundations of 
the Tigris and Euphrates by a great 
number of artificial rivers and canals. 
A large and navigable canal cut from 
the Euphrates, about Babylon, to the 
Tigris at Apamea, 60 miles below Seleu- 
cia, was called Naarmalcha. From the 
Naarmalcha, the emperors Trajan and 
Severus, in their wars with the Parthians, 
dug a new canal to the Tigris, near 
Coche on the west, and Ctesiphon on the 
east side of the river. At the distance 
of 800 furlongs from Babylon, to the 
south, was another canal, called by 
Arrian, Pallacotta, derived from the 
branch of the Euphrates that passed 
through Babylon, and conveyed water 
to certain lakes or marches in Chaldaea. 
On this canal or river, as Arrian calls it, 
Alexander sailed from the Euphrates to 
these lakes. 

Canals of Egypt. Of aU ancient 
countries, Egypt was the most distin- 
guished by its numerous canals, which, 
according to Savary, amounted to 80, 
several of which are 20, 30, and 40 
leagues in length. These served to 
receive and distribute the waters of the 
Nile, at the time of its inundation. 
Most of these are neglected, and, con- 
sequently, one-half of Egypt deprived 
of the means of its cultivation. 

The Alexandrian Cajial was the prin- 
cipal of these, by which a commu- 
nication was made between the Nile and 
the Red Sea. This was beg\m, accord- 
ing to Herodotus by Necos, the son of 
Psammitichus. It was resumed and 
carried on by Darius, son of Hystaspes, 
who relinquished the work on the re- 
presentation made to him by unskilful 
engineers, that the Red Sea being higher 
than the land of Egypt, would over- 
whelm and drown the whole country. 
Ptolemy II. finished the undertaking, 
and constructed, in the most convenient 
part of the canal, a dam, or sluice, in- 
geniously contrived, which opened to 
give passage, and immediately closed 
again. Hence the river which dis- 
charges itself into the sea, near the city 
of Arsinoe, has received the name of 
Ptolemy. By means of this canal, about 



CAN 



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the commencement of the christian era, 
the valuable commodities of India, 
Persia, Arabia, and the kingdoms on 
the coast of Africa, which were brought 
by shipping to the Red Sea, were con- 
veyed to the Nile ; and thence distri- 
buted by the Mediterranean, not only 
to Greece and Rome, but to all the sur- 
rounding nations, until the Portuguese 
discovered a passage to India, by the 
Cape of Good Hope. This canal was 
disused, and goods were conveyed from 
Berenice to the Nile by land, till it was 
again opened about 635, by Amru, 
governor or prefect of Egypt under the 
caliph Omar, for the conveyance of 
the corn from Egypt to Arabia, which 
was then grievously distressed by 
a famine. The Alexandrian Canal was 
stopped again, at the end next the 
Red Sea, by the caliph Abu Jaafer, or 
Almansor, a. h. 150, a.d. 767. Some 
traces of this canal are still subsisting; 
and M. Boutier, in 1703, discovered 
that end of it, which rises out of the 
most easterly branch of the Nile. This 
communication after being shut up some 
centuries, was re-opened in 1 8 1 9, by Ma- 
hommed Ali, who dug a canal from 
Alexandria to Fouah, on the Nile, about 
27 miles above Rosetta. This important 
work is 48 miles in length, 90 feet in 
breadth, and from 15 to 18 feet deep. 
100,000 labourers were set to work upon 
it in January, 1819, who were subse- 
quently increased to more than double 
that number. It was completed by 
European engineers in 1821. 

In China, canals have existed from a 
very early period, but the dates of their 
construction are not known. The most 
celebrated amongst them is, the Imperial 
or Grand Canal, forming a communica- 
tion between Pekin and Canton, said to 
be about 1,660 miles long. This in- 
cludes the various rivers which really 
form the greater part of the navigation, 
the excavated portion being of compa- 
ratively limited dimensions. The canal 
is said not to have, at any time, more 
than from 5 to 6 feet water ; and in 
dry seasons, its depth is frequently 
reduced to 3 feet. 

The Italians were the first people 
in modern Europe that attempted to 
plan and execute canals. They were 
principally undertaken for the purpose of 
irrigation j and the works of this sort 
executed in the Milanese and other parts 
of Lombardy, in the 11th, 12th, and 
13.th centuries, are still regarded as 



models. In 1271, tbe Navilio Grande, 
or canal leading from Milan to Abbiate 
Grasso and the Tcsino, was rendered 
navigable. 

The construction of canals in the 
Netherlands commenced as early as 
the twelfth century, when, owing to its 
central and convenient situation, Flan- 
ders began to be the entrep6t of the 
commerce between the north and south 
of Europe. Their number has since 
been astonishingly increased. The canal 
from Amsterdam to Nievvdiep, near the 
Helder, is the greatest work of its kind 
in Holland, and probably in the world; 
it is designed to afford a safe and easy 
passage for large vessels from Amster- 
dam to the German Ocean. The dis- 
tance between these extreme points is 
41 English miles, but the length of 
the canal is about 50^. The breadth of 
the surface of the water is 124^ English 
feet. The breadth at bottom 36 ; the 
depth 20 feet 9 inches. This canal was 
begun in 1819, and finished in 1825. 
The cost was estimated at about 
£1,000,000 sterling. The volume of 
water which it contains is twice as 
great as that of the New York canal, 
or the canal of Languedoc, and two and 
a half times as great as that of the 
artificial part of the Caledonian canal. 

The Holstein Canal, in Denmark, 
joins the river Eyder with Kiel Bay on 
the north-east coast of Holstein, form- 
ing a nnavigable communication be- 
tween the North Sea, a little to the 
north of Heligoland, and the Baltic ; 
enabling vessels to pass from the one to 
the other by a short cut of about 100 
miles, instead of the lengthened and dif- 
ficult voyage round Jutland, and through 
the Cattegat and the Sound. It is navig- 
able by vessels of 1 20 tons burden. The 
total cost of the canal was about 500,000Z. 
It was opened in 1785. During the five 
years ending with 1831, no fewer than 
2,786 vessels passed each year, at an 
average through the canal. 

Swedish Canals. An internal na- 
vigation connecting the Cattegat and 
the Baltic, was undertaken about the 
middle of the last century, by means of 
the river Gotha, and the lakes Wener, 
Wetter, &c., from Gottenburgh to So- 
derkoeping on the Baltic. The Gotha is 
navigable, through by far the greater 
part of its course, for vessels of con- 
siderable burden ; but the navigation at 
the point called Trcillhaetta is interrupt- 
ed by a series of cataracts about lli^ 



CAN 



189 



CAN 



feet in height. Polhem, a native engi- 
neer, undertook the Herculean task of 
constructing locks in the channel of the 
river, and rendering it navigable. Owing 
to the all but insuperable obstacles op- 
posed to such a plan, the works were 
wholly swept away. From this period, 
down to 1793, the undertaking was 
abandoned ; but in that year the plan 
was proposed, of cutting a lateral canal 
through the solid rock, about one mile 
and a half from the river. This new en- 
terprise was begun under the auspices 
of a company incorporated for the pur- 
pose in 1794, and was successfully com- 
pleted in 1800. The canal is about three 
miles in length, and has about six feet 
and a half of water. It has eight sluices 
and admits vessels of about 100 tons. 
In one part it is cut through the solid 
rock to the depth of 72 feet. The ex- 
pence was only about 80,000/. 

The navigation was afterwards extend- 
ed to Soderkceping. The lake Wener was 
joined to the lake Wetter by the Gotha 
canal, and the prolongation of the navi- 
gation to the Baltic from the Wetter, 
partly by two canals of equal magnitude 
with the above, and partly by lakes, is 
now about completed. The entire un- 
dertaking is called the Gotha Navigation 
and deservedly ranks among the very 
first of the kind in Europe. The canal 
of Arboga unites the lake Hielmar to 
the lake Maelar ; and since 1819, a canal 
has been constructed from the latter to 
the Baltic at Sodertelge. The canal of 
Stroemsholm, so called from its passing 
near the castle of that name, has effect- 
ed a navigable communication between 
the province of Dalecarlia and the lake 
Maelar, &c. 

The first canal executed in France, 
was that of Briare, 34^ English miles 
in length, intended to form a communi- 
cation between the Seine and Loire. It 
was commenced in 1605, in the reign of 
Henry IV., and completed in 1642, un- 
der his successor, Louis XIII. The 
canal of Orleans, which joins the above, 
was commenced in 1675. But the most 
stupendous undertaking of this sort that 
has been executed in France, or indeed 
on the Continent, is the canal of Lan- 

fuedoc. It was projected under Francis 
., begun and completed in the reign of 
Louis XIV. It reaches from Narbonne 
to Toulouse ; and was intended to form 
a communication between the Atlantic 
Ocean, and the Mediteranean. It is 



64 French leagues long, and six feet 
deep; and has, in all, 114 locks and 
sluices. In its highest part it is 600 
feet above the level of the sea. In some 
places it is conveyed by bridges of great 
length and strength, over large rivers. 
It cost upwards of 1,300,000Z. It .was 
planned and executed by Riquet the 
engineer, who advanced a fourth part of 
the entire sum laid out upon the canal, 
and had the tolls made over to him. 
At the revolution, most part of the pro- 
perty of the canal was confiscated ; but 
at the restoration of the Bourbons in 
1814, such parts of the confiscated pro- 
perty as had not been sold were restored 
to the successors of M. Riquet, who 
have the principal management of the 
canal. Besides this, France possesses 
several magnificent canals, such as that 
of the Cantre, connecting the Loire 
with the Saone, 72 English miles in 
length, completed in 1791- St. Quentin, 
28 English miles in length, completed 
in 1810. A canal joining the Rhone to 
to the Rhine 200 English miles, is 
in progress. The canal of Burgundy 
will when completed, be about 150 
English miles, in length : but at present 
it is only navigable to the distance of 
about 60 miles. It was opened July, 1834. 

The Prussian States are traversed 
by the great navigable rivers the Elbe, the 
Oder and the Vistula; the first having 
its embouchure in the North Sea, and 
the others in the Baltic. An internal na- 
vigation, that should join those great 
waterways, excited the attention of go- 
vernment at an early period ; and this 
object has been successfully accomplish- 
ed partly by the aid of the secondary 
rivers falling into the above, and partly 
by canals. In 1662, the canal of Muhl- 
rose was undertaken, uniting the Oder 
and the Spree. Frederick the Great 
constructed, towards the middle of the 
last century, the Finnow canal, stretch- 
ing from the Oder at Oderberg, to the 
Havel. The communication is continu- 
ed by the latter and a chain of lakes to 
Plauen ; from which point a canal has 
been opened, joining the Elbe near 
Magdeburg. The Oder is united to the 
Vistula, partly by the river Netze, and 
partly by a canal joining that river to 
the Brahe, which falls into the Vistula, 
near Bromberg. 

Russia. The improvement of inland 
navigation engaged the attention of 
Peter the Great. The canals projected 



CAN 



and hastily executed by him are, that of 
Cronstadt begun about 1719, that of 
Ladoga, begun in 1718, that of Vishnei- 
Voloshok, and that for forming a com- 
munication between Moscow and the 
Don. The grand project of uniting the 
Caspian and the Baltic with the Black 
Sea, by the junction of the Don and 
Volga, was planned by Peter the Great. 
Repeated attempts have been made to 
carry the latter into execution, but they 
have hitherto failed. In 1802, a beau- 
tiful chart was published, exhibiting a 
view of all the canals in Russia, that 
have been formed between the White 
and Black Sea, and between the Baltic 
and the Caspian. The inland navigation 
is already carried through such an extent 
in Russia, that it is possible to convey 
goods by water 4472 miles from the 
frontiers of China to Petersburgh, with 
an interruption only of about 60 miles ; 
and from Astracan through a tract of 
1434 miles. 

British Canals. No attempt was 
made, in England, to construct canals, 
till a comparatively recent period. The 
efforts were limited to atteroi)ts to deepen 
the beds of rivers. In 1635, a Mr. 
Sandys, of Flatbury, Worcestershire, 
formed a project for rendering the Avon 
navigable from the Severn, near Tewkes- 
bury, through the counties of War- 
wick, Worcester, and Gloucester; but 



190 CAN 

the project was abandoned. An act 
passed in 1755, for improving the navi- 
gation of Sankey Brook on the Mersey, 
gave rise to a lateral canal, which was 
the earliest effort of the sort in Eng- 
land. The origin of regular canal na- 
vigation in England may be traced to 
the exertions of Mr. James Brindley, an 
obscure mechanic, whose talents were 
called into exercise by the patronage of 
the duke of Bridgewater. About 1757, 
the duke conceived the idea of a canal 
for the purpose of co nveying coals from 
his estates of Worsley in Lancashire, to 
Salford, near Manchester. Profiting by 
the advice of Brindley, who was a mill- 
wright and engine-maker, the duke per- 
fected and carried into execution, the 
great and important schemes which he 
had projected, and for which he obtained 
the first act of parliament. 

The principal canals of Great Britain 
are about one hundred in number, and 
occupy three thousand miles of naviga- 
tion in extent ; 30 million sterling being 
the valuation of the cost. In the various 
canals there are 48 subterraneous pas- 
sages, 40 of which have an extent of 32 
miles. None of these works, important 
as they are, were projected prior to 1755. 
The length, commencement, termina- 
tion, and time when undertaken of the 
most important of the British canals, are 
as follow: — 



Canals. 



Aberdare 
Aberdeenshire . . 

Ashby-de-la-Zouch 
Andover 



Ashton- under -Line, or 
Manchester & Oldham. 



Barasley 



Basingstoke 

Birmingham 

Birmingham and Fazeley 
Brecknock & Abergavenny 



When 
begun. 


Length 
in miles 


1793 
1805 


n 

19 


1805 
1790 


40i 
22^ 


1797 


18 


1799 


18 


1790 
1772 


37 

22^ 


1790 
1776 


I6i 
33 



Commencement and Termination. 



From Glamorgan to Aberdare. 

From Aberdeen Harbour to the river 
Don. 

From Coventry canal to Ticknal. 

From Southampton Water to An- 
dover. 

From Rochdale canal to Hudders- 

field. 
From Calder River, below Wakefield, 

to Barnby Bridge. 
From Wye to Basingstoke. 
From Birmingham and Sheffield canal 
to the Birmingham and Fazeley canal. 
From Coventry canal to Birmingham. 
From Monmouthshire canal to 

Brecon canal. 



CAN 



191 



CAN 



Canals. 



Comicencement and Termination. 



Bridge water. 



1758 



40 



Bristol and Taunton . . 

Caldon and Uttoxeter 

Caledonian 

Cardiff, or Glamorgan- 
shire 

Chester 

Chesterfield 

Coventry 

Cromford 

Croydon » 

Derby 

Dorset and Somerset 

Dublin and Shannon 



Dudley and its branches 

Edinburgh and Glasgow 

EUesmere and Chester 

and its branches . . 
Erewash 



Fazeley 



Forth and Clyde, with the 
Glasgow branch 

Foss Dyke 

Glasgow and Saltcoats 



1822 

1775 

1775 
1776 

1794 

1801 

1794 
1803 

1776 



1776 



1804 

1777 
1790 



1790 



1812 



41 

28 
2lf 

25 

I7i 
46 

27 

18 

9i 

9 

42 

65i 

13| 

50 



109 
llf 

11 



37i 
11 

331; 



From the tideway of the river 
Mersey, and forming two divisiona 
at Longfordbridge, one of which 
terminates at Manchester, and the 
other at Pennington, near Leigh. 
This canal was the first (except the 
Sankey Canal, for which a statute 
was passed in 1755, though not 
begun until 1760,) undertaken in 
Great Britain ; and its projector, 
the duke of Bridgewater, to enable 
him to carry on the stupendous 
undertaking, limited his personal 
expenses to £400 a-year. The en- 
gineer employed was Mr. John 
Brindley. 

From Taunton-bridge to the rnoulh 
of the river Avon. 

A branch of the Grand Trunk canal. 

See Cal}sdonian Canal, 

From a sea-basin in the Severn, near 

Cardiff, to Merthyr. 
From Chester to Nantwicb. 
From Stockwith-on-the-Trent to 

Chesterfield. 
A part of the line of canal navigation 

between London and Liverpool 
From Langley-on-the-Erewash canal 

to Cromford. 
From the Grand Surrey canal to 

Croydon. 
From the river Trent to Derby. 
From the Kennet and Avon canal to 

the river Stour. 
From Dublin to Moy-on-the-Shan- 

non. The various branches of 

this canal have a navigation of 38 

miles, opened 1759. 
From the Worcester and Birmingham 

canal. 
From Edinburgh ; at Falkirk it unites 

with the Forth and Clyde canal. 



From the river Trent to Qromford 

canal. 
A part of the Liverpool line of canal 

navigation, uniting the Grand 

Trunk and Coventry canals. 
From the tidewater at the junction 

of the river Carron with the Forth 

to Glasgow. 
From Torksey, on the Trent, to the 

river Witham. 



CAN 



192 



CAN 



Canals. 


When 
begun. 


Length 
in miles. 


Commencement and Termination. 


Glenkenns 


1802 


27 


From Kirkcudbright on the Dee to 

Dairy. 
From Berkeley Hill, on the Severn, 


Gloucester and Hockcrib 


1793 


20i 








to Gloucester. 


Grand Junction, with the 


1805 


147 


From London to Braunston, on the 


Paddington and six 






Oxford canal, and forming part of 


other branches 






line of canal navigation between 
London and Liverpool. 


Grand Surrey 


1801 


12 


From Rotherhithe, on the Thames, 
to Mitcham. 


Grand Western, with the 








Tiverton branch . . 


1796 


42 


From Topsham, at the mouth of the 
E.X, to Taunton Bridge. 


Grand Trunk and its 


1777 


130 


A part of the line of the canal naviga- 


branches 






tion between London and Liverpool. 


Grand Union . . 




23j 


From near Foxton, on the Leicester 
and Northampton Union canal, to 
the Grand Junction canal. 


Grantham 


1799 


33f 


From the river Trent to Grantham. 


HasMngden 


1793 


13 


From the Manchester, Bolton, and 
Bury canal, at Bury, to the Leeds 
and Liverpool at Church. 


Hereford and Gloucester 


1790 


36i 


From Gloucester to Hereford on the 
Wye. 


Huddersfield 


1798 


19i 


From Huddersfield to the Manchester, 
Ashton, Oldham canal. 


Kennet and Avon 


1801 


57 


From the Avon to the Kennet and 

Newbury canal. 
From the Severn to Kingston. 


Kingston and Leominster 


1797 


45f^ 


Lancaster 


1799 


1^ 


From Kirby Kendall to Haughton. 


Leeds and Liverpool 


1771 


130 


From Liverpool to Leeds. 


Leicester . . 




21 


From the Loughborough Basin to the 
Soar. 


Leicester and Northamp- 








ton Union 


1805 


43f 


From Leicester to Market-Har- 

borough. 
From the river Trent to Lough- 


Loughborough . . 


1776 


9^ 








borough. 


Monmouthshire . . 


1796 


i7i 




Montgomeryshire, with 








the Welchpool branch 


1797 


30i 




Neath 


1798 


14 


From the river Neath to the Aber- 
deen canal. 


Norwich and LowestoflF 


1829 


50 




Navigation 








Nottingham 


1802 


15 


From the river Trent to the Crom- 
ford canal. 


Oxford 


1790 


91^ 


From the Coventry Canal to the river 
Isis, at Oxford, forming part of the 
line of canal navigation between 
Liverpool and London. 


Peak Forest . . . . 


1800 


21 


From the Manchester, Ashton, and 
Oldham canal, to Chapel Milton 
Basin. 


Portsmouth and Arundel 


1815 


14^ 


From the river Avon to the bay con- 
nected with Portsmouth Harbour. 



CAN 



193 



CAN 



Canals. 



Regent 

Rochdale 

Royal Irish ... 
Sankey 

ShornclifFe and Rye, or 

Royal Military 
Shrewsbury , 

Somerset Coal, and its 
branch Radstock 

Southampton & Salisbury 

Staflford and Worcester 

Swansea, with the Llan- 
samlet branch . . 

Thames and Medway. . 
Thames and Severn . . 

Warwick and Birming- 
ham 

Warwick and Napton. . 

Wey andArun Junction 

Wilts and Berks, with the 
Calne branch . . 

Worcester and Birming- 
ham 

Wyrley and Essington 
with its four branches 



When 
beRUii. 



Length 
in miles 



Commencement and Termination. 



1820 9 From Paddington to Limehouse. 

1804 31 From the Bridgewater canal to the 

Calder and Hehble navigation. 
68 From Dublin to the river Shannon, 

1760 12^ From the Mersey and Irwell naviga- 

tion to Sutton Heath Mines. 

1809 18 From Hythe to the mouth of the 

Rother. 

1797 17i From Shrewsbuiy to the Shropshire 
canal. 

1802 16 From the Kennet and Avon canal to 

Paulton. 
1804 171 From the river Itchin to the river 

Avon. 
1772 464 From the river Severn to the Grand 

Trunk canal. 

1798 204 From Swansea Harbour to Hen 
Noyadd. 

1 800 8i From Gravesend to the river Medway. 
1789 30i From the Stroudwater canal to the 

Thames and Isis canal. 

1799 25 From Warwick and Napton canal to 
Old Birmingham canal. 

1799 15 From the Warwick and Birmingham 

canal to the Oxford canal. 
16 From the river Wey to the Arun 
river navigation. 

1801 55 From the Kennet and Avon canal to 
the Thames and Isis navigation. 

1797 29 From the river Severn to the Birming- 
ham and Fazeley canal. 

1796 35f I From the Fazeley canal to the Bir- 
mingham canal. 



Various canals have been undertaken 
in Ireland, of which the Grand Canal 
and the Royal Canal, are the principal. 
The Grand Canal begun in 1756, com- 
mences at Dublin, and stretches in a 
westerly direction, to the Shannon, with 
which it unites near Banagher, a distance 
of 87 statute miles. The total length, 
with its various branches, is about 156 
English miles. It cost above £2,000,000. 
In 1829, 191,774 tons of commodities 
were conveyed along the canal to and 
from Dublin, and about 67,000 passen- 
gers. The tonnage dues, amounted to 
£31,345, and the fares to £10,575. In 
1831, the produce conveyed by the 



canal had increased to 237,889 tons, and 
the tonnage dues to £36,736. The royal 
canal was undertaken in i789- It 
stretches westward from Dublin to the 
Shannon, which it joins at Tormanbury. 
Its length is about 83 miles ; its highest 
elevation 322 feet above the level of the 
sea. It has cost, exclusive of interest on 
stock, loans, &c., advanced by govern- 
ment, £1,421,954. The tolls produced 
in 1831, £12,729 6s. id. 

The United States are distinguished 
the most magnificent plans for improving 
by and extending internal navigation. Be- 
sides many others, the canal connecting 
the Hudson with Lake Erie, is 363 mile^ 
2 c 



CAN 



194 



CAN 



long, forty feet \vi(5e at the surface, 
28 feet wide at the bottom, and four 
feet deep. The locks, eighty-one in 
number, exclusive of guard locks, are 
ninety feet long, and fourteen feet wide, 
the average lift of each being eight and a 
quarter feet. The rise and fall along the 
entire line is 661 feet. This great work 
was opened October 8, 1823, but was 
not finally completed till 1825. It cost 
nearly £1,800,000 sterling. Besides Erie 
Canal, the state of New York has com- 
pleted Champlain canal, stretching from 
the Hudson, near Albany, to the lake 
of that name, and two smaller ones ; 
the Champlain canal is 63 miles in 
length, the Oswego 38, and the Cayuga 
and Seneca, 20 miles in length. 
A great number of other canals have 
been completed in different parts of 
the Union, and many new ones are now 
in progress. 

Canada. The British governmenthas 
expended a very large sum upon the Ri- 
deau River and Canal, stretching from 
Kingston, on Lake Ontario, to the Ot- 
tawa, or Grand River. 

CANARY Isles, a cluster of islands 
in the Atlantic, considered as belonging 
to Africa, the most easterly being about 
150 miles from Cape Non. They are 
13 in number, seven of which are 
considerable, namely Palma, Ferro, Go- 
mera, Teneriffe, Grand Canary, Fuerte- 
ventura, and Lancerota. They were 
supposed to be known to the ancients. 
J uba 11,, king of Mauritania, described 
them first with some degree of accuracy. 
Pliny followed his description of the is- 
lands, but nothing more was known till 
between 1316 and 1334, when the Spani- 
ards, pressed by the Moors, discovered 
and conquered these islands; and they 
are laid down with accuracy in the old 
map which Andreas Branco published in 
Venice, 1436. They were afterwards 
abandoned to the Portuguese. In 1478, 
the SpaniaVds undertook again the con- 
quest of the Canaries. At the end of 
the fifteenth century they had subdued 
the original inhabitants entirely, and 
they extirpated them at a later period. 
The island Lancerota has three volcanos 
which, in 1823, experienced violent erup- 
tions. 

CANDAHAR, a frontier city in India 
beyond the Ganges, which, when the 
Mogul and Persian empires flourished, 
was the scene of many sanguinary strug- 
gles. In 1638, it was betrayed into the 



hands of the emperor Jehangir, by AU 
Merdan Khan, the Persian governor. 
The Afghan chiefs took possession of it 
on the decline of the two great rival em- 
pires, and held it until 1737, when it 
was taken by Nadir Shah, after a siege 
of 18 months. After the assassi- 
nation of Nadir, it fell into the power of 
Ahmed Shad Abdalla, who rebuilt it; 
it then became the capital of the Dur- 
rany empire, till his death, when the 
city and province became subject to the 
Afghan chief of Cabool. It was from 
hence the British army was concentrated 
in the late Indian war, 1839. See Ca- 
bool. 

CANDAULES, king of Lydia, flou- 
rished A. c. 735, assassinated a. c. 718. 
CANDIA, the ancient Crete, island 
in the Mediterranean, The earliest part 
of the history of this island is involved in 
fable ; yet it appears certain that the 
Cretans had made considerable progress 
in civilization at an early period. Before 
the time of the Trojan war, little is known 
of this people. Crete received its name 
from Cres, its first monarch. He was 
author of several useful inventions 
Among his successors Rhadamanthus 
and Minos are the most celebrated ; the 
former as their first lawgiver, who laid 
the foundation of their civil government; 
and the latter for having raised a most 
admirable superstructure many ages after. 
After theTrojan war, the monarchical go- 
vernment in Crete was exchanged for a 
republic, about a. c. 1184. This island 
was anciently celebrated for having 100 
cities ; but of these 40 only are men- 
tioned by Ptolemy a. c. 493, St. Paul 
introduced the christian faith here, a.d. 
62. 

This island was purchased by the Ve- 
netians in 1104, and by them called Can- 
dia, as was also the chief city of the is- 
land ; the Candian war waged between 
the Venetians and Turks commencing 
about 1644, was one of the most san- 
guinary recorded in history. On Sep- 
tember 27, 1669, the protracted conflict 
ended, and Candia was resigned to infidel 
misrule. In this war of twenty-five 
years, 30,985 christians, and 118,754 
Turks had been killed or wounded, 56 
assaults had been made upon the city 
of Candia, by the Turks, 96 sallies 
by the christians; 472 mines were 
spnmg by the former, 1 173 by the latter; 
509,692 cannons were discharged by the 
fortress, and 1 80,000 cwt. of lead con- 



CAN 



195 



■CAN 



sumed in musket balls by the christians. 
In 1715, the Venetians being finally ex- 
pelled, Candia became a Turkish mous- 
selimhk. Under the Ottoman govern- 
ment, the commerce of this beautiful and 
productive island dwindled totally away. 
In 1821, the Candiotes favoured the 
Greek insurrection. In 1823, the island 
was occupied by the Greek fleet, and beat 
off the Turks, but lost 2000 people in the 
conflict. 

CANDIAC, John Jennes, an extra- 
ordinary child of precocious intellect, who 
knew his letters at thirteen months old, 
and at seven years of age, was master of 
Latin, Greek, and Hebrew j died 1725, 
aged seven years. 

CANDLE. Some kind of light similar 
to candles, was of very ancient construc- 
tion. The candles in use among the Ro- 
mans, were at first little strings dipt in 
pitch, or surrounded with wax ; though 
afterwards they made them of the papyrus, 
covered likewise with wax ; and some- 
times also of rushes, by stripping off the 



outer rind, and only retaining the pith. 
Candles were first used in christian 
churches, in 274. Tallow candles came 
into government use in 1290. From the 
very great utility of candles, they early 
became the object of adulteration ; hence 
it is provided by various acts of parlia- 
ment, that all adulterated candles shall 
be forfeited, and several other important 
statutes have passed for the regulation 
of the manufacture of candles. 

By the act 1 and 2 William IV., c 19, 
1831, all duties on candles were repealed, 
and the makers are put on the same foot- 
ing as melters of tallow. Until the 
above act, candles were, for a length- 
ened period, subject to an excise duty ; 
and their consumption was, in conse- 
quence, pretty exactly ascertained. — 
The following is an account of the num- 
ber of lbs. weight of tallow, wax, and 
spermaceti candles, and the total annual 
nett revenue derived from candles, in 
Great Britain, from 1820 to 1829; since 
which time it has not been ascertained. 



Years. 


TaUow. 


Wax. 


Spermaceti. 


Net Revenue, 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


£ S. d. 


1820 


88,352,461 


692,705 


193,463 


373,455 14 5 


1821 


93.816,346 


697,196 


165,647 


395,911 8 7 


1822 


98,311,801 


682,241 


179,208 


415,609 15 3 


1823 


102,461,879 


694,194 


180,401 


433,537 15 8 


1824 


109,810,900 


759,751 


179,454 


466,042 16 1 


1825 


114,187,550 


851,370 


208,377 


485,014 8 9 


1826 


110,102,643 


705,615 


201,790 


467,069 12 1 


1827 


114,939,578 


713,655 


226,277 


487,318 3 4 


1828 


117,342,157 


748,293 


270,263 


497,770 2 9 


1829 


115,156,808 


746,052 


303,683 


489,059 1 9 



CANDLEMAS. A feast of the church 
held on the second of February, in me- 
mory of the purification of the Virgin 
Mary. It takes its name from the prac- 
tice of the Romish church, who, on that 
day, consecrate all the tapers and candles 
which they use in their churches during 
the whole of the year. This ceremony 
was prohibited in England, by an order 
of council in 1548. 

CANDY, kingdom formerly occupy- 
ing the central and mountainous part 
of the island of Ceylon. The king of 
Candy, dying in 1798, a war broke out 
in 1803, which was carried on with va- 
rious succeitt for upwards of two years, 
during which a whole British detachment 
was massacred or imprisoned. In 1815, 



the Candians appealed to the British for 
protection. The king fled from his capital 
and throne, and was defeated and made 
prisoner, by general Brownrigg, Feb. 18, 
deposed and the sovereignty vested in 
Great Britain, March 2. See Ceylon. 

CANEA, the second town in the island 
of Candia, resisted the Turks for fifty days 
in the year 1645, and capitulated at last 
upon honourable and advantageous 
terms. It was occupied by the Greeks 
in the late war, 1823. See Candia. 
It suffered dreadfully from a storm in 
1833 

CANICULAR Days, or Dog-days, 
a certain number of days before and after 
the heliacal rising of Canicula, or the 
dog-star, in the morning. Accoirding to 



CAN 



196 



CAN 



our almanacs, they extend from July 3, 
to AufTust 11. 

CANICULAR Year, the Egyptian 
and Ethiopian natural year, which ex- 
tended from one heliacal rising of Cani- 
cula to the next. It consisted ordinarily 
of 365 days, and every fourth year of 
366 ; so that, like the Julian, it was ac- 
commodated to the civil year. 

CANN^, a small town of Apulia on 
the Adriatic, situated at the mouth of 
the river Anfidus, now in ruins. It is 
remarkable for tlie battle fought in its 
vicinity between Hannibal and the Ro- 
mans in the second Punic war. This 
great engagement, which nearly annihi- 
lated the power of Rome, and which, in 
that case, would have totally altered the 
destinies of the world, was fought a.u.c. 
536, A.c. 216. The carnage was dread- 
ful, the number of Romans killed and 
taken at the battle was estimated at 
45,000. 

CANNING, THE Right Honoura- 
ble George, born in London April 11, 
1770. Tiie future prime minister was 
placed at Eton, where, while yet a boy, 
he exhibited considerable indications of 
genius, and contributed several papers 
to "The Microcosm," the first number 
of which was published in 1786. He 
entered at Christ Church, Oxford, Oc- 
tober 1787, where the fame of his early 
talents had prepared for him a wel- 
come. 

1793. Mr. Canning came into par- 
liament as member for Newport, in the 
Isle of Wight, which was vacated by Sir 
R. Worsley for that purpose. The first 
occasion on which he was induced to 
rise was on the debate respecting the 
treaty with the king of Sardinia, which 
took place January 31, 1794, the point 
in dispute being whether parliament 
should agree to assign to the king of 
Sardinia a sum of £200,000 a year, on 
condition of his keeping on foot, for the 
defence of his own territories, a force of 
50,000 men. In 1796, Mr. Canning was 
appointed one of the under secretaries of 
state for the foreign department, under 
Lord Grenville, and continued in office 
until the retirement of Mr. Pitt in 1801. 
On the anniversary of Mr. Pitt's birth- 
day. May 29, 1802, Mr. Canning pro- 
duced the song, "The Pilot that wea- 
thered the Storm." He was appointed 
treasurer of the navy, which situation he 
held until the death of Mr. Pitt in 1806, 
after which he went into opposition: 



About this time he fought a duel, upon 
a dispute arising out of the conduct of 
the Walcheren expedition, with Lord 
Castlereagh; at six o'clock in the morn- 
ing of September 21, 1809, the parties 
met near the Telegraph on Putney 
Heath. 

Mr. Canning stood four times for the 
representation of Liverpool, and was each 
time elected, but never without strong 
opposition. The third election, of 1818^ 
was distinguished by an extraordinary 
quantity of electioneering manoeuvres. 
The last election of 1820, was less 
warmly contested, his chief opponent 
being a gentleman of the name of 
Crompton, who succeeded only in oIj- 
taining 345 votes. In 1818, he came 
into office as president of the board of 
control ; but left England, and aban- 
doned his place, in prefererKie to taking 
part in the proceedings against queen 
Caroline. Subsequently, in 1822, he 
v/as named governor of India, and was 
on the point of again quitting the coun- 
try, having actually taken leave of his 
constituents at Liverpool, for the pur- 
pose of proceeding to Bengal. At that 
very moment, however, the death of the 
marquis of Londonderry suddenly open- 
ed the situation of secretary of foreign 
affairs to him. This appointment took 
place in the early part of 1827- After a 
hfe of toil he died August 8, 1827, in 
the fifty-eighth year of his age, and was 
interred in Westminster Abbey, on the 
16th. His funeral was private, though 
awaited in the abbey by a numerous- 
body of friends. 

" In private life Mr. Canning was 
unostentatious, and accessible to the 
humblest individual. No man was ever 
farther removed from presumption or 
vanity. He loved simplicity, and was 
gentle and affable to those about him. 
He was exquisitely sensitive ; but on no 
occasion was the smallest unkindness 
ever wantonly inflicted by him upon 
others. As a domestic man his conduct 
was exemplary in all its relations. In 
most things he seemed to partake of the 
character of his eloquence; open and 
manly, conscious of power, and conse- 
quently, simple and unpresuming. The 
eloquence of Mr. Canning was of a high 
order, singularly elaborate and correct 
for one of his poetical tem^rament. It 
was a stream of pure and ^adulterated 
English, flowing copiously with classic 
elegance, seldom assisted by flights of 



Can ^ 197 CAN 

passionate declamation, and never de- names were given to cannon; Louis XIl 

graded by meanness of phraseology or in 1503, had twelve brass cannon cast 

metaphor; the happiness of his expres- of an extraordinary size, called after the 

sion, and easy flow of his language ir- twelve peers of France. The Spaniards 

resistibly fixed the stranger's attention, and Portuguese named theirs after their 

And though the tongue of the scholar, saints. The emperor Charles V., when 

the orator, and the statesman, is dumb he went against Tunis, had twelve can- 

for ever, England will inscribe his name non founded, which he called the twelve 

among the list of lofty intellects that apostles. At Milan there is a seventy 

adorn the pages of her history." pounder called the Pimontelli; and there 

1833. In the square adjoining St. is one at Bois-le-duc called the Devil. 

Margaret's church, and facing New Pa- At Dover castle there is a sixty pounder 

lace Yard, a colossal statue was erected called Queen Elizabeth's pocket-pistol, 

by subscription to the memory of this There is an eighty pounder in the tower 

statesman. It is placed on a granite of London, brought thither from Edin- 

pedestal bearing the inscription — burgh castle, called Mounts-meg. About 

George Canning. the beginning of the 15th century, these 

This statue was designed and executed uncommon names were mostly laid aside, 

by Mr. Westmacott. and the following among other more 

CANNING, Captain Hon., (son of general ones adopted, 
the late prime minister,) in command of Pounders. Cwt. 

his majesty's ship Alligator, off Madeira, Cannon royal or carthoun . . 48 about 90 

drowned while bathing in a reservoir, Bastardcannon or | carthoun 36 .... 70 

September 25, 1828, Half carthoun 24 60 

CANNON. The first were made of Whole culverins 18 .... 50 

bars of iron, hooped together with strong Demi-culverins 9 .... 30 

iron rings; and were employed in throw- Falcon 6 .... 25 

ing stones and metal of several hundred ( Largest size 8 .... 15 

weight. The ancient inhabitants of Eu- Saker ■< Ordinary 6 .... 15 

rope and Asia had their cannoe, or fiery ' Lowest sort 5 .... 13 

tubes, which being charged with pitch. Basilisk 48 .... 85 

stones, and iron balls, were exploded Aspic 2 . . . . 7 

with a vehement noise and smoke, and Dragon 6 .... 12 

produced great effect. According to Syren 60 .... 81 

Isaac Vossius, a kind of cannon were Falconer 3,2&1 . . 15, 10&5 

used in China by the emperor Kitey, as Rabinet 1 

early as 85. Some sort of artillery was Moyene 10 or 1 2 ounces, 

used by the Moors in Spain in 1312, At present, cannon take their names 

but it is the general opinion that what is from the weights of the balls, which 

properly termed cannon, were not used they respectively discharge : ship-guns, 

till 1336 or 1338. Cannons were cer- consisting of 42, 36, 24, 18, 12, 9, 6, 

tainly used by the English at the battle and 3 pounders ; garrison-guns, con- 

of Cressy, in 1346, at the siege of sisting of 42, 32, 24, 18, 9, and 6 

Calais in 1347, by the Venetians at pounders ; battering-guns, consisting of 

Chioggia in 1366, and in their wars with 24, 18, and 12 pounders, and sometimes, 

the Genoese in 1379 and 1380. The though but seldom, of 42 pounders ; 

Turks employed them at the sieges of field-pieces, consisting of 12, 9, 6, 3, 2, 

Constantinople, in 1394 and 1453. When li, 1, and f pounders. The dimensions 

first introduced they were for the most of ship-guns were settled by the Board 

part very heavy and unwieldy, and threw of Ordnance in 1753. The dimensions, 

balls of an enormous size. They were, &c., of all other sorts of brass and iron 

however, owing to their frequent burst- cannon were established by the Board of 

ing, about as dangerous to those using Ordnance in 1764, as also those of brass 

them as to their opponents. Larrey as- howitzers, which may be regarded as a 

serts that brass cannon were not known sort of short cannon. Those of mortars, 

in England before 1535, that none of also a kind of short cannon of large 

iron were cast here before 1547, and that bores, with chambers, and made either 

the invention of brass cannon is due to of brass or iron, were also estabhshed 

J. Owen. by the Board of Ordnance in 1764. 

Formerly, strange and uncommon About 1838, was introduced an im- 



CAN 



198 



CAN 



Provement in cannon-locks. The per- 
cussion prineiple has been adapted to 
the locks of great guns by Commander 
Henderson, R. N., by a method at once 
simple and effective. The apparatus 
consists of two square pieces of iron, a 
common fowling-piece nipple, and an 
iron cap to cover the nipple. The two 
pieces of iron are made just large enough 
to cover the groove about the touch- 
hole, and are connected with each other 
in the form of a hinge. One of these is 
fastened to the gun, by means of a 
screw, to the left of the touch-hole, and 
has an iron cap fastened to it in the same 
manner. The other piece of iron has 
the nipple screwed on its centre, and, of 
course, communicates with the touch- 
hole of the gun when folded down. The 
gun being loaded, the cartridge pricked, 
and tube introduced, a common copper 
cap (such as is used for fowling-pieces) 
is put upon it ; the iron cap is then 
brought over the copper one, when a 
tap with a wooden mallet never fails to 
ignite it, and discharge the gun. When 
fired, the plate of iron, with the nipple, 
is thrown back upon the other, thereby 
exposing the touch-hole, and giving 
room for the vent to be closed by the 
thumb in the usual manner. It is not 
the least of its advantages that the ship's 
armourer can fit the gun of a first-rate 
in this manner in a few days, and it does 
not interfere with the present equipment, 
as percussion, or other locks, may be 
used at the option of the commanding 
oflicer, 

1840. At the Royal Arsenal at Wool- 
wich, the machines are among the 
largest in the kingdom. Friday, June 
5, an extraordinary casting of brass can- 
non took place at the latter founder)\ 
The quantity of metal was 16 tons, and 
the cannon cast consisted of 10 24 
pounders and two 12 pounders. At 11 
o'clock the vent of the furnace was open- 
ed and the melted metal poured into the 
the moulds. The casting turned out 
excellent, and the guns were nearly all 
perfect, which is not generally the case. 
The crowd of visiters was immense both 
on the day of casting, and on the follow- 
ing Monday and Tuesday, when the 
guns were removed from the moulds. 

CANNON-BALL, found in the ruins 
of Berwick-castle, weighed 961b8., and 
measured 30 inches in circumference, 
April, 1811. 



CANON, one who possesses a pre^^ 
bend or revenue, in a cathedral or col- 
legiate church. The common opinion 
attributes the institution of this order 
to Chrodegangus, bishop of Metz, about 
the middle of the eighth century. Ori- 
ginally canons were inferior ecclesiastics, 
who lived in community ; residing by the 
cathedral church to assist the bishop ; 
depending entirely on his will. They 
inherited his moveables till 817, when 
his was prohibited by the council of 
Aix-la-Chapelle, and a new rule substi- 
tuted in the place of that which had been 
appointed by Chrodegangus, and which 
was observed, for the most part in the 
west, till the twelfth century. In the 
tenth century there were communities, 
or congregations of the same kind, 
established even in cities where there 
were no bishops : these were called col- 
legiates. 

CANON, a law or rule, either of doc- 
trine or discipline. Canons are decisions 
of matters of religion ; or regulations of 
the polity and discipline of a church, 
made by councils either general, na- 
tional, or provincial. See Council. 

There have been various collections 
of the canons of the eastern councils ; 
but four principal ones, each ampler 
than the preceding, llie first, according 
to Usher, 380, containing only those of 
the first oecumenical council, and the 
first provincial ones : they were but 164 
in number. 2d. Those of Dionysius 
Exiguus, in 520, who, added the fifty 
canons of the apostles, and those of the 
other general councils. 3d. To these 
are subjoined those of the council of 
Sardica, and the African councils. The 
4th and last collection comes down as 
low as the second council of Nice, 787. 

CANON, the authorized catalogue 
of the sacred writings. See Bible. 

CANON of Ptolemy, in Chronology, a 
canon of the Chaldsean, Persian,Grecian, 
and Roman kings, compiled by Clau- 
dius Ptolemaeus, the astronomer, author of 
the system of the universe, who flourished 
in Egypt in the reigns of Adrian and 
Marcus Antoninus, about 150; piXbhshed 
from two MSS. in the Royal Library at 
Paris. The author computes from the 
epoch of the Nabonassarean aera, a. c. 
747 ; and from that day of the month on 
which the Egyptian Thoth fell. The 
years made use of are Egyptian, and 
consist of 365 days, without intercala- 



CAN 



199 



CAN 



lion. In every reign the years are which are less than a year, are omitted, 
reckoned as complete ; and those reigns as in the following tahle. 



Name. 



Nab. 
Years. 



Year of 
Reign. 



A. C. 



KINGS OP CHALDEA. 

Nabonassar 

Nadius 

Chinzirus and Porus 

Jugaeus 

Mardokempadus 

Archians 

First inter-reign 

Belibus 

Apronadius 

Regibelus 

Mesessimordacus 

Second inter-reign 

Asaradinus 

Saosduchinus 

Chyniladanus 

Nabopolasar 

Nabocolasar, or Nebuchadnezzar. . 

Ilvarodamus, or Evil-Merodach 

Niricassolazar 

Nabonadius 

PERSIAN KINGS. 

Cyras 

Cambyses 

Darius Hystaspes . . 

Xerxes 

Artaxerxes 

Darius II 

Artaxerxes II 

Ochus 

Arses 

Darius III , 

Alexander of Macedon 

KINGS WHO REIGNED AFTER 
ALEXANDER, 

Philip Aridseus 

Alexander iEgus 

Ptolemy Lagus . , 

Ptolemy Philadelphus 

Ptolemy Euergetes I 

Ptolemy Philopator 

Ptolemy Epiphanes 

Ptolemy Philoraeter 

Ptolemy Euergetes II 

Ptolemy Soter 

Dionysius. 

Cleopatra 



1 
15 
17 

22 

27 

39 

44 

46 

49 

55 

56 

60 

68 

81 

101 

123 

144 

187 

189 

193 



210 
219 
227 
263 
284 
325 
344 
390 
411 
413 
417 



425 
432 
444 
464 
502 
527 
544 
568 
603 
632 
668 
697 



14 

2 

5 

5 

12 

5 

2 

3 

6 

1 

4 

8 

13 

20 

22 

21 

43 

2 

4 

17 



36 
21 
41 
19 
46 
21 
2 
4 



12 
20 
38 
25 
17 
24 
35 
29 
36 
29 
22 



747 , 

733 

731 

726 

721 

709 

704 
702 
699 
693 
692 
688 
680 
667 
647 
625 
604 
561 
559 
555 



538 
529 
521 
485 
464 
423 
404 
358 
337 
335 
331 



324 
317 
305 
285 
247 
222 
205 
181 
146 
117 
81 
52 



CAN 



200 



CAN 



ROMAN EMPERORS. 
Augustus 

Tiberius 

Caius 

Claudius 

Nero V 

Vespasian 

Titus 

Domitian 

Nerva 

Trajan 

Adrian 

Antoninus Pius 



Nab. 


Year of 


Year. 


Reign. 


719' 


43 


762 


22 


784 


4 


788 


14 


802 


14 


816 


10 


826 


3 


829 


15 


844 


1 


845 


19 


864 


21 


885 


23 



30 

V. D. 

14 

36 

40 
54 
68 
78 
81 
96 
97 
116 
137 



CANON Law introduced into Eng- 
land, 1140, arranged and methodised by 
Gratian, an Italian monk, 1151. 

CANONICAL hours for prayers in- 
stituted, 391. 

CANONIZATION first introduced 
by papal authority, 993. 

CANOSA, a town of Naples, the an- 
cient Canusium founded by Diomed, and 
afterwards a Roman colony. It became 
one of the most considerable cities in 
this part of Italy. The era of Trajan 
seems to have been that of its greatest 
splendour. Genseric, Totila, and Au- 
tharis treated it with extreme cruelty. 
It was reduced to a deplorable state in 
590. In 1090, it was assigned, by 
agreement, to Bohemund, Prince of 
Antioch, who died here in 1111. Its 
ancient grandeUr is still attested by 
many fragments of aqueducts, amphi- 
theatres, baths, military columns, &c. 
The church built in the sixth century, 
contains the mausoleum of Bohemund, 
which in 1461 the prince of Taranto 
broke open, and disturbed the ashes of 
that hero. Modern Canosa was ruined 
by an earthquake, in 1694. 

CANOVA, an ancient Venetian sculp- 
tor, born 1757, at Possagno, died at Ve- 
nice, October 13, 1822, after a short but 
severe illness. His merits as an artist 
are well known to Europe. He left be- 
hind him a fortune of 7,000,000 francs, 
a sum not far ^ short of £300,000 ster- 
ling. 

CANTERBURY, Cantwarabyrig 
of the Saxons, the principal place in the 



kingdom of Kent, and during the reign 
of Ethelbert, was constituted the metro- 
politan see of all England. When St. 
Augustin, and his forty monks, landed 
in the isle of Thanet in 597, part of the 
ancient Durovernum which is now called 
" Stable-gate," was assigned as their 
residence. St. Augustin's monastery, 
the first christian establishment in Great 
Britain, was built here in 978. Can- 
terbury was successively occupied by the 
Romans, Saxons, Normans, &c., and 
became the scene of repeated sieges and 
battles. The Danes besieged it in 1011, 
and on the twelfth day of the siege, set 
it on fire, and completely consumed the 
cathedral. Egelnothus, or Agelnoth, the 
archbishop, who governed the see from 
1020 to J 038, refounded, and made con- 
siderable progress in rebuilding this 
structure, which was again burnt in 1067- 
On Dec. 29, 1170, archbishop Becket 
was barbarously murdered at the foot of 
the altar. See Becket.- In 1573, 
Queen Elizabeth kept her court here, in 
her progress through Kent. An act of 
parliament for paving, lighting, and 
watching the city, was obtained in 
1787. 

1838. At Boughton, near Canterbury, 
a riot took place, attended by loss of 
life A lunatic named Thom, who as- 
sumed the name of Sir W. Courtenay, 
attached himself to the lowest rabble, 
and incited them against the Poor Law 
Act, and shot a man. On this outrage, 
the military were called out, and Lieut. 
Bennett proceeded to take the murderer 



CAN 



201 



CAN 



into custody, but Thorn advanced, and, 
firing a pistol, killed the lieutenant on 
the spot. His death was avenged by one 
of the soldiers, who fired at Thorn, and 
laid him dead by the side of Lieutenant 
Bennett. 

CANTERBURY, Archbishop of, 
attacked by the mob at Canterbury, 
August, 1832. 

CANTERBURY Castle built 1075. 

CANTERBURY Palace robbed, 
October 11, 1778. 

CANTON, China, the only place 
in that empire frequented by Europeans. 
The intercourse began in 1517, when 
Emanuel, king of Portugal, sent a fleet 
of eight ships to China, with an ambas- 
sador, who was conveyed to Pekin, and 
obtained permission to establish a trade 
at Canton. About 1634, some ships 
from England visited Canton, but a rup- 
ture and battle immediately took place. 
In 1680, we find the first notice of 
a ship sent direct by the East India Com- 
pany, to Canton. In 1700 there were 
three ports open for the reception of 
English vessels, but Canton has latterly 
been the only one. The monopoly of all 
foreign trade is consigned to a limited 
number of merchants, seldom exceeding 
eight, but occasionally more. In 1793, 
they were twelve ; in 1808, fourteen. In 
1832, the principal mercantile firms con- 
sisted of eight British establishments, 
seven American establishments, and one 
joint French and Dutch establishment. 

1831. A dispute between the British 
residents at Canton, and the Chinese 
authorities occurred, the former com- 
plained of injuries and insults received 
from the latter, and announced that un- 
less remedied, all commercial intercourse 
would be suspended on August 1. 

The act 3 and 4, Will. IV.,' c. 93, for 
regulating the trade to China and India, 
passed in 1834, contains new regulations 
as to the British trade with Canton ; also 
the repeal of prohibitions upon the im- 
portation of tea and goods from China, 
imposed by 6, Geo. IV., c. 107. 

Oct. 1833, 10,000 houses swept away, 
and 1000 persons perished, in conse- 
quence of an inimdation, occasioned by 
incessant rains. In 1835, Oct. 22, a great 
fire in Canton. It was stated to have 
consumed vipwards of 3,000 houses. 

1839. Disputes arising about the opium 
trade, an edict was issued by the Chi- 
nese government, containing new port 
regulations against opium. 



1840. In consequence of the Chinese 
war, an order from the emperor reached 
Canton, Feb. 12, suspending trade with 
all foreign nations. See China. 

CANTON, John, natural philoso- 
pher, born at Stroud, in Gloucester- 
shire. July 31, 1718. In 1742, he suc- 
ceeded Mr. Watkins in his school. In 
1745, he made the science of electricity, 
the object of his particular investigation. 
In 1749, he assisted his friend, Benjamin 
Robins, Esq., in his experiments for 
ascertaining the height to which rockets 
ascend, and. the distance at which their 
light may be seen. In January, 1750, 
Mr. Canton communicated to the Royal 
Society, his method of making artificial 
magnets, without the use of, and yet 
far superior to any natural ones. 

1752. He had the honour of being the 
first person in England, who, by draw- 
ing the electric fire from the clouds, du- 
ring a thunder storm, verified Dr. Frank- 
lin's hypothesis of the similarity of 
lightning and electricity. In 1753, his 
paper entitled, " Electrical Experiments, 
with an Attempt to account for their 
several Phenomena," was read at the 
Royal Society. In 1759, he inserted a 
letter in the Gentleman's Magazine, for 
September, on the electrical properties 
of Tourmaline. Mr. Canton's observa- 
tions on the transit of Venus were com- 
municated to the Royal Society, in No- 
vember 1761 ; and in 1762, a letter ad- 
dressed by him to Dr. Franklin was read, 
containing remarks on Mr. Delaval's 
electrical experiments : in December of 
the same year, his curious paper entitled 
" Experiments to prove that Water is 
not incompressible," was read. Mr. 
Canton had the gold medal delivered to 
him, November 30, 1765. In 1768, 
he communicated to the Society, " an 
easy Method of making a phosphorus, 
that will imbibe and emit Light, like the 
Bolognian stone, with Experiments and 
Observations." His last paper address- 
ed to the Royal Society, was read in 
December, 1769, and contained " Ex- 
periments to prove that the Luminous- 
ness of the Sea arises from the Putrefac- 
tion of its Animal Substances." His 
death took place in March, 1772^ at the 
age of 54. 

CANUTE, recognised king of all 
England, 1017- He married Emma, 
the widow of Ethelred. In 1019, he 
went over to Denmark, subdued Norway, 
and was made king of England, Den- 

2 D 



CAP 



•202 



C A P 



mark, and Norway. In 1025, he made a 
second voyage to Denmark, on account 
of the invasion of the Swedes, but was 
compelled to return to England. In 1028, 
he entered on another war with Sweden, 
and set sail for Denmark, when he 
seized on the crown of Sweden, of which 
he remained in quiet possession, and 
took the title of king of England, Den- 
mark, Norway, and Sweden. In 1033, he 
went on an expedition against the Scots, 
for refusing to do homage, which was 
compromised. Acquired the surname of 
Great, on account of his conquests. In 
1034, he showed a contempt of flattery 
from his nobility, on the sea not obeying 
his commands, and never after would 
wear his crown, but ordered it to be put 
on the head of a crucifix, at Winchester. 
He died November 12, 1036, at Shafts- 
bury, and was buried at Winchester, 
having reigned 19 years. 

CANVAS Batteau, capable of 
conveying 100 soldiers across the widest 
river, invented by Colonel Brown, 1809. 
CAOUTCHOUC, or India-rubber, 
introduced into Europe in 1735. No- 
thing was known concerning its natural 
history, till a memoir was presented, in 
1736, to the French academy, by M. 
Condamine. It is obtained from the 
milky juice of different plants, in hot 
countries. The chief of these are the 
Jatropha elastica, and Urceola elastica. 
The juice is applied in successive coatings 
on a mould of clay, and dried by the fire 
or in the sun ; and when of a sufficient 
thickness, the mould is crushed, and the 
pieces shaken out. M. de la Condamine 
mentions, that, owing to its being im- 
pervious to water, it was made into boats 
by the Indians. 

Means have, within these few years, 
been discovered of reducing it to a state 
of solution; and when thin filaments of 
it are spread over cloth, or any other 
substance, it is rendered impervious 
alike to air and water. Air cushions 
and pillows are manufactured in this way, 
as are water-proof cloaks, hats, boots, 
shoes, &c. Previous to 1830, the im- 
portations of caoutchouc were compara- 
tively inconsiderable. In that year, they 
amounted to about 52,000lbs ; while, 
during the year ending April 5, 1833, 
the quantity entered for consumption, 
amounted to 178,676ibs. The duty has 
been reduced from 5d. per lb: to Is. per 
cwt. 
CAPE BojADOR, or Nun, doubled for 
the first time by the Portuguese, 1434. 



CAPE Blanco, on the coast of 
Africa, discovered 1441. 

CAPE Breton, island, British North 
America, country of Nova Scotia, first 
settled by the French in 1712; surrend- 
ered to a British force in 1745, and was 
confirmed with all the other French 
possessions in North America, to Eng- 
land, by the treaty of 1763. In 1820, 
it was annexed as a county to Nova 
Scotia, with the privilege of sending two 
members to the House of Assembly, at 
Halifax. The trade of the island is 
yearly augmenting in value and impor- 
tance. The imports, in 1832, were in 
value £78,000. 

CAPE-CLEAR, an island in Ireland, 
long known to mariners as a landmark 
and is mentioned in the voyage of Pietro 
Quirino in the year 1431. 

CAPE-COAST-CASTLE, town and 
fortress, in Western Africa, for some time 
the seat of the British government on the 
Gold Coast. It was originally settled by 
the Portuguese, but the Dutch dispos- 
sessed them in a few years, and took 
great pains to strengthen the fortifica- 
tions. Admiral Holmes captured it, and 
demolished the citadel, in 1661, since 
which time it has remained in the pos- 
session of Great Britain. When the 
Dutch admiral, De Ruyter, destroyed 
all the English factories along the coast 
in 1665, this place withstood his utmost 
endeavours. In 1757, with a small force, 
it successfully resisted the French, under 
De Kersin. Cape-Coast-Castle was 
originally surrounded with wood, but a 
large tract of country has been lately 
cleared ; streets are now formed, and a 
population is rising. 

CAPE OF Good Hope, descried 
and rounded in 1493, by Bartholomew 
Diaz ; but that nax'tgator, appalled by 
the stormy aspect, returned, and named 
it the Cape of Tempests. Emanuel, 
king of Portugal, inspired by a nobler 
spirit, called it the Cape of Good Hope. 
He equipped Vasco de Gama, who, in 
1497, passed with safety, and even with 
ease, round th^s di-eaded boundary, into 
the seas of India. The Portuguese neg- 
lected it, but the Dutch soon discovered 
the advantages to be derived from it. In 
1650, they founded Cape-Town, and ex- 
tended their settlement to its jjresent 
limits of the Nieuwveld mountains in the 
north, and the Great Fish River in the 
east. Cape-Town was attacked and re- 
duced by a British naval force in Sep- 
tember, 1795. It was restored by the 



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])eace ot Amiens, but, on the renewal of 
of hostilities, was re-captured by the 
British in January, 1806. 

Under the administration of the earl 
of Calcedon, from 1807 to 1811, this co- 
lony rapidly rose to wealth and import- 
ance ; but under succeeding governors, a 
different policy was pursued, and dis- 
turbances arose with the Caffres. A 
treaty had been made with these people, 
by which it was agreed that a neutral 
ground should be established between 
the Great Fish River, (the British boun- 
dary), and the Keiskamma, (the Caffre 
boundary); but, in 1834, along the 
frontier line from the Winterberg to the 
mouth of the Keiskamma, a distance of 
about 100 miles, 15,000 Caffres made a 
simultaneous irruption into the colony. 
The aggregate of distress is thus summed 
up in the report. The number of peti- 
tions for relief amounted to 1895, com- 
prising at least, 8370 individuals. Of 
these applications, 891 were from per- 
sons of Dutch extraction, 300 from Bri- 
tish settlers, and 704 from Hottentots 
and other persons of colour. It appears, 
however, that ample vengeance was 
taken on the Caffres, on the arrival of the 
military, by the unjustifiable and indi- 
scriminate slaughter of many of the de- 
fenceless inhabitants, as well as those 
engaged in the insurrection. There 
were taken from them also (besides the 
conquest and alienation of their country) 
about 60,000 head of cattle, and almost all 
their goats ; their habitations were every 
where destroyed, and their gardens and 
corn-fields laid waste. To this may be 
added the horrible murder of the chief 
Hintza. 

In 1835 and 1836, in consequence of 
these disasters, about 1000 families, 
chiefly Dutch, emigrated to the neigh- 
bourhood of the Zoola countrj^ which is 
under their despotic chief Dingan. By 
the latest accounts in 1840, the Caffres 
continued to make irruptions, and to 
carry off the cattle, 

CAPE-HORN, doubled by Le Maire 
and Schouten, Dutch navigators, in 
16 16, who called it after the town of 
which Schouten was a native. These 
enterprising men performed a voyage 
round the world in about two years. 

CAPE-DE-VERDE, discovered by 
Denis Fernandez, a Portuguese, in 1446. 
CAPE-DE-VERDE Islands, dis- 
covered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese 
in the service of Portugal, in 1449. 

CAPERNAUM, a town of Palestine, 



which stood on the coast of the sea of 
Galilee, in the borders of Zebulon and 
Nephtalim. Matt. iv. 15. It was cele- 
brated as the residence of Jesus Christ. 
Although it stood till the 7th and 8th 
centuries,its precise situation is quite lost. 

CAPILLARY Attraction, the 
property of liquids to rise above the com- 
mon level, and preserve their elevation, 
as if exempt from the power of gravity. 
This phenomenon, though the subject is 
still somewhat obscure, has been illus- 
trated by Hook, Clairant, Young, Lap- 
lace, and Poisson. The latter disco- 
vered the inferiority of density which 
takes place near the exposed surface of 
a liquid, which he illustrated in an article 
on the Equilibrium of Fluids, published 
in the ninth volume of the Memoirs of 
the Academy of Sciences, and more fully 
developed in his " Nouvelle Theorie 
de I'Action Capillaire," 1829. 

CAPITAL Punishments. In the 
seventy-five heads, under which crimes 
have been defined in the criminal tables, 
the offences classed under thirty-one 
were subject to capital punishments 
after the passing of the acts of the 7th 
and 8th Geo. IV., in 1827, for consoli- 
dating and amending the Criminal Laws. 
In 1832, capital punishment was abo- 
lished for cattle-stealing, larceny to the 
amount of £5. in a dwelling-house, coin- 
ing, and forgery, (except of wills and 
powers of attorny to transfer stock) ; in 
1833, for housebreaking; in 1834, for 
returning from transportation ; in 1835, 
for sacrilege, and letter-stealing by ser- 
vants of the post-office. 

1837. By the act of the 1st year of 
Victoria I., capital punishment was abo- 
lished for all offences except the follow- 
ing : — murder and attempt to murder, 
when accompanied with injuries dange- 
rous to life ; rape, and carnally abusing 
girls under ten years of age ; unnatural 
offences ; burglary when attended with 
violence to persons; robbery, when at- 
tended with cutting or wounding ; arson 
of dwelling-houses or ships, when the 
lives of persons therein were endangered; 
piracy, when murder is attempted ; show- 
ing false signals to cause shipwreck; 
setting fire to her majesty's ships of war; 
riot, or feloniously destroying buildings; 
embezzlement by servants Of the Bank 
of England; high treason. These last 
six offences, from their unfrequent oe- 
currence, have not found heads in the 
tables, so that of the offences classed 
under thirty-one heads in the tables, 



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which remained capital till the year 1833, 
only the six first of the foregoing are 
now subjected to the extreme pe- 
nalty of the law. See Criminal Law ; 
Punishments, &c. 

CAPITATION, a tax or imposition 
raised on each person in proportion to 
his labour, industry, office, rank &c. 
This kind of tribute is very ancient. In 
France, it was introduced by Louis XIV. 
in 1695. 

CAPITOL, Capitolium, the ancient 
fort or castle, on the -Mons Capitohmus 
at Rome, wherein was a temple dedicated 
to Jupiter, thence also denominated Ca- 
pitohmus. The foundations were laid 
byTarquintheElder,A.u.c. 139, A.C.615, 
in consequence of a vow which he had 
made to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, 
on occasion of his last battle with the 
Sabines, in which he obtained the 
victory. He levelled the steep top of the 
Tarpeian-hill, marked out the plan of the 
temple, which he had promised to erect, 
and laid the foundation of that struc- 
ture, which afterwards became the prin- 
cipal place of the Roman worship. It 
was finished by Tarquin the Proud, a.u.c. 
221, A.c. 533. 

The ceremony of the dedication of the 
temple was performed by the consul 
Horatius, a.u.c, 246, a.c. 508. The 
capitol occupied eight acres of ground ; 
it was 200 feet broad, and about 215 
long. It was burnt in the time of Sylla 
(a.u.c. 670, A.c. 84), by the negli- 
gence of those who kept it ; re-built by 
Q. Lutatius Catulus, as being consul at 
the time, 'a. c. 79. It was burnt a 
second time in the reign of Vitellius, 
Dec. 19, A. D. 69, and rebuilt under 
Vespasian. It was burnt again in the 
reign of Titus, 80, and rebuilt by Domi- 
tian with a sumptuous magnificence 
which had no bounds. No remains of 
the ancient structure are now to be seen; 
but the present edifice was built on the 
same spot by pope Boniface IX., Gre- 
gory XIII., and Clement VIII., and com- 
pleted about the l6th century. 

CAPITOLINE Games, instituted by 
Domitian, 86, and continued every fourth 
year. 

CAPO D'ISTRIA, Count, arrived 
in Greece, on board the Warspite, British 
ship of war, and assumed the office of 
President of the Republic, January 18, 
1828. He entered Napoli di Romania, 
the seat of government, March 2. The 
fortress of Palamide, the upper citadel, 



was delivered up byTheodoraki Griva, the 
Greek commander, who submitted to the 
new government. In 1831, the new pre- 
sident was assassinated, October 9, while 
on his way to attend divine service, by the 
brother and son of the Mainote chief, 
Mauromichaelis, whom he had impri- 
soned. See Greece, 

CAPPADOCIA, Kingdom of, owed 
its origin to Pharnaces, prefect of the 
Assyrian monarchy, who established 
himself in it during the revolution, and 
about A. c. 744, assumed the regal title. 
His descendants continued on the throne 
of Cappadocia, till the death of Archelaus, 
who bequeathed his kingdom to the em- 
pire, A. D. 13. Cappadocia was made a 
Roman pro\dnce in 17. 

CAPRANU, a town of Greece, near 
the site of the ancient city of Chaeronea. 
The plain, where Philip of Macedon 
crushed the liberties of Greece by the 
overthrow of the Athenians and Thebans, 
A. c. 338, lies a little to the north of this 
place. On this plain were also fought two 
other sanguinary conflicts ; one between 
the Athenians and Beotians, a.c, 447, 
and another, in which the army of Mith- 
ridates was defeated by Sylla, a.c, 86. 

CAPRI Isle, in the Mediterranean 
Sea, the Caprea of the ancients, celebra- 
ted as having been the retreat of the em- 
perors Augustus and Tiberius about the 
commencement of the Christian era. 

CAPS. Caps and hats were first seen 
in these parts of the world, at the entry 
of Carles VII. into Rouen, in 1449. 
When the cap was of velvet, they called 
it mortier ; when of wool, simply bonnet. 
None but kings, princes, and knights, 
were allowed the use of the mortier. In 
1571, a law enacted that every person 
above seven years of age should wear on 
Sundays and holidays, a cap of wool, 
knit made, thickened and dressed in 
England, by some of the trade of cappers j 
under the forfeiture of three farthings for 
every day's neglect ; excepting maids, 
ladies, and gentlewomen, and every lord, 
knight, and gentleman, of twenty marks 
of land, and their heirs, and such as have 
borne office of worship in any city, town, 
or place, and the wardens of the London 
companies. 

CAPTAIN, the title of, first applied to 
regipiental commanders, in the reign of 
Henry VII. The commanding officers 
of ships are noticed xmder this title, as 
early as the reign of Edward I. 

CAPTIVITY, the punishment inflicted 



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205 



CAP 



by providence on the Jews, for their idola- 
try and wickedness. The scripture history 
informs us of five principal captivities, 
which took place during the government 
of the judges. The first was that under 
Chushan-Rishathaim, king of Mesopo- 
tamia, and continued eight years, from 
A. c. 1391 to 1383. The second was 
under Eglon, king of Moab, and lasted 
eighteen years, viz. from A. c. 1343 to 
1325. The third was that of the nor- 
thern tribes, by Jabin, king of Hazor, 
from which they were delivered by Deb- 
orah and Barak, in A. c. 1285. The 
fourth, comprehending north and east 
Israel, was that under the Midianites, 
which lasted seven years, from a.c. 1245 
to 1238. Their fifth was that under the 
Ammonites and Philistines, while Jair 
was judge over north afld east Israel A.c. 
1173. 

But the most signal captivities were 
those of Israel and Judah, under the 
sovereigns of these kingdoms, after they 
were separated, A. c. 975, denominated 
the Assyrian and Babylonish. The As- 
syrian captivity, which comprehended 
that of the ten tribes, commenced in 
the reign of Pekah, king of Israel, a.c. 
740. It closed, in the 22nd. year of Ma- 
nasseh, king of Judah, a.c. 676. It 
has been generally supposed, that the 
greater part of the ten tribes was lost in 
that captivity, which put a period to the 
kingdom of Israel. 

The Babylonish captivitycomprehended 
that of the kingdom of Judah, or of the 
two tribes of Judah and Benjamin, and 
lasted seventy years. The mode of esti- 
mating its duration has been attended 
with some diflSculty, on account of the 
diflferent captivities of the Jewish nation, 
which occurred about the same period. 
But that in the foiirth year of Jehoiakim 
A.c. 606, seems to be the most accurate 
commencement of this period, and also 
the most agreeable to Scripture. The 
interval extending thence to the second 
year of Cyrus, a. c. 536, when the Jews 
were permitted to return to their own 
land, amounts to seventy years; for 
Cyrus conquered Babylon towards the 
close of the year 538 ; so that the year 
following, viz. 537, was the first year of 
his reign, and 536 the second, and the 
seventy-first from the fourth year of Je- 
hoiakim. 

CAPUA, ancient city of Italy, the 
metropolis of Campania, founded a. c. 
801, famous for being the abode of Han- 



nibal, the Carthaginian general, after 
the battle of Cannje, a.c. 216. After 
the departure of the Carthaginians, Ca- 
pua surrundered to the consuls Appius 
Claudius, and Q. Fulvius Flaccus, a.u.c. 
542. Although the buildings were left 
undemolished, Capua was consigned to 
be the lodging place of husbandmen, of 
the adjoining plain, a warehouse for 
goods, and a granary for corn. Caesar 
sent thither colonies, and restored it to 
its ancient privileges. Cicero was the 
patron of this new city, a.u.c. 704, a.c. 
50. 

A. D. 26. Tiberius dedicated in this 
place, a temple to Jupiter; and in the 
reign of INero, 57, the colonies of Capua, 
and also of Nocera, which were almost 
extinct, were revived and strengthened 
by a number of old soldiers, sent thither 
with the same prerogatives as the ancient 
inhabitants. In 841, the city was totally 
destroyed by an army of Saracens, and 
the inhabitants were driven into the 
mountains. The Lombards descended 
again into the plain, built a smaller one 
on the river Volturno, choosing for its 
site that of Casilinum, and calling it by 
the old name of Capua. Since the 
foundation of the new city, old Capua, 
distant from it about two miles, has re- 
mained in ruins, occupying a considera- 
ble extent of ground. In 856, Landulph 
formed at Capua, an independent earl- 
dom, dismembered from the duchy of 
Benevento ; and in the course of a few 
generations, it acquired the title of a 
principality. In the eleventh century, 
the Normans of Aversa expelled the 
Lombard race of princes, and Richard, 
their chief, became prince of Capua, 

Capua is at present the see of an arch- 
bishop, founded in 968. It was taken 
from the pope, by the king of Sicily, 
1035. Capua was fortified by Vauban ; 
it possesses a strong citadel, and is the 
key of Naples. In January, 1799, it 
was taken by a body of troops, com- 
manded by captain Troubridge, of the 
British navy. In 1803, the town was 
considerably affected by an earthquake. 

CAPUCHINS, a religious sect of the 
order of St. Francis. They are a reform, 
made from the order of Cordeliers, set 
on foot in the sixteenth century by Mat- 
thew de Bassi, a religious observant of 
the monastery of Montefiascone. Pope 
Clement, in 1525, gave him permission 
to retire into solitude ; together with as 
many others as would embrace the strict 



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206 



CAR 



observance. In 1528, they obtained the 
pope's bull. In 1529, the order was 
brought into complete form. In 1543, 
the right of preaching was taken from 
the Capuchins by the pope; but in 1545, 
it was restored to them again with ho- 
nour. In 1578, there were seventeen 
general chapters in the order of Capu- 
chius. 

CARACALLA, the Roman emperor, 
son of Severus, born 188. The dignity 
of Caesar was confirmed to him in 197, 
by a decree of the senate. He was made 
consul in 202. Caracalla, and his bro- 
ther Geta, were invested with the tribuni- 
tian power, in 208. They succeeded 
Severus, who died at York, 211. After 
several attempts to murder his brother, 
Caracalla effected his purpose, on oc- 
casion of an interview which was pro- 
posed, with a view to their reconciliation. 
He permitted the memory of his brother 
to be honoured, using at the same time 
this memorable expression, "Let him be 
a god, as long as he is not alive ;" and 
accordingly the senate issued a decree, 
by which he was enrolled among the 
gods. Dion Cassius informs us, that in 
the general massacre of his brother's 
partisans and friends, Caracalla ordered 
all his domestics to the number of 20,000 
persons, to be inhumanly put to death. 
Having established in the capital of his 
empire, a character detestable for cruelty 
and oppression, and levelled the prero- 
gatives of the Roman empire, he was 
assassinated April 8, 217, at the age of 
29, and after a reign of six years, two 
months, and six days. 

CARACCAS, city and province of 
South America; with the province of 
Carabobo, it constitutes, according to 
the law of June 23, 1824, the depart- 
ment of Venezuela, one of the twelve 
departments of Colombia. The city is 
the capital of the department of Vene- 
zuela, formerly a captain generalship. 
In 1812, the population was estimated 
at 50,000. March 26 of that year, the 
city was partly destroyed by an earth- 
quake, and nearly 12,000 persons were 
buried in the ruins. By the political 
events which followed this catastrophe, 
the population was reduced, in four or 
five years, to less than 25,000. Car- 
accas has been conspicuous throughout 
the revolution of Venezuela and New 
Grenada, against the government of 
Spain. See Bolivar and Columbia. 
It capitulated to the Spanish royalists. 



July 28, 1812 ; and was taken again by 
the royalists, July 7, 1814. 

CARACCI, LuDovico, Augustino, 
andANNiBAL, three celebrated Italian 
painters. Having reaped all the advan 
tages they could by contemplation and 
practice, formed a plan of association, 
continued always together, and laid the 
foundation of that celebrated school 
which has ever since been known by the 
name of Caracci's academy. Annibal, 
born 1560, died 1609- Ludovico, born 
] 555, died 1619- Augustino, born 1558, 
died 1602. 

CARACTACUS, one of the most re- 
nowned of the British kings. The cir- 
cumstances of his early years not ascer- 
tained. In the reign of Claudius, when 
Aulus Plautiup, the Roman general, 
landed on the island, a.d. 43, by the 
direction of a giiide, he overtook and de- 
feated Caractacus. In 51, Ostorius Sca- 
pula, a Roman general, was sent to Bri- 
tain in the room of Plautius. He de- 
feated Caractacus, who had taken the 
command of the Silures (South Wales), 
and the Ordovices (North Wales), in se- 
veral battles. Caractacus, flying for pro- 
tection to Cartismandua, queen of the 
Brigantes (Yorkshire), was delivered up 
by her to the Romans ; but Claudius, 
in consequence of his intrepid behaviour, 
restored him to liberty. The subsequent 
events of the British chieftain's life had 
no historian to pen them. 

CARADOC of Llancarvan, the Welsh 
historian, died 1157- 

CARAUSIUS proclaimed emperor of 
Britain, 284 ; said to be the first who 
bestowed Scotland on the Picts, as a re- 
compence for their assistance. Till this 
period the Picts are not mentioned in 
history. In 293 Carausius was assas- 
sinated by Alectus, who then assumed 
the purple. 

CARAVAN, or organized company 
of merchants, &c., who associate together 
in Asia and Africa, that they may travel 
with greater security. The commercial 
intercourse of Eastern and African na- 
tions has been principally carried on, 
from the remotest period, by means of 
caravans. During antiquity the pro- 
ducts of India and China were conveyed 
either from Suez to Rhinoculura, or from 
Bussorah, near the head of the Persian 
Gulf, by the Euphrates, to Babylon, and 
thence by Palmyra, in the Syrian Desert, 
to the ports of Phoenicia, on the Medi- 
terranean, where they were exchanged 



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for the European productions in demand 
in the east. 

After the establishment of the Moham- 
medan faith in the seventh century, large 
caravans of pilgrims used to assemble 
annually in every country where that 
faith was prevalent, to visit the Caaba 
in the temple of Mecca; and though the 
number of pilgrims has of late years de- 
clined greatly, it is still very consider- 
able. The Holy City is crowded during 
the month of Dhalhajja, colresponding 
to the latter part of June and the begin- 
ning of July, not only with eealous de- 
votees, but with opulent merchants, A 
fair, or market, is held in Mecca and its 
vicinity on the twelve days that the pil- 
grims are allowed to remain in that city. 

The two principal caravans which 
yearly rendezvous at Mecca, are those of 
Damascus and Cairo. The first is com- 
posed of pilgrims from Europe and wes- 
tern Asia ; the second of Mahommedans 
from all parts of Africa. The Syrian 
caravan is always accompanied by the 
pascha of Damascus, or one of his prin- 
cipal officers, who gives the signal for 
encamping and starting, by firing a mus- 
ket. Tlie caravan which sets out from 
Cairo for Mecca is not generally so large 
as that of Damascus, and its route along 
the shores of the Red Sea is more dan- 
gerous and fatiguing. The commerce 
carried on by caravans in the interior of 
Africa is widely extended, and of consi- 
derable value. Besides the great cara- 
van which proceeds from Nubia to Cairo, 
and is joined by Mahommedan pilgrims 
from every part of Africa, there are ca- 
ravans which have no object but com- 
merce, which set out from Fez, Algiers, 
Tunis, and Tripoli, and other states on 
the sea coast, and penetrate far into the 
interior. 

CARAVAN, consisting of 2,000 souls, 
returning from Mecca, were all destroy- 
ed, except twenty, by a kamsin, or pes- 
tilential wind, in the deserts of Arabia, 
August 12, 1812. 

CARDAN, Jerom, a voluminous phi- 
losophical and medical writer, was born 
at Pavia, September 24, 1501. At the 
age of 20 he entered the university of 
Pavia, where he prosecuted his studies 
with success. He went to Padua in 1524, 
and in 1525, he took the degree of doc- 
tor in medicine. 

1529. He repaired to Milan, and in 
1539 was admitted a member of the me- 



dical college in that city. In 1547 the 
king of Denmark, on the recommenda- 
tion of Vesahus, invited him to accept 
the office of a professor in the university 
of Copenhagen, which he refused. At 
Milan he continued to reside until 1559, 
his time being employed in the practice 
of medicine, and in teaching mathema- 
tics. From 1559 to 1562, he resided at 
Pavia, being invited to accept the chair 
of professor in medicine there ; and from 
1562 to 1570, at Bologna, where he filled 
a similar office. Soon after, he was sent 
for to Rome, was made member of the 
college of physicians there, and assigned 
a pension by the pope, which he retained 
to the time of his death, Sept. 21, 1576. 

He wrote on every branch of medi- 
cine ; and also some treatises on Natural 
History. His other principal works are, 
his " De Varietate Rerum," published 
in 1550, and again, 1557; "Commen- 
taries on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates," 
in 1553; treatise " De Subtilitate," pub- 
lished in 1550, entirely botanical, and 
containing descriptions of numerous 
plants, then first introduced into Italy ; 
" De Chinse et Sarsapariilae Radicibus," 
in 1566, and "Opuscula Artem Medi- 
cam exercentibus utilissima." In ma- 
thematical science. Cardan claims a tri- 
bute of more unrestricted commendation 
than in medicine; in algebra particiilarly 
he challenges the honour of having made 
some important discoveries ; though his 
pretensions, as an original inventor, have 
been contested by Tartaglia. These dis- 
coveries are contained in the 10th book 
of his arithmetical writings, which was 
published at Mikn in 1545. 

CARDIGAN Castle, built in 1155, 
for the defence of the borders, besieged 
by Rhys Gryflfydd in 1164, when it was 
taken and razed to the ground. 

CARDINALS were originally the 
parish priests at Rome ; title began to 
he used, 308 ; college of, founded by 
pope Pascal I., 817 ; did not elect the 
jDopes till 1160 ; wore the red hat (to re- 
mind them, that thy ought to shed their 
blood, if required, for religion) and were 
declared princes of the church, 1222 ; 
set fire to the conclavj, and separated, 
and a vacancy in the papal chair for two 
years, 1314 ; Carassa was hanged by 
order of Pius IV, 1560 ; as was Cardind 
Poll, under Leo X ; title of Eminence 
first given by pope Urban, VIII. , about 
1630. 



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CARDS said to have been invented 
about the year 1390, for the purpose of 
diverting Charles VI., king of France, 
by Jaquemin Gringonneur, a painter in 
Paris ; forbidden the use of in Castile, 
1387- Known in England, in the time 
of Edward IV. On an apphcation of 
the card-makers of London to parlia- 
ment, 1463, an act was made against the 
importation of playing-cards, 3 Edwd. 
IV., c. 4. Cards and dice were doubly 
taxed, April 8, 1755; additional tax in 
1789. 428,000 packs stamped in Eng- 
land in 1775. 

CAREW Castle, Pembroke, built 
1100. 

CAREY, Db. William, an eminent 
Christian missionar)^ and distinguished 
oriental scholar, was born at Paulers- 
pury, in Northamptonshire, Aug. 17, 
1761. At a very early period, he dis- 
covered a great aptitude in acquiring 
knowledge; at 14 years old was ap- 
prenticed to a shoemaker in the village 
of Hackleton, where he attracted the 
notice, and obtained the friendship of, 
the Rev. Thomas Scott, then of Raven- 
stone. He joined a baptist congrega- 
tion, and commenced village preaching 
in 1783, and was publicly baptized at 
Northampton, in the river Nen, by the 
late Dr. Ryland. Chosen pastor of the 
baptist congregation, at Moulton, near 
Northampton, in 1791. His resources 
were then limited, yet he studied the 
Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, 
and devoted his spare time, and employed 
the energies of his active mind in ex- 
tracting from the Holy Scriptures, and 
arranging for himself, a system of divine 
truth. From Moulton he removed to 
Leicester in the year 1787, having been 
invited to take charge of the baptist con- 
gregation in that town. 

With Mr. Thomas, who died in India 
not long after, he was designated as a 
missionary to India, May 20, 1793 ; 
June 13 following, the two missionaries 
embarked on board a Danish Indiaman, 
accompanied by Mr. Carey's whole fa- 
mily. Early in 1794, they arrived in 
Bengal, and the same year Mr. Carey 
was invited to take charge of an indigo 
factory near Malda, the property of Mr. 
Udney, a servant of the East India 
Company, of high rank. In 1795 he 
succeeded in establishing a school in the 
neighbourhood of his factory, and began 
to preach there in the language of the 
country every sabbath day. In 1797, 



he made a journey into Bootan, and ob- 
tained the consent of the Soubah to an 
attempt to introduce Christianity into 
that country. In 1799 he resolved to 
relinquish his appointment in the neigh- 
bourhood of Malda, and to take up his 
residence in the Danish settlement of 
Serampore. 

1801. Mr. Carey's success in ths 
study of the vernacular languages of 
India recommended him to the Governor 
General, Marquess Wellesley, who had 
founded a college in Fort William, to 
fill the chair of professor, in the Sanscrit. 
Bengalhee, and Mahratta languages. In 
1805, Mr. Carey pubhshed his grammar 
of the Mahratta language, and in the 
same year opened a mission chapel in 
the Loll bazaar in Calcutta. 

1806. The Vellore mutiny occurred, 
sup])osed to have been occasioned by 
the apprehensions of the native troops, 
lest the company should determine to 
pursue a system of forcible proselytism. 
This event so alarmed the Bengal Coun- 
cil that orders were issued for the discon- 
tinuance, for a time, of all missionary 
exertions. But the order was very much 
modified; and, although preaching in 
the Loll Bazaar in Calcutta was for a 
time discontinued, the missionaries were 
assured that the Government was " well 
satisfied with then: character and deport- 
ment, and that no complaint had ever 
been lodged against them." In 1805 
Mr. Carey received from one of the Bri- 
tish universities a diploma as doctor of 
divinity, and in the following year was 
elected a member of the Asiatic Society 
of Calcutta. 

In the department of philology, Dr. 
Carey's labours were immense ; his 
" Mahratta Grammar," already mention- 
ed, was followed by a " Sanscrit Gram- 
mar," 4to., in 1806 ; a " Mahratta Dic- 
tionary," 8vo. in 1810; a " Punjabee 
Grammar," 8vo., in 1812; a " Telinga 
Grammar," 8vo. in 1814; also, between 
the year 1806 and 1810, .he published 
the " Raymayana," in the oiiginal text, 
carefvilly collated, with the most authen- 
tic MSS., in three volumes, 4to. His 
philological works, of a later date are, 
a " Bengalhee Dictionary," in three 
volumes 4to., 1818, of which a second 
edition was published in 1825 ; and 
another in 8vo. in 1827-1830 ; a " Bho- 
tanta Dictionarj^" 4to. 1826 ; also, a 
" Grammar" of the same language, 
edited by him and Dr. Marshman. He 



CAR 209 

liarl also prepared a Dictionary of the 
Sanscrit," which was nearly completed, 
when a fire broke out in Serampore and 
burnt down the printing office, destroy- 
ing the impression together with the 
copy, and other property. 

The versions of the " Sacred Scrip- 
tures," which have issued from the 
Serampore press, and in the preparation 
of which. Dr. Carey took an active and 
laborious part, are numerous. They are 
in the following languages : — Sanscrit, 
Hindee, Brij Bhassa, Mahratta, Ben- 
galhee, Orissa or Ooriya, Telinga, Kur- 
nata, Maldivian, Gujurattee, Buloshee, 
Pushtoo, Punjabee or Shekh, Kash- 
meer, Assam, Burman, Pali or Magtidha, 
Tamul, Cingalese, Armenian, Malay, 
Hindosthanee, and Persian ; to which 
must be added the Chinese. 

Dr. Carey lived to see the Sacred 
Text, chiefly by his instrumentality, 
translated into the vernacular dialects of 
more than forty different tribes. In 
September, 1833, he had a stroke of 
apoplexy, and died June 9, 1834. His 
character is thus summed up by his bio- 
grapher, the Rev. Eustace Carey. " In 
his religious feelings and experience, his 
simplicity was most to be admired, and 
was worthy of unqualified imitation. 
The plain, substantial, unvarnished doc- 
trines of the Gospel, were the basis of 
his hope, the stay and consolation of his 
spirit." 

CARIA, an ancient province of Asia, 
occupying the south western part of Asia 
Minor. Though frequently mentioned 
in ancient history, its exact limits are 
not known in the present day. The 
Carians claimed the honour of being 
aborigines, and traced their name 
and origin to Car, the brother of Lydus 
and Mysus From the 11th to the 
27th Olympiad, they constructed vessels 
and traversed the sea, and thus ac- 
quired a degree of power which gave 
them the rank of a maritime empire. 
About A. c. 734, the Carians acquired 
the power of the Mediterranean. After 
various struggles in defence of their 
country and their liberty, they were 
at last obliged to submit to the Per- 
sians. 

In the expedition of Xerxes against 
Greece, the Carians assisted him with 
seventy vessels, which were annexed to 
his naval armament. Lygdamis ascended 
the throne of Caria towards the 83d 
olympiad, and was succeeded by Heca- 



CAR 



tomnus, who made Mylasa the capital 
of his kingdom. He was allowed by the 
Persian coint to possess the kingdom of 
Caria till his death, which happened in 
the 99th or 100th Olympiad, a.c. 353, 
the Rhodians threw oflF the yoke of the 
Carians ; but Artemisia, the sister and 
widow of Mausolus, reduced them to 
their allegiance, and also the inhabitants 
of the island of Cos, who had imitated 
their neighbours in their revolt. When 
Alexander had gained the battle of 
Granicus, a.c. 334, he penetrated into Ca- 
ria, and re-established Ada, the queen 
of that countr)', in possession of her 
kingdom. 

CARIBBEE Islands, West Indies, 
extend in a right line from Anguilla in 
the north to Tobago south, and form the 
eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea. 
The principal of them are, St. Christo- 
pher's, Guadaloupe, Antigua, Mont- 
serrat, Mariegalante, Martinico, St. Lu- 
cia, St. Vincent's, called the windward 
isles, and Grenada, Tobago, Barbadoes, 
&c. They were discovered by Colum- 
bus in his second voyage, in November, 
1493 ; and thus called by him from the 
name which the natives of Hispaniola 
gave to their ancient possessors. See 
the several Islands. 

Carinthia, a duchy of Austria, 
derives its name from the ancient Carni, 
who were a colony of the Celtes, called, 
in later times, Carantani and Carinthi. 
The inhabitants are partly descendants 
of the ancient Germans, and partly of 
the Sclavonians or Wends. Christianity 
was introduced into this duchy in the 
seventh century. In the year 1282, the 
Emperor Rodolph I. gave this duchy to 
Maynard, count of Tyrol, on condition 
that when his male issue failed, it should 
revert to the house of Austria, which 
happened in 1331, 

This duchy was occupied by the 
French under Buonaparte, who fixed his 
head-quarters at Villach, in March, 1797- 
It is again under the Austrian govern- 
ment, and divided for more convenient 
jurisdiction into Upper and Lower. 

CARINUS, the Roman emperor, hav- 
ing become odious for his vices, the 
army elected Dioclesian, in 284. Ca- 
rinus was assassinated by a soldier, 
whose wife he had violated in 286. 

CARISBROOK Castle built 692 ; 
rebuilt in 1610. 

CARLISLE, Richard, convicted of 
publishing Paine's "Age of Reason," 
2 E 



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210 



CAR 



Oct. 15, IS 19. On November IG, fol- 
lowing, sentenced to three years' impri- 
sonment in Doncaster gaol, and fined 
1500/. Jan. 10, 1831, tried and con- 
victed for a seditious libel, alleged to 
have a tendency to excite the agricultural 
population to riot, and destroy property. 
He was subsequently sentenced to two 
years' imprisonment, to pay a fine of 
200/., and to give securities to the 
amount of 1000/. to keep the peace for 
ten years. 

CARLISLE, capital of the county of 
Cumberland, flourished in the time of 
the Romans, as appears from the anti- 
quities that are to be met with here, and 
the Roman coins that have been dug up. 
During the incursions of the Danes, in 
the eighth and ninth centuries, this city 
underwent its full share of calamity, and 
was wholly consumed by fire ; its in- 
habitants were massacred and its walls 
overthrown. In 875 its very founda- 
tions were buried in the earth, so that, 
it is said, large oaks grew upon them. 
In this desolate state the city remained 
nearly 200 years. William Rufus, about 
1094, made a visit to this city, and, per- 
ceiving its importance as a frontier sta- 
tion, gave orders that it should be com- 
pletely restored ; several public edifices 
were built, a strong fortress erected, and 
the whole defended by a wall of circum- 
vallation. 

Having been ceded by Stephen to the 
Scottish king, David, about the year 
1136, it was made a place of retreat by 
the latter, after his defeat in the dreadful 
battle of the Standard, in 1138. In 
1153, David, king of Scotland, e.xpired 
here; and in 1216, Alexander, king of 
Scotland, made himself master of the 
place. In the 35th year of Edward I., 
1307, the parliament met here, Jan. 20, 
and continued sitting till the palm Sun- 
day following. In 1338, Carlisle was 
besieged by the Scots, and the suburbs 
burnt. In the war between Charles I. 
and liis parliament, it sustained a siege, 
and the general distress was increased 
by the calamity of famine. The block- 
ade commenced October 9, 1644, and 
continued till 1645, when the place sur- 
rendered to General Lesley, who com- 
manded for the parliament. In 1745, it 
surrendered, after a «hort siege, to the 
forces of the pretender. 

CARLISLE Castle, built 680 ; city 
walls built 690 ; both repaired 1092 and 
1434. 



CARLOS Don, Prince of Spain, 
poisoned by order of his father through 
jealousy, 1568. 

CARLOS Don, brother of Ferdinand 
VII. of Spain, whose contest for the 
crown has agitated the country for many 
years. In 1812, the Cortes having re- 
established the Salic law, and Ferdinand 
having no sons, Don Carlos became heir 
presumptive to the throne ; but Ferdi- 
nand not acknowledging the legality of 
these proceedings of the Cortes, issued 
a decree in March 1830, replacing the 
right of succession on the same footing 
on which it had stood in 1789, and his 
daughter was thus capacitated to mount 
the throne. About 1825, Don Carlos 
began to lay claim to the crown. Pro- 
clamations in his favour were circulated 
throughout the kingdom. Oct. 4, 1833, 
the monks of the convent of San Fran- 
cisco came out of their monastery with 
their cross, and proclaimed Don Carlos 
king by the title of Charles V. 

Although forced to seek refuge in 
Portugal in 1834, he continued to hang 
on the Spanish frontier with the armed 
bands which still adhered to him, afford- 
ing by his presence a rallying point for 
his partisans, and encouraging discon- 
tent throughout the provinces. Don 
Carlos, with his family and suite, Avere 
received, on the 31st May, on board the 
Donegal man of war, which immediately 
sailed for England; June 18, landed at 
Portsmouth, and was received with all 
due honours, as a Spanish prince. July 
10, having left England secretly, he 
appeared suddenly among his friends 
and adherents in Spain. Aug. 30, 1834, 
the Spanish Chamber of Proceres, or 
Peers, voted the perpetual exclusion of 
Don Carlos and his heirs from the crown 
and even from the country of Spain ; 
the same vote of exclusion was after- 
wards agreed to by the Procuradores. 

1839. The ci\il war continued to 
this year-, when at length tlie Carhst 
cause was almost annihilated. Oct. 27, 
royal decree of Spain, by which the 
families of persons attachedto the service 
of Don Carlos are exiled from the capital. 
See {"PAIN. 

CARLOVINGIAN, race of French 
kings commences 751, ends 987. 

CARLOVINGIAN emperors became 
extinct, 912. 

CARLOVITZAor CARLowiTZ,town, 
Austrian empire. At this place was 
concluded the celebrated treaty of 1699> 



CAR 



211 



C 4R 



between Germany, Poland, Russia, Ve- 
nice, and Turkey, by the mediation of 
England and Holland, 

CARLSBAD, town, in the Austrian 
empire, in Bohemia. Celebrated for its 
mineral waters, said to have been dis- 
covered in 1358, by Charles IV. while 
on a hunting excursion. In May, 1820, 
a congress was held here by the German 
states, in order to adopt measures for 
the better internal peace and order of 
the confederacy. 

CARLSCRONA, sea port town of 
Sweden. It derives its origin and name 
from Charles XI. who first laid the 
foundation in 16S0. It is adorned with 
one or two handsome churches, and a 
few tolerable houses of brick. In 1714 
a dock was begun here, hollowed out of 
the solid rock : it was finished in 1724, 
but as it was too small for the admission 
of men of war, in 1757 new docks were 
begun, upon a stupendous plan worthy 
of the ancient Romans. In 1790 the 
town suffered from a tremendous fire, 
had 1087 houses, two churches, all the 
merchants' houses except two, and all 
their magazines, destroyed, June 17. 

CARLTON House, fete given at, 
when many were hurt by the pressure 
of the A'ast assemblage. June 20, 1811. 
Fete at, given to the Duke of Welling- 
ton, 2500 persons present, July 21, 
1814. 

CARMELITES, or White Friars, or 
the Order of our Lady of Mount Carmel, 
an order of religious, making one of the 
four tribes of mendicants, or begging 
friars. They take both their name and 
origin from Mount Carmel in Palestine, 
formerly inhabited by the prophets Elijah 
and Elisha, and by the children of the 
prophets, from which this order pretend 
to descend in an uninterrupted succes- 
sion. Phocos, a Greek monk, says, that 
in his time, in 1185, Elijah's cave was 
still extant on the mountain, near which 
were the remains of a monastery; that 
some years before, an old monk, Ber- 
thold of Calabria, by revelation, as he 
pretended, from the prophet Elijah, 
fixed there, and assembled ten brothers. 
In 1205, Albert, patriarch of Jerusalem, 
gave the solitaries a rigid rule. In 1217, 
or, according to others, 1226, pope 
Honorius III. approved and confirmed 
this rule ; though it was afterwards mi- 
tigated by Innocmt IV.' The Carmel- 
ites came into England in 1240, and 
erected a great number of monasteries. 



Their first liouses were at Alnwick in 
Northumberland, and Ailesford in Kent. 
In England and Wales they had about 
forty houses. In the sixteenth century, 
St. Theresa, a Spanish lady of an illus- 
trious family, undertook the diflScult 
task of reforming the Carmelite order. 
Pius V. approved the design, and Gre- 
gory XIII. confirmed the reform in 
1580; at the particular desire of Philip 
II., king of Spain. 

CARNATIC, a proAince, in the south- 
ern part of the peninsula of Hindoostan, 
comprehending the former dominions 
and dependencies of the Arcot nabobs. 
The first irruption of the Mahomedans 
into the Carnatic was in 1310; while 
Allah ud Deen, the scourge of the Hin- 
doos, reigned on the Delhi throne. But 
actual possession does not apj^ear to have 
been taken until the conclusion of Au- 
rengzebe's reign, in the commencement 
of the eighteenth century. In 1743, 
Anwar ud Deen was appointed Nabob 
of the Carnatic, and of its capital Arcot. 
In 1754, after a contest between the 
different claimants, aided by the French 
and English East India Companies, 
Mohammed Ali was left in possession of 
that portion of the Carnatic recovered 
for him by the British arms. In 1763 
it was again surrendered to the Nabob 
Mahomed Ali, after having been a se- 
cond time wrested from the French. 

Finally, in 1783, the British had to 
re-conquer it from Hyder and his son 
Tippoo. Mahomed Ali died in 1795, 
and was succeeded by his son Oomdut 
ul Omra, who died in 1801. Azim ul 
Omra was then raised to the throne, on 
which he continued until 1819, when he. 
died, and was succeeded by Auzum Jah, 
his eldest son, who was proclaimed sou- 
bahdar of the Carnatic. In 1801 the 
whole of the possessions of the Nabob 
of the Carnatic, with the exception of a 
small portion reserved by him as house- 
hold lands, were transferred to the Bri- 
tish government by treaty. 

CARNEADES, theorator, authorof the 
third or new academy, sent a.c. 155,witli 
others from Athens to Rome, to plead 
before the senate for a mitigation of the 
tribute levied on their city; by their 
eloquence they alarmed the senate, but 
excited among the Roman youth an ad- 
miration and emulation of their talents. 
Carneades died A.c. 128, aged 90. 

CARNIiE, festivals of, instituted at 
Sparta a.c. 675, to be observed annually 



CAR 



212 



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for nine days, in August. Terpander, 
the poet, was the first victor. 

CARNIOLA, province of the Avis- 
trian empire, with the title of duchy, 
forming with Stjria, Carinthia. Friuli, 
and the territory of Trieste, the division 
of the empire called Inner Austria. 
Converted to Christianity about the 
eighth century. In the time of Charle- 
magne and his immediate successors, it 
was governed by the dukes of Friuli, 
and afterwards by those of Carinthia. 
Under ths emperor Otho II., about 976, 
it became a distinct margraviate, and, 
on its acquisition by the house of Aus- 
tria, was raised to the rank of a duchy. 
By the treaty of Vienna, in October 
1809, it was made over to France, and 
annexed to the first military division of 
the Illyrian provinces ; but, in 1814, was 
restored to Austria. 

CAROLAN, author of the beautiful 
Irish melodies which have been put into 
words by Mr. Thomas Moore, died 1738, 
aged 68. 

CAROLINA, North, one of the 
United States of North America. The 
first permanent settlements were formed 
here about the middle of the seven- 
teenth century. North Carolina was long- 
united under the same government with 
South Carolina; as early as 1715, it iiad 
a separate legislature, and in 1727 it was 
formed into a distinct province. The 
constitution of North Carolina was 
agreed to by representatives chosen for 
that purpose at Hahfax, Dec. 18, 1776. 
The legislative authority is vested in a 
body, styled the General Assembly, 
consisting of a senate and a house of 
.I'epresentatives, both elected annually by 
he people. 

CAROLINA, South, with North 
Carolina and Georgia, was first granted 
to the Earl of Clarendon and others, by 
Charles II. in 1663, and the first perma- 
nent settlement was made at Charleston 
in 1710. The first constitution of this 
state was formed in 1775, the present 
was adopted in 1790. The legislative 
authority is vested in a general assein- 
])ly, consisting of a senate and house of 
representatives. 

1832. Disputes in the United States 
on account of impost duties, in which 
South Carolina took the lead. In No- 
vember, a convention of delegates from 
all parts of the states assembled at Co- 
lumbia, and assuming legislative power, 
enacted an ordinance by which the tariff 



acts of 1828 and 1832 were declared 
null and void. Dec. 10, the Presi- 
dent of the United States addressed 
a long argumentative proclamation to 
the people of South Carolina, in which 
he endeavoured to show the propriety of 
the laws of which they complained, and 
the policy of obedience ; and, in conclu- 
sion, alluded to the extreme measures 
which might become necessary for the 
preservation of the Union — the recourse 
to arms. >'March 15, 1833, the Con- 
vention of South Carolina passed a re- 
solution revoking their nullifying pro- 
test of Nov. 24, 1832. 

CAROLINE, Elizabeth, Princess 
of Brunswick, afterwards Queen Consort 
of George IV. born May 17, 1768; 
married April 8, 1795. In 1808, his 
late majesty George III. issued a com- 
mission, appointing certain lords to in- 
vestigate her royal highness's conduct, 
and to report upon it to his majesty ; 
and they exonerated the princess from 
all the criminal charges which had been 
made against her. Feb. 11, 1813, a 
second enquiry was made, and after 
several days' minute investigation, the 
commissioners made their report to the 
prince regent, in terms which tended to 
establish the innocency of her royal 
highness. In consequence of these 
transactions her royal highness set out 
on her travels and remained abroad 
several years. 

By the death of George III. Jan. 29, 
1820, she became Queen Consort of 
George IV. Arrived in England June 5, 
1820, from Calais. June 10, demanded 
a restoration of all her rights, in answer 
to propositions which were made through 
the medium of Lord Liverpool. On the 
22nd the queen protested against any 
secret investigation of her conduct, and 
desired time to procure witnesses. 28th, 
a bag, containing charges against the 
queen, was opened by a secret committee 
of the House of Lords. July 7, Ma- 
jocchi and other witnesses against the 
queen, landed at Dover. 24th, the 
queen petitioned for a list of times and 
places, as well as the several charges 
adduced against her, which were refused 
by the house of peers. Aug. 3, she 
removed to Brandenburgh House, Ham- 
mersmith. 19th, the attorney-general 
(Sir Robert Gifford) opened his charge 
against the queen. 

A bill of Pains and Penalties, founded 
on the charges to degrade and divorce 



CAR 



213 



CAR 



the queen, was introduced into the^house 
of peers by Lord Liverpool. Nov. 6, it 
was read a second time, when a division 
took place, there being 123 against 95 
voices. The 10th, being the third reading, 
the numbers were only 108 against 99, 
the numerical majority of nine corres- 
ponding exactly to the number of minis- 
ters in the house, who were admitted 
prosecutors as well as judges in that 
difficult case. To pass the bill by such 
a majority, and in opposition to the will 
of a great portion of the British nation, 
would have been dangerous in the ex- 
treme, and Lord Liverpool, in conse- 
quence, moved that the bill should be 
reconsidered that day six months. 

1821. At the coronation of George IV. 
July 19, solemnized in Westminster Ab- 
bey, Queen Caroline attempted to gain 
entrance into Westminster Hall and the 
Abbey, but was repulsed. Aug. 7, 
died at Hammersmith, after an illness 
of eight days. 21st. Her remains 
were interred in the family vault at 
Brunswick. 

CAROLINE Islands, a very exten- 
sive and numerous range, the most wes- 
tern of Polynesia, reaching between the 
parallels of 3i° and 94° N. over nearly 30° 
of longitude, from Current Island, or 
Pulo Anna, on the west, to Ualan, on 
the east. They were among the latest 
known in the South Sea : and were dis- 
covered first in 1686, by Francisco La- 
zeano, driven thither by a storm from the 
Ladrones, who gave them the name after 
Charles of Spain. Since that time there 
has been a considerable intercourse be- 
tween the two groups ; and the ship- 
wreck of Captain Wilson in 1783, made 
us acquainted with the Pelew Islands, 
Hogolen, Yap, and Ponnipet, discovered 
by the Russians in 1826, are high is- 
lands, and the largest in the Archipelago. 
Notwithstanding, these islands were but 
little known in detail till Captain Uau- 
perry in the Coquille, in 1834, ran 
through their whole extent from E. to 
W. discovering many small islands, and 
surveying in detail the island of Ualan 
or Oualan. 

This island was, about 1836, visited 
and described by the Russian navi- 
gator. Captain Luthe. It is the most 
easternmost of the group, and is 24 
miles in circumference. The people are 
rather below the middle size, well made, 
but slight, hospitable, peaceful and- kind 
in their manners. The urosses or chiefs 



reside altogether in one small town, and 
are implicitly obeyed by the people. 

CARP, first brought to England 1525. 

CARPATHIAN ^Nation, surrender- 
ed themselves to the Romans who settled 
them in Pannonia in 295. 

CARPENTERS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1344. 

CARPET, order of the, made in Eng- 
land, 1553. 

CARR, Sir John, knt., a facetious 
writer of travels, born 1772. He was 
a native of Devonshire, and bred to the 
law, which he practised in the Middle 
Temple ; and at first had recourse to 
travel, on account of ill health. His 
first publication was " The Fury of Dis- 
cord, a poem," printed in 1803, in 4to. 
His " Stranger in France, a Tour from 
Devonshire to Paris," written in the 
same year, was read with avidity. In 
1804, he published " The Sea-side Hero, 
a drama, in three acts," the scene of 
which was laid in Sussex, on the sup- 
posed attack of the anticipated invasion ; 
and in 1805 appeared " A Northern 
Summer, or Travels round the Baltic, 
through, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, 
part of Poland, and Prussia, in 1804." 
In 1806, appeared "The Stranger in 
Ireland ; or a Tour in the Southern and 
Western parts of that country, in 1805 ;" 
soon after, the author was knighted by 
the duke of Bedford, then viceroy; in 
1807, he published " A Tour through 
Holland, along the right and left banks 
of the Rhine, in the South of Germany, 
in 1806." 

The frequency of his productions now 
began to elicit remark ; and Mr. Edward 
Dubois ventured to satirize Sir John 
Carr's trade in Tours, in a 12mo. little 
book, entitled " My Pocket Book, or 
Hints for a Ryghte Merrie and Conceit- 
ede Tour, in 4to., to be called The 
Stranger in Ireland, in 1805 ; by a 
Knight Errant, and dedicated to the 
paper makers." For this publication, the 
booksellers were prosecuted in 1809. It 
appeared on the trial, that Sir John Carr 
had received for the copyright of his 
Stranger in France £100 ; for the North- 
ern Summer £500; for the Stranger in 
Ireland £700 ; and the Tour in Holland 
£600. Sir John failed in obtaining a 
verdict, the jury considering that " My 
Pocket Book" contained no personal re- 
flections on the knight. He died July 
17, 1832, in New Norfolk street, Lon- 
don, aged 60. 



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214 



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CARREL, Arm AND, editor of the 
" National" newspaper, and one of the 
political writers who were conspicuous 
in the proceedings which brought about 
the Revolution at Paris, in l-i30, died 
July 24, 1836, of a wound received in a 
duel, with the editor of " La Presse." 
His remains received a public funeral, 
at which men of such opposite sentiments 
as Chateaubriand, Arago, Latitte, and 
Beranger, were present. 

CARRIAGES taxed 1747, 1776, 1782, 
1785, and ISOS. By 2 and 3 Will. IV., 
1 832,the tax was reduced on carriages with 
less than four wheels. By this act, two- 
wheeled carriages, drawn by one horse, 
without metal springs, value under £21, 
pay only £1 10s. duty. 

CARRIBBEE,or Caribbee Islands. 
See Caribbee Islands. 

CARRIERS. Proprietors of carts and 
waggons, masters and owners of ships, 
hoymen, lightermen, bargemen, ferry- 
men, &c., are denominated common 
carriers. At common law, there is no 
distinction between carriage performed 
by sea or land ; but by the 7th Geo. II., 
c. 15, and 26 Geo. III., c. 86, corrected 
and amended by 53 Geo. III., c. 159, it 
is enacted, that ship-owners are not lia- 
ble for any loss or damage happening to 
goods on board, through the fraud or 
neglect of the master, without their 
knowledge or privity, further than the 
value of the vessel, and the freight ac- 
cruing during the voyage. 

Until the act of 1830, a carrier might, 
by express stipulation, giving public 
notice to that eiFect, discharge his lia- 
bility from all losses by robbery, acci- 
dent, or otherwise, except those which 
arose from gross negligence. Notices 
generally bore, that the carrier would 
not be responsible for more than a cer- 
tain sum (usually £5) on any one parcel, 
the value of which had not been declared 
and paid for accordingly. But to avail 
himself of this defence, the carrier 
was bound to show that the bailor, or 
his servant, was acquainted with the 
notice, at the time of delivering the 
goods. 

This gave rise to agreatdeal of litigation 
and uncertainty, and to obviate the in- 
conveniences thence arising, the impor- 
tant statute, 1 Will. IV. c. 68, was pas- 
sed. This act declares, that carriers by 
land shall not l)e liable for the loss of 
certain articles specified in the act, when 
their value exceeds £10, unless the na- 



ture and value of such articles be stated 
at the time of their delivery to the carrier, 
and an increased charge paid or agreed 
to be paid upon the same. It is further 
declared, that no publication of any no- 
tices by carriers shall have power to 
limit their responsibility at common law 
for all other articles except those specified 
in the act. 

CARRINGTON, N. T., a modern 
poet, author of " My Native Village," 
and other poems, born at Plymouth, in 
1777. He entered himself as a seaman 
on board a ship of war, and served in 
the action which took place off Cape Fi- 
nisterre, February 14, 1797. His first 
poem of any importance was the " Banks 
of Tamar," in 1820. He next pubhshed 
" Dartmoor," a descriptive poem. This 
was written for the piu'pose of being 
submitted for the premium offered by 
the Royal Society of Literature, but the 
premium was awarded three or four 
months before Mr. Carrington was aware 
that the time of presentation had arrived. 
By some chance, it came under the notice 
of W. Burt, Esq., secretary of the Ply- 
mouth Chamber of Commerce, who per- 
suaded Mr. Carrington to publish it, and 
in 1826 it appeared. In 1827, he was 
attacked by consumption, and in a few 
months, it was apparent that the disease 
would inevitably be fatal. During his 
illness, he wrote and prepared for the 
press his last publication, — " My Native 
Village, and other Poems." He was libe- 
rally patronised by his late majesty, 
George IV. He died September 2, 1831, 
at his son's house, in St. James's street, 
Bath, after long and patiently-endured 
suffering, aged, 53. 

CARRON Iron Works, situate at a 
village of Scotland, in the county of 
Stirling, seated on a river of the same 
name. These works, which have attained 
distinguished celebrity, were first esta- 
blished principally under the direction of 
Dr. Roebuck, an ingenious chemist and 
physician, of Birmingham. The neces- 
sary preparations for the establishment 
of the iron-works, were finished towards 
the close of the year 1759; and on the 
first of January, 1760, the first furnace 
was blown. The present proprietors of 
this foundery are a chartered company, 
with a capital of £150,000 sterling, a 
common hall, &c. 

CARTE, Thomas, a learned and la- 
borious Enghsh historian, born April 23, 
I6s6. In consequence of a sermon. 



CAR 



215 



CAR 



preaclied Janunry 30, 1713,14, and vin- 
dicating the character of Charles I., he 
was engaged in a controversy with Mr. 
Chandler, which occasioned his first pub- 
lication, entitled " The Irish Massacre, 
set in a clear light, &c." In 1715, he 
was suspected of being concerned in the 
rebellion, and was for some time con- 
cealed in the house of a clergyman, at 
ColeshiU. Being charged with high 
treason, in 1722, a reward of £1000 was 
offered for seizing his person. He es- 
caped to France, and resided in that 
country several years under the name 
of Philips. By the interest of queen 
Caroline, he obtained permission to re- 
turn, and soon after engaged in his im- 
portant work, " The History of the Life 
of James, duke of Ormonde," published 
in 1735,36. He commenced his great 
work, the History of England, in 1738, 
which was not completed till 1755. He 
died at Caldecot house, near Abingdon, 
in Berkshire, April 2, 1754. 

CARTES, Rene' des, the French 
philosopher. See Des Cartes. 

CARTHAGE a celebrated city of an- 
tiquity, the capital of Africa Propria, 
and which for many years disputed with 
Rome the sovereignty of the \^'orld. The 
beginning of its history is obscure and 
uncertain. It was said to have been 
built by Queen Dido, a.c. 869, who to 
avoid the avarice of Pygmalion, had, 
with a few faithful followers, left her 
native land, and after wandering for some 
time in search of a settlement, fixed upon 
the coast of Africa. Some writers think 
that she only enlarged a town already 
built. The new city soon became very 
populous and floiirishing, but on account 
of the Punic archives being destroyed 
by the Romans, there is a chasm in its 
history for above 300 years. The Car- 
thaginians applied themselves to mari- 
time affairs, and by degrees extended 
their power over all the islands in the 
Mediterranean. From a.c. 480 to 250 
perpetual wars took place between the 
Sicilians under Dionysius, Agathacles, 
and others, and the Carthaginians. 

A.c. 256. The first Punic war com- 
menced, and is said to have lasted 24 
years. After many bloody engagements 
by which the resources of these rival 
republics were mutually exhausted, hos- 
tilities were terminated by an important 
naval engagement, a.c. 242, in which 
Lutatius, the Roman consul, destroyed 
the Carthaginian fleet, off the isles of 



yEgates, which craised the Carthaginians 
to sue for peace, and ended the first 
Punic war. 

Next followed the African or Lybian 
war, principally occasioned by a neglect 
on the part of the Carthaginians in set- 
tling the arrears of the soldiers' pay, or ful- 
filling the promises made to them by 
Hanno ; it lasted three years and fovir 
months, terminating in a.c. 238. -In a.c. 
237, Hamilcar the Carthaginian general, 
led an army into Spain, and took with him 
his son Hannibal, nine years old, having 
first made him swear on the altar an 
eternal enmity to Rome. a.c. 219, Sa- 
guntum, in Spain, was taken by Hanni- 
bal, after a siege of about eight months', 
the inhabitants, to avoid falling into his 
hands burnt themselves with their houses 
and effects : this led to a new quarrel 
between Rome and Carthage. 

a.c. 218. The second Punic war began 
with Hannibal's crossing the Alps, and 
continued seventeen years : the Romans 
were defeated at Ticinum and Trebia, 
A.c. 217, and at Thrasymene, 216. 
Hannibal gained a complete victory over 
the Romans at Cannse, in Apulia, about 
May 21 : 40,000 of them were killed 
in this affair ; and three bushels of rings 
taken from the knights, were sent as a 
trophy to Carthage. Hannibal continu-^ 
ed in Italy about 16 years altogether,, 
but did little more than harass his ene- 
mies, for want of reinforcements, which 
were withheld by a faction at home. 
A.c. 207. Asdrubaljhavingenteredltaly 
across the Alps, with troops to reinforce 
his brother Hannibal, was defeated and 
slain by Claudius Nero. A.c. 204, Scipio 
arrived in Africa, and besieged Utica ; 
next year, he took, in one day, the camps 
of Asdrubal and his son-in-law Syphax,, 
a king of Numidia, who had come to 
relieve the city. A.c. 203, Hannibal 
was recalled from Italy, to defend the 
Carthaginian territoi'ies ; the Romans 
having carried the war into Africa, a.c. 
202, Scipio, surnamed Africanus, defeat- 
ed Hannibal at the battle of Zama, Oct. 
19; and, next year, the Carthaginians 
obtained peace on very humiliating 
terms which closed the second Punic 
war. 

A.c. 149. The third Punic war com- 
menced, and lasted three years. A.c. 
146, jEmilianus Scipio finished it by the 
destruction of Carthage. Before he de- 
stroyed the city he sacrificed to the gods 
and caused a plough to be drawn round 



CAR 



210 



CAS 



the walls of the city. After this, the 
towers, ramparts, wall, and nil the works 
which the Carthaginians had raised in 
the course of many ages, and at a vast 
expense, were levelled with the ground; 
and lastly, fire was set to the edifices of 
the proud metropolis, which consumed 
them all, not a single house escapinsj the 
flames. When he saw this famous city, 
which had heen so flourishing 700 years, 
and might have been compared to the 
greatest empires, on account of the ex- 
tent of its dominions both by sea 
and land, entirely ruined, historians re- 
late that he could not refuse his tears to 
the unhappy fate of Carthage. 

According to some authors, Carthajje 
was rebuilt by Julius Caesar ; and Stra- 
bo, who flourished in the reign of Tibe- 
rius, affirms it in his time to have been 
equal, if not superior, to any other city 
in Africa. Maxentius laid it in ashes 
about the sixth or seventh year of Con- 
etantine's reign. Genseric, king of the 
Vandals took it ad. 439 ; but about a 
century afterwards it was reannexed to 
the Roman empire by Belisarius. At 
last the Saracens, under Mahomet's suc- 
cessors, towards the close of the seventh 
century, so completely destroyed it, that 
there are now scarcely any traces re- 
maining. The city of Tunis was built 
about 10 miles from the site of Car- 
thage. 

CARTHAGENA, seaport town of 
Spain, founded a.u.c. 525, a.c. 220, by 
Asdrubal, the Carthaginian general, in 
order to secure the subjection of the 
country. It was taken by Scipio Afri- 
canus A.c. 212, after the defeat of Han- 
nibal under the walls of Carthage in 
Africa. It became a Roman colony in 
the time of Caesar, who established a 
colony in it after the battle of Munda. 
After having been destroyed by the 
Goths, it was rebuilt by Philip II., in the 
sixteenth centurv. 

CARTHUSIANS, an order of reli- 
gious, instituted by S. Bruno, about the 
year 1084, remarkable for the austerity 
of their rule, which obliges them to a 
perpetual solitude. There have been 
some female Carthusian convents ; but 
the increase of them was prohibited in 
1368. They were brought into England 
by Henry II, about the year 1180, and 
had only nine houses ; their first house 
being at Witham in Somersetshire. 

CARTWRIGHT, Major John, the 
steady and upright advocate of parlia- 



mentary and national reform, died 1824. 

CARTWRIGHT, Rev. Edmu.nd, 
brother of the above-mentioned illus- 
trious man, and father of reform, was 
the inventor of the weaving-machine, 
died 1814. 

CARUS, M. AuRELius, the Roman 
emperor, succeeded to the throne in 282; 
killed by lightning, in 284. 

CASAL, an ancient town of Italy, in- 
habited by several families, some of 
whom pretend to have their descent 
from Numa Pompilius. It was formerly 
strongly fortified, and withstood a siege 
in 1629. The imperialists obtained pos- 
session of it in 1706, the French in 1745, 
and, like the rest of Italy, it has acknow- 
ledged diflferent masters with the rise 
and fall of the great powers in the late 
wars. 

CASAN, or Kasan, ancient Bulga- 
ria, a government of European Russia, 
formerly a khanship, founded by the 
grandson of Genghiz Khan. In 1441, 
the governor declared himself an inde- 
pendent prince, but in 1552, the district 
was conquered by Ivan II., and annexed 
to Russia. 

CASAS, Bartholomew de las, 
a Spanish prelate, eminently distin- 
guished for his humanity and zeal for 
the conversion of the Indians, was born 
at Seville in 1474 ; and accompanied 
his father who sailed to America with 
Christopher Columbus in 1493. He 
exerted himself with extraordinary zeal 
for fifty years together, in his endea- 
vours to persuade the Spaniards that 
they ought to treat the Indians with 
equity and mildness ; for which he suf- 
fered a number of persecutions from his 
countrymen. He died at Madrid in 1566, 
aged 92. 

CASAUBON, Isaac, a learned critic 
and commentator, born at Geneva in 
1559. In 1578, he commenced his 
studies there. In 1598, he removed to 
Paris, where he was introduced to King 
Henry IV. After this prince's death, 
he went to England with Sir Henry 
Wotton, ambassador from King James I. 
He died in 1614; and was interred in 
Westminster Abbey, where a monument 
was erected to him. 

CASAUBON, Meric, son of Isaac, 
born at Geneva in 1599. He accompa- 
nied his father to England, in 1610, 
finished his education at Christ-church 
college, Oxford, where he took the de- 
gree of M. A. in 1621. In 1628, by the 



CAS 

interest and recoinmeiulation of Bishop 
Laud, lie was made prebendaty of 
Canterbury. He died in 1671. Uis 
publications were very numerous. Among 
others, " A Treatise concerning Enthu- 
siasm, as it is an Eflfect of Nature, but 
is mistaken by many for either Divine 
Inspiration, or Diabolical Possession," 
1655 ; a work highly commended by 
Sir William Temple, as a happy attempt 
to account for delusions upon natural 
piinciples. 

CASHMAN, John, a Spa-fields rioter, 
hanged for stealing firearms from the 
shop of Beck with, March, 12, 1817. 

CASHMERE, valley and city, Cen- 
tral Asia, in the Afghan state of Cabool. 
According to tradition, the valley of 
Cashmere was drained and colonized by 
Casyapa, about a. c. 2666, from which 
date there is a regular chronological 
table of kings, down to its conquest by 
the Mahomedans. It was attacked and 
ravaged by the Mahmood of Ghizni, 
A. D. 1012. It was afterwards governed 
by a race of Tartar princes of the Chug, 
or Chagatay tribe, until 1586, when it 
was subdued by Acbar, and continued 
subject to the Moguls of Delhi, until the 
time of Ahmed Shah Abdali, of Cabul, 
to which kingdom, until recently, it con- 
tinued annexed. 

1809. Mahomed Azim Khan, the 
soubahdar of the province, threw off the 
yoke. In 1816, a powerful army from 
Cabul attempted its recovery, but, owing 
to treachery, was compelled to retreat. 
In 1819, Runjeet Singh, of Lahore, 
eflFected the conquest of the city, and 
some portions of the country. In ] 820, 
the chief of Cashmere, Mahomed Azim 
Khan, made overtures for a treaty of al- 
liance, and requested that Cashmere 
might be taken under the protection of 
the British government. This proposal, 
however, was not assented to. 

CASIMIR III., surnamed the Great, 
king of Poland, succeeded his father 
Uladislaus III., in 1333, and, soon after 
his accession, engaged in a contest with 
the Teutonic knights. He first gave the 
Poles a regular code of written laws, 
such as had never before been seen in 
Poland. He died 1370, aged 60. 

CASLON, William, an eminent 
letter- founder, was born in 1692, at 
Hales Owen in Shropshire. In 1735, 
he established his foundery in Chiswell- 
street, where, in process of time, it be- 
came the first existing in this or in any 



217 CAS 

foreign countries. He died in January, 
1766, aged 74. 

CASSANDER, king of Macedon, was 
son of Antipater, and one of Alexander's 
chief captains. Upon the death of 
Alexander, he had the province of Caiia 
assigned him. Became master of Athens, 
A. c. 318 ; usurped the throne of Mace- 
don, a. c. 311; rebuilt Thebes, and 
founded Cassandria, a. c. 315; put to 
death Roxana and her son, a. c. 311; 
and died a. c. 295. 

CASSANDRA, daughter of Priam, 
king of Troy and Hecuba, and wife of 
Agamemnon ; she fell a victim on occa- 
sion of the assassination of that prince 
about A. c. 1149. 

CASSANO suLL Adda, town of Italy, 
in the Lombardo- Venetian territory. 
Celebrated for a battle fought here in 
1705, between the French and Austrians, 
commanded by Prince Eugene ; and 
another in 1799, between the armies of 
the same nations. 

CASSAY,provinceof Indiabeyond the 
Ganges. In 1754, Alompra, monarch of 
the Burman empire, sent an army against 
the Cassays, and attempted to subjugate 
them; and again in 1757. In 1765, his 
son entered and plundered Cassay, and 
in 1774 took Munipoor, the capital, and 
reduced Cassay to the condition of a pro- 
vince of his kingdom. In this dependence 
it continued up to 1824, when the Bur- 
mese were driven from Munipoor by the 
British, and the independence of Cassay, 
was accomplished by the treaty of Yan- 
daboo. 

CASSEL, or Mont cassel, a town 
of France, department of the noith. Ce- 
lebrated in mihtary history as having 
been the scene of the following battles : 
between Robert le Prison and Philip 1., 
1070 ; between Philip le Bel and the 
Burgundians, 1328 ; between Phihp. 
duke of Orleans, and the prince of 
Orange, in 1677. 

CASSEL, capital of the electorate of 
Hesse Cassel. During the seven years' 
war, this town (then fortified) was long 
the head quarters of the French, until in 
1762, they sur^nrdered it to the allies. 
The fortifications were then demolished. 
Jerome, king of Westphalia, embellished 
this place, which he made the capital of 
his kingdom, until its dissolution in 1813. 

CASSINI, John Dominic, an emi- 
nent astronomer, born at Piedmont in 
1625. The comet which appeared w 
1652, was observed by him with great 

2f 



CAS 



218 



CAS 



accuracy; and he discovered that comets 
were bodies of the same nature, and pro- 
bably governed by the same laws, as the 
planets. The same year he resolved the 
astronomical problem, which Kepler and 
Bullialdus had deemed incapable of so- 
lution, for geometrically determining 
the apogee and ecceatricity of a planet 
from its mean and true place. He di- 
rected peculiar attention to the theory of 
Jupiter's satellites, which he settled with 
accuracy, and published at Rome, among 
other astronomical pieces in 1666. In 
1669, he was appointed royal astronomer 
at Paris, where he was naturalized in 
1673. In 1672, he determined the pa- 
rallax of Mars and the sun. In 1677, 
he demonstrated that the diurnal rotation 
of Jupiter about its axis was performed 
in 9 hours 58 minutes. In 1684, he 
discovered four satellites of Saturn, in 
addition to that which Huygens had be- 
fore observed ; and in 1695, he visited 
Bologna for the purpose of examining 
the meridian line which he had fixed 
there in 1653, and there he showed, in 
the presence of several eminent mathe- 
maticians, that it had not for forty years 
undergone the least variation. He died 
September 14, 1712, aged 87. 

CASSINI, James, the younger son 
of the former, was born at Paris in 1677. 
In 1696, he visited England, and be- 
came a member of the Royal Society. In 
1700, he assisted his father in the mea- 
surement of the meridian ; and in 1718, 
he finished the operation begun by M. 
de la Hire, north of Paris, in concurrence 
with Maraldi and the younger de la Hire. 
In 1712, he succeeded his father as as- 
tronomer royal at the observatory. In 
1717, he communicated to the academy 
his researches on the distance of the 
fixed stars. In 1725, he undertook to 
investigate the cause of the moon's li- 
bration. In 1740, he published his "As- 
tronomical Tables," and his " Elements 
of Astronomy ;" both of which are very 
comprehensive and accurate works. He 
died, April, 1756, aged 80. 

CASSINI, De Thury, C^sar 
FRAN901S, the second son of the former, 
who succeeded his father as director of 
the observatory, and was a member of 
most of the learned societies in Europe, 
born at Paris, June 17, 1714. He was 
scarcely 13 years of age when he calcu- 
lated the phases of the total eclipse of the 
sun, in 1727. He undertook to measure 
the meridian of Paris by a new series of 
triangles, the result of which was pub- 



lished in 1740. In 17GI, he undertook 
an expedition into Germany, for the pur- 
pose of continuing to Vienna the per- 
pendicular of the Paris meridian. His 
observations of the transit of Venus, 
June 6, 1761, made during his stay at 
Vienna, were published in his " Voyage 
en Allemagne." The volumes of the 
memoirs of the French academy, be- 
tween the years 1735 and 1770, contain 
a great number of his papers. Having 
cultivated astronomy for 50 years, he 
died of the small-pox, September 4, 
1784, aged 71. 

CASSIUS, Caius, a celebrated Ro- 
man, who, in the civil war between 
Caesar and Pompey, took part with 
the latter, and commanded his fleet. 
After the battle of Pharsalia, a.c. 48, 
he sailed with 70 ships to the coast of 
Asia, with a view of raising forces, and 
renewing the war against Caesar. He 
was engaged with Brutus in the con- 
spiracy against Csesar. See Brutus. 
He was slain at the battle of Phillipi, 
A.c. 42, but the particular circumstances 
of his death have not been ascertained. 

CASTALIO, (Sebastian,) transla- 
tor of the Latin Bible,born 1 5 1 5,died 1 563. 

CASTILE AND ARAGON, kingdom 
of, began during the civil contentions of 
the Saracens in Spain, in 1035 ; the 
former under Ferdinand, who united 
Leon to it next year, and the latter 
Ramirus. These subsisted as separate 
states till 1474, when Ferdinand V., heir 
of Aragon, married Isabella, queen of 
Castile, and, by the death of John II., in 
1479, they reigned jointly over both 
kingdoms, from which period the Spa- 
nish monarchv commences. See Spain. 

CASTINE,' fort of, in the Penobscot,, 
taken by the British September 1, 1814. 

CASTLE AND Sword, order of, es- 
tablished by the prince regent of Por- 
tugal, 1807. 

CASTLE-ANE Priory, Norfolk, 
built 1090. 

CASTLE-ANE Monastery, York- 
shire, built 1085. 

CASTLE Cornet, Guernsey, built 
1100. 

CASTLE Pollard, Ireland, an affray 
with the police. May 28, 1836. A coro- 
ner's inquest returned a verdict against 
the chief constable and eighteen of the po- 
lice, of having caused the death of several 
individuals by firing at them. The grand 
jury subsequently ignored the bills pre- 
ferred against them for murder, and the 
relatives of the individuals refusing to 



CAS 



219 



CAT 



proceed against them for manslaughter, 
the prosecution was abandoned. 

CASTLE-RisiNG Castle, Norfolk, 
built 1204. 

CASTLE-RusHEN Castle, Isle of 
Man, built 96O. 

CASTLE-TowN, Isle of Man, built 
960. 

CASTLES IN England. The Saxons, 
Romans, and even the ancient Britons, 
had castles built with stone, yet, these 
were both few in number, and even at 
the conquest, through neglect or inva- 
sions, either destroyed or so much de- 
cayed, that little more than their ruins 
were remaining. Richborough, Port- 
chester, and Pevensej'^, are the three 
greatest fortresses the Romans have left 
us. Alfred the Great was the first of 
our princes with whom the building of 
castles became an object of national 
policy. To this period the most judi- 
cious of our writers have referred the 
castle at Colchester, in Essex. 

William I., sensible that the want of 
fortified places in England had greatly 
facilitated his conquest, and might, at 
any time, also, facilitate his expulsion ; 
made all possible haste to remedy the 
defect. On his accession, he began to 
erect castles all over the kingdom, and 
likewise to repair and augment the old 
ones, so that between 1140 and 1154, 
there were 1115 castles of this description. 
As the feudal system gathered strength, 
these castles became the heads of ba- 
ronies. But the lords of these castles 
began to arrogate to themselves a royal 
power. 

At length their insolence and oppres- 
sion becoming intolerable, in the treaty 
between King Stephen and Henry II., 
when only duke of Normandy, about 
1153, it was agreed, that all the castles 
built within a certain period should be 
demolished] in consequence of which 
many were actually rased, but not the 
number stipulated. 

The total change in military tactics 
brought about by the invention of gun- 
powder and artillery, in the fourteenth 
century, conspired to render castles of 
little use or consequence as fortresses. 
The last historical notice of them is in 
the reign of James I., a little before the 
breaking out of the civil war, Jan. 22, 
16.36, when a commission was issued ap- 
pointing lieutenant colonel Francis Co- 
ningsby, commissary general of and for 
all the castles and fortifications in Eng 
land and AVales, with an allowance o 



13s. 4d. a-day, to be paid out of the 
cheques and defalcations that should be 
made by him from time to time ; or, in 
default thereof, out of the Treasury. 

CASTOR, in Lincolnshire, church of, 
nearly destroyed by lightning, June 6, 
1795. 

CASTRO DB Ordiales, a port in 
Bisca)^, stormed and taken by the French, 
May 11, 1813, evacuated, and taken pos- 
session of by the English, May 25. 

CATACOMBS, subterraneous exca- 
vations for the burial of the dead. These 
are monuments of great curiosity, con- 
siderable both in size and number, and 
most of them of great antiquity. Some 
are temples, like those of India, in the 
mountains of EUora; some have been 
originally executed for the purpose of 
sepulture ; others have owed their origin 
to the operations of quarrying for 
building materials, and have been sub- 
sequently converted to other purposes : 
of this nature are the catacombs of Rome, 
and the quarries, or Latomise of Syra- 
cuse, which served for public prisons. 

The catacombs of Thebes are, among 
all these monuments, the most extraordi- 
nary and magnificent ; these consist of 
the Necropolis or city of the dead, on the 
west bank of the Nile, which was the 
common burial-place of the inhabitants, 
and the tomb of the kings. The former 
is situated on the north-west of this city. 
These excavations are almost innumer- 
able, and occupy a space of nearly a 
mile and a half square. The sepulchres 
of the kings of Thebes are the most an- 
cient catacombs with which we are ac- 
quainted, as they can be traced during a 
period of 3000 or 4000 years. The 
whole chain of mountains in the neigh- 
bourhood of Thebes, is penetrated for 
almost three-fourths of its height, by 
an .ilraost incredible number of openings, 
leading to an immense labyrinth of cata- 
combs. See Thebes. 

The catacombs of Paris were recently 
open for inspection to travellers from 
this country. The bones there deposited 
were brought from different churchyards 
and quarters of Paris, and the catacombs 
contain the bones of two millions three 
hundred thousand persons. On April 7, 
1786, this vast charnel-house was conse- 
crated by the grand vicars of that me- 
tropolis. They were opened for inspec- 
tion about 18 16. 

CATALOGUES, Hsts, or enumera- 
tions of the names of books, men, or 
other things; disposed according to a 



CAT 



220 



CAT 



certain order, first adopted by George 
Wilier, a bookseller, of Augsburg, in the 
year 1554. Catalogues of English books 
were first printed and published in 
England 1595, and in Ireland 1632. 
'i'lie most applauded of all catalogues 
is that of Thauanus's library, first 
drawn up l)y the two Puteani, in the 
ali)habetical order, then digested ac- 
cording to the sciences and subjects, by 
Islim. Bullialdus, and published by F. 
Quesnel at Paris, in 1679, and reprinted 
at Hamburgh in 1704. 

CATALONIA, anc. Taraconensis, a 
province of Spain, onp of the first which 
attracted the attention of the Romans, 
and in which they first established their 
dominion. It was wrested from them 
by the Goths in 470 ; from the latter by 
the Moors in 712, and from them by the 
French in the beginning of the ninth' 
century. Under the counts of Barcelona, 
in the twelfth century, Catalonia was di- 
vided into vignieries, which subsisted 
soon after the union of the province with 
the rest of Spain. During the war of the 
succession, the Catalonians joined the 
standard of the archduke Charles ; but 
« hen the imperial troops had evacuated 
Spain, they were obliged to yield after 
an obstinate resistance of two years to 
the authority of Philip V., at the begin- 
ning of the l7th century, becoming go- 
verned like the rest of the kingdom. 

CATANIA, the ancient Catana, a town 
of Sicily, in the valley of Noto, near tiie 
foot of mount /Etna, founded in the eighth 
century. It has frequently sufl'ered in 
ancient and modern times, from the 
eruption of thismoimtain. The edifices, 
even the walls of the city, are built prin- 
cipally of lava. The ancient city Catana 
was entirely destroyed by an earthquake, 
in 1693; its ruins, when dug up, have all 
been found to consist of lava, which 
fiunished materials for the modern city. 
Catania received considerable damage 
from a shock which occurred in Feb. 
1783. 

C.\TAPULT/E, ancient military en- 
gines, designed to cast stones or arrows, 
said to have beerr invented by Dionysins, 
of Syracuse, a.c. 398. 

CATEAU Cambresis, peace of, 
between France, Spain and Piedmont. 
France ceded Savoy, Corsica, and nearly 
200 forts in Italy' and the Low Coun- 
tries, in 1559, 

CATENARY, a mechanical curve, 
formed by a hpavy fle.vible line hanging 



freely from two points of suspension. 
Galileo mistook the true nature of this 
curve, which was not discovered till 
1691, when M. John Bernoulli, jointly 
with Huygens and Leibnitz, gave the 
solution. Its properties were afterwards 
in 1697, investigated by Dr. David 
Gregory, who contends, that the cate- 
nary curve inverted, is the best shaps 
possible for the arch of a biidge. 

CATHARINE I., Empress of Russia, 
originally the natural daughter of a 
country girl, was born at a village near 
Dorpt, in Livonia, in 1687. In 1701, 
she espoused a dragoon of the Swedish 
garrison of Marienburgh. In 1704, she 
became the mistress of Peter the Great, 
and won so much upon his affections, 
that he soon afterwards espoused her. 
The ceremony was at first secretly per- 
formed, and in 1712 it was publicly so- 
lemnized with great pomp at Peters- 
burgh. The peace of Pruth, in 1711, by 
which the Russian army was rescued 
from certain destruction, has been wholly 
attributed to Catharine. On the death 
of Peter, Jan 28, 1725, prince Menzikof, 
hastened to the palace to proclaim her 
sovereign. The reign of Catharine may 
be considered as the reign of Menzikof, 
that empress having neither inclination 
nor abilities to direct the helm of go- 
vernment. She died May 17, 1727, a 
little more than two years after her ac- 
cession to the throne, and in about the 
40th year of her age. 

CATHARINE 11., Empress of Rus- 
sia, whose original name was Sophia 
Augusta Fredeiica, was the daughter of 
Christian Augustus of Anhalt Zerbst, 
and was bom at Stettin, May 1, 1729. 
When only 14 years of age, she was 
married to the duke of Holstein Gottorp 
Oldenburg, a nephew of the empress 
Elizabeth, whom she had selected for 
her successor. Immediately after their 
marriage, they were formally acknow- 
ledged, as grand duke and duchess of 
Russia. On the death of the empress, 
Jan. 5, 1762, the grand duke ascended 
the throne, by the name of Peter III. ; 
but in consequence of the intrigues of 
Catharine, on July 14, he was taken 
prisoner by her orders, prevailed on to 
renounce his crown, conveyed to the 
castle of Robscba, and three days after- 
wards put to death. The empress, on 
her assumption of the government, noti- 
fied the event to all the courts of Europe, 
under the new name of Catharine Alex- 



C A T 



221 



CAT 



iewna II. The same year she expelled 
the lawful sovereign of Courland, and in- 
vested Biron, a creature of her own, 
with the ducal cap. In 1768, Catharine 
declared war against the Turks, in which 
the Russians were triumphant, both by 
sea and land. The mind of Catharine 
was occupied with projects of subjugat- 
ing the Persians, and assisting in the 
overthrow of the French republic, when 
she was seized with a fit of apoplexy, 
which occasioned her death, Nov. 10, 
1797, aged 68, and in the 35th year of 
her reign. See Russia. 

CATHARINE of Arapon, first 
queen of Henry VIII. of England, born 
in 1483 ; married to Arthur, son of 
Henry VII., 1501, who died the same 
year ; when she was contracted to Henry 
VIII.; divorced 1529, died 1536. 

CATHARINE Hall, Cambridge, 
founded in 1475. 

CATHARINE-HiLL Chapel, Sur- 
rey, built in 1230. 

CATHARINE Howard, the fourth 
wife of Henry VIII., beheaded in 1542. 

CATHARINE St., Order of knight- 
hood, began in Palestine, 1063. 

CATHARINE, St., Order of, in 
modern history, belongs to ladies of the 
first quality in the Russian court. It 
was instituted in 1714, by Catharine, 
wife of Peter the Great, in memory of 
his signal escape , from the Turks in 
1711. 

CATHOLICS, a name given in the 
1st century to the Roman christians, 
and afterwards assumed by the chris- 
tian church, in order to distinguish itself 
from all sects. The Romish church 
now particularly claims the name of 
catholic, in opposition to all those who 
have separated from her communion. 

Laws in Enqland in relation 
TO Catholics. The two statutes, 1 
Ehz. c. 1 & 2, 1558, 1559, commonly 
denominated the acts of supremacy and 
uniformity, form the basis of that re- 
strictive code of laws, which pressed 
heavily for more than two centuries upon 
the adherents to the Romish church. In 
1581, an act passed, which, after repeat- 
ing the former provisions that had made 
it high treason to reconcile any of her 
majesty's subjects, or to be reconciled, 
to the church of Rome, imposes a pe- 
nalty of £20 a month on all persons ab- 
senting themselves from church. In 
1584, a law was enacted enjoining all 
Jesuits, seminary priests, and other 



priests, whether ordained within or 
without the kingdom, to depart from it 
within forty days, on pain of being ad- 
judged traitors. 

1591. A statute was enacted, 33 Eliz. 
c. 2, restricting popish recusants to par- 
ticular places of residence, and subject- 
ing them to other vexatious provisions. 
These statutes were not enforced during 
the reign of Charles I., so that the 
number pardoned, in the first X6 years 
of that king, is said to have amounted, 
in twenty nine counties only, to 11,970. 
In the reign of Charles II., some steps 
were taken towards mitigating the penal 
laws against the catholic religion, by the 
lords, in the session of 1661. In 1672, 
the king again published a declaration of 
indulgence, or a suspension of all penal 
laws. In 1673, parliament compelled 
the king to recal his proclamation, and 
raised a fresh barrier against the en- 
croachment of popery in the test act. 

The year 1678 was rendered memor- 
able by the great national delusion of 
the popish plot, which gave rise to the 
measure of the exclusion bill, and after- 
wards to the carrying of a measure which 
shut the catholic peers out of parliament. 
30 Car. II., Stat. 2, 1679, is the declara- 
tion subscribed by members of both 
houses of parliament on taking their seat, 
that there is no transubstantiation of 
the elements in the Lord's supper, and 
that the invocation of saints, as practised 
in the church of Rome, is idolatrous. 
Unfortunately for the catholics of Ire- 
land, the war which followed the revo- 
lution in 1688, gave rise to a severe po- 
licy towards the catholics, which placed 
them almost entirely beyond the reach of 
any alleviating measures, so that at the 
end of the l7th century, the Irish or 
Anglo-Irish catholics could hardly pos- 
sess above one-sixth or one-seventh of 
the kingdom. The victorious party saw 
no security but in a system of oppression, 
contained in a series of laws during the 
reigns of William and Anne. 

One of the most remarkable acts of 
parliament ])assed during the year 1700, 
was that against the catholics, which 
enacted that all persons reared in that 
belief, or suspected of being papists, and 
succeeding to any estate ere they had 
attained the age of 18, should be com- 
pelled to take the oath of allegiance and 
supremacy, and the test as soon as they 
had attained that age ; and until they 
did so, the estate was to devolve 



CAT 



222 



CAT 



to the next of kin, being a protestant, 
but was , to revert back after they had 
taken the oaths. The same bill banished 
all catholic priests, condemning them to 
perpetual imprisonment in the event of 
their returning from beyond the sea ; a 
reward of £100 was also offered to any 
one discovering a priest, so as to convict 
him. 

This state of things was too grievous 
to remain long without some redress. 
In May, 1778, Sir George Saville made 
a motion for the repeal of some penalties 
enacted against the catholics. In 1790, 
a body of catholics formally protested 
against the temporal power of the pope, 
and against his assumed authority to 
release men from their civil ol)ligalions, 
or dispense with the sacredness of oaths. 
Mr. Millford brought forward a bill to 
relieve those protesting catholics from 
the penalties and disabilities to which 
persons professing the popish religion 
were by law subject. The bill passed 
unanimously. In the session for 1792, 
the government made some additional 
concessions to the catholics, by which 
all legal obstructions to their intermar- 
riages with protestants were removed. 

In March 1793, a bill of relief was 
brought into the House of Commons, 
enabling the Catholics to e?:ercise and 
enjoy all- civil and military offices and 
places of trust or profit under the crown ; 
but that it should not be construed to 
extend to enable any Roman Catholic 
to sit or vote in either house of Parlia- 
ment, or to fill the office of lord-lieu- 
tenant, or lord-chancellor, or judge in 
either of the three courts of record or 
admiralty, or keeper of the privy-seal, 
secretary of state, lieutenant, or custos 
rotidorum of counties, or privy-coun- 
cillor, or master in chancery, or a gene- 
ral on the staff, or sheriff, or sub-sheriff 
of any county, with a number of other 
disqualifications. The bill, at length, 
modified with these restrictions, passed. 
Early in 1800, the great measure of a 
legislative union Avith Ireland was car- 
ried into effect, which renewed the ap- 
plication for redress. In 1803, a bill was 
passed to relieve the Roman Catholics 
from some of the penalties and disabili- 
ties to which they were then subject, on 
subscribing the declaration and oath 
contained in the act of the 31st of 
George II. But much more effectual 
measures were contemplated, when, on 
the 5th of March, 1807, a bill was 



brought into the House of Commons by 
Lord Howick, which, without having 
for its object what was called the eman- 
cipation of the catholics, was adapted to 
afford them great satisfaction, and was 
doubtless intended as the precursor of a 
system of a yet more enlarged toleration. 
But his majesty George HI. having ma- 
turely considered the nature and extent 
of the bill, regarded it as contrary to 
the obligations of his coronation oath, 
and the princii)les of the British consti- 
tution, and it was abandoned. 

NoL'.vithstanding this abortive attempt, 
however, sonie further efforts were again 
made by the friends of catholic emanci- 
pation, during the years 1813 and 1817, 
to bring their case before parliament. 
This period is rendered remarkable by 
its giving occasion to the last exertion 
of the celebrated Mr. Grattan on behalf 
of his country, who, after a long period 
devoted to its service in the parhament 
of Ireland, resolved to proceed to Lon- 
don, to bring, once more, the claims of 
his countrymen before the imperial 
parliament ; but he died, on his arrival 
in the British metropolis, June 4, 1820. 
In Mr. Plunkett, however, his country 
found an able and worthy successor: 
and, on Feb. 28, 1821, the latter was 
entrusted with a petition, bearing the 
signatures of some thousands of Irish 
catholics, praying that their case might 
receive the attention of the legislature. 

1823. Lord Nugent brought in a mea- 
sure for placing English catholics on an 
equal footing with those of Ireland, by 
giving them the elective franchise, and 
admitting them to hold certain offices. 
This concession being supported by 
Mr. Peel, passed the commons without 
much difficulty ; but it was not intro- 
duced into the lords. 

March 1, 1825. Sir Francis Burdett 
presented the general petition of the 
Roman Catholics of Ireland, and moved 
the appointment of a committee, to con- 
sider the state of the laws affecting the 
Roman Catholics. This was followed 
by a series of resolutions, the object of 
which was, the repeal or alteration of 
those oaths and declarations required by 
certain Acts of Parliament to be made 
as qualifications for offices, and which 
relate to opinions merely speculative, 
not effecting the civil duty of the sub- 
ject. These resolutions being adopted, 
a bill founded on them was introduced 
by Sir Francis Burdett, March 23, and 



CAT 223 

was read a first time. The bill had 
made some progress, when, on April 25, 
the Duke of York rose in the House of 
Lords, and stated, that he had been re- 
quested to present to their lordships the 
petition of the dean and canons of Wind- 
sor, praying that no further concessions 
should be made to the Roman Catholics. 
It was on this occasion, that his royal 
highness, concluded his speech in the 
following memorable manner: — "These," 
continued his royal highness, " are the 
principles to which I will adhere, and 
which I will maintain and act up to, to 
the latest moment of my existence, 
whatever may be my situation of life — 
So help me God ! " On May 10, it was 
passed in the commons by a majority of 
21, but was lost in the lords. 

Sir Francis Burdett March 5, 1827, 
moved the following resolution. " That 
this house is deeply impressed with the 
necessity of taking into immediate con- 
sideration the laws inflicting penalties 
on his Majesty's Roman Catholic sub- 
jects, with a view of removing them." 
The motion was lost by a majority of 
four, the number being, for the motion 
272, against it 276. 

Lastly, Feb. 5, 1829, as a prelude to 
the relief bill, was read the king's speech, 
relating to the consideration of parlia- 
ment, " whether the removal of those 
disabilities of the catholics can be effect- 
ed consistently with the security of the 
national establishments in church and 
state ; with the maintenance of the re- 
formed religion established by law, and 
of the rights and privileges of the bi- 
shops and clergy of the realm, and of 
the churches committed to their charge." 
Feb. 10, as a preliminary measure, a 
bill wa!s brought in for the suppression 
of the catholic association ; entitled a 
bill " for the suppression of dangerous 
assemblies or societies, in Ireland." It 
was read a third time and passed, Tues- 
day, Feb. 24. The royal assent was 
given by commission on Thursday, 
March 5, the day on which the relief 
bill was brought forward in the com- 
mons. 

The relief bill, with an accompanying 
measure for the disfranchisement of 
Irish forty shilling freeholders, was 
brought up on Tuesday, March 10. On 
Monday, March 30, Mr. Secretary Peel 
moved the third reading. At the close 
of the debate, there appeared, on a divi- 
sion, for the amendment, 142 ; for the 



C A T 

third reading, 320, majority, 178. The 
bill then passed with the usual forms. 
It was brought into the House of Lords 
Thursday. April 2. The debates on the 
second reading were protracted during 
this and the two following days, and on 
a division, the numbers were, contents, 
present, 147, proxies, 70, total, 217; 
non-contents, present, 79, proxies, 33, 
total, 112; majority in favour of the 
second reading of the bill, 105. Friday, 
April 10, having been fixed for the third 
reading, the merits of the bill came, for 
the last time, under discussion. When 
their lordships divided, the numbers 
were, contents, present, 149, proxies, 64, 
total, 213 ; non-contents, present, 76, 
proxies, 33, total, 109; majority, 104. 
This important statute received the 
royal assent on Monday, April 13, and 
became an operative law on St. George's 
day, the 23rd of the same month. 

It is entitled " An act for the relief of 
his majesty's Roman Catholic subjects." 
The principal enacting clauses are, 1. 
Roman catholics are allowed to sit and 
vote in parliament, if otherwise duly 
qualified, upon taking and subscribing,- 
instead of the oaths of allegiance, su- 
premacy,and abjuration, an oath to main- 
tain, support, and defend, the succession 
to the crown, which stands limited to 
thePrincess Sophia, electress of Hanover, 
and the heirs of her body, being protes- 
tants ; hereby utterly renouncing andJ 
abjuring any obedience or allegiance 
unto any other person claiming or pre- 
tending a right to the crown of this; 
realm. 2. Roman catholics, being 
otherwise- duly qualified, may vote at the- 
elections of members to serve in pai'lia- 
ment, and be elected themselves. 3. 
Persons professing the Roman catholic 
religion may, with certain exceptions,, 
hold and exercise all civil and military 
offices, and places of trust or profit, and 
any other franchise or civil right, upon 
taking the above mentioned oath, instead 
of the oaths and declarations before ad- 
ministered. 4. Roman catholics may, 
under certain 'restrictions, be members 
of any lay body corporate, or hold any 
office, or place of trust therein, upon 
taking and subscribing the oath above 
mentioned, instead of the aforesaid oaths 
and declarations. 

The following statement may afford 
a tolerable fair criterion of the feeling of 
the House of Commons on this import- 
ant measure. Out of 656 members, 378 



CAT 



224 



CAT 



voted for the measure, 196 against it, 
and 82 were neuter. Of the 378, 293 
had been generally advocates for it, (38 
had previously voted against it, and 17 
were either new members, or had not 
voted on the question in that parliament. 

CATHOLIC Association. Its 
first existence in any organized state, 
though not under that name, may be 
dated from the year 1757, or 1758, when 
an associated body was formed, the chief 
object of which was to concert measures 
for bringing before the legislature the 
grievances of the catholics, and to pro- 
cure them relief. In 1759-60, this body 
was brought into recognition by the 
state ; for, upon the alarm of the inva- 
sion of Conflans, the Roman catholic 
committee proposed a loyal address, 
which was presented by John Ponsonby, 
the speaker. A most gracious answer 
was returned, and published in the Ga- 
zette. In 1792, their committee as- 
sumed a formidable aspect. Theobald 
AVolfe Tone, in his memoirs, gives the 
following account of what may be called 
the association of that period : — " The 
general committee of the catholics, which, 
since the year 1792, has made a distin- 
guished figure in the politics of Ireland, 
was a body composed of their bishops, 
their country gentlemen, and a certain 
number of merchants and traders, all re- 
sident in Dublin, but named by the ca- 
tholics in the different towns corporate 
to represent them." 

1811. That committee, of which Mr. 
O'Connell was a member, was made 
the object of a prosecution by Saurin. 
Mr. Kirwan and Dr. Sheridan were in- 
dicted upon the Irish convention act, 
for having been elected to sit in the ca- 
tholic parliament. Upon the first trial 
the committee were aquitted ; but upon 
the second, the attorney-general suc- 
ceeded, and the catholic committee, as a 
representative body elected by the peo- 
l)le, and consisting of a certain number 
of members delegated from each town 
and country, ceased to exist. 

The association, to whose exertions 
may be referred the measures for relief, 
rose out of the disai)pointment of the 
people. Its foundations were laid by 
Mr. O'Connell in 1821, in conjunction 
with Mr. Shiel. The ])owerful appeals 
of the former, stirred the mind of Ire- 
land. Lord Killeen threw himself into 
a zealous co-operation with Mr. O'Con- 
nell, and by his abilities aided the impres- 



sion which his rank and station were 
calculated to produce. His example 
was followed by other noblemen ; and 
Lord Gormanstown, a catholic peer of 
great fortune and of very ancient de- 
scent, although hitherto unused to pub- 
lic life, appeared at the catholic associa- 
tion. Thus the aristocracy was conso- 
lidated with the catholic democracy, and 
Mr. O'Connell began to \vield them 
both, with the power of which new mani- 
festations were every day given. 

This association was suppressed by 
act of parliament passed in 1825, which 
expired in 1828, when they resumed 
their sittings; finally suppressed in 1829, 
as a preliminary step to the passing of 
the relief bill. See the preceding Article. 

CATHOLIC Majesty, title of, 
given to the king of Spain, by the pope, 
739. 

CATILINE, Lucius Seroius, the 
Roman conspirator, was descended from 
the illustrious patrician family of Sergii, 
at Rome. During the sanguinary ad- 
ministration of Sylla, he was the chief 
instrument of his cruelties, and headed 
a band of assassins, who dragged out of 
the houses and temples, persons whose 
names were included in the list of pro- 
scription, and cruelly murdered them in 
the presence of the emperor, a.c. 65, 
he formed a conspiracy with other dis- 
contented and turbulent persons for 
murdering the consuls, Aurelius Cotta, 
and Manlius Torquatus, together with 
the greatest part of the senators, and 
violently seizing the government. 'Iliis 
plot, though the execution of it was twice 
attempted, proved unsuccessful, in conse- 
quence of a mistake in the signal, on the 
part of Catiline ; and he was therefore 
under a necessity of deferring the ac- 
complishment of it to a future period. 

With a view to the more easy and 
certain execution of his plot, he offered 
himself a candidate for the consulship, 
and had Cicero for a competitor, but a 
discovery made to Cicero, had excited 
suspicions against Catiline, which de- 
feated his election, and favoured that of 
Cicero, his avowed adversary, a. u. c. 
691. Catiline, enraged by the suc- 
cess of his rival, prepared for another 
rebellion. He led an army into Trans- 
alpine Gaul, but was defeated and slain. 
Thus the Catiline conspiracy, which was 
detected by Cicero, in October, and an- 
nounced in the senate, was terminated 
in December, a.c. C3. 



CAT 



CAT 



CATO THE Censor, was bora at 
Tusculum, A.u.c. 519, a.c. 235. He 
was elected consul, a. c. 196, in connec- 
tion with his friend Valerius Flaccus, 
and the Hither Spain was assigned to 
him as his province. About ten years 
after his consulate, he offered him- 
self as a candidate for the office of 
censor ; but the known severity of his 
character alarmed the nobles, and they 
set up seven competitors against him; 
however the people persisted in the 
choice of Cato, and they nominated as 
his associate his consular colleague, Va- 
lerius Flaccus. 

Cato was the occasion of the third 
Punic war. Being despatched to Africa, 
to terminate a difference between the 
Carthaginians and the king of Numidia, 
on his return to Rome, he reported that 
Carthage was grown excessively rich and 
populous, and he warmly exhorted the 
senate to destroy a city and republic, 
during the existence of which Rome 
could never be safe. See Carthage, 
He died a, u. c. 605, a.c. 149, aged 
86. 

CATO OF Utica, so called from the 
place of his death, was grandson to Cato 
the Censor, and was born about a.c. 94. 
In the disputes which took place be- 
tween Csesar and Pompey, at the com- 
mencement of the civil war, a.c. 50, he 
was indefatigable in his attempts to re- 
concile these two great men ; but finding 
it in vain, he espoused the cause of the 
latter. When Pompey was slain he fled 
to Utica, being pursued by Csesar, ad- 
vised his friends to be gone, and throw 
themselves on Caesar's clemency. When 
he perceived that he must inevitably fall 
into Caesar's hands, he determined to 
resort to the Roman's final remedy, self- 
destruction ; and, notwithstanding all 
the persuasions and intreaties of his son 
and attendants, commanded his sword 
to be brought to him. After reading 
Plato's Dialogue on the Immortality of 
the Soul, he stabbed himself under the 
left breast. The wound, however, was 
not fatal, and the physician endeavoured 
to sew it up, but Cato, on recovering his 
senses, tore it open, and immediately ex- 
pired, a.c. 46, in the 48th year of his 
age. 

CATO Street Conspiracy, dis- 
covered February 23, 1820. Lord Har- 
rowby received a secret communication, 
that a gang of assassins were to assassi- 



nate his lordship andthe restof the cabinet 
ministers, when assembled at his house, 
on the evening of that day, at a cabinet 
dinner. The place of rendezvous of the 
assassins was in Cato-Street, John- 
street, in the Edgware-road. Thus ac- 
curately informed of the intentions of 
the conspirators, warrants were issued 
to apprehend them while they were as- 
sembled. These warrants were put into 
the hands of the police-officers, under 
the able direction of Richard Birnie, esq., 
the chief magistrate of Bow-street. A 
detachment of the Coldstream guards 
from Portman-street barracks were also 
ordered to accompany the police officers. 
Unfortunately, the darkness favoured 
the escape of many of the wretches, and 
after a dreadful skirmish, they succeeded 
in the capture of only nine of them. 
They were soon afterwards brought 
to trial on a charge of high treason. 
Thistlewood, Davidson, Ings, Brunt, 
and Tidd, being considered as ringlea- 
ders, were sentenced to death, and, on 
May 1, paid the forfeit of their crimes, 
in front of Newgate, by hanging and 
decapitation. The remainder of the pri- 
soners were transported. 

CATOPTRICS, the science of reflex 
vision. The earliest work that has 
reached us, is ascribed both by Proclus 
andMarinus to Euclid the geometrician, 
about A. c. 300 ; but it is suspected to 
be the work of some other person. This 
piece was published in Latin by John 
Pena, in l604j it is also included in 
Herigon's Mathematics, and in Gre- 
gory's edition of the works of Euclid, 
printed at Oxford, in 1703. This sub- 
ject was treated on by Alhazen, an Ara- 
bian astronomer, in 1 100 ; and by Vi- 
teUio, a learned Pole, about the year 
1270. 

CAT'S Isle, one of the Bahamas, 
first discovered by Columbus, 1492. 

CATSKILL Mountains, North 
America, and the woods intervening be- 
tween Ulster and Sullivan counties, took 
fire. May, 1816. 

CATTLE. According to the first Re- 
port of the Committee of the House of 
Commons, on Waste Lands, in 1795, 
cattle and sheep had, at an average, in- 
creased in size and weight, about a fourth 
since 1732. The number of head of 
cattle, sheep, and lambs, sold in Smith- 
field market, each year, from 1732 to 
1832, has been as follows : — 



2 G 



CAT 



226 



CAT 



Years. 


Cattle. 


Sheep. 


Years. 


Cattle. 


Sheep. 


1732 


76,210 


514,700 


1783 


101,840 


701,610 


1733 


80,169 


555,050 


1784 


98,143 


616,110 


1734 


78,810 


566,910 


1785 


99,047 


641,470 


1735 


83,894 


590,970 


1786 


92,270 


665,910 


1736 


87,606 


587,420 


1787 


94,946 


668,570 


1737 


89,862 


607,330 


1788 


92,829 


679,100 


1738 


87,010 


589,470 


1789 


93,269 


693,700 


1739 


86,787 


568,980 


1790 


103,708 


749,660 


1740 


84,810 


501,020 


1791 


101,164 


740,360 


1741 


. 77,714 


536,180 


1792 


107,348 


760,859 


1742 


79,601 


503,260 


1793 


116,848 


728,480 


1743 


76,475 


468,120 


1794 


109,448 


7 If ',420 


1744 


76,648 


490,620 


1795 


131,092 


745,640 


1745 


74,188 


563,990 


1796 


117,152 


758,840 


1746 


■ 71,582 


620,790 


1797 


108,377 


693,510 


1747 


71,150 


621,780 


1798 


107,470 


753,010 


1748 


67,681 


610,060 


1799 


122,986 


834,400 


1749 


72,706 


624,220 


1800 


125,073 


842,210 


1750 


70,765 


656,340 


1801 


134,546 


760,560 


1751 


69,589 


631,890 


1802 


126,389 


743,470 


1752 


73,708 


642,100 


1803 


117,551 


787,430 


1753 


75,252 


648,440 


1804 


113,019 


903,940 


1754 


70,437 


631,350 


1805 


125,043 


912,410 


1755 


74,290 


647,100 


1806 


120,250 


858,570 


1756 


77,257 


624,710 


1807 


134,326 


924,030 


1757 


82,612 


574,960 


1808 


144,042 


1,015,280 


1758 


84,252 


550,930 


1809 


137,600 


989,250 


1759 


86,439 


582,260 


1810 


132,155 


962,750 


1760 


88,594 


622,210 


1811 


125,012 


966,400 


1761 


82,514 


666,010 


1812 


133,854 


953,630 


1762 


102,831 


772,160 


1813 


137,770 


891,240 


1763 


80,857 


653,110 


1814 


135,071 


870,880 


1764 


75,168 


556,360 


1815 


124,948 


962,840 


1765 


81,630 


537,000 


1816 


120,439 


968,560 


1766 


75,534 


574,790 


1817 


129,888 


1,044,710 


1767 


77,324 


574,050 


1818 


138,047 


963,250 


1768 


79,660 


626,170 


1819 


135,226 


949,900 


1769 


82,131 


642,910 


1820 


132,933 


947,990 


1770 


86,890 


649,090 


1821 


129,125 


1,107,230 


1771 


93,573 


631,860 


1822 


142,043 


1,340,160 


1772 


89,503 


609,540 


1823 


149,552 


1,264,920 


1773 


90,133 


609,740 


1824 


163,615 


1,239,720 


1774 


90,419 


585,290 


1825 


156,985 


1,130,310 


1775 


93,581 


623,950 


1826 


143,460 


1,270,530 


1776 


98,372 


671,700 


1827 


138,363 


1,335,100 


1777 


93,714 


714,870 


1828 


147,698 


1,288,460 


1778 


97,360 


658,540 


1829 


158,313 


1,240,300 


1779 


79,352 


676,540 


1830 


159,907 


1,287,070 


1780 


102,383 


706,850 


1831 


148,168 


1,189,010 


1781 


102,543 


743,330 


1832 


166,224 


1,364,160 


1782 


101,176 


728,790 









Exclusive of the cattle raised in Great Britain, we import considerable sup- 
plies of live cattle from Ireland. 



CAT 



227 



CAV 



Account of the number of Cows and Oxen imported into Great Britain from Ire- 
land, from 1801 to 1825. 



Years. 


Cows and Oxen. 


Years. 


Cows and Oxen. 


Years. 


Cows and Oxen. 




No. 




No. 




No. 


1801 


31,543 


1810 


44,553 


1818 


58,165 


1802 


42,501 


1811 


67,680 


1819 


52,176 


1803 


28,016 


1812 


79,122 


1820 


39,014 


1804 


15,646 


1813 


48,973 


1821 


26,725 


1805 


21,862 


1814 


16,435 


1822 


34,659 


1806 


27,704 


1815 


33,809 


1823 


46,351 


1807 


26,252 


1816 


31,752 


1824 


62,314 


1808 


13,958 


1817 


45,301 


1825 


63,519 


1809 


17,917 











In 1825, the trade between Great 
Britain and Ireland was placed on the 
footing of a coasting trade, so that there 
are no means of continuing this account 
to a later date. 

CATTLE MARKET, Islington. The 
necessity of driving cattle and sheep 
through the crowded streets of London, 
to and from Smithfield, having been 
long complained of as a nuisance, led to 
this erection about 1834. A square con- 
taining an area of nearly 15 acres, abut- 
ting on the Lower Road, Islington, near 
to the Ball's Pond turnpike gate, has been 
enclosed by a substantial brick wall, about 
lOft. in height, between which sheds have 
been erected on all the four sides, each 
of which is 800 feet long, and the space 
of the roofing to the sheds is 25 feet. 
The market is calculated to accommodate 
upwards of 10,000 oxen, and 40,000 
sheep. The principal entrance is from 
the Islington Lower Road, by an arched 
gateway and two minor arched footways, 
through the centre of a building which' 
contains offices for the receiving and 
delivering clerks, &c., and is placed in 
the middle of the west side of the mar- 
ket, and about 60 yards in from the 
road. 

CATULLUS, Caius Valerius, an 
eminent Latin poet, born at Verona, 
A.u.c. 668, A.c. 86. He formed an in- 
timate acquaintance with Cicero, Cinna, 
and Plancus, to whom he recommended 
himself by his wit and gaiety, and by 
the beauty of his poetieal compositions. 
He was much attached to a mistress, 
whom he has rendered immortal by the 
name of Lesbia, though her real name 
was Clodia. The Eusebian Chronicle 
has placed hi^ death, a.c. 58, and Blair's 



tables A. c. 40. Joseph Scaliger extends 
his life to 71 years, and consequently 
refers his death to A.c. 15. The rank 
of one of the principal Latin poets is 
assigned to Catullus by Ovid, who places 
him on a parallel with Virgil. The most 
approved editions of Catullus are those 
of Vossius, l684, 4to. with a commen- 
tary, and Utr. I691 ; of Vulpius, Pa- 
tava, 1710, 4to. with annotations and 
an index; of Corradini, Venet. 1738; 
the "Variorum," by Graevius, with the 
poems of Tibullus and Propertius, Utr. 
1680; and Mattaire's, in 1715, 12mo., 
and in the Corpus Poetarum, with Ti- 
bullus and Propertius, Lond. 1713, fol. 

CATWORTH, Huntingdonshire, ma-^ 
terially injured by fire, Aug, 3, 1753. 

CAUCASUS, the name of the highest 
and most extensive range of mountains 
in the northern part of Asia. The an- 
cients erroneously considered this range 
as a continuation of Mount Taurus. 
The inhabitants were very numerous, 
and formed, as some say, 70, and ac- 
cording to others, 300 different nations, 
who spoke various languages. The most 
elevated mountain (Snowy Mountain) 
on the eastern side, west of the Cuban, 
was first ascended by an European tra- 
veller, in 1810. All the regions on and 
about the Caucasus are comprehended 
under the name of the Caucasian coun- 
tries. Since *he peace concluded be- 
tween Russia and Persia in 1813, they 
have belonged to the Russian empire. 

CAULIFLOWERS, first planted in 
England in l603. 

CAUTIONARY towns of the Dutch, 
pawned to Queen Elizabeth 1585, re- 
stored in 1616. 

CAVALLERI, or Cavallerius Bona. 



C A V 



228 



C AV 



ventura, an eminent Italian mathema- 
tician, born at Milan in 1598, and en- 
tered at an early age into the order of 
Jesuates or Hieronymites. At the uni- 
versity at Pisa, he applied to the study 
of geometry, where he made great pro- 
gress, and acquired an accurate ac- 
quaintance with the ancient geometers. 
Soon after this period he invented his 
method of indivisibles. In I629 he 
communicated to some ingenious per- 
sons and to the magistrates of Bologna, 
his treatise on the subject, and another 
on the conic sections ; and thus he ob- 
tained the honour of succeeding Magi- 
nus as professor in the university, in 
that year. In 1652 he published a 
treatise on conic sections and a system 
of trigonometry. The last of his works 
was entitled " Exercitationes Geome- 
trica? sex." He died in 1647. 

CAVALLO, Tiberius, an eminent 
natural philosopher, born 1749. Made 
experiments on inflammable air about 
1777, &c. Invented a new atmospheri- 
cal trigonometer. Hediedl809. 

CAVALRY. In the states of Greece, 
if we except Thessaly, their cavalry 
formed but an inconsiderable proportion 
of their forces. The Thessalians were 
dexterous horsemen, and carried the 
discipline and arms both offensive and 
defensive of their cavalry to great per- 
fection. The other parts of Greece imi- 
tated them. And from the Greeks, the 
Romans borrowed the arms and armour 
for their cavalry, who, Polybius expressly 
informs us in his sixth book, were, in 
his time, armed exactly as those of the 
Greeks. 

The Franks, before they conquered 
Gaul, had but very little cavalry; the 
Gallic cavalry possessed much reputa- 
tion; Clovis, at the battle of Tolbiac, 
fought at the head of his cavalry, and in 
537, Theodebert carried some with him 
on his expedition into Italy. At the 
battle of Tours, in 732, the French army 
consisted of 60,000 foot, and 12,000 
horse. Under Pepin, in 768, the num- 
ber of their cavalry was augmented. 
Under Charlemagne its number almost 
equalled that of their infantry. 

Towards the end of the second race of 
French monarchs, and the beginning of 
the third, their armies were almost en- 
tirely composed of cavalry, the defence 
of their country being left in a great 
measure solely to the noblesse, who 
would not serve but on horseback. 



They, accordingly, formed a corps of 
cavalry or horse, to which the name of 
Gendarmerie was given. Louis le Gros, 
having established communities, formed 
from that militia, in 1108, some light 
horse. But there was no regular for- 
mation or establishment of cavalry in 
France before the time of Charles VII. 
in 1445. 

The order of precedence among the 
British cavalry is the following. First, 
the life-guards; secondly, the horse- 
guards ; thirdly, the dragoon-guards ; 
fourthly, the dragoons ; and lastly, the 
light-dragoons. The first troop of horse 
in our service was raised in 1660. The 
first regiment of dragoons was raised in 
1681. Light horse were first raised in 
1757. 

CAVE, Edward, the compiler of the 
first periodical magazine, born 1691> 
died 1754. 

CAVE, Dr. William, a learned En- 
ghsh divine, born in 1637, and educated 
at St. John's college, Cambridge. He 
became chaplain to Charles II., and in 
1684, was installed a canon of Windsor. 
He compiled the Lives of the Primitive 
Fathers in the three first centuries of the 
church. Dr. Cave died in 1713. 

CAVENDISH,orCANDisH,THOMAS, 
an eminent navigator and naval adven- 
turer inthe reign of Queen Elizabeth, son 
of William Cavendish, Esq., of Trimley 
St. Martin, in Suffolk, where he was bom, 
and whose estate he inherited. Having 
consumed his property by early extrava- 
gance, he determined to retrieve his af- 
fairs l)y a predatory voyage against • the 
settlements of the Spaniards ; his fleet 
consisted only of three vessels of 1 20, 60, 
and 40 tons, manned with 123 persons 
of various qualities. He sailed from 
Plymouth, July 21, 1586. Having reach- 
ed the South Sea, he succeeded in burn- 
ing Paita, Acapulco, and some other 
settlements, in taking and destroying 
several ships, and ravaging the coasts of 
Chih, Peru, and New Spain. At length, 
being off California in November 1587, 
he performed the extraordinary exploit of 
capturing, with a force much reduced, 
the Spanish admiral's ship of 700 tons, 
well manned and richly laden. He 
crossed the South Sea with one of his 
two small vessels, the others being 
destroyed, to the Ladrones in 45 days, 
and arrived at Plymouth, after having 
circumnavigated the globe in two years, 
one month, and nineteen days, the' 



CAV 



229 



CAY 



shortest period in which it had then 
been effected 

He planned another expedition, and 
set sail August 26, 1591, with three tall 
ships and two barks, suitably equipped. 
This adventure was attended with various 
disasters, which disconcerted and defeated 
his projects. Sickness and chagrin at 
length terminated his life, probably whilst 
he was at sea on his way to England. 
" From the relations we have of this 
navigator, he seems to have possessed 
great perseverance, with a true enter- 
prising spirit, but not sufficiently vmder 
the control of prudence." 

CAVENDISH, William, duke of 
Newcastle, a distinguished leader of the 
king's party in the civil wars of Charles 
I, the son of Sir Charles Cavendish, 
younger brother of the first earl of De- 
vonshire, born in 1592, and educated by 
his father. James I. made him when 
very young, a knight of the bath ; he was 
raised to the peerage in 1620, by the title 
of Baron Ogle, and Viscount Mansfield. 
By Charles I. who honoured him with his 
favour, he was advanced to the higher title 
of earl of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The 
honourable trust was committed to him 
in 1638, of the tutelage of the prince of 
Wales, afterwards Charles II. He re- 
signed this honour in 1640. 

His attachment to the royal cause was 
unabated. In 1642, he took upon him- 
self, in consequence of the king's order, 
the care of the town of Newcastle and 
the four adjacent counties ; and was in- 
vested with a commission, constituting 
him general of all his majesty's forces 
raised north of Trent, with very ample 
powers. He levied a considerable army, 
with which, for some time, he maintained 
the superiority of the king's cause in the 
north, but afterwards despairing of that 
cause, he left the kingdom, to which he 
id not return tiU the restoration. Ant- 
werp was the place of his residence, 
where he suffered with equanimity and 
resolution, much pecuniary distress. 

After an absence of 18 years, he re- 
turned with his royal master, who, in 
1664, conferred upon him the dignity of 
a dukedom. He died December 25, 1676, 
in his 84th year, and was buried together 
with his duchess, in Westminster Abbey, 
where a very sumptuous monument is 
erected to their memories. The duke of 
Newcastle ranks among the noble authors 
of this country. His great work is a 
hook on horsemanship, first published 



in French at Antwerp, in 1658, and af- 
terwards in a somewhat different form in 
English, 1667. 

CAVERLEY, Sir Hugh, the first 
person who used guns for the service of 
England, died 1389. 

CAXTON, William, who according 
to some writers, first introduced the art 
of printing into England, or who, ac- 
cording to others, improved and perfected 
it by the use of fusile types, born at the 
beginning of the fifteenth century. In 
1439, he was apprenticed in London. 
By his long residence in the Low Coun- 
tries, he became acquainted with the new 
invention of printing; and having pro- 
vided himself with presses, types, and all 
other printing materials, he came over to 
England in 1472, and in a printing room 
at the entrance of Westminster Abbey, 
he produced in 1474, the first book that 
was ever printed in this country. Caxton 
died in 1491, and was buried in St. 
Margaret's church, Westminster. 

CAYENNE Isle, South America, in 
French Guiana, settled by the French in 
1635, and abandoned in 1654, when the 
English took possession of it, but were 
compelled to leave it in 1664. The Dutch 
succeeded in taking it in 1676, but it 
was recovered in 1677, by the French. 
This island capitulated to the British in 
1809 ; but was surrendered to France at 
the peace of Paris in 1814. 

CAYLUS, Ann-Claude Philip, 
Count, an illustrious amateur of the arts, 
descended from one of the most noble 
families in France, born at Paris in 1692. 
Having entered at an early age into the 
military service, he distinguished himself 
in Calabria in l7ll, and at the siege of 
Fribourg in 1713. 

Tn 1715, he joined the train of the 
French ambassador to the Porte, and 
visited the ruins of many places in Asia 
Minor and Greece, and returned to 
France in 1717, with a rich collection 
of drawings and descriptions. In 1731, 
he was admitted a member of the aca- 
demy of painting and sculpture. In 
1742, he was appointed one of the hono- 
rary members of the academy of in- 
scriptions and belles lettres. By his 
various labours he acquired a reputation 
which extended throughout Europe. Ho 
died at Paris in 1765, aged 73 years. 
His principal work is a " Collection of 
Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek, Roman, and 
Gaulish Antiquities," 7 vols. 4to., of 
which the last appeared in 1767- 



C E C 230 

CEAULIN, king of Wessex, seized 
the kingdom of Sussex in 590. He w&s 
defeated and dethroned by Ceolric, in 
the battle of Wanborough, Wiltshire, 
in 592. 

CECIL,WiLLiAM, Lord Burleigh, 
See Burleigh. 

CECIL, Robert, earl of Salisbury, 
was the second son of the former, born 
about the year 1550. He began his po- 
litical career as assistant to the earl of 
Derby, ambassador at the court of 
France, and in 1596, was appointed by 
Queen Elizabeth, second secretary of 
state with Sir Francis Walsingham ; and 
when that minister died, he became 
principal secretary. He was continued 
as prime minister at the accession of 
James, who advanced him to the peer- 
age ; created him baron of Essenden in 
1603, Viscount Cranbourn in 1604, and 
earl of Salisbury in 1605. He was 
chosen, in I6O8, as the fittest person to 
succeed the lord high treasurer, the earl 
of Dorset, at his death. His life ter- 
minated by a decline, in 1612. 

CECILIA, St., a noble Roman lady 
of distinguished piety, who, from her 
infancy, had been bred in the Christian 
faith. She is supposed to have been 
born in the reign of the emperor M. 
Aurelius Antoninus, and to have suf- 
fered martyrdom in that of Septimius 
Severus, in the beginning of the third 
century. The first notice of her as a 
saint was by Bede, in his " Ecclesiastical 
History," who mentions her church at 
Rome, as the place where Vilbrord was 
ordained pope in 696. 

A great festival was held at Rome in 
1599, during the potificate of Clement 
VIII., for the finding of the body of St. 
Cecilia among other relics. The earliest 
notice of her as the titular saint and 
protectress of music seems to have been 
in the works of the great painters of the 
Italian school. Her birth day just be- 
gan to be celebrated by assembhes of 
musicians, about the latter end of the 
l7th century, when there was a rage 
among the votaries of music for cele- 
brating the birth day of this saint, not 
only in London, but in all the consider- 
able cities and provincial towns in the 
kingdom where music was cultivated. 

The first composition expressly pro- 
duced for a music meeting in England 
on St. Cecilia's day, was called "a mu- 
sical entertainment performed Nov. 22, 
1683, on St. Cecilia's day, printed in 



CEL 

score by John Playford, with a dedica- 
tion to the gentlemen of the musical so- 
ciety, and particularly the stewards, 
written by Henry Purcell, composer of 
the music." 

CECROPS arrived in Attica, with a 
colony of Saites,from Egypt, and founded 
the kingdom of Athens, 780 years before 
the first Olympiad, a. c. 1556. 

CELEBES, a large island in the 
eastern seas, separated from Borneo by 
the straits of Macassar. It was first 
visited by the Portuguese in 1512, when 
they found but few Mahomedans. The 
faith of Mahomed was first introduced 
there by Khatib Tungal, about 1603. 
The Portuguese were expelled by the 
Dutch in I66O. 

In 1811, the Dutch authority in Ce- 
lebes was transferred to the British by a 
conquest and capitulation with the 
French governor-general of the Dutch 
colonies in India ; but on the return of 
tranquillity the British authorities quitted 
Celebes, and in 18 16 it was once more 
restored to the Dutch. In 1820, the 
civilized inhabitants of Celebes consisted 
of five distinct nations, viz., the Bug- 
gesses, the Macassars, the Mandars, the 
Kaili, and the Manado. 

CELERY first introduced at table in 
England by Count Tallard, during his 
captivity after the battle of Malplaquet, 
in 1709. 

CELESTIAL Observations of the 
Chaldeans began at Babylon, a.c. 2234; 
according to the register sent by Calis- 
thenes to Aristotle, a. c. 2331 ; contain- 
ing the asterial phenomena of 1903 years. 

CELESTIAL Sphere, first seen in 
Greece ; brought from Egypt, a. c. 368. 

CELESTINES, an order of nuns, 
reformed from the Bernardines in 1224, 
by Pope Celestine V., established in 
1264, by Pope Urban IV., and confirmed 
by Gregory X., in 1274. 

CELIBACY was much discouraged 
among the ancients. The Spartans who 
lived in celibacy were subject to many 
humiliations. The Romans used all 
means imaginable to discourage it. But 
the first law against it, was that enacted 
under Augustus, a. u. c. 762, called 
" Lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus." 
By this law many prerogatives were given 
to persons who had many children ; 
and penalties imposed on those who lived 
a single life. 

The celebate of the clergy among 
the Romanists, is of ancient standing. 



CEL 



231 



CEL 



It was first proposed by the council of 
Nice, but without passing ; it was, how- 
ever, in some measure, admitted, by the 
western councils of Elvira, Aries, Tours, 
&c., and enjoined by the thirty-third 
canon of the council of Elvira, held 
about the year 300, though it does not 
appear that it was either generally or 
rigorously observed. 

In the year 340, it was decreed in the 
council of Aries, that no man incum- 
bered with a wife, should be admitted 
into holy orders. Syricius issued a 
decree in 385, obliging all priests and 
deacons to observe celibacy. In 441, 
the council of Orange ordered those to 
be deposed who did not abstain from 
their wives ; and Leo the Great, about 
442, extended the law of celibacy, to 
deacons and presbyters. Gregory the 
Great, in 591, first brought ecclesiastics 
to admit the celebate as a law. 

In Britain the celibacy of the clergy 
does not seem to have commenced till 
the arrival of Austin in the sixth century. 
About the middle of the tenth century, 
in the reign of Edred, who surrendered 
himself to the guidance of Dunstan, the 
Benedictines made a merit of the most 
inviolable chastity ; their principles and 
practices were greedily embraced and 
promoted by the policy of the court of 
Rome. 

1 107. During the reign of Henry I., a 
synod was held at Westminster, which 
enjoined the celibacy of priests ; and 
which enacted, that even laymen should 
not marry within the seventh degree of 
affinity. Another synod was convened 
at London in 1129, under the pontificate 
of Honorius, at which presided William, 
archbishop of Canterbury, with the cha- 
racter of the pope's legate, and where all 
the bishops of the kingdom were present; 
enforcing the observance of the canons 
issued by other councils concerning the 
celibacy of the clergy ; and such of them 
as still kept concubines, for so their wives 
were called, were strictly enjoined to put 
them away before St. Andrew's day next 
following. 

CELLARIUS, Christopher, was 
born at Smalcald, in 1638, and having 
studied at various German universities, 
was invited at the age of 30, to teach 
moral philosophy and the Oriental lan- 
guages at the college of Weissenfels. In 
1673, he became rector of the college of 
Weimar, and afterwards occupied the 
same post at Zerts and Mersburg. He 



died at Halle in 1707, in his 69th year. 
His principal work is " Notitia orbis 
antiqui," two vols. 4to., 1701, 1706, 1731. 
This is acknowledged to be the best 
work on ancient geography extant, and 
brings it down to the time of Constan- 
tine. 

CELSUS, an Epicurean philosopher, 
and an early adversary of Christianity, 
born towards the close of the reign of 
Adrian, who died a. d. 139; he is 
placed -by Dr. Lardner in 176, not 
far from the reign of Marcus Anto- 
ninus. The book which he wrote 
against the Christians, was entitled 
" The True Word." Of this work we 
have no other remains than the quota- 
tions made by Origen in his refutation 
of it. The answer of Origen was writ- 
ten about the year 246, and according to 
others 249. Celsus also wrote a piece 
" On the life to be led by those who 
meant to follow the rules of philosophy;" 
and another " Against Magic" is 
ascribed to him both by Origen and 
Lucian. 

CELSUS, A. Cornelius, a celebrated 
ancient physician, a Roman by birth, 
probably of the Cornelian family. He 
was born in the latter part of the reign 
of Augustus Csesar, and was living in 
the time of Caligula. The work by 
which he has been rendered famous is 
entitled " De Medicina Libri Octo." 
The great number of editions this book 
has passed through, sufficiently indicate 
the high esteem in which it is held. 
One of the best is Almeloveen's, edited 
at Padua, 1722, Bvo., by Vulpius, and 
reprinted in 1750. 

CELTS, or Celt^, a peoj^le who in the 
earliest ages inhabited the western parts 
of Europe, particularly Gaul and Britain, 
but were afterwards chiefly confined to 
a country called Gallica Celtica, situated 
between the Seine, the Marne, and the 
Garonne. 

The origin of this people is to be 
traced to about the fifth century before 
Christ, where they existed in the neigh- 
bourhood of the Pyrenees, from whence 
they were driven by the Goths and the 
Aquitani, into that part of Gaul which 
they occupied in the time of Csesar. 
This people have often been confounded 
with the Scythians or Goths, but after 
many contentions on the point, it is now 
generally admitted that they are a dis- 
tinct nation. It is supposed that the 
inhabitants of the Highlands of Scot- 



CEN 



232 



CEN 



land, the Welsh, and some of the Irish 
tribes, are the remains of the ancient Celts. 

CEMENT. The ruins of the ancient 
Roman buildings are found to cohere so 
strongly, that it has been generally ima- 
gined the ancients were acquainted with 
some kind of mortar totally unknown 
to us, the discovery of which has been 
long and anxiously attempted. 

1770. M. Loriot, a Frenchman, pre- 
tended to have discovered the secret of 
the ancient cement, which, according to 
him, was no more than a mixture of 
powdered quicklime with lime which 
had been long slaked and kept under 
water. But the invention of this cement 
did not succeed to the degree the in- 
ventor expected. Dr. Higgins in 1779, 
procured a patent for a water cement of 
his own invention, which, he says, when 
set, exceeds Portland stone in hardness. 
But the care and expense necessary in 
the preparation, render it inapplicable to 
common purposes. 

It was not till the invention of Parker's 
Roman cement, in 1813, that this de- 
sideratum in building was discovered. 
This composition is made from septaria, 
or balls, which are found in various 
parts of the strata of London clay, and 
were supposed to be peculiar to it ; but 
similar balls of argillaceous limestone, 
divided by seams of calcareous spar, 
occur also in other strata, and are equally 
useful in the preparation of cement. 

CEMETERY. In the ealy ages, the 
Christians held their assemblies in the 
cemeteries. Valerian in the third cen- 
tury confiscated the cemeteries and the 
places destined for divine worship, which 
were restored again to the Christians by 
Gallienus about 400. Public cemeteries 
have been recently established in the 
neighbourhood of the metropolis at Ken- 
sal Green, Edgeware, in 1832; Norwood, 
1838 ; Highgate, 1839 ; Stoke Newington 
1840, and in various parts of the country. 

CENIS, Mount, a branch belonging 
to the Alps, stated to be 8610 feet above 
the level of the sea. It is famous for 
the road which leads over it from Savoy 
to Piedmont. During the reign of Buo- 
naparte, at the commencement of this 
century, he employed his soldiers in 
clearing away the snow from the roads 
in the passage over Mount Cenis, thus 
making it safely passable, even in winter. 

CENOLE, thirteenth king of the Mer- 
cians, and eighteenth monarch of Eng- 
land, began to reign 795. He conquered 



Kent, and gave that kingdom to Cudred 
798. He died in 819, and was buried 
at Winchcomb. 

CENRED, eighth king of Mercia.and 
thirteenth monarch of England, began 
his reign in 795. Reigned four year.s 
and then became a monk. 

CENSOR, one of the prime magis- 
trates in ancient Rome, whose business 
was to survey and rate the people, and 
to inspect and correct their manners. 
There were two censors first created 
A.u.c. 311. A law was made a.u. c. 
414, when Publilius Philo was dictator, 
appointing one of the censors to be al- 
ways elected out of the plebeians, which 
held in force till A.u.c. 622, when both 
censors were chosen from among the 
people, viz., Q. Cascilius Metellus, sur- 
named Macedonicus, and Q. Pompius; 
after which time, it was shared between 
the senate and the people. 

The power of the censors continued 
unimpaired to the tribuneship of Clo- 
dius, A.u.c. 695, who procured a law to 
be enacted, ordering that no senator 
should be degraded by the censors, un- 
less he had been formally accused and 
condemned by both censors ; but this 
law was abrogated, and the powers of 
the censorship restored soon after by Q. 
Metellus Scipio, a.u.c. 702. The office 
continued to the time of the emperors, 
who assumed the authority of it to them- 
selves. The last censors were Paulus 
and Plancus, under Augustus. 

CENSUS, among the Romans, was 
an authentic declaration made upon oath 
by the several subjects of the empire, 
of their respective names, and places of 
abode, before proper magistrates in the 
city of Rome, called censors. It was 
instituted by king Servius TuUius, about 
A.c. 600, to be held every five years; 
and this prince took the census four 
times during his reign. The census was 
taken anciently in the Forum ; but after 
the year 320, in the Villa Pubhca, which 
was a place in the Campus Martius. 
Censuses were taken at Rome, a.c. 566, 
507, 387, 294, 279, 265, 247, 220, 192, 
179, 169, 164, 85, 29. 

CENSUS OF THE Population of 
Great Britain. This is taken every 
ten years. 

The census of 1801 was limited to the 
following objects: — 1. The number of 
individual inhabitants in each parish, 
distinguishing males from females. 2 
The number of inliabited houses, and 



CEN 



233 



CEN 



the niiml)er of families inhabiting the 
same in each parish. 3. The number 
of uninhabited houses. 4. A classifica- 
tion of the employment of individuals 
into the great di^-isions of agriculture, 
trade, manufactures, and handicraft, and 
a specification of the numbers not in- 
cluded in either of those divisions. 5. 
The number of persons serving in the 
regular army, the militia, and the em- 
bodied local militia. 

The census of 1811, embraced all the 
points which formed subjects of inquiry 
in 1801, with the exception of the fourth 
in the above list, which had signally 
failed ; and for that inquiry, which was 
intended to show the calling or occupa-. 
tion of each individual, questions were 
substituted in 1811, in order to ascertain 
this matter, with regard to the number 
of families ; the females, children, and 
servants being held to follow the calling 
of the head of the family. 

The census of 1821, Avas made to em- 
brace all the points included in the in- 
quiries of 1811, and with the same 
modifications, but in addition to those 
points, it was sought to ascertain the 
ages of all persons living within the 
United Kingdom, distinguishing in Great 
Britain males from females, and dividing 
both sexes into classes according to their 
ages, as follows, viz. — 

Males and females respectively under 
5 years of age. 

Between 5 and 10 years. 
10 „ 15 „ 
„ 15 „ 20 „ 
20 „ 30 „ 
30 „ 40 „ 
40 „ 50 „ 
50 „ 60 „ 
60 „ 70 „ 
70 „ 80 „ 
80 „ 90 „ 
90 „ 100 „ 
100 years of age and upwards. 
This additional inquiry was so far 
successfully carried through, that the 
ages of 92 out of every 100 persons 
living were ascertained. 

The census of 1831, did not embrace 
the sam^ inquiries in regard to ages as 
were obtained in 1821. The other 
heads of enquiry were continued at 
the enumeration of 1831, with cer- 
tain additions, all of which applied to 
males twenty years old and upwards, 
with the exception of the enumeration 
of male servants under that age> and of 



female servants of all ages above and 
below twenty years. 

The persons appointed to conduct the 
actual enumerations were, in England 
and Wales, the overseers of the poor ; 
in Scotland, the official schoolmasters 
of each parish, an institution peculiar 
to Scotland, which has existed in full 
vigour since the year 1696. Hitherto, 
the execution of each census in the 
United Kingdom has been mol-e satis- 
factory than the execution of that by 
which it was preceded, giving reasonable 
ground of hope that the task, when per- 
formed in 1841, will exhibit a still nearer 
approach to perfection. See Popula- 
tion. 

CENTAURS, a kind of fabulous 
monsters, half men, half horses, men- 
tioned in ancient mythology. The cen- 
taurs, in reality, were a tribe of Lapithee, 
who inhabited the city of Petethronum, 
adjoining to Mount Pehon, and first in- 
vented the art of breaking horses; as 
is intimated by Virgil. Upon the chest 
of Cypselides, mentioned by Pausanias, 
and upon which characters were written 
in the year A.c. 778, in the boustro- 
phedon form, the centaur Chiron ap- 
pears half man and half horse, but re- 
presented as a man sustained upon two 
human legs and feet, with the croup- 
flanks and two hinder legs of a horse 
attached to his loins. 

CENTURION, a military officer 
among the Romans, generally defined to 
have been one who commanded a hun- 
dred men. But this is a very erroneous 
definition. For when the Roman state 
was VS its greatest vigour and perfec- 
tion; which it was about the time of 
Hannibal's invasion of Italy, the two 
centurions in a maniple or company ot 
the hastati or principes commanded twice 
as many men as the two centurions in 
the maniple of the triarii ; as a maniple 
of each of the former then contained 120 
men, whereas a maniple of the latter 
consisted only of 60. Tlie legion then 
consisted commonly of 4,200 foot, and 
300 horse. Of these 4,200 infantry, 
600 were triarii, 1,200 were hastati, 
1,200 were principes, and the remainder 
were velites or hght troops. Anciently, 
and before the war of Hannibal, it was 
the constant custom of the Romans to 
raise four legions annually, and tr 
allow to each legion 4,000 foot, and 
200 horse. 

Towards the time of Julius Ceesar, and 

2H 



C K P 234 C K R 

the close of the mixed government of the It was subject to the Venetians from 
Romans, the number of men commanded the year 1449, till the peace of Campo 
respectively by a centurion in ttiehastati, Formio in 1797. when it was ceded to 
or principes, and by a fcenturion in the France; during that period it was go- 
triarii, were in a ratio that frequently verned by a proveditor appointed by the 
varied. During the same period there republic. It was taken from the French 
were, in every legion, sixty centurions, in 1799, and formed, with the other 
or commanders of companies, or mani- Ionian isles, into an independent com- 
ples, sixty officers chosen by them to monwealth ; but at the peace of Tilsit, in 
take charge of the rear of the compa- 1807, it was again brought under the 
nies, who might be denominated sub- dominion of France. In 1809 it was 
centurions or sub- captains, and sixty taken by the British, under whose pro- 
standard-bearers or ensigns, who were tection it still continues, 
appointed by the captains or centurions. CERDIC, a Saxon general, who ar- 
CENTURY, in its more general mean- rived in Britain 495, from whom de- 
ing, signifies any thing consisting of a .scended the kings of England, in the 
hundred parts. The Roman people when male line, to Edward the Confessor ; and 
they were assembled for the electing of in the female line, to her present ma- 
magistrates, or deliberating upon any jesty. He founded the West Saxon 
public affair, always voted by centuries, kingdom in 519, and having overcome 
In chronology, century implies a period king Arthur in 527, was crowned at Win- 
of 100 years. This method of comput- Chester. He died in 534. See Arthur. 
ing by centuries is generally observed in CERES, a new primary planet, disco- 
ecclesiastical histoiy commencing from vered January 1, 1801, by M. Piazzi, 
the time of our Saviour's mcarnation. astronomer royal of Palermo, in Sicily. 
CEOLRED, son of Ethelred, ninth This is an intermediate planet between 
king of the Mercians, and fourteenth mo- the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, and ap- 
narch of England, in 709. He was killed pears as a star of the eighth magnitude, 
in battle with Ina, king of the West being, probably, about the size of the 
Saxons, after a reign of seven years, 716. moon. Its distance from the sun is 
He died without children, and was about 2 1 times that of the earth, and its 
buried at Litchfield. periodical time nearly four years and two 
CEPHALONIA, the largest of the months. The elements of its theory, 
islands composing the Ionian republic, communicated by Dr. Button, of Wool- 
The early history of the island is involved wich, to Mr. O. Gregory, and published 
in fable. It derived its name from Ce- in his ''Treatise on Astronomy," in 1803, 
phalus, an Athenian prince. Before the are as follow: — 
Trojan war the Cephalonites took part in Place of the ascending 

the war occasioned by the inhabitants of node 2s. 20° 58' 30" 

Epidamnus, between the Corinthiaxjs and Inclinationof the orbit 10 47 
Corcyreans. Cephalonia possessed its Place of the aphelium 2 8 59 37 
liberty long after the downfall of Athens, Time of the passage through the aphe- 

Corinth, Sparta, and the other celebrated lium, January, 1801 1.3328 

repul)lics of Greece, but was finally sub- Eccentricity 0.0364 

dued by the Romans. Log. of the greater semiaxis 0.4106586 
Cephalonia continued as a province of Timeof the sidereal period 4. 13 years, 
the Roman empire until a.d. 364, when CERIGO, or Cherigo (well known 
it passed under the yoke of the emperors in ancient times by the name of Cythera), 
of the east, who continued masters of it one of the seven islands in the Mediter- 
until 982, when the Lombards, a people ranean which compose the Ionian repub- 
of Pannonia, under the command of lie. It was anciently known (according 
John Leone, conquered and took pos- to Pliny) by the name of Porphyris, 
session of the island. In 1125 Cephalo- from its possessing abundance of that 
nia again became subject to the emperors beautiful marble. Ptolemy attri1)utes the 
of the east, when they began to recover name of Cythera to Cytherus, son of 
from the harassing irruptions of the Ot- Phoenix, who established himself in the 
tomans, under Mahomet On the down- island. It was first peopled by the La- 
fall of the eastern empire it followed the cedemonians, who, in the eighth year of 
fate of Corfu, and became a dependency the Peloponnesian war, were expelled by 
of the Venetian republic. the Athenians under the command of 



CER 



235 



CEY 



Niciaa. At a subsequent period it passed 
under the dominion of the Spartan re- 
public, and served as a retreat to Cleo- 
inenes, who, on the approach of Antigo- 
nus, king of Macedon, took refuge in the 
island. Ptolemy, king of Egypt, was af- 
terwards lord of Cerigo. The Romans 
next came in possession ; then the Ve- 
netians. It was taken from them by 
the French in 1797, but was retaken two 
years after, and incorporated [into the 
Ionian republic. The French again ob- 
tained possession of it in 1807, but were 
expelled by the English in 1809. This 
island was united to the Ionian republic, 
under British protection, in 1815. See 
Ionian Islands. 

CERVANTES de Saavedra, Mi- 
guel, the author of Don Quixote, born 
in the year 1549. He fought at the 
battle of Lepanto, under Don John, of 
Austria, in 1571, where he had the mis- 
fortune or, as he rather thought it, the 
honour to lose his left hand. In 1574, 
he was taken prisoner by the Moors, 
among whom he had several masters ; 
and from whom he made many unsuc- 
cessful attempts to escape. On one of 
these occasions he and his associates 
were detected, and taken before the dey, 
from whom they could expect nothing 
but sentence of death, in its most cruel 
forms. The dey, however, consented 
to pardon the offenders, on condition 
that they should disclose which of their 
number was the leader of the enterprise. 
Unwilling to betray their countrymen, 
his companions hesitated, when Cer- 
vantes stepped forward, and acknow- 
ledged that he was the guilty person, 
and added, that to save his companions, 
he was ready to die. The savage ruler 
was so struck with his intrepidity that 
he refused to punish him. That he was 
regarded as a person of some note, is 
evident from the high price demanded 
for his ransom, which was no less than 
500 crowns. This sum, with great diffi- 
culty, his friends at length succeeded in 
raising, and in i 580, he was restored to 
his country and his family. 

On his return to Spain, he applied 
himself to the writing of comedies and 
tragedies, which, though they had great 
failings, were on the whole well received. 
In 1584, he published his Galatea. But 
the work which will immortalize his 
name, is the history of Don Quixote ; 
the first part of which was ])rinted at 
Madrid, in the year 16C5. This work 



is a satire upon books of knight-errantry 
and the principal end of it was to destroy 
the reputation of those books which 
had infatuated the greater part of man- 
kind, and especially the Spanish nation. 
It was universally read ; and Cervantes, 
even in his lifetime, obtained the glory 
of having his work receive the royal ap- 
probation. In 16 15, he published a 
second part ; to which he was partly 
moved by the presumption of seme 
scribbler, wl>o had published a continua- 
tion of this work the year before. The 
last of his works was entitled "The 
Troubles of Persiles and Sigismunda." 
He died about the year 16 16, butthe exact 
period is not known. 

CETOLOGY, the department of Zoo- 
logy which treats of the history and 
anatomy of cetaceous animals or whales. 
Little seems to have been known by the 
ancients respecting these animals, but 
some species of them are mentioned both 
by Aristotle and Pliny. Among the mo- 
dern writers, Willoughby was the first 
who distinctly marked the anatomical 
resemblance of whales and quadrupeds. 
In 1692, Sir Robert Sibbald published a 
separate treatise, professing to describe 
only the rarer species of whales. La 
Cepede collected all that was most valu- 
able, employed his talents in reducing 
the whole to a systematic arrangement, 
and published it in 1804. 

CEUTA, OR CiBTA, a town of 
Fez, on a peninsula opposite to Gibral- 
tar. This place was wrested from the 
Moors, 1415, by John, king of Portugal, 
and with Portugal was included, in 1530, 
in the Spanish monarchy by Philip II., 
and continued under the government of 
Spain even after the revolution of 1640. 
In the peace of 1668, it was finally ceded 
to Spain by the Portuguese. 

CEVA, (ancient Ceba) a town in the 
north of Italy, in Piedmont. The cheese 
of this vicinity is praised by Pliny. In 
1584, an inundation of the Tanaro prov- 
ed fatal to numbers, and the plague car- 
ried off a still greater number in 1625. 
It was taken by the French in the late 
war, but was abandoned June 15, 1799. 

CEVENNES, a chain of mountains 
in the south of France, considered to be 
a branch of the Alps. The French Pro- 
testants took shelter there, at the close 
of the I7th century, and bravely de- 
fended themselves against their merci- 
less persecutors. 

CEYLON, island in the Indian Ocean. 



CHA 



236 



CHA 



This island is supposed to have been 
known to the ancients ; but the first au- 
thentic account of it is, that the Portu- 
guese navigator, Almeyda, in 1505, 
entered one of its ports by accident, and 
was hospitably received by the natives. 
The Portuguese established commercial 
settlements there, but their cruelty and 
fanaticism made them so much ab- 
horred, that the Cingalese, in 1603, 
assisted the Dutch in driving them 
out of the island. By the conquest of 
Colombo, the Dutch succeeded, in 
1656, in expelling the Portuguese. 

Bloody wars ensued, in which the Eu- 
ropeans were the victors, and forced their 
opponents to seek refuge in the interior 
of the island, where they remained in- 
dependent. After Holland had been 
erected into the Batavian republic by 
the French, in 1795, the English took 
possession of this island, and at the 
peace of Amiens in ] 802, it was for- 
mally ceded to them. 

1815. The English subjected the whole 
of it by the capture of the Cingalese 
king of Candy, and the conquest of the 
principal town. In 1817, a most exten- 
sive and harassing rebellion broke out 
in the central provinces, which lasted 
until the end of 1819 ; since which, un- 
interrupted peace has prevailed, and va- 
rious improvements, fiscal, judicial, and 
commercial, have been executed. In 
1821 the export of cinnamon was open- 
ed to all purchasers (having previously 
been restricted to the East India Com- 
pany) from the government stores, where 
public auctions were ordered to be held 
every month. 

CHAGRE, port and town, in the re- 
public of Colombia, at the embouchure 
of the Chagre river, and on the shores 
of the Caribbean sea. Taken by Admi- 
ral Vernon, 1740. 

CHAIN Cables. See Cables. 

CHAIN Shot, invented by Adm. de 
Wit, 1666. 

CHAIRS, Sedan, first introduced in 
London in 1 634, when Sir Sanders Dun- 
comb obtained the sole privilege to use, 
let, and hire a number of the said cover- 
ed chairs for 14 years. In 1694, they 
were first taxed by act of parliament (5 
and 6 W. and M. c. 22 :) and by 9 Anne, 
c. 23, 200 hackney-chairs were licensed, 
at 10s, per annum ; and no person was 
obhged to pay for a hackney chair more 
than the rale allowed by the act for a 
hackney coach driven two-third parts of 



the said distance. In the following 
year, by 10 Anne c. 19, chairs were in- 
creased to 300; and by 12 Geo. 1, c. 12, 
to 400, on account of the great increase 
of buildings to the westward. 

CHAIR,S, Private sedans, 241 in 
DubUn city, March 25, 1787. Acts, 
(Irish) for the regulation of, 1772, 1785, 
1786, 1787. 

CHALCEDON, or Calcedon, a 
famous city of Bithynia, seated on the 
Bosphorus, and built, as it is said, by 
the inhabitants of Megara, some years 
before Byzantium, anciently known by 
the name of Procerastis and Colbusa. 
It was taken by the Athenians, a.c. 
409. The emperor Justinian repaired 
it, and gave it his own name. It after- 
wards became very powerful. 

Chalcedon was famous in Christian 
times for the council held there in 451 
against Eutyches, which is reckoned the 
fourth general or oecumenical council. 
The emperor Valens, caused the walls 
of this city to be levelled with the ground, 
for siding with Procopius, and the ma- 
terials to be conveyed to Constantinople, 
where they were employed in construct- 
ing the famous Valentinian aqueduct. 
This city was taken after a long siege, 
in 616, by Chosroes II. king of Persia. 
Chalcedon is at present a poor place, 
known to the Greeks by its ancient 
name, and to the Turks by that of Ca- 
diaci, and Kodi-keni,or the Judges-town. 

CHALMERS, Alexander, an emi- 
nent voluminous modern writer, was 
born at Aberdeen, March 29, 1759. 
Having received a classical and medical 
education, he left his native city about 
1777, and obtained the situation of sur- 
geon in the West Indies, when he 
suddenly altered his mind, and proceeded 
to the metropolis, where he became 
connected with the periodical press. He 
commenced his literary career, as editor 
of the Public Ledger, and London 
Packet. He also contributed to the 
other popular journals of the day. In 
1793, he pubhshed a Continuation of the 
History of England, in Letters, 2 vols. 
In 1797, he compiled a Glossary to 
Shakespeare; in 1798, he published a 
Sketch of the Isle of Wight, and an 
edition of the Rev. James Barclay's 
English Dictionary. 

1803. He editedthe "British Essayists, 
with jirefaces, historical and biographical, 
and a general Index," 45 vols. The same 
year, he prepared an edition of Shakes- 



CHA 



237 



CHxV 



peare,in9vols.,8vo., with an abridgment 
of the more copious notes of Sleeven's, 
and a Life of Shakespeare. In 1805, he 
wrote a Life of Burns, and of Dr. 
Beattie, prefixed to their respective 
works ; and was elected a Fellow of the 
Society of Antiquaries. In 1806, he 
edited Fielding's works, 10 vols. 8vo.; 
Dr. Johnson's works, 12 vols. 8vo. ; 
Warton's Essays, the Tatler, Spectator, 
and Guardian, 14 vols. 8vo., and assisted 
the Rev. W. Lisle Bowles, in the publica- 
tion of Pope's works, 10 vols. 8vo. 1807. 

1807. He edited Gibbon's History, 
with a Life of the Author, 12 vols 8vo. 
In 1808, and the following year, he 
prefixed prefaces to the greater part of 
the volumes of a collection, selected by 
himself, known as " Walker's Classics," 
from the name of their publisher : they 
consisted of 45 vols. In 1809, he edited 
Bolingbroke's works, 8 vols. 8vo. ; and 
in this and subsequent years, he conjtri- 
buted many of the Lives to the magnifi- 
cent volumes of the "British Gallery of 
Contemporary Portraits," published by 
Cadell and Davies. 

1810. He revised an enlarged edition 
of " The Works of the English Poets," 
from Chaucer to Cowper; including the 
series edited, with Prefaces biographical 
and critical, by Dr. Johnson, and the 
most approved translations ; the ad- 
ditional Lives by Mr. Chalmers, in 21 
vols, royal 8vo. In the same year, he 
published, " A History of the Colleges, 
Halls, and Public Buildings attached to 
the University of Oxford, including 
the Lives of the Founders." In 1811, 
he reA'ised through the press. Bishop 
Hurd's edition of Addison's works, 6 
vols. 8vo., and an edition of Pope's 
works, in 8 vols. 18mo. In the same 
year, he republished, with corrections 
and alterations, a periodical paper, en- 
titled, " The Projector," 3 vols. 8vo. In 
1812, he prefixed a life of Alexander 
Cruden to the 6th edition of his " Con- 
cordance." 

The work, on which Mr. Chalmer's 
fame, as an author chiefly rests, is " The 
General Biographical Dictionary," The 
preceding edition of this work, 1793, 
was in 15 vols. ; the present in 32 vols. 
It was augmented by 3,934 additional 
lives, and of the remaining number, 2,176 
were re-written, and the whole revised 
and corrected. The total number of 
articles exceed 9000. In November, 
1816, he republished, "The Lives of 



Dr. Edward Pocock, the celebrated 
Orientalist, by Dr. Twells; of Dr. 
Zachary Pearce, bishop of Rochester; 
and Dr. Thomas Newton, bishop of 
Bristol, by themselves ; and of the Rev. 
Philip Skelton, by Mr. Burdy," in 2 vols. 
8vo. In 1819, Mr. Chalmers published 
"Country Biography," four numbers; and 
a Life of Dr.Paley, prefixed to his works. 
In 1820, he published " A Dictionary of 
the English Language, abridged from the 
Rev. H. J. Todd's enlarged edition of 
Dr. Johnson's Dictionary," 1 vol. 8vo. 
In 1822, he edited the 9th edition of 
Boswell's Life of Johnson ; in 1823, a 
new edition of Shakespeare ; and another 
edition of Dr. Johnson's works. He 
died Dec. 10, 1835. f 

CHALONS-SUR-MARNE, city of 
France, and capital of the department of 
the Marne; before the revolution, the 
see of a bishop, and the chief place of 
the generality of Champagne. It is fa- 
mous for a battle between the Romans 
and Attila, king of the Huns, in 451, 
in which the former, after an obstinate 
and sanguinary contest, in which the 
number of the slain _amounted, as some 
say, to 162,000 or, according to other 
accounts, to 300,000 persons, proved 
victorious, and Attila was obliged to 
retreat. Chalons capitulated to the allied 
Russians and Prussians, Feb. 6, 1814. 

CHALONS-SUR-SAONE, a city of 
France, in the department of the Saone 
and Loire. The great Roman way from 
Lyons to Boulogne passed by Chalons ; 
and it exhibits various traces of Roman 
magnificence, particularly the ruins of 
an amphitheatre. It was taken by an 
Austrian force under the prince of Hesse 
Homburg, Feb. 1814. 

CHAMBAUD, Lewis, author of the 
" Fiench Grammar and Dictionaiy,'* 
died Sept. 22, 1776. 

CHAMBER OF Deputies, France, 
number of reduced, 1816. 

CHAMBERS, Ephraim, the well- 
known author of the first Cyclopaedia 
published in this country, born at Milton, 
Westmorland; the time of his birth not 
ascertained. He was bound apprentice 
to Mr. Senex, the globe-maker, and it 
is said that some of the first articles of 
his Cyclopaedia were written behind the 
counter. The first edition of the Cy- 
clopaedia, which was the result of many 
years' intense application, aiipeared in 
1728. He was elected a Fellow of the 
Royal Society, November 6, 1729- He 



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was concerned in a periodical publica- 
tion, entitled, "The Literary Magazine," 
which was begun in 1735. He died in 
1740, and was buried in Westminster 
Abbey. A supplement to his Cyclo- 
paedia was afterwards compiled : and in 
the year 1778 was published an edition 
of both, incorporated into one alphabet, 
by Dr. Rees. Another edition on a 
large scale was published under the 
title of Rees's Cyclopaedia, in 1811. 

CHAMBERY or Chambkri, town 
in the north of Italy, the capital of the 
Sardinian state of Savoy. At this place 
the emperor Sigismund erected the earl- 
dom of Savoy into a dukedom, and Araa- 
deus I. retired hither after his abdication 
of the Sardinian throne in 1730. This 
was long the residence of the duke, but 
since the removal of the court to Turin, 
it has lost its splendour. Chamberi 
belonged to the French from 1792 to 
1815, when it was reunited to the Sar- 
dinian kingdom. 

CHAMBLE, Fort, in Canada, taken 
by the Provincials, Oct. 20, 1775. Re- 
takenby the English troops, Jan. 18,1776. 

CHAMBORD, treaty of, confirming 
the league between France and the Pro- 
testantprinces of Germany, Jan. 15, 1552. 

CHAMPAGNE, Philip de, historic 
painter, born at Brussels 1602, died 
1674. 

CHAMP DE Mat, meeting of, to 
sign the new constitution of France, 
June 1, 1815. 

CHAMPION OF England, first in- 
troduced at coronations, 1377. See 
Coronation. 

CHAMPLAIN, Lake, North Ame- 
rica, so called from S. de Champlain, 
founder of the province of Canada, who 
first discovered it in 1608. Sept. 11, 
1814, a British squadron, was defeated 
in Cumberland Bay, on Lake Cham- 
plain, by the American fleet, commanded 
by Mac Donough. 

CHAMPLAIN Canal, commences 
at Whitehall, reaches the Hudson river, 
at Port Edward, and forms a junction 
with the Erie canal, at Waverliet ; total 
length 64 miles. It was begun in 1818, 
and completed in 1822. 

CHAMPOLLION, John Francis, 
author of " The Antiquities of Egypt ;" 
born in 1 790. He was first commissioned 
by the French government to explore the 
monuments of antiquity in Egypt in 
1828. He gives a favourable account 
of his reception, in company with other 



scientific travellers, at the court of Mo- 
hammed Ali, in August, who promised 
them his protection and every assistance 
in the accomplishment of their object. 
He remained some years in Egypt, during 
which he visited all the monuments of the 
neighbourhood, and copied the inscrip- 
tions on Pompey's pillar. He caused 
the hieroglyphical inscriptions, which 
are on the two obelisks, to be copied 
and sketched under his own eyes. These 
two obelisks, with characters in three 
columns on the face of each of them, 
were originally erected by King Maeris, 
in front of the great temple of the sun, 
at Heliopolis. The lateral inscriptions 
were placed there by Sesostris ; and he 
discovered two other short ones on the 
face, which were placed there by the 
successor of Sesostris. Thus three 
epochs were marked out upon these 
monuments. He died in 1833. 

CHANCELLOR, supposed originally 
to biNre been a notary, or scribe, under 
the Roman emperors, and named Can- 
cellarius, because he sat behind a lattice, 
(called in Latin cancellus,) to avoid being 
crowded by the people. Other accounts 
of the origin of the office are given, 
but it was undoubtedly known to the 
courts of the Roman emperors. From 
the empire it passed to the Roman 
church, and hence every bishop has, to 
this day, his chancellor, the principal 
judge of his consistory. And when the 
modern kingdoms of Europe were es- 
tablished upon the ruins of the empire, 
almost every state preserved its chan- 
cellor, with diflferent jurisdictions and 
dignities, according to their diflerent 
constitutions. 

Lord High Chancellor of Eng- 
land, is next after the king and princes 
of the blood, in all civil affairs ; the 
chief administrator of justice next the 
sovereign, being the judge of the court 
of chancery See Chancery. 

The following is a list of the Lord 
Chancellors of England since the Revo- 
lution:— Earl Somers, 1693; Sir N. 
Wright, 1700; Earl Cowper, 1705; Eari 
Harcourt, 1710; Earl Cowper, 1714; 
Earl Macclesfield, 1718; Lord King, 
1725 ; Earl Talbot, 1733 ; Earl Hard- 
wicke, 1736 ; Lord Henley, afterwards 
earl of Northington, Jan. 1757; Lord 
Camden, July, 1766; Lord Hardwicke, 
Jan. 1770. 

In Commission, viz. Sir Sidney Staf- 
ford Smythe, Knt., Hon. Henry Ba- 



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thurst, and Sir R.Aston, Knt. Jan. 1/70; 

Earl Bathurst, Jan. 1771 ; LordThur- 
low, June 2, 1778. 

In Commission, viz. Lord Loughbo- 
rough, Sir William Ashurst,and Sir Wil- 
liam Beaumont, Hotham, April 3, 1783. 

Lord Thurlovv, again, Dec. 23, 1783. 

In commission, viz. Sir James Eyre, 
Sir William Henry Ashurst, Sir John 
Wilson, June 15, 1792. 

Lord Loughborough, Jan. 27, 1793 ; 
Lord Eldon, April 15, 1801 ; Lord Ers- 
kine, Feb. 7, 1806 ; Lord Eldon, again, 
March 25, 1807 ; Lord Lyndhurst, 1827; 
Lord Brougham, 1830 ; Lord Lynd- 
hurst, again, 1834. 

In Commission, viz. Sir E. Pepys, 
Sir L. Shadwell, and Mr. Justice Bo- 
sanquet. 

Lord Cottenham, 1836. 

CHANCELLORS of Cambridge. 
See Cambridge. 

CHANCELLORS op Oxford. See 
Oxford. 

CHANCERY, Court of, the grand 
court of equity in England, said to have 
lieen instituted under some form as 
early as 606, in the reign of Ethelbert 1. 
revived and confirmed in 1079, by Wil- 
liam the Conqueror. The judge of this 
court is the lord high chancellor, whose 
functions see under Chancellor. 

About the end%)f the reign of king 
Edw. III., when uses of land were in- 
troduced, the separate jurisdiction of the 
chancery as a court of equity, began to 
be established. In I6l6, arose a dis- 
pute between the courts of law and 
equity, set on foot by Sir Edward Coke, 
then chief justice of the court of king's 
bench ; whether a court of equity could 
give relief after or against a judgment at 
the common law. This matter, being 
brought before the king, was by him re- 
ferred to his learned counsel for their 
advice and opinion ; who reported so 
strongly in favour of the courts of equi- 
ty, that his majesty gave judgment on 
their behalf. Sir Edward Coke sub- 
mitted to the decision, and thereby made 
atonement for his error ; but it was fol- 
lowed by his removal from office. 

1824. The abuses in the Court of 
Chancery were ordered to be investigat- 
ed by the earl of Eldon, Lord Redes- 
dale, Lord GifFord, the vice-chancellor, 
the solicitor-general,and many of the mas- 
ters in chancery. In 1828, orders were 
issued for the future regulation and im- 
provement of the practice of the Court 



of Chancery, by the lord chancellor. 
The orders, it was stated by the chan- 
cellor, had been framed principally by the 
Master of the Rolls. 

1832. The act 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 
111. abolishes certain sinecure offices 
connected with the Court of Chancery, 
and makes provision for the lord high 
chancellor on his retirement from office. 
By this act the offices of keeper, Clerk 
of his Majesty's Hanaper, &c., were abol- 
ished. And, as the lord high chancellor, 
would be deprived of the patronage and 
gift of the said offices, on his retirement 
from office, gives him an annuity of 
£5000. 

In May, 1835, in consequence of a 
change in the administration, the great 
seal, which, ever since 1793, had been 
associated with the chancellorship, was 
put in commission. But in April, 1836, 
lord Cottenham having been appointed 
lord chancellor, brought in a bill for the 
better administration of justice in this 
court. He moved the second reading, 
June 13, when a debate of great length 
took place; and the measure was ulti- 
mately rejected by a considerable ma- 
jority. 

1840. The subject of chancery re- 
form was renewed, and a bill brought 
forward in June, by the lord chancellor, 
proposing to create two new courts of 
equity, with their respective establish- 
ments; toabolishthe court of exchequer, 
and to appoint new judges in the place 
of those of the exchequer, &c., whose 
functions would be superseded. 

CHANCES, Doctrine of, does not 
appear to have engaged the attention of 
mathematicians, until the beginning of 
the 15th century. Huygens in his book 
" De Ratiociniis in Ludo Aleee," was the 
first who treated of it methodically. To 
this work succeeded an anonymous tract, 
" on the Laws of Chance " in 1692, and 
L' Analyse des Jeux de Hazard," by M. 
Monmort, pubhshed in 1708. De 
Moivre's celebrated work on the Doc- 
trine of Chances was first published in 
1717. In 1740, Mr. Thomas Simpson 
published a small treatise on " the Na- 
ture and Laws of Chance," which is 
not only clear and concise, but contains 
some problems, whose solutions had 
either never been attempted, or, at least 
never before communicated to thepublic. 

CHANDA, district Hindoostan, prov. 
Gundwana, was given up to the Mah- 
rattas in 1794. The wars of 1803 in- 



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terrupted and dispersed the trade of the 
district; in 1817, it suffered a further 
devastation, and in 1822 was wasted by 
famine and cholera. 

CHANDERNAGORE, French set- 
tlement in Bengal, formerly frequented 
by native swindlers and rogues, but in 
1757 it was taken by Col. Clive, after an 
obstinate resistance, and continued under 
British control up to 1 8 1 6, when it was 
delivered up to a French governor. 

CHANDLER, Samuel, an eminent 
nonconformist divine, born in 1693, at 
Hungerford, in Berkshire. He published 
in I725,atreatise, entitled, "A Vindication 
of the Christian Religion ;" in 1727, " Re- 
flections on the conduct of the Modern 
Deists, in their late writings against 
Christianity." and in 1728, "A Vin- 
dication of the Antiquity and Authority 
of Daniel's Prophecies, and their Appli- 
cation to Jesus Christ." He died May 8, 
1766, aged 73. Besides the works al- 
ready mentioned. Dr. Chandler publish- 
ed several pamphlets, as well as sermons, 
in which he very ably defended the cause 
of Christianity against the attacks of 
infidelity and deism. 

CHAPEL AT Roscommon, Ireland, 
one of the pillars of the gallery gave 
way, when fourteen persons were killed, 
and many injured, April 17', 1804. 

CHAPONE, Mrs., author of " The 
Letters on the Improvement of the 
Mind ;" born in 1757, died in 1831, in 
her 75th year. 

CHAPPLE, de la Claude, an in- 
genious Frenchman, the inventor of the 
telegraph, died Jan. 31, 1805. 

CHAPTAL, Count, chemist, born 
1756, died 1833. 

CHAPTER, a community of eccle- 
siastics belonging to a cathedral, &c. 
Anciently the bishops had their clergy 
residing with them. After the monastic 
life grew into request, many bishops chose 
monks rather than seculars for their 
attendants. Both these bodies then had 
the same privilege of choosing the 
bishop, but by degrees, their depen- 
dance on the bishop grew less ; and then 
they had part of the bishop's estate as- 
signed them, till the bishop had little 
more left than the power of visiting 
them. At length these capitular bodies 
lost their privileges, particularly that 
of choosing the bishop, till Henry 
VIII. got this power vested in the crown, 
and now the deans and chapters have 
only the shadow of it. 



The establishment of general chapters 
of religious orders is owmg to the Cis- 
tercians, who held the' first in 1116, 
and were soon followed by the otVier 
orders. 

CHARETTE, the famous Vendean 
commander, was captured at St. Sulpice, 
near Montaigu, with 32 adherents, when 
he surrendered, after receiving many 
wounds, March 23, 1796. He was shot 
at Nantes, on the 29th, after having 
conducted himself with the greatest 
bravery before the military tribunal. 

CHARENTON, town of France, in 
the department of Seine, five miles from 
Paris. The bridge is the key to Paris 
on that side. In 865 the Normans ob- 
tained possession of, and destroyed it ; in 
1814, its passage was warmly but vainly 
contested against the allied armies. 
Sade, the author of Justine, was for 
the immorality of his writings, con- 
fined as a lunatic in Charenton asy- 
lum, by order of Napoleon, and died 
there in 1813. 

CHARING Cross, London, erected 
1678; old buildings pulled down and re- 
cent improvements commenced in 1832. 

CHARING Cross Hospital, foun- 
dation stone laid by the duke of Sussex, 
September 15, 1831. 

CHARIOTS were anciently used both 
for military purposes* and in the Olym- 
pic games. 

War-chariots were very generally 
used by the ancient inhabitants of va- 
rious nations. Among the Medes and 
Persians they had chariots with two 
wheels, which were generally drawn by 
four horses a-breast, with two men in 
each. Cyrus, about a.c. 520, altered the 
form of the chariots, and doubled the 
number of fighting men that rode in them, 
by putting the drivers into a condition 
to fight as well as the othei-s. At each 
end of the axle-tree he caused scythes to 
be fastened that were three feet long, 
and placed horizontally ; and he caused 
others to be fixed under the axle-tree, 
with their edges turned to the ground, 
that they might cut in pieces men or 
horses, or whatever the impetuous vio- 
lence of the chariots should overturn. 
Chariots of this kind were in use for 
many ages in all the eastern countries. 
The strength and execution of the cha- 
riots depended upon the length of their 
course ; and this gave impetuosity and 
and rapidity to their motion, without 
which they were feeble and in&ignificanf. 



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The Romans under Sylla, at the battle 
of Chaeronea, defeated and put to flight 
the enemy's chariots by raising loud 
peals of laughter, as if they had been 
at the games of the circus. 

In the western world war-chariots 
were much used in ancient times. Those 
who fought from chariots of this kind, 
constituted the most remarkable corps 
in the armies of the ancient Britons. 
Their wheel-carriages or war-chariots 
are mentioned by Greek and Roman 
authors under several diiFerent names. 
It is probable that in Coesar's time cha- 
riot-fighting was known and practised 
only in this island, and continued to be 
so used till it was subdued by the Ro- 
mans, and longer in those parts of it that 
were not conquered. 

Chariots were used in the celebration 
of the Olympic games ; and they were 
introduced into these games in the 25th 
Olympiad, a.c. 680. Discontinued on 
account of the great scarcity of horses 
throughout all Greece, not only at the 
time of the revival of these games, but 
for many Olympiads after. In process 
of time these games acquired extraordi- 
nary celebrity, and the introduction of 
the chariot-race, as well as the race of 
riding horses, admitted in the 33rd 
Olympiad, served to encourage those 
who excelled in the breeding and 
managing of horses. See Olympic 
Games. 

CHARITABLE Corporation, in- 
stituted 1708, abolished 1734. 

CHARITABLE Institutions in 
or near London, supported wholly or 
in part by voluntary contributions, are 
of several kinds. 

For an account of the Hospitals, Infir- 
maries, Dispensaries, and Institutions 
for particular complaints, See Hospi- 
tals and Dispensaries. 

CHARITY Schools. The design 
of setting up schools for the instruction 
of children of the poor originated in 
1698. The systems of Dr. Bell and Mr. 
Lancaster began almost simultaneously 
about the year 1797 or 1798 ; from which 
have arisen, throughout the kingdom, 
what are termed National Schools, as 
well as the British and Foreign School 
Society. See the articles Schools, 
Sunday Schools, Infant Schools, 
National Schools, &c. 

CHARLEMAGNE, a name given by 
historians to Charles I. King of France, 
born 742. Upon the death of his father 



Pepin in 768, he and his brother Car- 
loman succeeded to him. Charlemagne 
Avas crowned at Noyons ; and Carloman 
at Soissons : their first exploit was the 
defeat of Humaud, duke of Aquitaine, 
whose territories they seized and divided 
between them. In 769, Charlemagne 
married Bertha, daughter of Didier, king 
of Lombardy, and in 771 Corloman dy- 
ing in November, Charlemagne remained 
sovereign of all France. 

772. Charlemagne began the Saxon 
war, which continued thirty years. In 
773, Didier, king of the Lombards, be- 
sieged Rome, and took several cities 
from Pope Adrian I. who had recourse to 
Charlemagne for assistance. The French 
monarch, finding all milder methods to 
be fruitless, passed with his army into 
Italy, in the month of October, defeated 
the troops of Didier, and laid siege to 
Pavia, where he had shut himself up. 
In 774, by the surrender of Pavia, and 
the capture of Didier, the kingdom of 
the Lombards ended, after a duration of 
206 years. Charlemagne took the title 
of King of Italy. 

776. Charlemagne reduced the Sax- 
ons, and in 778, gained the celebrated 
battle of Roncevaux. In 784, defeated 
Witikind and the Saxons,in a battle that 
lasted three days. In 791, defeated the 
Avari in Pannonia. In 796, Pope Leo 
III. sent legates to Charlemagne, tore- 
quest him to confirm his election, against 
Pope Adrian. 

799. Pope Leo, maltreated by the 
partisans of Adrian, and in danger of 
his life, escaped from prison into France, 
where Charlemagne furnished him with 
a numerous escort to re-conduct him 
to Rome, and punish the rebels. Charle- 
magne having extirpated the Avari, 
in Pannonia, in 800, arrived at Rome, 
and, on Christmas - day, was there 
crowned king of Italy and emperor of 
the West, by Pope Leo, 

After the celebration of mass, at which 
the king had devoutly assisted, the pope 
suddenly placed a precious crown on 
his head, and the dome of the church 
resounded with the acclamations of the 
people, " Long life and victory to 
Charles, - the most pious Augustus, 
crowned by God the great and pacific 
emperor of the Romans." The pope 
immediately consecrated the monarch, 
and conducting him to a throne, paid 
him those marks of respect which had 
been claimed by the ancient CaesarSk 

2 I 



C II A 



■21. 



C II A 



Charles from this time indissolubly 
blended, in the name of Charlemagne, 
the appellation of Magnus the Great. 

805. The Sclavonian Boii, or Bohe- 
mians, ravaged the country lately occu- 
pied by the Avari, or Huns, and Charle- 
magne sent his son Charles to oppose 
them ; the young prince killed their 
chief, named Lecko. 

806. Charlemagne, at the age of 64, 
convoked an assembly of his nobles at 
Thionville, and made known his vvill 
concerning the succession, which they 
approved of, and sanctioned with their 
signatures. In 813, Charlemagne asso- 
ciated his son Louis, surnamed Le De- 
bonnaire, or the Pious, in the Western 
empire, and caused him to be crowned 
in the month of September. In 814, 
Charlemagne died January 28, aged 
72, in the forty-seventh year of his 
reign as king of France, and the four- 
teenth of his empire. He was suc- 
ceeded as emperor and king by his son 
Louis. 

" As a warrior and a politician, Charle- 
magne has been rarely excelled. He 
was indefatigable in his attention to 
public business, and in the performance 
of all the duties attaching to his high 
station. He showed himself the friend 
of learning and learned men, and made 
such efforts to promote the interests of 
literature, as entitle him to great praise; 
though his own literary attainments were 
probably not of the first order, as he 
did not acquire the practice of writing 
till he had attained to manhood. Such 
were the mistaken ideas of the times in 
which he lived, that he was highly es- 
teemed for his regard to religion, and 
to the clergy ; though his morals were 
stained with the charge of incontinence, 
to which the number of his wives and 
concubines bear irresistible evidence. 
His many wars proved that he little 
valued the lives of his subjects, in a 
cause in which his ambition was con- 
cerned. His humanity stands impeached 
by the extinction of his nephews, the 
sons of Carloman, and by the cruelties 
frequently exercised upon the valiant 
Saxons, whose attachment to freedom 
and their country, merited a very dif- 
ferent kind of treatment. These are 
blemishes in the character of Charle- 
magne which time cannot obliterate; 
but, after every allowance for his frailties, 
it must be admitted, that the title of 
Great, which has been blended with his 



name for more than ten centuries, has 
seldom been awarded upon fairer claims; 
and it is to be regretted that in the 
lapse of a thousand years, so few have 
been ambitious of attaining to that de- 
gree of celebrity which attaches to the 
virtues of Charlemagne." 

CHARLEMOiNT, with Givet ad- 
joining, the strongest fortress in France, 
founded by Charles V., in 1555. Louis 
XIV. fortified Givet at the foot of the 
hill, and extended the works of Charle- 
mont. This impregnable fortress is cal- 
culated to accommodate 11,000 men, 
and may be defended by 3000. In 1815, 
the two Givets and Mont d' Haur capi- 
tulated to the allies, who did not think 
it prudent to besiege Charlemont. It 
has never yet been seriously attacked. 

CHARLEROI surrendered to the 
French, June 26, 1794. 

CHARLES I., king of England, bom 
November 19, 1600. Succeeded to the 
crown, March 27, 1625. He married 
Henrietta, daughter of the king of 
France, the same year, and was crowned 
February 2, 1626; crowned at Edin- 
burgh, 1633. 

1641. January 3, the king went to the 
common council and demanded five ob- 
noxious members, which was the im- 
mediate cause of the commencement of 
the civil war in Britain. He raised his 
standard at Nottingham, August 25, 
1642. Battle of Naseby, June 1645, in 
which the king's hopes were destroyed. 
He travelled in the disguise of a servant, 
and put himself into the hands of the 
Scots at Newark, May 5, 1646. He 
was seized by Colonel Joice, at Holmby 
June 3, 1646. Delivered up by the 
Scots, January 30, 1647. Escaped from 
Hampton-court, and retreated to the 
Isle of Wight, July 29, 1648, and was 
closely confined in Hurst castle, Dec. 
1, following. Removed to Windsor 
castle, Dec. 23 ; to St. James's* palace, 
June 19, 1649. Brought to trial the 
next day, condemned the 27th, beheaded 
at Whitehall, the 30th, aged 48, and 
buried in St. George's chapel, Windsor. 
For further particulars of the reign of 
Charles I., See Britain. 

CHARLES II., king of England, 
born May 29, 1630. Escaped from St. 
James's April .23, 1648. Landed in 
Scotland, 1650, and was crowned at 
Scone, Jan. 1, 1651. Defeated at the 
battle of Worcester, 1651. He landed 
at Dover, May 20, 1660, and was 



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2-43 



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restored to his throne ; crowned April 13, 
1661. Married Catharine, infanta of 
Portugal, May 21, 1662. Accepted the 
city freedom, Dec. 18, 1674. Died 
without issue, Feb. 6, 1685, aged 54, 
of apoplexy. He was buried at West- 
minster, and Avas succeeded by his bro- 
ther James. Catharine, hia queen, died 
Dec. 21, 1705. See Britain. 

CHARLES v., king of Spain, and em- 
peror of Germany, was born at Ghent, 
Feb. 24, 1500. The rich inheritance of 
Castile, of Arragon, of Naples, Sicily, 
and Sardinia, devolved on him, by the 
death of his maternal grandfather, Fer- 
dinand, in 1516. On which event he 
claimed the title of king. 

1519. The emperor Maximilian I. 
dying at Wells, in Austria, Jan. 12. 
Trancis L, and Charles V, of Spain be- 
came competitors for the empire ; the 
latter was elected June 28, on which oc- 
casion the capitulation was introduced, 
subjecting the emperor to the condition 
imposed by the electors. In 1521, a 
league between the emperor Charles V., 
king of Spain, and Henry Ylll. of Eng- 
land, against Francis I., king of France; 
and in 1523, a league against Francis L, 
by pope Clement VH., the emperor, the 
Venetians, &c. 

1525. Francis I. was taken prisoner 
at the battle of Pavia, Feb. 24, and sent 
to Madrid ; but by the treaty of Madrid, 
Jan. 14, 1526, Francis was restored to 
liberty, on leaving his two sons as hos- 
tages. The pope and Venetians joined 
the French king against the emperor. 

1527- Rome was taken and plundered 
by the army of the emperor. May 6. In 
1528, Francis challenged the emperor 
Charles V. to meet him in single combat. 
In 1531, Ferdinand of Austria was elected 
king of the Romans through the interest 
of his brother Charles V. In 1532, 
Charles V. was reconciled to the German 
princes, July 23. 

1536. League between Francis I. of 
France, and Solyman II., sultan of the 
Turks, against the emperor Charles V. 
In 1538, a ten years* truce concluded at 
Nice, June 18, between Charles and 
Francis, which lasted four years. In 
1539, Charles V. passed through France 
on his way to Ghent, which had revolted, 
and was sumptuously entertained by 
Francis. The constitution of the Cortes 
in Spain subverted by Charles, 1541. 
Charles V. besieged Algiers. 

1542. Treaty of alliance between Sul- 



tan Solyman and Francis I. of France, 
against the emperor Charles V. In 

1543, a league between Henry VIII. 
and Charles V. against Francis I. In 

1544, the Imperiahsts defeated the 
French at Cerisoles, April 11, which led 
to the treaty of Crespy, between Charles 
and Francis, Sep. 18. 

1546. The emperor Charles V. formed 
a league with the pope against the Pro- 
testants : and in 1548, the interim was 
granted by Charles V. to the Protestants 

1553. Treaty of Passau, between the 
emperor and the Protestants, signed 
July 31, In 1553, Charles V. resigned 
his possessions in the Netherlands to hia 
son, Philip II, husband of Mary, queen 
of England, and nominated his brother, 
Ferdinand I., who had been elected king 
of the Romans in 1531, as his successor 
in the empire. In 1556, Charles V. re- 
signed the crown of Spain, and all his 
other dominions, to Philip II., Jan. 6, 
and retired to the monastery of St. Just, 
in Estramadura. 

Onhis way to the place of his retreat, he 
visited Ghent, the place of his nativity, 
and after a prosperous voyage, arrived at 
Laredo, in Biscay. As soon as he landed, 
he prostrated himself on the earth, and 
said, "Naked I came out of my mother's 
womb, and naked I now return to thee, 
thou common mother of mankind." A 
considerable portion of his time was 
reserved for religious exercises ; and in 
this dignified leisure did he pass the first 
year of his seclusion. But the debility 
arising from a broken constitution, and 
the tendency of a superstitious faith and 
practice, at length degraded his sinking 
mind to the servilitv and insanity of mo 
nastic penances. Prompted by the 
monks, to whose direction he had 
resigned himself, he resolved to celebrate 
his own obsequies, which he did with all 
the solemnity of a real funeral. The 
awful impressions which the ceremony, 
however absurdly and improperly de- 
vised, had left upon his mind, hastened 
the event which he had so singularly 
anticipated. On the following day, he 
was seized with a fever, and expired on 
the 21st of September, 1558, in his 59th 
year. 

" The character of his mind was rather 
th at of careful and d eliberate attention th an 
of brilliant talents or rapid conception. 
He preferred business to pleasure, and 
made public concerns at once his study 
and amusement. But his promptitude 



-CliA 244 

in execution vvas equal to his patience in 
deliberating ; he was at once sagacious 
in devising measures, and fruitful in 
resources for carrying them forward. 
Though he devoted himself more to the 
cabinet than to the field, he never ap- 
peared at the head of his armies without 
entitling himself to rank with the 
greatest general of the age ; but his 
principal excellence consisted in the feU- 
city with which he applied the important 
science of human nature to the choice of 
fit agents and the adaptation of abilities to 
situation and office. If his manners 
were less pleasing than those of his rival, 
his virtues were at least as sohd, and his 
adherents as faithful and attached. His 
confidence in his generals was unbounded; 
he rewarded their services munificently ; 
he neither envied their glory, nor mis- 
trusted their intentions. But his ambi- 
tion was insatiable, and his policy too 
often rigorous ; while his contemporaries 
Francis I., and Henry VHI., with num- 
berless ^'ices from which he was exempt, 
were characterized by an openness and 
credulity, which made them more popu- 
lar, principally because it rendered them 
less dangerous." 

CHARLES XH., king of Sweden, 
was born in 1682, and succeeded to the 
crown on the death of his father Charles 
XI. in 1697. In very early life he had 
been trained to violent and martial ex- 
ercises ; and had in a thousand instances 
shown an impracticability of disposition 
which no force could conquer, but which 
was always alive to suggestions of 
military glory. The inexperience of 
Charles encouraged the kings of Poland, 
Denmark, and the czar of Russia to 
enter into a confederacy against him, for 
the purpose of wresting from him a part 
of his dominions, which had been ceded 
to his father and grandfather. 

When their designs were certainly 
known, a Swedish council was convened 
at which the king attended, for some 
time, the silent spectator of their pro- 
ceedings. In the midst, however, of 
their discussions, respecting the mea- 
sures to be pursued, he rose, and with 
a dignified air declared that he had de- 
termined never to engage in an unjust 
war, but having been drawn into one by 
the ambitious views of an enemy, he 
would never desist till he had humbled 
and ruined him. "It is," says he, "my 
resolution to go and attack the first who 
shall dare to avow his designs : and 



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when I have conquered him, I trust the 
others will be intimidated." 

1700. Charles quitted his capital in 
May, to revisit it no more ; and, era- 
barking his troops at Carlscroon, sailed 
for Denmark, and proceeded at once to 
Copenhagen, which he prepared to be- 
siege by land, while the fleet blockaded 
it by sea, and soon obtained possession 
of it. He then turned his arms 
against the Russians, who had under- 
taken the siege of Narva, with 80,000 
men. The Swedish monarch advanced 
to the relief of the place with only 
10,000 men. After a severe conflict of 
three hours the Russians were obliged 
to retreat, and Charles entered Narva in 
triumph, Dec. 11. 

He pursued his conquests till he pene- 
trated as far as where the diet of Poland 
was sitting; when he made them de- 
clare the throne of Poland vacant, and 
elect Stanislaus jtheir king, Feb. 1704; 
then making himself master of Saxony, 
he obliged Augustus himself to renounce 
the crown of Poland, and acknowledge 
Stanislaus, by a letter of congratulation 
on his accession. 

During this war an incident occurred 
illustrative of his character. On one 
occasion a peasant threw himself at his 
feet, with a complaint against a grena- 
dier, that he had robbed him of certain 
eatables provided for himself and his 
family. " Is it true," said Charles 
sternly, " that you have robbed this 
man ?" The soldier replied, " Sir, I 
have not done near so much harm to 
this man, as your majesty has done to 
his master, for you have taken from 
Augustus a kingdom, whereas I have 
only taken from this poor scoundrel a 
dinner." Charles made the peasant 
amends, and pardoned the soldier for 
his firmness. " However, my friend," 
added he, " you will do well to recollect 
that if I took a kingdom from Augustus, 
I did not take it for myself." 

17O8. Charles arrived within 100 lea- 
gues of Moscow in October, when the 
severity of the weather and scarcity of 
provisions obliged him to turn aside 
into the Ukraine. He however shared 
with his soldiers all kinds of hardships, 
and by this means inspired them with 
surprising patience and fortitude. In 
the following spring his army was re- 
duced to 30,000 men, and with these he 
penetrated to the town of Pultowa, 
where Peter had laid up his magazines. 



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1709. The czar^ having collected all 
his forces, was advancing on the Swedes, 
and Charles refusing to wait for the ene- 
my in his entrenchments, gave orders 
for a general engagement, July 7, and 
then went to sleep. On July 8, the famous 
battle of Pultowa decided the fate of the 
Swedish monarch. Being wounded,he was 
drawn in a litter at the head of his infan- 
try ; the horses were twice killed, and at last 
the litter was dashed in pieces by a can- 
non ball ; he was then carried by his life 
guards ; and though the Swedes began 
to retreat on every side, the officers and 
9000 men being slain, he refused to flee, 
till he was placed on horseback by order 
of Poniatowski, and conveyed by his 
cavalry through the Russian army to the 
banks of the Dnieper. From thence he 
escaped wth a small troop to Bender, 
where he remained several years. 

During his residence here, Augustus 
regained the throne of Poland : the king 
of Denmark attacked Schonen, and took 
Helsingburgh, and the czar triumphed 
in Muscovy. Weary of his inactive life 
he requested leave to return to Sweden, 
which was readily granted. His arrival 
in Oct. 1714, diflfused universal joy in his 
kingdom, though he found it in a wretch- 
ed condition. 

1716. He invaded Norway, but after 
penetrating to Chiistiana was obliged to 
return to Sweden. He now sought by 
means of his minister. Baron de Goertz, 
to effect a peace with Russia, and began 
to contrive means for the dethronement 
of George I. of England. But in order to 
lose no time, he besieged Frederick- 
shall, though the cold was then so severe 
that the sentinels were frozen to death 
at their posts. On the evening of the 
11th of December, he visited the en- 
trenchments with his chief engineer. 
He was leaning upon the parapet watch- 
ing the workmen, with nearly half his 
body exposed to the fire of the enemy ; 
after remaining in this posture for some 
time, he was seen to fall upon the para- 
pet, heaving a deep sigh. He was taken 
up dead, a half pound ball having en- 
tered his right temple, and though his 
death was thus instantaneous, his right 
hand was found grasping the hilt of his 
sword. 

Thus perished Charles XH., king of 
Sweden, in the 37th year of his age, and 
the 2l8t of his reign. During his life 
he experienced the extremes of pros- 
perity and of adversity, without being 



245 CHA 

softened by the one, or disturbed by th* 
other ; but he was a man rather extra- 
ordinary than great, and fitter to be ad- 
mired than imitated. His intrepidity, 
fortitude, perseverance, and contempt of 
danger, will ever rank him foremost 
among heroes, but no king was ever 
more lavish of human blood, or studied 
less the true happiness of his subjects. 
His person was tall, and of noble mien, 
he had a fine open forehead, large blue 
eyes, flaxen hair, fair complexion, but a 
laugh not agreeable. His manners were 
harsh and austere, not to say savage ; 
and as to religion, he was indifferent to 
all, though professedly a Lutheran. 
Baron de Goertz, his minister, was ar- 
rested immediately on the death of 
Charles, and condemned to be beheaded 
at the foot of the town gallows ; an ex- 
ample, says Voltaire, of vengeance, ra- 
ther than of justice, and a cruel affront 
to the memory of a king whom Sweden 
still admires. 

CHARLES Philip Count d' Ar- 
Tois, afterwards Charles X. of France, 
born Oct. 9, 1757, was the fifth and 
youngest son of the dauphin Louis, 
son of king Louis XV., by his se- 
cond wife Maria Josepha of Poland, 
third daughter of Augustus the Third, 
king of Poland and elector of Saxony. 
Was married Dec. 17, 1773, to the 
princess Maria Theresa, daughter of Vic- 
tor Amadeus HL, king of Sardinia, and 
sister to the consort of Louis XVHL, at 
which period he was only in the l7th 
year of his age. By this princess, who 
died at Gratz, in Hungary, June 2, 1805, 
he had two children — Louis Antoine, 
due d'Angouleme, born August 6, 
1775, and Henry Charles, due de Berri. 

The count d'Artois quitted France at 
the onset of the revolution about 1796, 
and visited the court of his father-in- 
law, the king of Sardinia, at Turin, and 
subsequently other parts of Europe; 
but at length sought an asylum in Eng- 
land, where he resided for a considerable 
period. Becoming deeply involved in 
pecuniary embarrassments, and some of 
his creditors being very clamorous and 
urgent, Holyrood-house, Edinburgh, 
being a privileged place, was fixed upon 
by the British government as his resi- 
dence. Some arrangement having been 
effected with his creditors, he was sub- 
sequently enabled to live at Hartwell, 
with his brother Louis XVHL 

1824. He succeeded his brother as king 



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246 



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of France, and by the title of Charles X., 
made his public entry into Paris, Sept. 
27. On July 25, 1830, in conse- 
quence of the result of a general elec- 
tion, Charles X. issued his two ordi- 
nances, one abolishing the freedom of 
the press, and the other changing the 
mode of election. The three days of 
revolution ensued. The king retreated 
from St. Cloud to Rambouillet, where he 
offered to abdicate in favour of his 
grandson the due de Bourdeaux, and re- 
quested from the provincial government 
a safe conduct to a seaport. He em- 
barked at Cherbourg, for England, and 
arrived off Spithead, Aug. 17- On the 
23rd he landed at Poole, and for some 
time he took up his residence at Lul- 
worth Castle, the mansion of Cardinal 
Weld. After two months he removed 
to Edinburgh, and resumed his old quar- 
ters at Holyrood house. He returned 
to the continent, Aug. 18, 1832, and 
took up his residence in the Austrian 
dominions. In consequence of a severe 
attack of dysentery or cholera, he 
breathed his last at Goritzia, Nov. 6, 
1836, aged 79. See France. 

CHARLESTOWN, South Carolina, 
fire at, November 18, 1740. The whole 
trading part of the town was entirely 
destroyed, and nearly 300 houses left in 
ruins. The loss of houses was valued 
at £100,000 sterling, and the goods 
double that amount. 

1761. May 4, a most violent whirl- 
wind, of that species called Typhones, 
passed down Ashley river, and fell upon 
the shipping in RebelUon Road, with 
incredible violence. That terrible phe- 
nomenon ploughed Ashley river to the 
bottom, and laid the channel bare. 
There were forty-five sail of ships in the 
roads, five of which were sunk. The 
strong gust by which it was met check- 
ed its progress, otherwise the town 
must have been driven before it like 
chaff. Charlesto^vn was burnt by the 
English, January 17, 1774; surrendered 
to the British forces. May 4, 1780 ; 300 
houses destroyed by fire, June 13, 1796. 

This town has a fourth part of the ex- 
ports of the United States. All the 
cotton sent from South Carolina to 
foreign countries is shipped at Charles- 
town. In 1831-32, the exports are said 
to have amounted to 182,628 bales, of 
which 138,683 were for Great Britain. 
The registered, enrolled, and hcensed 
tonnage belonging to Charlestown, in 



1831, amounted to 13,008 tons, of which 
7,147 tons were employed in the coast- 
ing trade. The total value of the articles 
imported into South Carolina, in the 
year ending September 30, 1832, was 
1,213,725 dollars ; the total value of the 
exports during the same year being 
7,752,781 dollars. 

CHARLESTOWN, New England, 
greatly damaged by a storm, 1761 ; 
burnt by English troops, June 17, 1775. 
CHARLEVOIX, Peter Francis 
Xavier de, a writer of voyages and 
travels, born at St. Quintin, in 1684, 
and having entered the society of Jesuits, 
taught the languages and philosophy 
with reputation. His works are, "A 
History of the Island of St. Domingo," 
2 vols. 4to., 1730; "A History and 
Description of Japan," 1736; "History 
of Paraguay," 6 vols- 12mo. ; "General 
History and Description of New France," 
1744. He died in 1761. 

CHARLOTTE. Princess Augusta, 
whose untimely death excited so much 
interest in this country, was the only 
daughter of his late majesty George IV., 
born January 7, 1796. On May 18, 1815, 
her royal highness was first presented at 
court, and soon after this period went to 
Weymouth for the benefit of her health. 
Here an incident occurred which 
strikingly displayed the amiable and 
energetic features in her character. Just 
before her departure from Weymouth, 
her royal highness being at sea in her 
yacht. Captain Nixon, who commanded 
the Leviathan of 74 guns, which was 
sailing near, rowed on board the yacht, 
to pay his respects to the princess. She 
received him on deck, and, after the 
usual ceremonies, said, " Captain Nixon, 
yours seems a very fine ship of war ; I 
should like much to go on board her." 
The bishop, her aged preceptor, stand- 
ing by, asked whether she thought her 
illustrious father might not disapprove 
of her passing in an open boat through 
a rough sea. The immediate answer to 
this was, " Queen Elizabeth took great 
delight in her navy, and was not afraid to 
go on board a man-of-war in an open 
boat ; then, why should I ?" Her royal 
highness declined going by the chair of 
state when let down, saying, " I prefer 
going up in the manner that a seaman 
does ; you. Captain Nixon, will kindly 
follow me, taking care of my clothes ; 
and, when I am on deck, the chair may 
be let down for the other ladies and the 



C H A 



U7 



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tlishop." Her royal highness ascended 
with a facility that astonished the whole 
delighted crew. Her royal highness did 
not leave the ship till she had inspected 
every birth, even to the cockpit, powder- 
magazines, store holds, &c. Having 
presented a purse to Captain Nixon, for 
the crew, she descended as she rose, 
under a royal salute, and the more gra- 
tifying cheers of the loyal and hearty 
crew of a British man-of-war. 

1814. When the allied sovereigns 
visited this country, on occasion of the 
general peace, her royal highness was 
first introduced to Prince Leopold of 
Saxe Cobourg, and a formal proposal 
was soon made. Her marriage with that 
prince took place May 2, 1816. At 
length, at the pregnancy of the princess, 
the whole nation looked forward to a 
succession of princes in the same illus- 
trious line. The health of the princess 
had been anxiously watched up to the 
important period of her confinement. 
On the morning of November 4, 1817, 
her royal highness being taken ill, de- 
spatches were immediately sent to the 
chief officers of state, the archbishop of 
Canterbury, and bishop of London, who 
immediately hastened to Claremont. At 
twelve, November 5, a change was ob- 
served, and the princess expired, about 
half-past two in the morning of Novem- 
ber 6. 

This amiable princess in her general 
character, circumstances, and prospects, 
resembling our youthful sovereign Vic- 
toria previous to her accession, excited a 
scarcely inferior interest in the public 
mind. The princess Charlotte was re- 
markable for the vigour of her under- 
standing, the firmness of her mind, the 
openness of her manners, and the tender- 
ness of her heart ; while her well-known 
constitutional principles promised the con- 
tinuance of all those civil and religious 
privileges our nation had so long enjoyed. 

CHARLOTTE, queen of George IIL, 
originally princess Sophia Charlotte of 
Mecklenburgh Strehtz, was born May 
19, 1744, married September 8, 1761, 
crowned September 22, 1761, died at 
Kew, November 17, 1818, aged 75. 

CHARLOTTE, the Royal, of 100 
guns, destroyed by an accidental fire, 
near Leghorn, only 150 of her crew 
saved; "March 16, 1800. 

CHARLOTTE'S Island, Queen, 
discovered by Capt. Wallis, 1767. 

CHARLOTTE'S Islands, Queen, a 



cluster, discovered by Capt. Carteret, 
1767. 

CHARONDAS, a native of Catania, 
in Sicily, flourished about a. c. 446, and 
is supposed to have been a disciple of 
Pythagoras. He was distinguished both 
as a philosopher and a legislator, and is 
said to have framed a code of laws for 
his own native place, and several other 
cities of the Chalcidians, and also for the 
Magii; and they were afterwards adopted 
by the inhabitants of Thurium in Magna 
Grsecia, rebuilt by the Sybarites, when 
they established their republic. 

CHARPENTIER, Francis, a native 
of Paris, where he was born in 1620. 
.In 1651, he was elected a member of the 
French Academy. In 1676, he wrote, 
" A Defence of the Use of the French 
Language, for the Inscription on the 
Triumphal Arch ;" and in 1683, he pub- 
lished two volumes " On the Excellence 
of the French Language." These pub- 
lications excited the avowed enmity of 
Boileau, who satirized him with unwar- 
rantable severity. His last work, entitled 
" A Dissertation on the Excellence and 
Utility of Academic Exercises," was 
published in 1695. He died in 1702; 
and long after his death, some literary 
fragments were published under the 
title of " Carpentariana," that are held 
in no great estimation. 

CHARRON, Peter, an eminent 
French writer, was the son of a book- 
seller at Paris, and bom in 1541. In 
1594, he published his treatise, entitled, 
"Three Truths." In 1595, he was 
deputed to the general assembly of the 
clergy, and made secretary to that body. 
In 1600, he printed a volume of 
"Christian Discourses," and in 1601, 
appeared the first edition of his " Trea- 
tise on Wisdom," In 1603, he went to 
Paris to print a second edition of this 
work, and there died suddenly in the 
street. 

CHARTA, Magna. See Magna 
Charta. 

CHART, or Hydrographical 
Map. Charts were first introduced into 
the marine by Prince Henry, duke of 
Visco, son of John I., king of Portugal, 
about the year 1400. These were of the 
kind denominated plane charts. For 
any considerable extent, charts of this 
construction were soon found erroneous ; 
and their errors were successively ex- 
posed by Martin Cortes, a Spaniard, iii 
1556 5 by Petrus Nonius, a Portuguese, 



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2-18 



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in 1587 ; by Mr. Edward Wright in 
1599 ; and by others. 

In order to correct these errors, Mer- 
cator, in 1556, pubhshed a chart, in 
which the meridians and parallels were 
straight lines, as in the jjlane chart; but 
in order to compensate the errors arising 
from the parallelism of the meridians, he 
increased each degree or portion of the 
meridian with its distance from the 
equator. In 1645, a method, more 
strictly accurate, was published, as an 
addition to Norwood's Epitome of Navi- 
gation, by Mr. Henry Bond. The de- 
monstration of this method was still 
wanting : this, however, was given, for 
the first time, by Mr. James Gregory, of 
Aberdeen, in 1668 ; and in 1690 a more 
concise demonstration was given by Dr. 
Halley in the Philosophical Transactions 
of London, No. 219, Vol. xix. Both 
these demonstrations are reprinted in the 
second volume of Baron Maseres' Scrip- 
tores Logarithmici, printed in 1791. 

CHARTERS of community, were 
certain privileges whereby the inhabit- 
ants of towns and cities were enfranchised. 
The first person who conferred these pri- 
vileges was Louis the Gross, in France, 
about the beginning of the twelfth cen- 
tury ; and his example was soon very 
generally followed. In England the es- 
tablishment of communities or corpora- 
tions was posterior to the Conquest, and 
the practice was borrowed from France. 
Lord Lyttleton, however, suggests that 
some of the towns in England were 
formed into corporations under the Saxon 
kings, and that the charters granted by 
the kings of the Norman race were not 
charters of enfranchisement from a state 
of slavery, but a confirmation of privileges 
which they already enjoyed. However 
this be, the English cities were bixt 
inconsiderable in the twelfth century. 
See City. 

CHARTER House, a term derived 
from the French word Chartreuse, the name 
of a celebrated monastery of Carthusians, 
so called from a steep rocky place, in a 
frightful desert, five leagues from Gre- 
noble, in France, where St. Bruno retired 
from the world, and first instituted the 
order of Carthusians. The name has 
since passed to all houses of Carthusians. 
That of London, corruptly called Charter 
House, was, before the suppression of 
the monasteries by Henry VIII., a priory 
belonging to that order. On occasion of 
^ dreadful plague> Walter de Manny, a 



Flemish nobleman, purchased the site in 
1349 of the master and brethren of St. 
Bartholomew's hospital. 

1371. Manny founded in this place 
a Carthusian monastery; and the revenues 
of this convent amounted, at the time of 
its suppression in 1538, to 642/. per 
annum, which was conferred upon Sir 
Thomas Audley, speaker of the House 
of Commons, and from him descended 
to Thomas, earl of Suffolk, who disposed 
of it to Thomas Sutton, Esq., by the 
name of " Howard House," commonly 
called " Charter House." 

By letters patent, obtained in 1611, 
the hospital was established, and con- 
firmed by parliament in 1628. Sir 
Richard Sutton, one of the founder's 
executors, improved the estate, so that 
in 1673 it amounted to 5,391/. 135. %d. 
yearly. It has since amounted to about 
12,000Z. This establishment consists of 
decayed gentlemen, soldiers, and mer- 
chants; eighty of whom have a plentiful 
maintenance of diet, lodging, &c. The 
ordinary officers are, a master, preacher, 
register, trea.surer, schoolmaster, &c. i 

CHARTISTS. This term had its 
origin in the year 1837 or 1838, when a 
very uneasy spirit began to display itself 
among the " working classes" in the 
manufacturing counties. Immense meet- 
ings were convened in various quarters 
demanding universal suffrage. A docu- 
ment, called the " people's charter," was 
framed and put in circulation, from 
whence they were called Chartists. 

It became a favourite practice with the 
parties to these transactions to assemble 
by torch-light in the open air. Among 
others, a public meeting was convened 
in the day-time, at Palace Yard, West- 
minster, in the autumn of 1838. The 
most numerous and important of these 
assemblages took place on Kersel Moor, 
near Manchester. The number present 
on this occasion was about 200,000 ; Mr. 
Fielden, the member for Oldham, was 
called to preside. On this occasion the 
well known Mr. Stephens said, "The 
principle of the people's charter was the 
right of every man that breathed God's 
free air, or trod God's free earth, to 
have his horn? and his hearth, and to 
have happiness to himself, his wife, an*' 
his children, as securely guaranteed to 
him as they are to every other man 
whom the Almighty had created." 

These meetings continued till Decem- 
ber in various parts of the country. The 



CttA 



249 



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people were armed with guns, pikes, &c. 
carrying flags and torches, and conduct- 
ing themselves in a tumultuous manner. 
A proclamation was issued declaring all 
such meetings illegal, and warning all 
persons to desist from such assemblies. 

1839. July 15, Riots at Birmingham. 
A meeting of Chartists having been ap- 
pointed for the evening, the police inter- 
fered to prevent it, which so infuriated 
the mob, that a generial riot took place. 
They set fire to three houses in the Bull 
Ring, broke into the shops, and com- 
mitted many outrages before the arrival 
of a strong party of special constables, 
armed with cutlasses, and some troops 
of di-agoon guards, and rifle brigade, 
ultimately stopped their proceedings. 
The damage done by the rioters was 
estimated at from £30,000. to £40,000. 

Chartists^ Riot at Newport originated 
at the suggestion of John Frost, whose 
first public appearance was in 1819. 

When the Municipal Corporation Act 
came into operation, in 1835, Frost was 
chosen borough magistrate by fourteen 
out of eighteen town councillors who 
voted on that occasion; the majority 
being composed of Tories and Whigs 
indiscriminately. In the year after that 
appointment he was chosen mayor 
unanimously. In the year 1837 another 
contested election took place. On that 
occasion. Frost having had some personal 
diflTerence with the popular candidate, 
sacrificed his principles to his resentment, 
and gave his support to the Tory candi- 
date ; and, from having been the idol of 
the friends of liberty at Newport, he 
became an object of their execration. 
Bitter mortification and disappointment 
entered into his very soul. He became 
desperate and reckless, and ready to 
grasp at revenge in any form. He soon 
distinguished himself- by his seditious 
violence, and was most jiistly dismissed 
from the magistracy in 1838. 

1839. Frost's dismissal gave him fresh 
claims on his co-operatives, and he soon 
became chairman of the Chartist Con- 
vention. Letters poured in upon him 
from various quarters, in which he was 
applauded for his manliness, styled the 
saviour of his country, and hailed as the 
future lord protector of a projected 
republic. They had been already worked 
up to the full extent of Chartism ; but 
Chartism now fell much below his mark, 
and a new topic was started. The 
unequal distribution of property was 



invidiously denounced as social injustice. 
The working classes were reminded that 
these were evils capable of remedy, and 
that the remedy was in their own hands 
by means of numbers and physical force. 
Delegates from distant districts, and 
inflammatory publications lent their aid, 
and it is not much to be wondered at that 
their combined ejBForts were successful. 
The largest estates in the country were 
parcelled out to the golden dreams of the 
multitude, who were taught to believe 
that one good rising was all that was 
required to effect the division. The 
great bulk was to be distributed, and 
every Chartist was led to believe that his 
share of the general plunder would en- 
able him to support his wife and family 
thenceforward in comfort, without la- 
bour. 

The first circumstance which created 
positive alarm, as indicative of a wide- 
spread combination for some bad pur- 
pose, was a general desertion of the hill 
markets on Saturday, November 2, 
1839. 

This neglect on the part of the workmen 
to make the usual provision for their 
families for the ensuing week, led the 
proprietor of Tredegar iron-works to 
apprehend that some mischief was in- 
tended ; and, early on the 3rd, he com- 
municated his apprehensions to the mayor 
of Newport. In the course of the 3rd 
(Sunday), the Chartists collected from 
the mines and collieries in the neigh- 
bourhood about 10,000 men, most of 
whom were armed with guns, pikes, &c. 
At ten o'clock on Monday morning 
the 4th, the Chartists' attack on Newport 
commenced. They divided themselves 
into two bodies, one of which, under 
the command of Frost proceeded down 
the principal street of Newport; while 
the other, headed by Frost's son, took 
the direction of Stowe Hill. They met 
in front of the West gate Hotel, where 
the magistr^es were assembled with 
about 30 soldiers of the 45th regiment, 
and several special constables ; the rioters 
commenced breaking the windows of the 
house, and fired upon the inmates, by 
which the mayor, Mr. Phillips, and 
several other persons were wounded. 
The soldiers now made a sortie, and 
succeeded in dispersing the mob, which, 
with its leaders, fled from the city, 
leaving about 20 rioters dead, and many 
others dangerously wounded. A de- 
tachment of the 10th Royal Hussars 
2 K 



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250 



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having arrived from Bristol, the city 
became tranquil. 

Frost was •apprehended on the following 
day, together with his printer, and other 
influential persons, among the Chartists. 
A public examination of the rioters com- 
menced November 14, at Newport, and 
concluded Saturday, Dec. 7, having 
lasted 23 days. The number of pi'i- 
soners committed was 125. 

1840. The trial of Frost for high 
treason, under special commission, dated 
November 19, commenced at Monmouth 
January 1, and lasted eight days; ended 
Wednesday January 9th, by the con- 
viction of Frost, and a recommendation 
to mercy by the jury. Zephaniah Wil- 
liams, and William Jones, were also 
convicted of high treason on a subse- 
quent day. 

Thursday, January 16, sentence was 
passed against the above three prisoners, 
on which occasion the chief justice ad- 
dressed them in the following terms : 
" John Frost, Zephaniah Williams, and 
William Jones, after the most anxious 
and careful investigation of your re- 
spective cases before juries of great in- 
telligence and almost unexampled pa- 
tience, you stand at the bar of this 
Court to receive the last sentence of the 
law for the commission of a crime which 
beyond all others is the most pernicious 
in example, and the most injurious in 
its consequences to the peace and hap- 
piness of human society ; that of high 
treason against your Sovereign. 

It is owing to the interposition of 
Providence alone that your wicked de- 
signs are frustrated : your followers 
■arrive by daylight, and after firing upon 
the civil power and the Queen's troops, 
are by the firmness of the magistrates, 
and the cool and determined bravery of 
a small band of soldiers, defeated and 
dispersed. What would have been the 
fate of the peaceable and unoffending 
inhabitants, if success had ^attended your 
rebellious designs, it is useless to con- 
jecture : the invasion of a foreign foe 
would in all probability have been less 
destructive to property and life. It is 
for the crime of treason, committed 
under these circumstances, that you are 
called upon yourselves to answer; and 
by the penalty which you are about to 
suffer, you hold out a warning to all 
your fellow subjects that the law of your 
count! y is strong enough to repress and 
punish all attempts to alter the establish- 



ed order of things by insurrection and 
armed force : and that those who are 
found guilty of such treasonable at- 
tempts must expiate their crime by an 
ignominious death. *- 

January 31, the day fixed for the ex- 
ecution of the three convicts. Frost, 
Williams, and Jones, the greatest ex- 
citement prevailed. Monday, Feb. 3, Su- 
perintendent May arrived at Monmouth, 
bearing a reprieve, as also an order for the 
immediate removal of the state prisoners 
to the hulks, from whence they were to 
be transported for life. Five other state 
prisoners who had been sentenced to 
die, were to be confined in Monmouth 
gaol for three years, and then discharged. 
The total number of Chartists convicted 
throughout the kingdom during twelve 
months, ending January, 1840, was 209- 
Of these, 11 were sentenced to death, 
but had their sentences commuted to 
transportation for life. Among these 
were Frost and eight others, members 
of the convention; seven were sentenc- 
ed to transportation from seven to 15 
years ; 74 to imprisonment from one to 
four years ; and the i-emainder to im- 
prisonment for shorter periods. 

CHATEAU Cambresis. See Ca- 
TEAU Cambresis. 

CHATHAM Isle, one of the Gal- 
lapagos, exploi'ed 1793. 

CHATHAM, England. Here is es- 
taljlished one of the principal royal dock 
yards, which was commenced in the 
reign of Elizabeth, since which, it has 
gradually increased in size and impor- 
tance, and is one of the first arsenals in 
Europe. In the year 1588, Queen 
Elizabeth instituted a fund here, called 
the Chest of Chatham, for the relief of 
sufferers from the Spanish Armada, to 
which a small portion of the pay of the 
seamen of the navy and merchant ser- 
vice was to be contributed ; this has 
since been removed to Greenwich, and 
placed under the direction of the Ad- 
miralty. Here is an hospital for decay- 
ed mariners, shipwrights, and their 
widows, founded by Sir John Hawkins, 
in 1592. The hospital has been rebuilt, 
after a graceful and excellent design. 
The Chatham pensioners have an allow- 
ance of 8s. per week, and the widows 
7s., with coals. The castles of Upnor 
and Gillingham afford additional defence 
to the town, the former, built by Queen 
Elizabeth ; the latter completely com- 
mands the river, by which the Dutch 



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.251 



CHA 



fleet suflFered severely in its attack on 
Chatham, in the year 1667. Fort Pitt 
is a strong fortress on an eminence, 
erected in 1803, and was originally en- 
closed for a military hospital. 

CHATHAM, William Pitt, Earl 
of, one of the most illustrious of Bri- 
tish statesmen, was born in November 
1708. He "received the early part of 
his education at Eton, as a scholar, on 
the foundation, and at the age of eigh- 
teen he was entered at Trinity College, 
Oxford. Through the interest of the 
Duchess of Marlborough, he obtained 
a seat in parhament before he was 21. 
• His first appearance in the House was 
as representative of the borough of Old 
Sarum. He afterv.'ards represented the 
city of Bath, where he continued till he 
was called up to the house of peers. 

1746. Mr. Pitt was appointed vice- 
treasurer of Ireland, and soon after, 
paymaster general of the forces, and 
sworn a privy-counsellor. In 1755, he 
resigned the office of paymaster, on 
seeing Mr.Fox preferred to him. On Dec. 
4, 1756, he was appointed secretary of 
state in the room of Mr. Fox, afterwards 
Lord Holland. But, having in the 
month of February, 1757, refused his 
assent to the carrying on a war in Ger- 
many, he was deprived of the seals on 
the 5th of April following. Upon this, 
the complaints of the people became so 
violent, that, on June 29, he was again 
appointed secretary, and his friends filled 
other important offices. The success 
with which the war was conducted is 
universally known ; yet, on Oct. 5, 1761, 
Mr. Pitt resigned the seals into his 
majesty's own hands. 

After his resignation, Mr. Pitt re- 
ceived for his services, a pension of 
£3000 a year. In 1766, he accepted of 
a peerage under the title of Baron 
Pynsent and earl of Chatham, and at 
the same time was appointed lord privy 
seal. His administration was fluctuating 
and unsteady ; his own influence gra- 
dually declined, and upon his resignation 
in 1768, he was so far fallen in public 
estimation, that he was scarcely missed 
by the public. 

The quarrel with the American colo- 
nies, commenced 1773, employed the 
remaining powers of this venerable 
patriot. April 7, 1778, the duke of 
Richmond having moved an address to 
iiis majesty, on the subject of the state 
of the nation, in" wliich the necessity of 



admitting the independence of America 
was insinuated. Lord Chatham depre- 
cated in the warmest terms such a ter- 
mination, as the ruin of British great- 
ness. The duke cf Richmond having 
replied to his speech, the earl attempted 
to rise a second time, but fell down in 
a convulsive fit ; and though he reco- 
vered for that time, his disorder con- 
tinued to increase till May 11, when he 
died at his seat at Hayes. A statue 
was erected to his memory at G uildhall, 
in 1782, and a bill soon after passed, by 
which £4000 a year was settled upon 
his family. His lordship had five chil- 
dren, among whom was the celebrated 
statesman, William Pitt. See Pitt. 

" The manners of Lord Chatham wera 
easy, his conversation was spirited and 
gay, and he readily adapted himself 
to the complexion of those with whom 
he associated. By an irresistible energy 
of soul, he was haughty and imperious. 
He was incapable of associating councils, 
and he was not formed for the sweetest 
bonds of society. He waa a pleasing 
companion, but an unpleasant friend. 
The ambition of our hero, however 
generous in its strain, was the source of 
repeated errors in his conduct. Patrior 
tism was the source of some of his 
imperfections. He loved his country 
too well ; or, if that may sound absurd, 
the benevolence at least, that embraces 
the whole human species, had not suf- 
ficient scope in his mind. He indulged 
too much a puerile antipathy to the 
house of Bourbon : and it was surely 
the want of expansive affections thai 
led him to so unqualified a condemna- 
tion of American independency. But 
the eloquence of Lord Chatham was 
one of his most striking characteristics. 
Here he outstripped his competitors, 
and stood alone the rival of antiquity. 
His oratory was unlaboured and spon- 
taneous : he rushed at once upon the 
subject ; and usually illustrated it 
rather by glowing language and original 
conception, than by cool reasoning. 
His person was tall and dignified ; his 
piercing eye looked through the souls 
of his opponents ; his countenance was 
stern, and a voice of thunder sat upon 
his lips : anon, however, he could de- 
scend to the easy and the playful. His 
voice seemed scarcely more adapted 
to energy and to terror, than it did to 
the melodious, the insinuating, and the 
sportive. If, however, in the enthusiasna. 



CHA 



252 



CHE 



of admiration, we can find room for the 
frigidity of criticism, his action seemed 
the most open to objection. It was 
forcible, but uniform, and somewhat un- 
graceful. In a word, the most celebrated 
orators of antiquity, were, in a great 
measure, the children of labour and cul- 
tivation. Lord Chatham was always na- 
tural and himself." 

CHATILON SuR Seine, Lord Cas- 
tlereagh, and other diplomatic characters 
met at, for the negociation of peace, 
February 6, 1814. 

CHATTERTON, Thomas, a poet re- 
markable for his genius and his unhappy 
end, born at Bristol, Nov. 20, 1750; 
and educated at a charity school. At 
fifteen he was articled to an attorney at 
Bristol, where he formed that plan of 
imposing on the credulity of the public 
which he afterwards practised with con- 
siderable success. A number of chests 
had been deposited in Redcliffe church 
at the time of its erection in the 15th 
century ; the keys to one of them being 
lost, it was broken open and some 
papers came into possession of young 
Chatterton, whose mind now labouring 
with a plan of deceiving the public, he 
pretended to have discovered the poetry 
of Rowley, a priest of the 15th century. 
In 1769, he addressed a letter to the 
Hon. H. Waipole, inclosing some speci- 
mens of the Rowleian poetry ; that gen- 
tleman being assured by good judges 
that they were forgeries, sent him a very 
cool reply. Mortified by this treatment, 
Chatterton gave vent to his feelings 
by communications to the Town and 
Country Magazine. He afterwards re- 
moved to London, in search of hterary 
employment. At first he met with good 
success J but no sooner did he find his 
visionary expectations in some respects 
disappointed, than his spirits failed him, 
and he sunk into indolence, poverty, 
vice, and melancholy. August 28, 1770, 
he was found dead, in consequence of 
having swallowed poison. 

CHAUCER, Geoffrey, the father 
of English poetry, was born at London 
in 1328. In 1367, he received from King 
Edward III. a pension of twenty marks 
per annum, a sum equal probably to 
£200 or £300 of modern money. His 
circumstances, he says, in his Testament 
of Love, were at this time so opulent, that 
he could live with dignity in office, and 
hospitality among his friends. His fortune 
was, however, reversed on the death of 



Eidward. The immediate cause of his 
misfortunes seems to have been his in- 
terference in a dispiite between the coiu-t 
and the city of London, in which Chau- 
cer took the civic side. In 1394, he 
obtained a pension for life of £20, and 
retired to Woodstock, where he spent 
the remainder of his days. 

1398. Richard II. granted him a pa- 
tent of protection, which has been gene- 
rally supposed to be a protection from 
his creditors. He died October 25, 1400, 
and was buried in Westminster Abbey, 
where a monument was erected to his 
memory by a gentleman at Oxford, more 
than a century afterwards. His chief 
work, and that which will immortalize 
his name, is his " Canterbury Tales." 
The subject of the work is the journey 
of several travellers, going on pilgrimage 
to the shrine of Thomas a Becket at 
Canterbury, who agree to tell stories by 
the way, on condition that the one who 
tells the best story, shall have a supper 
at the expense of the rest. 

CHAUMONT, Treaty of, between 
Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and 
Prussia, March 1, 1814. 

CHAZELLES, John Mattheav, 
an eminent French mathematician and 
engineer, born at Lyons in 1657, and 
educated in the Jesuits' college of his 
native place, whence he removed to Paris 
in 1675. M. Du Hamel, secretary to 
the Royal Academy, introduced him to 
Cassini, and he was placed in the ob- 
servatory, where he learned the practical 
part of astronomy. He made a voyage 
to the Levant, measured the pyramids 
of Egypt, and upon his return reported 
the particulars of his travels to the Aca- 
demy of Sciences, and was admitted, in 
1695, a member of their body. The 
memoirs of the academy to the year 
17O8, contain many of his communica- 
tions. He died at Marseilles, 1710. 

CHEAPSIDE-Ceoss, demolished, on 
May 2, 1643. 

CHELM, in Poland, 268 dwelling 
houses, and 107 warehouses of mer- 
chandise burnt. May 4, 1788. 

CHELMSFORD, Essex, built, 1 lOO; 
prison built, 1777, Chelmsford Church, 
walls and roof fell down, Jan. 17, 1800. 

CHELSEA College, began 1609, 
finished 1790; cost £150,000: physic- 
garden began 1732 ; bridge began 1762. 

CHELSEA Waterworks, company 
of, incorporated, 1722. 

CHELTENHAM, Gloucester- 



CHE 253 

SHIRE. The mineral waters here were 
first discovered in the year 1718, at 
which period the first well was sunk ; 
from this time they became the svibject 
of particular investigation, and in the 
course of 40 or 50 years, the demand 
for them was so great, that serious ap- 
prehensions were entertained lest the 
supply should fail. In consequence of 
this, a new well was sunk, in 1778, by 
order of his late majesty George III., 
which is still called the king's well. 
Cheltenham was visited by their late 
majesties George III., and his queen, 
1788. 

In 1806, Mr, Thompson, w^ho held a 
considerable part of the lands in the vi- 
cinity of the wells, determined to search 
for mineral water on his own estate. He 
succeeded much beyond his expecta- 
tions; built a new pump-room, and 
spared no pains till he had secured an 
abundant supply of the waters. Till the 
year 1811, no magnesian salts had been 
discovered in the Cheltenham waters. 
At that period, Mr. Thompson sunk 
some wells at a considerable distance 
from the pumprooms, the waters of 
which were found to contain a great 
proportion of muriate and sulphate of 
magnesia. Several other wells have 
been subsequently sunk, as the Sher- 
borne, Pittville, &c. 

CHEMISTRY. There are occa- 
sional notices in the scriptures which 
imply some knowledge of chemistry. In 
the time of the patriarch Abraham, a.c. 
I860, silver was employed as a medium 
of commerce. Mention is likewise made 
of an earring of gold and bracelets of 
the same metal, in Gen. xxiv. 22, A.c. 
1857. It has been asserted, that Moses 
must have possessed considerable skill 
in chemistry to enable him to pulverize 
the golden calf, and to render it potable, 
as is related in Exodus xxxii. 20. 

The ancient Egyptians cultivated che- 
mistry to a great extent ; they fabricated 
bricks, glass, and porcelain; they extract- 
ed natron or soda from the mud of the 
Nile ; they prepared alum, sea salt, and 
sal-ammoniac ; they were conversant 
with metallurgical processes, especially 
the working of gold and copper ; they 
practised the art of silvering and gild- 
ing ; they weU understood the methods 
of extracting oils, preparing wine, vine- 
gar, soaps, perfumes, plasters, and medi- 
cines ; they dyed silks, &c., by means of 
mordants, and uaade use of burnt ashes 



CHE 



as caustic substances : in short, the 
knowledge of chemistry seems to have 
been that in which the Egyptian priests 
chiefly excelled. But none of the in- 
quisitive Greeks who visited their coun- 
try for improvement could ever obtain 
an insight into their mysteries, excepting 
only Democritus of Abdera, the author 
of the atomical philosophy, a.c. 400. 
He examined and prepared the juices of 
plants. 

The Chinese, if we credit their own 
historians, were in very remote ages 
coversant with many parts of chemistry, 
as the alloying of metals, the manfactur- 
ing of paper, pottery, porcelain, &c., 
the preparation and uses of nitre, alum, 
borax, verdigris, sulphur, and mercury : 
they were acquainted with a variety of 
colouring matters, and practised with 
success the art of dying silk, and linen. 

During the early centuries of the 
Christian era, an opinion began to pre- 
vail among some who applied them- 
selves to chemistry, that a process 
might be discovered whereby the base 
ingredients might be decomposed and 
separated, and a portion of any mass of 
inferior metal turned into gold. The 
pretensions of the alchemists, as these 
philosophers were called, were at first 
limited to the production of gold from 
brass, copper, iron, &c. ; but in process 
of time they proposed the total annihila- 
tion of diseases of every description. 
The fallacy of this art was, however 
discovered about the l6th century j 
early in the l7th it lost its credit; 
and finally, in 1669, a rational system 
of chemistry was founded on its ruins, 
by the publication of Beccher's Phy- 
sica Subterranea, at Frankfort. 

His pupil, George Ernest Stahl, sim- 
plified, improved, and extended the 
theory of his master with so much suc- 
cess, as to bring the science much nearer 
to a level with mechanical philosophy 
than it had heretofore attained. Stahl 
was born in Franconia in 1660. Hia 
system, of v/hich the theory of combus-- 
tion is the principal feature, was the re- 
sult of a series of cautious and laborious, 
researches, elucidated and confirmed l)y 
suitable experiments. The peculiarity 
of Stahl's theory consisted in the suppo- 
sition, that every combustible body con- 
tains as one of its component principles, 
a certain substance called phlogiston i 
that the separation of this substance 
from the body constitutes fire, and that 



CHE 



254 



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its various combinations produce most 
of the other phenomena of chemistry. 
His ideas on this subject were first in- 
troduced to the public in a work entitled 
"Fundamenta Chemise," published in 
1723. In 1732, a collection of experi- 
ments, with directions for repeating them, 
more ample and complete than any thing 
of the kind that had ever appeared, was 
published in a system of Chemistry, by 
Herman Boerhaave, an accurate and 
accomplished philosopher, and the most 
celebrated physician of the age. He 
died in 1738. 

Peter Joseph Macqueer, born at Paris 
in 1715, in his Dictionary of Chemistry, 
published in 1766, describes the diffe- 
rent chemical substances and instruments, 
examines and explains the theories, 
points out requisite improvements, and 
states the existing errors and imperfec- 
tions, with clearness. 

The authority of Stahl, which had for 
half a century been implicitly followed, 
and considered as decisive, was about 
the same time called in question, by An- 
drew Sigismond Margraaf, a German 
chemist, whose experiments on phos- 
phorus shook the foundation of the 
Stahlian or phlogistic theory. We are 
indebted to the researches of this inge- 
nious chemist for several important dis- 
coveries, and among the rest, according 
to some accounts, for that of the metal 
called manganese. He was an indefatig- 
able member of the academy at Berlin, 
where he died in 1782. 

Torbern Bergman, a native of Catha- 
rineburg, in West Gothland, born in 
1735, professor of mathematics and na- 
tural philosophy at Upsal, introduced 
into the science " an order, a perspicuity, 
an exactness, which were unknown be- 
fore ;" and to this has been universally 
ascribed the rapid acceleration of its 
progress, which subsequently was ob- 
served to take place. He collected all 
the different chemical substances and 
their products, and formed them, with 
the most exact method, into a cabinet ; 
in a second he placed, the minerals of 
his own country, arranged according to 
the places whence they were obtained ; 
a third cabinet consisted of the models 
of all the instruments used in chemistry 
and its kindred branches. He discover- 
ed in some measure the nature of fixed 
air, made a number of curious and im- 
portant experiments on the regulus of 
manganese, the terra j)onderosa, and 



other substances. He died 1784. Charles 
William Scheele, born in 1742, followed 
out the discoveries of Bergman. 

Discoveries were made in Scotland about 
the same time, which changed the appa- 
ratus and mode of reasoning, reduced 
under the dominion of chemistry a num- 
ber of invisible substances heretofore con- 
sidered as too subtile for examination, and 
thus occasioned a complete revolution 
in the science. Dr. Joseph Black had 
ascertained, as early as the year 1755, 
that certain changes are to be ascribed 
to the combination or separation of a 
peculiar kind of air, different in its pro- 
perties from the common air of the 
atmosphere. He found that lime, 
when combined with this air, is in a 
mild state of limestone ; but when this 
air is expelled by calcination, the lime- 
stone has, during the expulsion, changed 
its properties : namely, it is reduced 
from the mild to the caustic state, and 
its weight is considerably diminished ; 
also this loss of weight he proved to be 
exactly equal to the weight of the air that 
had been expelled. Thus it became known, 
for the first time, that aerial substances 
form combinations with solid bodies. 

This is the era of the commencement 
of pneumatic chemistry, which has since 
engaged the principal attention and 
labours of the chemists. The properties 
of fixed air, and of hydrogen gas, were 
likewise investigated by Mr. Cavendish, 
who discovered that water is not a 
simple element, as had been formerly 
asserted, but that it is composed of 
pure or vital air, and inflammable air ; 
or, in chemical language, of oxygen and 
hydrogen. About the year 1770, th* 
subject was taken up by Dr. Priestleyi 
who acquired splendid reputation by the 
discovery of a great variety of aerial fluids. 
1770. The celebrated Lavoisier, 
repeated the principal experiments of 
the English and German chemists, and 
verified their results; and thenewviews 
he i,n the meantime obtained, disco- 
vered to him not only the imperfections 
of the phlogistic theory of Stahl, but 
that it was totally irreconcilable with 
the recent discoveries in pneumatic 
chemistry. He succeeded so far as to 
be himself perfectly satisfied with the 
justness of his own conclusions ; but a 
considerable time elapsed before he 
could gain a single convert to his 
theory. 
At length Mr Cavendish, by his 



C II E 



255 



CHE 



discoveries of the composition of water, 
and of nitric acid, removed the principal 
objections, and enabled him to explain 
his new doctrine in a satisfactory man- 
ner. M. BerthoUet was the first who 
adopted Mr. Cavendish's theory, to which 
he declared himself a convert in 1785. 
Fotircroy did the same two years after, 
and his example was followed by Guyton 
Morveau, and most of the chemists in 
France; as likewise by Mr. Kirwan, Dr. 
Black, and a majority of the British 
chemists. The Lavoisierian system has 
undergone a material change, by the 
researches of Sir H. Davy, and others, 
of a more recent date, published in his 
Chemical Philosophy, 1812, and in the 
Philosophical Transactions up to the year 
1839. See the article Davy. 

1839. New discoveries in chemical 
science ai'e continually being made. 
Among the researches communicated 
to public societies this year, are those of 
professor Daubeny, of Oxford, on the 
laws of chemical combination, and his 
theory of Volcanos ; Bequerel on the 
chemical power of solar light ; Fuche on 
the formation of rocks, &c. 

CHEPSTOW, on the Severn, a boat 
near the town upset, by which, out of 
a party of eight ladies and gentlemen, 
five were drowned, Sep. 22, 1812. 
Howick Farm, near this tawn, set on 
fire, by which two buildings, containing 
each an extensive thrashing machine, 
were destroyed, and a man who slept in 
one of the buildings perished, Oct. 14, 
1815. 

CHERBURG, or Cherbourg, a naval 
depot, and one of the principal establish- 
ments belonging to the French marine. 
A battle was fought off this port in 1692. 
The place was invested by the English in 
1758, and afterwards abandoned. From 
the reign of Louis XV., improvements 
have been continued here, a wet dock 
constructed, and an artificial roadstead 
formed, by sinking at intervals, large 
cones of wooden framework, filled with 
stone ; these, however, broke adrift, and 
now form a kind of breakwater. This 
celebrated work cost £2,000,000. 

This failing in its object. Napoleon 
commenced the excavation of an harbour 
on the west shore of the roadstead, a 
short distance from the town of Cher- 
burg. In 1813, a basin was formed of 
1000 feet long, 700 feet broad, and 50 
deep, capable of containing 50 sail of the 
line ; but it is found to fill with sand 



and mud, and is subject to the sea swell 
occasionally. A wet or floating dock 
of nearly the same dimensions, com- 
menced by Napoleon in 1813, has since 
been completed, in 1820. Total cost of 
these great improvements, £5,000,000. 

CHERDIC, third Saxon monarch in 
England, arrived in Britain, and over- 
came Arthur, near Chard, in Somerset- 
shire, 519. Began the kingdom of the 
West Saxons, the same year. Died, 534. 

CHEROKEE Nation. Five kings 
of the Cherokee Indians were brought 
to England from Carolina, by Sir 
Alexander Cummins, Oct. 1, 1730, and 
presented to his majesty, when they sub- 
mitted themselves, with their country, to 
the crown of Great Britain. Three 
others arrived in 1762 ; three more in 
1766; and others again in 1791. 

CHERRIES brought from Pontus to 
Rome by Lucullus, a.c. 70 ; from the 
Canary Islands to Aflfane, in Ireland, by 
Sir Walter Raleigh, about a.d. 1579. 

CHERRY-TREES first planted in 
Britain a.c. 100; brought from Flan- 
ders, and planted in Kent, where an 
orchard of 32 acres produced in one 
year, £1000 worth, a.d. 1540. 

CHERTSEY Abbey, founded 664. 

CHESAPEAKE Bay, discovered by 
John Smith, 1607. Difference with 
America respectir>g it, amicably adjusted 
Nov. 18, 1811. 

CHESELDEN, William, celebrated 
anatomist, born at Burrow-on-the-Hill, 
Leicestershire, in 1688; apprenticed in 
1703, to Mr. Wilkes, a surgeon at Lei- 
cester ; commenced lecturing in surgery 
and anatomy as early as the year 1711, 
when he was only 23 years of age. The 
same year he was elected Fellow of the 
Royal Society. In I7l3, he published 
his "Anatomical Description of the 
Human Body," in 8vo., with plates. In 
1729, he was elected a corresponding 
member of the Royal Academy of 
Sciences at Paris; and in 1732, made 
Foreign Associate to the Royal Academy 
of Surgery, then newly instituted. He 
had before been appointed principal 
surgeon to queen Caroline, to whom he 
dedicated his splendid work on the 
Bones, published in 1733, in folio. In 
1739, was appointed surgeon to Chelsea 
hospital. In 1751, he was seized with a 
stroke of palsy which induced him to 
go to Bath ; he died in a fit of apoplexy, 
April 11, 1752, aged 64. 

CHESS. The learned Hvde has un- 



CHE 



25G 



CHE 



(lertaken to show, from undoubted au- 
thorities, that this game was first in- 
vented in India, and passed from thence 
to Persia before the year 576, and from 
Persia to Arabia. He adds, that the 
antiquity of this game is traced much 
higher, or to the middle of the 2nd 
century, in an Irish chronicle, but the 
authenticity of it is doubtful. The game 
of chess, was a common game at Con- 
stantinople in the 12th century, when 
Anna Comnena flourished. The first 
crusaders, often remained for some time 
at Constantinople, and thus probably 
became acquainted with this game, 
which, on their return, they introduced 
into their respective countries. 

Among the European nations, it was 
first known to the Italians ; and we find 
by Boccace, who lived in the 14th cen- 
tury, that it was a most common amuse- 
ment at Florence. It was probably in- 
troduced into England during the 13th 
century, upon the return of Edward I. 
from the Holy Land, where he continued 
so long, and was attended by so many 
EngHsh. In the 16th century, it was 
much played in this kingdom; and in 
the l7th century, the treatise intitled 
" The Calabrian," was ti-anslated from 
the Italian into French, and might have 
contributed to revive the game after it 
had been supplanted, as it had been with 
us, by the more general amusement of 
cards. At a late period, and even in our 
own times, Philidor, who was born at 
Dreux, was the most distinguished 
champion in this game. It is well 
known, that he could play two games 
against able adversaries, and generally 
beat them, without seeing either of the 
boards. 

CHEST OF Chatham, for the re- 
lief of seamen, instituted 1558, enforced 
by law, 1590. See Chatham. 

CHESTER, called by the Romans 
Cestria, or Ceasler ; from castrum, a 
camp or military station, which it seems 
to have been made previous to Agricola's 
expedition to Scotland. That com- 
mander made it the head quarters of the 
twentieth Roman legion, whence the 
Britons gave it the name Caer-Fleonvawr, 
or the camp of Great Legion on the 
Dee. The Roman modes of fortification 
are still evident in the remains of mili- 
tary architecture which surround the 
city. From Doomsday Book, it appears 
tliat in the reign of Edward the Con- 
fessor, Chester contained 431 houses 



that were taxable, besides 56 that be- 
longed to the bishop. 

Chester, for two or three centuries 
from the conquest, was the place of ren- 
dezvous for troops employed in the 
Welsh expeditions, and frequently suf- 
fered during the contest between the two 
nations. Llewelyn ap GryfFydd carried 
fire and sword to the gates of the city, 
and destroyed every thing round it, in 
1255. This city was appointed by Ed- 
ward I. in 1275, to receive the homage 
of Llewelyn ; a degradation to which 
that prince refused to submit, and was 
in consequence involved in the war which 
proved fatal to him and his country ; his 
subjects being obliged to acknowledge 
the sovereignty of England, and make 
homage and fealty of their lands to Ed- 
ward of Caernarvon, prince of Wales, 
who received their submission in this 
city in 1300. 

Richard II. converted Chester into a 
principality ; and having annexed to it 
the castle of Holt, with several lordships 
in Wales, and on the borders, made an 
act that it should only be held by the 
king's eldest son ; but this was rescinded 
by Henry IV., who, in 1399, seized the 
city and castle, when on his way to Flint, 
where Richard was then imprisoned, 
through the treachery of those in whom 
he had confided. 

During the civil war in the time of 
Charles I., Chester sustained many 
sieges, resisting the parliamentary forces 
for three years, till the siege being con- 
verted into a regular blockade, they sur- 
rendered on honourable terms, February 
3, 1645-6. Within two years the city 
was visited by a dreadful pestilence, 
which carried off more than 2000 per- 
sons, and reduced the place almost to a 
desert. 

The Norman earls invested Chester 
with great privileges^ which were con- 
firmed by Henry III., in whose reign its 
government assumed the form of a regu- 
lar corporation. The succeeding sove- 
reigns granted various charters and im- 
munities. The date of the last is 1676, 
Charles II. 

The port of Chester was much im- 
proved during the last century. The 
great breadth of the estuary of the Dee, 
and the comparative smallness of the 
body of water flowing through it, ren- 
dered it liable to be choaked up with the 
sand brought in by the tide ; and this 
gradually so increased, that vessels of 



CHE 



257 



CHE 



twenty tons could scarcely reach the 
town. In 1674, a plan was formed to 
make a new channel for the river, and 
at the same time to recover, by embank- 
ment, a large tract of land from the sea. 
Betvi^een the years 1730 and 1750, a 
company was established to execute this 
project ; and different powers were 
granted from time to time by the parlia- 
ment. In 1829, a new bridge, of a 
single arch was begun over the Dee. 
The span of the bridge is 200 feet, being 
the largest stone arch ever built, the 
road-way 33 feet, the elevation from 
low-water mark, 54 feet. 

CHESTER BiSHOPRicK. About 785, 
Chester became incorporated with Litch- 
field. This attracted the attention of 
Peter, bishop of Litchfield, who removed 
his episcopal seat to Chester, in 1075. 
His successor established himself in the 
former diocese, and Chester remained 
without a bishop till after the suppression 
of the monasteries, when it was restored 
to its primitive honour by Henry VIII., 
who, in 1541, made it one of the six new 
sees that were then formed. The first 
of the new bishops, John Bird, in 1546, 
granted the manor and demesnes of the 
bishopric to the king, and accepted im- 
propriations and rectories in exchange. 
The see was thus deprived of all its pos- 
sessions ; and, although the greatest in 
extent of any in England, is of the 
smallest value. 

CHESTERFIELD, Philip Dormer 
Stanhope, Earl of, born at London 
in 1694. In his iSth year he entered 
Trinity Hall, Cambridge. On quitting 
the university, he made the usual tour of 
Europe. About the time of the demise 
of Queen Anne, on his return to Eng- 
land in 1715, he was presented to the 
new sovereign, George I., and appointed 
one of the gentlemen of the bed-cham- 
ber to the prince of Wales. He was 
elected member of parliament for one of 
the Cornish boroughs, and commenced 
as speaker in the debate respecting the 
impeachment of the persons concerned 
in the peace of Utrecht. 

1726. On the death of his father, 
he entered the house of lords, and 
joined the opposition. Soon after the 
accession of George II., Lord Chester- 
field was nominated ambassador at the 
Hague. In 1730, he was appointed 
high steward of the household, and he 
was at the same time decorated with the 
order of the garter. He now returned 



to Holland, and was instrumental in 
forming an important treaty between the 
courts of London and Vienna, and the 
States-general. In 1732 he obtained his 
recal, and, on his return, he supported 
the plans of the prime minister. He 
married, in 1733, the countess of Wal- 
singham, neice, or probably daughter, 
of the duchess of Kendal. 

1744. He was again sent out as- ambas- 
sador to the United Provinces. He en- 
gaged the Dutch to concur in earnest in 
the war against France ; and returned in 
1745, at the time of the breaking out of 
the rebellion in Scotland . He was next sent 
lord-lieutenant of Ireland ; and, during 
his administration there, gave general 
satisfaction to all parties. He left Dub- 
lin in 1746, and in October succeeded 
the earl of Harrington as secretary-of- 
state, in which post he oflSciated until 
Feb. 6, 1748. 

Being seized with a deafness in 1752, 
that incapacitated him for the pleasures 
of society, he, from that time, led a pri- 
vate and retired life. He died in March, 
1773, in the 79th year of his age. He 
left no issue by his lady, but had a na- 
tural son, Phihp Stanhope, Esq., whose 
education was for many years a close 
object of his attention. His " Letters" 
to him, published after the death of Lord 
Chesterfield, contain many fine observa- 
tions on mankind, and rules of conduct ; 
but it is observable that he lays a greater 
stress on exterior accomplishments and 
address than on intellectual qualifica- 
tions and sincerity, and allows greater 
latitude to fashionable pleasures than 
good morals will justify, especially in 
paternal instructions. 

CHEVELINE, third king of the West 
Saxons, and fifth monarch of England, 
succeeded his father, 560. Seized on Sus- 
sex in 590. Abdicated in 591, and died 
in banishment in 592. 

CHEYNE, George, a physician and 
medical writer, a native of Scotland, 
born in 1670. As he was a voluptuary, 
and had a disposition to corpulency, 
which produced various diseases, he de- 
termined on altering his mode of living. 
Accordingly he confined himself to milk 
and vegetable diet, and submitted to a 
total abstinence from fermented liquors. 
The experiment succeeded, and, struck 
with the benefit he had received, he 
published in 1722, an " Essay on the 
ti-ue Nature and due Method of treating 
the Gout." His next publication was 
2 L 



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his faraed " Essay on Health and long 
Life." 8vo. inl724. In 1733, he pub- 
lished his " English Malady," or trea- 
tise on nervous diseases, which became 
very popular. He died at Bath in 1742, 
being 72 years of age. 

CHIANNI, famous oriental scholar, 
died at Warsaw, 1832. 

CHIARO-OBSCURO, the art of dis- 
tributing the lights and darks in a pic- 
ture, in such a manner as to give at once 
proper relief to the figures. The en- 
gravers, from the earliest period of their 
art till the time of Rubens, never at- 
tempted more than to give to each object 
in their engravings its proper lights and 
shades, leaving to painting alone the 
privilege of producing effect of chiaro- 
scuro, by the opposition of objects of 
dark local colour to light ones. But 
engravers at present, by adopting a dif- 
ferent principle, are enabled to make the 
effect of their prints, so far as relates to 
chiaro-obscuro, as rich and powerful as it 
is in the pictures they copy : this is done 
by giving, besides the lights and shades, 
the relative lightness or darkness of the 
local or proper colour of each object in 
the picture, thereby producing what is 
called by artists the tone of the picture. 
Chiaro-obscuro was but very imperfectly 
understood till the time of Masaccio, 
near the middle of the 15th century; 
the painters, prior to this period, having 
had very little idea of what are called 
projecting shadows. Leonardo da Vinci, 
towards the end of the l5th, and the 
beginning of the l6th century, was tlie 
first who, in his admirable writings, as 
well as in his pictvires, treated the subject 
of chiaro-obscuro scientifically. Caravag- 
gio, who flourished at the end of the 
l6th century, and Guercino, who came 
soon after, produced the most powerful 
effects of chiaro-obscuro. 

CHICHELE or CHICHLEY, foun- 
der of All Souls' College, Oxford, born 
at Higham Ferrars, Northamptonshire, 
1362, admitted at New College, Oxford; 
afterwards chaplain to Robert Medford, 
hishop of Salisbury, by whom, in 1402, 
he was promoted first to the archdea- 
conry of Salisbury, and afterwards to 
the chancellorship of that diocese. He 
was employed by Henry IV. and V. in 
various important negotiations, and was 
))romoted to the see of St. David's by 
the po})e, who consecrated him with his 
own hands. In 1414, he was translated 
to the see of Canterbury. 



1421. He crowned Queen Catharine 
in London, and, during that year, he 
baptized Prince Henry, who, when he 
came to the crown, ever treated him with 
a sort of filial respect. He was a liberal 
benefactor to the university of Oxford, 
and in 1438, founded All Souls, one of 
the noblest foundations in the univer- 
sity. Died in 1443, and was buried in 
a monument which he had himself 
erected in Canterbury cathedral. 

CHICHESTER, called by the Ro- 
mans Regni or Regnum, was the resi- 
dence of the Roman propraetor. At the 
Roman conquest, there were, according 
to the doomsday-book, one church and 
above 100 dwelling-houses within the 
walls ; and soon after that event, Hugh 
de Montgomery was created by the con- 
queror, earl of Chichester and Arundel. 
Having obtained leave of his monarch to 
establish a see in his newly- acquired 
town, he granted the whole south-west 
quarter of it to Sitgandus, who was the 
22nd abbot or bishop of Selsea, and the 
first of Chichester. In 1187, a devas- 
tating fire destroyed nearly the whole 
city; and the woodwork with some other 
parts of the cathedral were consumed or 
considerably injured. 

The present cathedral was founded 
during the prelacy of Bishop Seffrid, 
who, assisted by six other prelates, con- 
secrated the church on the second of the 
ides (i. e., the 12th da)') of September, 
118©. The ornaments of the interior, 
the stalls of the choir, and the paintings 
on the ceilings were executed in the 
time of Bishop Sherburn, who was 
translated to this see in 1508. Chichester 
sent members to parliament in the 23rd 
year of Edward I., and had a charter 
granted in the reign of James II. 1685. 

CHIERASCO, Treaty of, by which 
the duke of Nevers finally took posses- 
sion of his Mantuan territories, 1631. 

CHILDHAM CASTLE, Kent, built 
A.C. 182. 

CHILDREN forbidden by law to be 
sold in England, 1600, bill regulating 
their labour in factories 1833, 1834. See 
Factories. 

CHILI or Chile, one of the new 
republics of South America. In 1535, 
the Spaniards first visited it, and were 
received by the Chileans with respect; 
but in consequence of a massacre of some 
of their chief men, by order of Alma- 
gro, llie Sjjanish general was defeated 
with loss, upon which the Spaniards re- 



CH I 



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turned to Peru in 1538. Pizarro de- 
spatched Pedro- to Valdivia, in 1540, 
with 200 Spaniards, and a numerous 
bod}' of Peruvians to Chile, for the pur- 
pose of settling such districts as he 
should conquer : Valdivia succeeded, 
and founded the city of Santiago, Feb. 
24, 1541. In 1550, he founded the city 
of Conception. The Araucanians, how- 
ever, attacked, defeated, and took him, 
Dec. 3, 1553. 

1598. The Araucanians put to death 
every Spaniard whom they found outside 
of the forts ; Villanca, Valdivia, Impe- 
rial, and several other towns, were at- 
tacked and taken, and Conception and 
Chilian were burnt. In 1641, prelimi- 
naries of peace were settled between the 
marquis of Baydes, then governor of 
Chile, and the Araucanians, which lasted 
for many years. In 1/42 new territo- 
rial divisions were formed by Don Josef 
Merilo, who also founded several new 
towns. During the remainder of the 
18th century, Chile appears to have en- 
joyed tranquillity until the late revolu- 
tionary movements. 

1810. The people took the govern- 
ment into their own hands; and, in 
1818, made a declai-ation of absolute in- 
dependence, which has been hitherto 
uninterrupted, and recently acknow- 
ledged by Portugal. The supreme au- 
thority was administered by an elective 
magistrate, callfed the supreme director, 
until Ma}'', 1827, when a president was 
substituted, in imitation of the govern- 
ment of the United States. 

1836. The Chihans repelled an inva- 
sion which suddenly came upon them, 
in the month of July from the Peruvian 
government. In 1837, an expedition 
against Peru was sent out by the Chi- 
lians ; who captured Arica and Are- 
quipa : treaty of Paucaparta, Nov. 17, 
which the government refused to ratify. 
In July, 1838, capture of Lima and Cal- 
lao by the Chilians. 

CHILLINGWORTH, William, 
distinguished as a theologian, was born 
at Oxford in October, 1602. He was 
admitted a scholar of Trinity college in 
the year 1618, and after taking the usual 
degrees, was elected fellow of his college 
in 1628. Soon after, he was converted 
to poper)% through the subtilty of John 
Fisher, a Jesuit, at whose instance he 
went to the college of Douay. In 1634, 
having changed his sentiments, he wrote 



a paper in confutation of the arguments 
by which he had been seduced. 

1637. He published a work entitled, 
" The Religion of Protestants a safe 
way to Salvation," which is one of the 
ablest defences of the Protestant cause. 
In 1638, he was promoted to the chan- 
cellorship of Salisbury, with the prebend 
of Brixworth in Northamptonshire, an- 
nexed to it, and in 1640, be was deputed 
as proctor by the chapter of Salisbury 
to the convocation. He. died in the- 
month of January, 1643-4, and was 
buried, according to his own desire, in 
the cathedral church of Chichester. His 
private character was marked by since- 
rity, candour, and benevolence : and, 
according to Lord Clarendon, "he was 
a man of excellent parts, and of a cheer- 
ful disposition, void of all kind of vice, 
and endued with many notable virtues ; 
of a public heart, and an indefatigable 
desire to do good; his only unhappiness 
proceeded from his sleeping too little, 
and thinking too much, which threw him 
into violent fevers." 

CHILOE' Isle, off the coast of 
Chili, South America. It is the prin- 
cipal of a group of the same name, in- 
cluding 47 islands. It was discovered- 
in 1558 by Don Garcia de Mendoza. 
Chilofe was the last possession held by 
Spain in the Pacific, and, at the end of 
the year 1825, it was still in their pos- 
session. Political disorder, and the 
military assistance furnished to Bolivar 
for the liberation of Peru, had hitherto 
disabled the government of Chili from 
attempting its subjugation, but, in the 
beginning of the year 1826, they fitted 
out an expedition, and succeeded in re- 
ducing it. The inhabitants were in- 
duced to accept the terms offered them 
by the government of Chili, viz., to be 
governed by a civil governor from the 
island, and to protect themselves by their 
own militia. 

CHIMBORAZO Mountain, South 
America, the loftiest of the Cordillera of 
the Andes, 21,440 feet above sea level. 
In 1745, it was ascended by Condamiue, 
to theheight of 15,815 feet; and in 1802, 
Humboldt and Bonpland reached to 
within 2140 feet of the highest summit. 
CHIMES on bells, invented at Alost, 

1487. 

CHIMNEYS. It has been a question 
whether or not the- ancients were ac- 
quainted with their use. The use of^ 



CH I 



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chimneys, if it ever obtained among the 
Romans, was superseded by that of 
stoves and flues ; this practice was pro- 
bably introduced about the reign of 
Nero. In the houses discovered at 
Herculaneum and Pompeii, there were 
no chimneys ; but they appear all to have 
been warmed by the means of flues, and 
a subterraneous furnace, or hypocaus- 
tum. The writers of the 14th century 
seem either to have been unacquainted 
with chimneys, or to have considered 
them as the newest invention of luxury. 
The oldest certain account of chim- 
neys that has occurred to Beckmann, in 
his researches, is in the year 1347 ; for 
an inscription at Venice, records that at 
the above period, a great many chim- 
neys were thrown down by an earth- 
quake. He adds that the first chimney- 
sweepers in Germany came from Savoy, 
Piedmont, and the neighbouring terri- 
tories, and these for a ^ong time were the 
only countries where the cleaning of 
chimneys was followed as a trade 
Hence, he conjectures, that chimneys 
were invented in Italy. 

Dr. Franklin is the first who has 
treated this subject in a philosophical 
manner, and in his "Observations on the 
Causes and Cure of Smoky Chimneys," 
published in 1785, he has very satisfac- 
torily explained all the usual causes of 
this defect, and shown their remedies. 
To this pamphlet, succeeded the essay 
of Count Rumford, in 1796, whose im- 
provements have been very generally 
followed in the construction of fire- 
places. 

The act, 4 Will. 4. c. 35, 1834, directs 
that all widths and partitionsbetween any 
chimney or flue shall be built or re-built 
of brick or stone, and at least equal to 
half a brick in thickness ; and every 
breast, back, and width or partition of 
any chimney or flue hereafter to be 
built or re-built, shall be built of sound 
materials, and the joints of the work well 
tilled in with good mortar or cement, 
and rendered or stuccoed within ; and 
also that every chimney or flue here- 
after to be built or re-built in any wall, 
or of greater length than four feet out of 
any wall, not being a circular chimney 
or flue of 12 inches in diameter, shall 
be in every section not less than 14 
inches by nine inches ; and no chimney 
or flue shall be constructed with any 
angle therein, which shall be less ob- 
tuse than an angle of 120 degrees ; and 



every salient or projecting angle in 
any chimney or flue, shall be rounded 
off four inches at the least; upon pain 
of forfeiture, by every master builder 
or other master workman who shall 
make or cause to be made such chimney 
or flue, of £100, to be recovered by any 
person who shall sue for the same ; but 
provided, nevertheless, and be it en- 
acted, that nothing shall prevent chim- 
nies or flues being built at angles with 
each other of 90 degrees or more, 
such chimneys or flues having therein 
proper doors or openings not less than 
si.x inches square. 

An able critic, in a recent number of 
the London and Westminster review, 
obsen'es, that " one very common cause 
of smoky chimneys, where no apparent 
reason can be discovered, arises from the 
practice of using boys to sweep them. 
For a flue to draw well, it is essential 
that there should only be two openings 
into it, one at the bottom, the other at 
the top. New chimney-flues are divided 
from one another by single courses of 
bricks in width, or half-brick." These 
flues are built with lime mortar, which 
is soon restored to the state of quick 
lime by the heat of fire, and falling out 
in powder, leaves gaping chinks for mis- 
draught between the bricks, destroying 
the continuity of the flue. To provide, 
in some measure, against this evil, the 
inside of the flue is coated with lime- 
mortar and cow-dung, which the climb- 
ing-boys frequently break away, and the 
chimney, opening into chinks, produces 
an imperfect draught. This is an evil, 
for which there is no remedy, except re- 
building the chimney. Were it the 
practice to use iron tubes, built into the 
thickness of the walls, or to introduce 
iron columns upon the face of the walls, 
covering them in the apartments with 
perforated screen partitions, the great 
source of evil would cease, and the still 
greater evil, the crime, the degradation 
of humanity, would cease also." (Year 
Book of Facts, 1839, page 75.) 

Chimneys have been recently con- 
stni<;ted of extraordinary height. An 
immense chimney, attached to the new 
cotton factory, built for Messrs. Dixons, 
in Shaddongate, near Carlisle, has lately 
been completed. It is one of the highest 
buildings in England, being 305 feet 
from the ground ; of octangular form, 
of brick, with stone angles. The base, 
which is built v/ith fire-bricks, is seven- 



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teen feet eight inches wide inside, and 
the foundation wall is ten feet thick. It 
tapers upwards to a width, inside, of six 
feet three inches ; and on the outside, 
eight feet nine inches. Near the top is a 
cornice of stone, seven feet in depth, 
which projects three feet ; and above 
this are eight feet three inches of brick- 
work, surmounted by a coping-stone one 
foot thick. The builder is Mr. Richard 
Wright, of Carlisle. The erection was 
carried on from the inside, stages being 
erected as the work proceeded, and the 
workmen and materials being taken up 
in boxes by a crab worked by four men. 
The whole structure resembles some 
splendid national monument. 

The chimney recently erected at Mr. 
Muspratt's chemical works, at Newton, 
is stated to be the highest in England : 
it measures 132 yards 1 foot (397 feet, 
four inches.) 

CHIMNEY-SWEEPERS, on the 
ground of humanity, have frequently en- 
gaged the attention of benevolent indivi- 
duals, and latterlj', of the legislature. 
By Stat. 28 Geo. III. c. 48, the church- 
wardens and overseers of the poor of any 
parish, might formerly bind any boy 
of the age of eight years and upwards, 
who was chargeable to the parish, to any 
person following the trade of a chimney- 
sweeper, till he shall attain the age of 
sixteen years. At the close of last cen- 
tury the evils of this disagreeable and 
unwholesome occupation to those en- 
gaged in it were generally acknowledged; 
the public attention was directed to this 
subject, and premiums were offered for 
the discovery of methods which might 
be substituted for a practice so offensive 
to humanity. 

1802. A number of public-spirited 
and wealthy persons, associated for this 
purpose, applied to the " Society for the 
encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, 
&c.," in the Adelphi, requesting them 
to engage in it, and to offer premiums 
on the subject. In consequence of this 
application the society offered their gold 
medal to the person who should invent 
the most effectual mechanical or other 
means for the cleansing chimneys from 
soot, and obviating the necessity of chil- 
dren being employed within the flues. 
Two patents were taken out in the year 
1803, one by Mrs. Bell of Hampstead, 
and one by Mr. Davis, of Bloomsbury. 

1834. The act 4. Will IV. c. 35, for 
the better regulation of chimney- 



sweepers and their apprentices, and for 
the safer construction^ of chimneys and 
flues, repeals that of 28 Geo. c. 48, be- 
fore mentioned, and further enacts that, 
no child under ten years shall be ap- 
prenticed to a chimney-sweeper; that 
chimney - sweepers, taking apprentices 
under 14, shall be householders, and rated 
to the poor, or assessed for payment of 
taxes. Penalty on chimney-sweepers 
for employing children under 14 years 
of age, not apprentices, not exceeding 
£10, nor less than 40s. Requiring any 
person to ascend a flue to extinguish 
a fire, a misdemeanor. Binding, or as- 
signment of apprentices to chimney- 
sweepers shall take place by consent of 
two justices, and be indorsed on the 
indenture. No master or mistress chim- 
ney-sweeper shall have more than two 
boys at any one time on trial, nor more 
than four apprentices, &c. 

CHINA. It has been generally sup- 
posed that the Chinese maintain an an- 
tiquity of myriads of years, and that their 
historical records are at such variance 
with the comparatively recent account 
of Moses, as to oblige us either to ques- 
tion the one or the other. The fact is, 
however, according to Mr. Medhurst, 
late missionary to that country, in his 
work on the " History and Prospects of 
China," 1838, that the Chinese, like 
most other heathen nations, have a my- 
thological as well as a chronological 
period; the one considered by themselves 
as fabulous, and the other as authentic. 
Thus, Chinese authors of the greatest 
reputation agree in considering the first 
part of the Chinese history as entirely 
fabulous. The whole is probably based 
on some indistinct recollections of the 
theory of the creation. Of the first man 
they say, that " soon after the period of 
emptiness and confusion, when heaven 
and earth were first separated, Pwan-ko. 
was produced ; his origin is not ascer- 
tained, but he knew intuitively the re- 
lative proportions of heaven and earth,, 
with the principles of creation and trans- 
mutation." 

According to the most authentic ac- 
counts, there is reason to believe that this, 
kingdom was founded by Fohi, or Fuh- 
he, 144 years after the deluge, a. c. 
2204, and that Fohi was none other 
than Noah, who, having lived to witness 
the growing depravity of his children 
and their descendants, retired with a 
chosen few to this corner of the eai'th, 



CHI 



26-2 



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and there ended his days in peace. Chi- 
nese historians, J^owever, affirm that 
Fohi began to reign a.c. 3211. 

According to the best information that 
the peculiar manners and language of 
this singular people will permit us to 
obtain, they can trace a clear and uninter- 
rupted succession of 239 sovereigns from 
Fohi to the present emperor. Fohi was 
said to have been born in the province 
of Shense ; when he grew up, was, on 
account of his superior merit, styled 
Teen-tse, "emperor," literally "the son 
of heaven." Havmg appointed officers 
to preside over different departments of 
his government, he afterwards granted 
territory to four mandarins, and died 
after a reign of 1 15 years. From the year 
A c. 2204, the whole of the Chinese em- 
perors, according to their annals, are 
comprehended in 22 dynasties. 

The 1st imperial dynasty Hea, con- 
taining 18 emperors, commenced a.c. 
2204, and lasted 438 years. 

The 2nd imperial dynast)', called 
Shang, or Tang, containing 28 emperors, 
is full of uncertainty, and its duration 
is said by one historian to be 496, and 
by another 600 years; it commenced a.c. 
1766. The Shoo-king (an historical 
work of Confucius, which happily escaped 
the general destruction of books, ordered 
by the emperor Tsin-che-hwang-te, 
about 213 years before Christ) gives the 
same account of Ching-tang, the first 
emperor, a.c. 1766, as of all the founders 
of the Chinese dynasties, namely, that 
he dethroned the reigning family, by 
jtretending to have authority from heaven 
to take arms against them. 

The 3rd dynasty, called Chow, con- 
taining 34 emperors, commenced a.c. 
1122, and was founded by Woo-wang, 
after a long and dreadful war. In this 
period the empire was attacked from 
several quarters, and, in some instances, 
with success. In the reign of Seuen- 
wang, A.c. 651, Se-ma-tseen, the first 
historian of China, begins to fix dates to 
his narrative. 

The most celebrated prince of the 
4th dynasty (Tsin, containing five em- 
perors, commenced a.c 255) was She- 
hwang-te, who completely re-established 
the power of the emperor, and extended 
its boundaries by new conquests. 

The 5th dynasty Han, containing 
29 emperors, commenced a.c. 202. Le- 
poo-pang, the founder, raised himself 
from the rank of a common soldier to 



the throne of China. During this dy- 
nasty the Chinese conquered many 
neighbouring provinces, but towards 
the close of it the empire was divided 
into three kingdoms. 

The 6th dynasty, How-Han ; (How, 
signifies " after," or second Han,) con- 
taining one emperor, commenced a. d. 
221, continued to be disturbed by tu- 
mults. 

The 7th dynasty, Tsin, containing 15 
emperors, commenced 265, was a scene 
of wars and struggles for the empire, 
so that very few of the princes died a 
natural death. 

The 8th, Sung, containing eight em- 
perors, commenced 420 ; Woo-te, the 
founder, was of the lowest origin.. 

The 9th dynasty, Tse, containing 
five emperors, commenced 479- The 
two last emperors of the last dynasty 
were murdered by their prime minister, 
Kaou-te, who became the founder of the 
ninth dynasty. During this period, the 
atheistical philosopher Fan-shin ap- 
peared, whose opinions were eagerly 
embraced by many of the illiterate. 

The 10th dynasty, called Leang, con- 
taining four emperors, commenced 502, 
Woo-te, the founder of the tenth dy- 
nasty, was the most able of all its princes, 
but became at length so fond of the 
bonzes, that he resolved to become one 
of their ordei". During this dynasty the 
northern empire was divided into two 
kingdoms, the eastern and the western. 

The 11th dynasty, called Chin, con- 
taining five emperors, commenced 557. 
The princes of this dynasty are repre- 
sented as wise and virtuous monarchs. 
In the reign of Wan-te the night watches 
were first intimated by the beating of 
the drum. 

The 12th dynasty called Suy, contain- 
ing three emperors, commenced 581. 
Yang-keen, the founder of this dynasty, 
re-united the northern and southern em- 
pires. He was a prince of good under- 
tanding, and great moderation. 

The 13th dynasty called Tang, con- 
taining 22 emperors, commenced 618. 
Kaou-tsoo, one of the petty princes of the 
empire, founded this dynasty. The se- 
cond prince, Tae-tsung, was the most 
celebrated and virtuous of the Chinese 
monarchs ; and his empress was not less 
remarkable for her excellent qualities. 
It was during this reign that some 
Nestorian christians were permitted to 
preach their tenets in China. 



CHI 



2C3 



CHI 



The 14th dynasty called How-Leang, 
containing two emperors, commenced 
907. This dynast)' was founded by Tae- 
tsoo, who having been ordered by the 
emperor Chaou-tsung to massacre the 
eunuchs, on account of their ambition 
and insolence, afterwards murdered the 
prime minister and the emperor. Dur- 
ing this and the four following dynasties, 
the Tartars established a powerful go- 
vernment in the north of China. 

The 15th was called How-Tang, con- 
taining four emperors, and commenced 
923. Chwang-tsung, son of the cele- 
brated one-eyed general, Le-ke-yung, 
assuming the name of Chwang-tsung, 
founded the l6th dynasty. 

The 16th was called How-Tsin, con- 
taining three emperors, and commenced 
936. During this dynasty, the Tartars 
obliged its founder, Kaou-tsoo, to pay an 
annual tribute. By their assistance, the 
general of the army took possession of 
the throne, and under the name of Kaou- 
tsoo, founded the following dynasty. 

The 17th was called How- Han, con- 
taining four emperors, and commenced 
947. This short dynasty was entirely 
occupied by the wars with the Tartars. 
The imperial general Ko-he, returning 
victorious from an e.xpedition against 
them, was proclaimed emperor by the 
army, and founded the 18th dynasty. 

This dynasty called How-Chow, con- 
taining three emperors, commenced 951. 
The third emperor, Kung-te, being only 
seven years old at the death of his fa- 
ther, his prime minister was invested by 
the nobles with the imperial dignity, 
under the name of Tae-tsoo, and became 
the founder of the 19th dynasty- 

The 19th was called Sung, containing 
18 emperors, and commenced 96O. This 
dynasty continued for 318 years, but its 
founder was its most celebrated prince. 
He checked the Tartars, restored peace 
to the empire, and was remarkable for 
his generosity and humanity. In the 
reign of Kin-tsung, the 13th emperor, 
the power of the western Tartars arose, 
and they subdued those of the east. In 
the reign of his successor they gained 
possession of the northern provinces, 
advanced to the centre of the empire, 
slew or banished to Tartary three chil- 
dren, who were successively heirs to the 
throne, and after a most sanguinary con- 
flict, gained a complete victory, and ter- 
minated the power of the Sung family. 

The 20th was called Yuen, containing 



10 emperors, and commenced 12C0. The 
conqueror assumed the name of She- 
tsoo, and founded this dynasty. Though 
he was the first foreign prince that go- 
verned the Chinese, he reconciled them 
to his administration, by adhering as 
much as possible to their ancient laws 
and customs, as well as by his love for 
learned men, and his uniformly equitable 
and tender conduct to all his subjects ; 
so that to this day, his reign is called by 
the Chinese, "The wise government." 
His most wonderful, as well as most 
beneficial undertaking, was that of con- 
structing a canal of 1500 leagues in 
length, for the purpose of conveying the 
merchandise of the southern provinces 
to the metropolis. 

The 21st dynasty called Ming, con- 
taining 18 emperors, commenced 1368. 
Tae-tsoo founded this dynasty. He is 
celebrated as a prince of great piety and 
wisdom, and obtained universal applause. 
The empire did not, however, long enjoy 
the peace which he estabhshed, for every 
reign of this dynasty is marked by in- 
ternal contests, or the inroads of the 
Tartars. Teen-ming, a Tartar prince, 
entered China with a powerful army, but 
sent proposals to withdraw, on receiving 
satisfaction for the injuries he had sus- 
tained, which being treated with con- 
tempt, he marched at the head of 50,000 
men, into the province of Pih-che-le; 
but being checked by the Chinese forces, 
he retired to Seaou-tung, where he asi- 
sumed the title of emperor. A few years 
afterwards, the Tartar forces triumphed 
over all opposition, and Sun-che, a 
Tartar prince, founded the last dynasty. 

The 22nd, or reigning dynastj"-, is call- 
ed Ta-Tsing, containing five emperors, 
and commenced 1644. During the first 
10 years, new claimants to the throne, 
connected with the former family, were 
perpetually arising. One of these was 
supported by the celebrated caj'tain of 
pirates, Chin-che-lung, who by degrees 
attained so much power and influence, 
that the emperor unable to resist him, 
bribed him to join the imperial army, 
by a promise of making him captain- 
general of the sea-coast. This office he 
exercised with unbounded cruelty and 
tyranny. About 1662, an earthquake 
was experienced, which, it is said, buried 
300,000 persons in Peking alone. The 
emperor Kang-he, who ascended the 
throne in the same year, after having 
done more for the good of the empire 



CH I 



2 04 



CHI 



than any of his predecessors, died in 
1722, aged 69. He was succeeded by 
his fourth son, who assumed the name 
of Yung-ching. In 1731, another dread- 
ful earthquake was experienced in the 
northern provinces, which is said to have 
destroyed 100,000 persons in Peking. 
Yung-ching died in 1736, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Keen-lung. 

1793. During the reign of the above 
emperor, an embassy was sent by the 
king of Great Britain to China, under 
the conduct of Lord Macartney, for the 
purpose of establishing a more secure 
and extensive commerce with that em- 
pire. The entire failure of this embassy 
has been attributed to various causes, 
chiefly to the suspicious spirit of the 
Chinese. 

179G. The emperor Keen-lung abdi- 
cated the throne in favour of his son, after 
a reign of 60 years ; he died in 1799, in 
the 79th year of his age. He appointed 
Kea-king, his seventeenth son to suc- 
ceed him, of whose reign and character 
little is known. In 1804, the Tartars 
made an incursion into China, which 
e.xcited the gi'eater alarm because it was 
connected with internal disturbances ; 
this affair was, however, soon set at 
rest, by the imperial forces gaining a 
a complete victory over the insurgents. 
About this time the Chinese govern- 
ment first prohibited the importation of 
opium ; in spite of which a clandestine 
trade was carried on which caused much 
jealousy in the government. * 

18 16. A second embassy was sent 
from England to the emperor of China, 
conducted by Lord Amherst, the object 
of which was to obtain more complete 
satisfaction respecting misunderstand- 
ings which had taken place between the 
English and Chinese merchants at Can- 
ton, and to establish on a firmer basis 
the rights of commerce between the two 
countries. But Lord Amherst refusing 
to comply with the ceremonies required, 
especially that of the Ko-tow, or bowing 
to the earth nine times before every re- 
presentation of the emperor, his ma- 
jesty was so highly offended, that the 
embassy was ordered to return imme- 
diately, without being even allowed a 
day to recover the fatigues of their jour- 
ney to Peking. Kea-king died in 1821, 
and was succeeded by his son Taou- 
kwang, the reigning emperor. 

1 823. Disputes again arose respect- 
ing the opium trade. The Peking Ga- 



zette of Aug. 22, contains a decree with 
regulations promulgated respecting the 
prohibition of opium. Subsequently to 
this, other decrees were passed, of great 
severity, enacting even the pensJty of 
death against those caught trading in 
the drug, which continued to keep alive 
the angry feeling already excited. 

1837, 1838. The state of our rela- 
tions with China again became very un- 
settled. A serious misunderstanding 
arose in .consequence of the determina- 
tion of the Chinese authorities to put 
down the contraband importation of 
opium, which our traders, in defiance of 
the Chinese law, persisted in introduc- 
ing. " You foreigners," says the Chi- 
nese Admiral Chin, in his proclamation, 
" giving no heed to the laws of Heaven's 
dynasty, are every day furtively ram- 
bling about ; you never let us rest a mo- 
ment from your visits. We would like to 
ask you, if our Chinese ships were to take 
a commodity prohibited in your country, 
and go on forcing it into consumption, 
if you would bear it patiently or not." 

1839. The Chinese government ar- 
rested Captain EUiot, Superintendent 
of the British Trade in China, April 15, 
and several merchants, and declared they 
would not be set at liberty till they de- 
livered up the opium they had imported 
to that country contrary to the edict. 
This they consented to do, and opium to 
the amount of about £3,000,000 was 
delivered to the Chinese government, by 
May 30, most of which was destroyed. 

In reply to the claimants for indemni- 
fication for losses sustained in conse- 
quence of the delivery of opium the 
Biitish government issued a Treasury 
order, dated Nov. 11, stating that jiar- 
liament had placed at the disposal of the 
Board, no funds out of which any com- 
pensation could be made, and that the 
sanction of parliament would be required 
before any such claim could be recognized 
and paid; and that her majesty's govern- 
ment did not propose to submit to parlia- 
ment a vote for thepayment of such claims. 

1840. Hostilities commenced between 
this country and China, but at first with- 
out any very important operations tak- 
ing place. May 7, Hwang-tung-kae, a 
Chinese commissioner, arrived at Ams- 
terdam, bearing a rescript of the emperor 
of China, which empowered him to 
deliver letters of marque against the 
English. An expedition was sent out 
by the British government. Orders in 



CHI 



265 



CHI 



council were also issued, authorising re- 
prisals as a means of bringing the Chi- 
nese government to reason. 

CHINA Ware manufactured in Eng- 
land, at Chelsea, 1752; at Bow, 1758; 
in several places in England, 1760; by- 
Wedgwood, 1762; at Dresden, in Sax- 
ony, 1706. 

CHINA Porcelain, first men- 
tioned in history, 1591. 

CHINESE Library, a public, con- 
taining above 10,000 volumes; was 
opened in Bartlett's Buildings, Holborn, 
June 14, 1825. 

CHINGLEPUT, collectorate Hindoo- 
stan, in the Carnatic. The British ob- 
tained this district from the Nabob of 
Arcot in 1750, and 1763; and in 1780, 
when the Madras presidency undertook 
its direct administration, it was rented 
to the Nabob on renewed leases. 

CHINGLEPUT, the capital of the 
district of the same name, was taken by 
the French in 1751, but retaken by the 
intrepid colonel Clive inthefollowingyear, 

CHIOS. See Scio. 

CHISHALL, Great, in Essex, 110 
houses, valued at £10,000 ; damaged by 
fire, Feb. 22, 1798. 

CHITORE, chief town of a district 
of the same name, Hindoostan, in the 
province of Ajmeer. It was first taken 
by the Mahomedans, iA 1303 ; after- 
wards, in 1567, by Acbar ; and again in 
1680, by Azim Ushaun, son of Arung- 
zebe. In 1790, it was taken from 
Bheen Singh, by Madhajee Sindia, the 
traitorous subject of the ranah of Odey- 
pore, but it was soon after restored and 
remains under that government or con- 
trol. 

CHITTAGONG, a district, Hindoo- 
stan, in the presidency of Bengal, was 
taken from the Bhuddists and Brahmins, 
by the Afghan kings of Bengal, in the 
beginning of the l6th century, but re- 
stored to the Bhuddists of Arracan, 
during the Mogul and Afghan wars. In 
1581, the Portuguese assisted the Mughs 
in wasting the south-east quarter of Ben- 
gal. In 1638, the Delhi sovereign was 
called in to aid an oppressed party, and 
in 1666, formally took possession of the 
province, and called the capital Is- 
lamabad. 

1686. The English East India Com- 
pany removed their factory from 
Hooghly to this place, and in 1760, it 
was finally ceded to the British, by the 
nabob Jaffier Ali Kahn. After 1795, 



the jungle and morasses of Chittagong 
became the asylum of many of the dis' 
contented subjects of the Burmese mo- 
narch, and he felt himself at length 
called on to declare war against the Bri- 
tish, as abettors of a band of rebels for 
the molestation of his government. 
Hostilities commenced in a decided man- 
ner in 1824 ; and after a sanguinary war, 
terminated in the expulsion of the Bir- 
mese from the province of Arracan, and 
the restoration of the Mughs. See Bir- 
man Empire. 

CHIVALRY, an institution which, 
according to some writers, took its rise 
from the crusades, but according to 
others, gave occasion to that enterprise. 
Though founded in caprice, and produc- 
tive of extravagance, it had a very con- 
siderable influence in refining the man- 
ners of the European nations, during the 
12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. 
Bishop Warburton traces the first idea 
of chivalry and romance to Spain, where 
it was introduced by the Saracens or 
Arabians, who had been for some time 
seated on the northern coasts of Africa ; 
it entered Spain about the beginning of 
the eighth century, but it had not at- 
tained any regular system till the 12th 
century. 

Chivalry declined in England during 
the inglorious reigns of king John and 
Henry III., but revived under Edward 
I., about 1300. This prince was one of 
the most accomplished knights of 
the age in which he flourished, and both 
delighted and excelled in feats of chivalry. 
When he was on his return from the 
Holy Land, after his father's death, and 
knew that his presence was ardently de- 
sired in England, he accepted an invita- 
tion to a tournament at Chalons in Bur- 
gundy; where he displayed his skill and 
valour to great advantage, and gained a 
complete victory. 

Edward III. was no less fond of chi- 
VEklry, and encouraged it by his example 
and munificence. He celebrated several 
pompous tournaments, to which he in- 
vited all strangers who delighted in feats 
of arms, entertained them with great 
hospitality, and loaded such of them 
as excelled in those martial sports with 
honours and rewards, in order to attach 
them to his person, and engage them to 
fight in his cause. With the same view, 
and at the same time, he founded the 
order of the garter, 1 349, of which hie 
heroic son, the Black Prince, was the 
2 m ' 



CHO 



2(36 



CHO 



first knight, and all the first companions 
were persons famous for their victories 
in tournaments, and in real wars 

Chivalry, which owed its origin to the 
feudal system, expired with it, in the 
l6lh century; the change of habits and 
manners, and the difference in the pur- 
suits of mankind in general, were alike 
fatal to both. But the spirit of the in- 
stitution may still be traced in the hu- 
manity which accompanies all the opera- 
tions of war, the refinements of gallantry, 
and the point of honour ; the three cir- 
cumstances which distinguish modern 
from ancient manners. 

1839- An attempt was made this year 
to revive the feats of ancient chivalry, 
by the exhibition of a grand tourney. 
The rehearsal took place in the neigh- 
bourhood of London in July, and in 
August, and September following, a 
fete and tournament were given by 
the Earl of Eglintoun, at Eglintoun 

CHOCOLATE introduced into Eu- 
rope from Mexico, 1520. 

CHOLERA Morbus. This dread- 
ful malady, called the malignant cholera, 
made its appearance at Jessore, in Ben- 
gal, Aug. 1817. The first serious mani- 
festations of it consisted generally in 
violent vomitings and discharges of the 
bowels ; the evacuations presenting, for 
the most part, numerous mucous flakes 
floating in a liquid resembhng rice-water 
or whey. Spasmodic contractions be- 
ginning in the fingers and toes, gradually 
extended themselves to the trunk : the 
pulse sank ; the skin became cold ; the 
lips, face, neck, hands, and feet, and soon 
after the thighs, arms, and whole surface 
assumed a leaden, blue, purple, black, or 
deep brown tint, according to the com- 
plexion of the individual, and varying in 
shade with the intensity of the attack. 
The fingers and toes were reduced in 
size; the skin and soft parts covering 
them became wrinkled, shrivelled, and 
folded ; the nails put on a bluish pearly 
white hue; the large superficial veins 
were marked by flat lines of a deeper 
black ; the pulse became either small as 
a thread, or else totally extinct ; the 
voice sank into a whisper ; the respira- 
tion was quick, irregular, and imperfect; 
and the secretion of urine was totally 
suspended. Death took place often in 
10 or 12, generally within 18 or 20 hours 
after the appearance of decided and well- 
formed symptoms. lo the space of a few- 



weeks, 10,000 persons fell victims to this 
malady, in the single district of Jessore 

From Jessore the cholera soon ex- 
tended its ravages throughout Bengal. 
It extended also eastward along the coast 
of the Asiatic continent, and through the 
islands of the Indian ocean, to China, 
and to Timor. In 1818, it appeared in 
Arracan ; 1819, in Penang, the island 
of Java, &c. ; 1820, at Canton, in Oc- 
tober ; and at Pekin in 1821. Before 
the end of 1823, it had traversed the 
Molucca islands, and the island of 
Timor ; and continuing for several years 
to ravage the interior of China, it had, by 
1827, passed to the north of the Great 
Wall, and desolated several places in 
Mongolia. At the same time it was ex- 
tending to the west as well as to the 
east. In 1818, it made its appearance at 
Bombay; and broke out anew in 1819, 
1820, and 1821. 

Ascending the Persian Gulf, it spread 
on one hand, from Busheer into Persia ; 
on the other, it passed through Bassora, 
along the course of the rivers Tigris and 
Euphrates into Asiatic Turkey. After 
traversing Baku and other parts on the 
western border of the Caspian Sea, it 
appeared at Astracan in Sept., 1823, 
but died away in the course of the win- 
ter. It continued during the succeeding 
years to wander about in different pro- 
vinces of Persia, and the adjacent dis- 
tricts, and in 1830, it broke out with 
renewed violence on the western shores 
of the Caspian Sea. 

The same year the cholera ravaged 
Georgia, and made its reappearance in 
Astracan; thence it ascended the Volga, 
and crossed over the Don, spreading 
northwards so as in the month of June 
to reach St. Petersburgh and Archangel. 
Holding out a western course, and en- 
tering Poland, it broke out in Warsaw 
in April, 1831; at Dantzic, in May; 
Berlin, in the beginning of September ; 
and at Hamburgh, in the month follow- 
ing. It made its appearance at Jassy, 
in June; and Bucharest and Pest, in 
July; and Vienna, in September. 

1831. Although precautions had been 
taken, by enforcing quarantine regula- 
tions, to protect GreatBritain and Ireland, 
it made its appearance in Sunderland 
October 26. There was great contrariety 
of opinion among medical men. Some 
alleged that the malady which had bro- 
ken out was contagious, and identical 
with, the Asiatic cholera ; others asserted 



C HO 



267 



CHO 



that it was totally dissimilar, and was 
merely epidemic. This much, however, 
was certain, that a malady had made its 
appearance, presenting an assemhlage of 
symptoms not hitherto observed in ordi- 
nary conjunction in this country. Be- 
tween October 26 and December 28, 
when only seven cases remained, 528 
persons were attacked in Sunderland, of 
whom 197 died. 

In the beginning of December the 
malady spread to Newcastle ; and by 
the 28th of the month, 99 had died out 
of 286 who were attacked. On Christ- 
mas-day it made its appearance in Gates- 
head ; and, within 48 hours, upwards of 
120 cases occurred, of which 52 proved 
fatal. In the course of December, North 
Shields, South Shields, Westoe, Hough- 
ton-le- Spring, and Penther, were attack- 
ed ; and, by the 28th of that month, 
eight cases, out of which six were fatal, 
had occurred at Haddington, in Scot- 
land. 

1832. In the beginning of February, 
when the disease in that quarter had run 
its course, there had been in Newcastle 
934 cases, of which 294, less than one- 
third, had terminated fatally. In North 
Shields and its neighbourhood, out of 
257 persons attacked, 67 had died. 

From the north of England, the disease 
took its course into Scotland, and, leav- 
ing untouched the whole intervening 
country, appeared first at Haddington, 
where the deaths were more nearly one- 
half than one-third of the whole number 
of cases. After Haddington it appeared 
at Musselburgh, a small town within six 
miles of Edinburgh, where its malignity 
proved peculiarly extensive and obsti- 
nate. The northern capital was in great 
alarm, but had adopted in time all pro- 
per precautions, so that in no spot of 
the United Kingdom, looking at the 
population, did the visitation pass off so 
slightly. 

The disease, following its erratic course, 
after attacking the villages around Mus- 
selburgh and Haddington, appeared all 
at once at Kirkintilloch, seven miles 
from Glasgow, on the banks of the great 
canal which joins the Forth to the Clyde. 
It then appeared in Glasgow, where for 
awhile its ravages were alarming. But 
though the number of cases was great, 
the mortality was smaller than in many 
other places, being altogether about one 
in three. In some of the manufacturing 
villages round Glasgow, it was much 



more fatal. Its progress could no longer 
be traced. Every day brought intelli- 
gence of its appearance in some new 
quarter; and, during the summer, it 
penetrated through the whole of the 
north and west of Scotland, being no 
where more fatal than among the High- 
land villages of the counties of Caithness 
and Sutherland. 

In the beginning of February, the 
cholera showed itself in London, al- 
though, so far as was known, the whole 
intervening country, whether between 
Newcastle and the capital, or between 
Scotland and the capital, remained un- 
affected. It appeared first among the 
crews of vessels afloat in the river, in 
Southwark, and districts in the imme- 
diate neighbourhood of the Thames. By 
the 20th of February, 40 cases had oc- 
curred on the river, and in Lambeth, 
Southwark, Limehouse, Rotherhithe, and 
Ratcliffe, of which 21, more than one- 
half, had terminated fatally. Other dis- 
tricts of the capital and its environs were 
speedily affected, and the rate of mor- 
tality in proportion to the number of 
cases, continued nearly the same. 

So soon as the presence of the disease 
was positively ascertained, bills were 
brought in, and hurried through both 
houses, giving the privy council large 
powers to make regulations for meeting 
the danger. Among other acts were 2 
Will. IV. c. 10, February 20, 1832, 
"an act for the prevention, as far as may 
be possible, of the disease called the 
cholera, or spasmodic cholera, in Eng- 
land." This statute enacts that "the lords 
and other of the privy council, or any 
two or more (of whom the lord presi- 
dent, or one of the secretaries of state, 
shall always be one,) by any order, from 
time to time may establish, and revoke, 
and vary all such regulations as might 
appear necessary or expedient for the 
prevention, as far as possible, of the 
spreading of the said disease called the 
cholera, or spasmodic or Indian cholera, 
in England and Wales, or any other 
part thereof, or for the relief of any per- 
son suffering under, or likely to be af- 
fected by, the said disease, and for the 
safe and speedy interment of any person 
dying of the said disease." 

A central board of health was esta- 
blished in London. The privy council 
was empowered to establish them in all 
parts of the kingdom, and direct the for- 
mation of hospitals for the reception of 



C H O 268 C H O 

the sick. The expenses were to be de- 512. Up to the last of these dates there 

frayed by assessments levied on the had died in Paris alone upwards of 8,700 

towns, parishes, or counties, to which persons ; and before the end of the 

they were applied. Notwithstanding, month the number was nearly doubled, 

however, these precautions, the malady From the capital the disease spread ra- 

soon spread itself over the whole king- pidly to the small towns and large vil- 

dom, and speedily included in its sphere lages in the neighbourhood, following, 

the squalid population of Ireland. But at first, principally the course of the 

every where it was much less fatal than Seine. Then it started up in different 

had been anticipated. The number of places, scattered over great part of the 

eases in the United Kingdom was smaller country. By the middle of April it had 

out of all proportion than those which made its way into the departments of 

occurred in Paris alone. Aisne, Eure, Loiret, the North, Orne, 

The cholera left medical men as it Oise, Sarthe, and Yonne. 

found them — confirmed in most opposite 1833. The disease continued abroad, 

opinions, or in total ignorance as to its December 18, Bombay papers of this 

nature, its cure, and the causes of its date announced that at Lucknow 1,200 

origin, if endemic — or the mode of trans- persons had, in one week, fallen victims 

mission, if it were infectious. In Great to the malady. In 1834, the cholera was 

Britain, as elsewhere, it fixed its residence also committing fearful ravages about 

among the most needy and squalid classes this time in Sweden and Denmark. 

of the community. There were instances 1835. September. The cholera was 

of its attacking persons of a different kind ; raging at Leghorn. All commerce and 

but they were too few to affect the general industry were completely annihilated, 

law which it seemed to follow, and could The disease was invariably fatal : 50 or 

often be traced to particular causes. 60 were carried off daily. Most of the 

The cholera being completely subdued families in easy circumstances quitted 

in England; April 14, 1833, was ap- the town. The daily supplies of meat, 

pointed as a day of thanksgiving for its water, and other provisions were put in 

cessation. by the windows, and were even raised to 

Up to the beginning of 1832 France those of the third and fourth stories, 

had escaped the cholera. On the 28th The eating-houses, coffee-houses, and 

of March, however, it was positively as- shops, were closed, 

serted that cases of cholera had occurred 1837- Many of the principal cities of 

in Paris during the preceding day. Its Italy and Sicily were severely visited by 

ravages soon became so frightful, that the the cholera. At Palermo and Catanea the 

capital was seized with one universal ravages were very frightful. In the first 

panic, from the highest ranks of society mentioned of these cities the daily deaths 

to the lowest. From the 27th of March were computed at not less than 1,000; 

till the 1st of April the deaths had been and in the latter, 6,000 out of 30,000 in- 

98; nearly 20 daily. On the 1st of April habitants perished, according to the 

alone they were 79, and went on increas- lowest estimate. To aggravate the ca- 

ing at the following rate : — lamity, the ignorant multitude, maddened 

April 2 168 by suffering, gave credence to the most 

3 212 absurd fictions; and, in many parts of 

4 342 Sicily andCalabria, disturbances of a very 

5 351 serious complexion broke out, and were 

6 416 not guelled without causing a great deal 

7 582 of anxiety to the government. Rome, 

8 769 Leghorn, Genoa, and most of the Italian 

9 861 cities were in their turns, and with more 

This was the highest point of mortality or less severity, attacked by the disease. 

which the disease reached. From the August. It had reached Albano, Gen- 

9th of April it gradually fell off, with the sano, Frescati, and to the north of Rome 

exception of sometimes a temporary rise it had spread as far as Viterbo, Narni, 

for a day. On the 10th of April the and Perrugia. In Rome, there were, on 

deaths were 848; on the 11th, 769; on the 29th of August, 336 new cases of 

the 12th, 768 ; on the 13th they rose to cholera, and 217 deaths ; and on the 30th, 

816 ; they fell on the 14th to 692 ; on 357 new cases, and 211 deaths. There- 

the 1 5th to 567 ; and, on the 1 6th, to ports from all parts of Sicily, however. 



CHO 



269 



CHO 



were favourable. In Palermo the cholera 
seemed to have entirely ceased ; no new 
cases occurring. Letters from Malta to 
the 15th of August described the cholera 
as rapidly declining, though on the pre- 
ceding day, there had been no less than 
twenty deaths. September 20. The cho- 
lera was rapidly on the decline at Rome. 
On the 31st ult. the deaths were 241 ; 



on the 13th of September, the deaths 
were 44; and on the 15th, the deaths 
were 30. 

The following table exhibits the num- 
ber of cases of cholera and of deaths in 
various places which had been visited by 
it, as reported, and stated in different 
Journals, in 1831 and 1832 : — 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 



Dublin 

Glasgow.to Aug, 15,1831. 

Liverpool, „ 13 

London, to April 28,1832 

Cork 

Limerick 

Drogheda to July 28. . . . 
Edinburgh „ 25. . . . 
Paisley „ 25. . . . 

Belfast 

Greenock, to July 25. . . . 

Hull „ 26 

Leeds „ 26. . . , 
York „ 25. , . . 
Plymouth „ 26. , . . 
Leith „ 25. . . , 
Warrington ,, 26. . . , 
Carlisle „ 25 



Cases Deaths 



9252 

4164 

4646 

2532 

3305 

2497 

1202 

796 

638 

2559 

534 

726 

544 

384 

354 

194 

248 

214 



2775 
1993 
1396 
1334 
843 
843 
488 
467 
368 
303 
275 
250 
212 
152 
147 
112 
109 
109 



CONTINENT OF EUROPE. 



St. Petersburg . 

Moscow , 

Limberg , 

Vienna 

Warsaw , 

Berlin , 

Prague 

Konigsberg 

Nisnei Novgorod 

Kazan 

Breslau , 

Brunn , 

Hamburg 

Magdeburg 

Elbing 

Stettin 

Halle 



Cases. Deaths 



9247 

8576 

4922 

3984 

3912 

2220 

3234 

2188 

1897 

1487 

1276 

1540 

874 

576 

434 

366 

303 



4757 

4690 

2589 

1893 

1460 

1401 

1333 

1314 

982 

857 

671 

604 

455 

346 

283 

250 

152 







AMERICA. 






Quebec to Sept. 1 




2218 


Baltimore, Sept. 29 




710 


Montreal „ 2 


4385 


1843 


Albany „ 8 


1146 


•418 


New York „ 8 


5842 


3107 


Norfolk „ 11 




400 


Ditto Oct. 12 




3471 


Rochester „ 3 


389 


107 


Philadelphia, Sept, 1 


2240 


740 









CHOSROES I. surnamed the Great, 
king of Persia, was the third son of Ca- 
bades or Cobad, succeeded to the throne 
in 531, In 540, invaded Syria, and 
marched to Antioch, which he soon re- 
duced to ashes. In 576, he was defeat- 
ed by the Roman general Justinian, and 
in 580, being again defeated, died of grief. 

CHOSROES II., grandson to Chos- 
roes the Great, by the assistance of 
the Romans in 590, was placed on the 
throne. To avenge the death of Mau- 
ricius. declared war against the Ro- 
mans 603, which he continued for 18 
years, with so much slaughter and suc- 
cess, that the Romans lost nearly all 
their possessions in Asia. He was put 
to death in 627, by his son Siroes, 
who made peace with Heraclius, and 



•"estored the wood of the holy cross- 

CHRAMNES, natural son of Clo- 
thaire, king of France, appeared in arms 
against his father in 556. On the death of 
Theobald, king of Metz, his dominions 
were divided between Clothaire, king of 
Soissons, and Childebert, king of Paris ; 
in 560 Chramnes was defeated, and with 
his wife and children, burnt alive in a 
cottage, by order of his father. 

CHRIST, order of knighthood, began 
in Portugal, 319; in Livonia, 1203. 

CHRISTCHURCH College. Ox- 
ford, begun 1515, charter dated 1525, 
buildings completed 1523, damaged by 
fire, to the amount of 12,000?. March 3, ^ 
1809. See Oxford. 

CHRIST Church, Birmingham, 
first stone laid, July 22, 1805. 



CHR 



270 



CHR 



CHRIST'S College, Cambridge, 
founded 1505. See Cambridge. 

CHRIST Priory, Hampshire, built, 
1060. 

CHRIST'S Hospital, popularly 
caUed the Blue-coat Hospital, was an- 
ciently a monastery of grey friars, found- 
ed by Rahere, the first prior in the time 
of Henry I. It was dissolved by Henry 
VIII., and granted by him to the city 
of London in 1547, and the grant 
was confirmed in 1552, by charter of 
Edward VI., who converted it into an 
hospital for poor children, who are sup- 
plied with all necessaries and conve- 
niences, clothed, dieted, and taught. 

The citizens, by king Edward's char- 
ter, are incorporated governors of his 
several foundations in the city and liber- 
ties of London by the name of the 
" mayor, commonalty, and citizens of the 
city of London, governors of the posses- 
sions, revenues, and goods of hospitals of 
Edward VI.," &c. 

A great part of this building was 
burnt down by the great fire in 1666 ; 
but was again rebuilt by the care of the 
governors ; though not without incur- 
ring a great debt, and anticipating the 
revenues of the hospital; all which in- 
cumbrances have been long since dis- 
charged. Here were two mathematical 
schools; the first founded by King Charles 
II., Aug. 19, 1674, but they are now 
united 

1835. There were begun very conside- 
rable architectural additions to this ex- 
tensive mass of buildings, in the court 
where the grammar-school is situated. 
The new edifice displays two sides, 
namely, on the north and west ; and the 
former of these, which is the principal 
one, fronts the court, and is directly 
opposite to the school above mentioned, 
yet of only half its extent. It is com- 
posed of five divisions, the extreme ones 
being octagonal towers, and that in the 
centre presenting one continued orna- 
mental compartment, forming a kind of 
bay window on each of its three floors 
above the ground one. 

CHRISTIAN, the term of distinction 
first given to the disciples of Christ at 
Antioch, a.d. 40. 

CHRISTIAN Charity, order of 
knighthood, began in France, 1590. 

CHRISTIAN Era, first applied to 
the computation of time, by Dionysius 
the monk, surnamed the Little, 516. 
See Era. 



CHRISTIAN King, the title of, 
first given to Louis IX. of France, 
1469 ; annulled by National Assembly, 
1791. 

CHRISTIAN Knowledge, Society 
for promoting, instituted 1798. 

CHRISTIANIA, or Christiana, 
capital of Norway, formerly occupied the 
site of Opsloe, and was rebuilt in its 
present situation by Christian IV. in 
1624, after a plan designed by himself. 
It has a Latin school, founded by Chris- 
tian IV. in 1635, and a public library. 
The castle of Aggerhuus, built on the 
west side of the bay, at a small distance 
from the city, in 1310, by the Swedes, 
was strengthened in 1633, by Christian 
IV., and by succeeding kings of Den- 
mark at subsequent periods. 

The trade is good, and population has 
increased so rapidl)', that, according to 
the "Weimar almanack for 1832, about 
20,000. The principal exports are 
timber and deal ; glass, particularly 
bottles ; linseed and oil-cakes ; iron and 
nails; smalts, bones, oak bark, &c. 
Salted and pickled fish, one of the staple 
products of Norway, is principally ex- 
ported from Bergen. The deals of 
Christiania have always been in the high- 
est estimation ; and in consequence of 
the excellence of the timber, and the 
care with which the sap-wood and other 
defective parts is cut away. The saw- 
mills were formerly licensed to cut 
only a certain quantity, and the pro- 
prietors were bound to make oath that 
it was not exceeded. This absurd regu- 
lation no longer exists. 

CHRISTIANITY, the religion taught 
by Jesus Christ, forming the epoch of 
the vulgar era. See Christian Era. 

Century I. During the apostolic age, 
churches were planted in Arabia, Egypt, 
Ethiopia, and Barbary, to the south and 
west of the Holy Land ; in Chaldea, 
Mesopotamia, Armenia, Assyria, and 
Persia, to the east; and in Phenicia, 
Syria, Asia Minor, Thrace, Macedonia, 
Greece, lUyricum, Italy, and Spain, to 
the north. Gildas, the earliest of our 
British historians, speaking of the me- 
morable revolt and overthrow of the 
Briton* under Boadicea, about 60, as- 
serts that the gospel then began to be 
successfully published in the country ; 
and the correctness of his statement is 
supported by those ancient Cambrian 
records called the triades. In these it 
is stated that the celebrated Caractacus, 



CHR 



271 



CHR 



who, after a war of nine years, was be- 
trayed to the Romans, was, together with 
his father Brennus, and the whole family, 
carried prisoner to Rome, about the year 
53, where they remained for a period of 
seven years. At this time the gospel 
was also preached in the imperial city ; 
and Brennus, with others of his family, 
became professed members of the chris- 
tian church. Eigen, the daughter of 
Caractacus, is said tohave bestowed her 
band on a British chieftain, whose do- 
main, called Gaer Sarllog, is now known 
by the name of Old Sarum ; and Clau- 
dia, one of her sisters, is supposed to 
have become the wife of a Roman sena- 
tor, named Pudens. 

Century II. The progress of Chris- 
tianity was steady and triumphant. Pliny, 
in writing to the emperor Trajan, about 
106, expressly says, "The number of 
culprits (as he calls the christians) is 
become so great as to call for serious 
consultation; the contagion of their 
superstition having spread, not only 
through cities, but even in villages and 
the country." TertuUian, speaking of 
the extension of the gospel, about ninety 
years afterwards, numbers among those 
who had previously embraced it, the 
Dacians, Germans, Scythians, and Sar- 
matians ; together with many of the 
Getuli, great numbers of the Moors, 
the utmost bounds of Spain, various na- 
tions of Gaul, and those parts of Bri- 
tain which were inaccessible to the Ro- 
man arms. And Arnobius demands, 
" Is not this a powerful argument for 
our faith, that, in so short a time, the 
sacraments of Christ are diffused over 
the world? ITiat orators, rhetoricians, 
lawyers, physicians, and philosophers, 
now love our religion, despising those 
things in which they previously trusted ? 
That servants endure cruelty from their 
masters, wives submit to be separated 
from their husbands, and children are 
content to be disinherited by their pa- 
rents, rather than abandon the chris- 
tian religion." Athenagoras, who, to- 
wards the end of this century wrote an 
apology for the christian religion, says, 
" the christians made small account of 
the present life, but were intent only on 
contemplating God, and the divine Word 
who is from him ; what union the Son 
has with the Father ; what communion 
the Father has with the Son ; what the 
Spirit is; and what are the union and 
distinction subsisting between the Fa- 



ther, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In 
this century ther great work of translat- 
ing the Holy Scriptures was carried on. 
As the language of the empire was more 
generally understood, at this time, than 
any other, Latin versions of the oracles 
of truth were multiplied with equal zeal 
and diligence. See Bible. 

Century III. The progress of Chris- 
tianity had continued so, that, about 
245, the Emperor Philip was induced to 
make a profession of the new religion, 
and openly to patronise its friends and 
adherents. About the same time Chris- 
tianity was greatly extended both in 
France and Germany. And though the 
power of religion seemed to decline both 
among pastors and professors in Africa ; 
and Asia, from the inroads of barba- 
rians, became a scene of miserable con- 
fusion, the invaders, by carrying away 
with them several christian bishops, 
forced these people to become mission- 
aries, contrary to their own intentions, 
and rendered them instrumental to the 
conversion of many, who might other- 
wise have lived and died without the 
knowledge of the gospel. 

Century IV. The commencement 
of this century was marked by the eleva- 
tion of Constantine, commonly called 
the Great, to the imperial dignity, by his 
army about 312. At the expiration of 
six years, during which time he had 
reigned in Gaul, he resolved, if possible, 
to put a period to the tyranny of Maxen- 
tius, who had been declared emperor of 
Rome, and had acted in the most in- 
tolerable manner. With this determi- 
nation, and with a conviction upon his 
mind that the idols of his forefathers 
could afford him no assistance, he ad- 
dressed himself in fervent prayer to Je- 
hovah. Eusebius, his biographer, re- 
lates that, whilst he was on his march, 
a luminous cross appeared in ' the hea- 
vens, to the astonishment of the army, 
with this inscription in Greek, "By this 
overcome." How far this story may be 
correctly stated, is certainly open to sus- 
picion, but it is certain, that from the 
time to which we have alluded, he not 
only professed to believe in Christ, but 
studied the scriptures with apparent 
seriousness and attention, and publicly 
countenanced the ministers of divine 
truth. Having obtained a decisive vic- 
tory over Maxentius, and made himself 
master of Rome, Constantine placed, a 
spear, formed so as to resemble a cross. 



CHR 



272 



CHR 



in the hand of the statue erected for 
him in that city. He also built several 
churches for the christians, patronised 
the meetings of their bishops, and ex- 
tended his benevolence to their poor 
members. He afterwards took up arms 
against his colleague, Licinius, who 
reigned in the east, with pagan princi- 
ples and a persecuting spirit. Licinius 
was content to put the truth or false- 
hood of the new religion on the event of 
the war, and the result was that he lost 
both his dignity and his life. The 
christian church enjoyed great tran- 
quillity, and much external prosperity 
during this reign. The emperor erected 
churches, established schools, and pro- 
vided endowments for the christian 
clergy. After trying lenient measures 
to suppress heathenism a long time, 
during the last eight years of his life 
destroyed the idols, rased the temples, 
and banished the priests. By these 
means heathenism was so much dis- 
lodged from the cities and towns of the 
empire, that it seemed to take refuge as 
its last resort in the pagi, or villages, 
from which circumstance it was in con- 
tempt called paganism. But the favour 
of Constantine to the clergy was exces- 
sive, and superinduced pride, covetous- 
ness, supineness, and sensuality. 

The gospel was propagated among the 
Persians, Indians, and the nations on 
the east of the Euxine Sea. In 337, 
Constantine died, on which several 
changes took place in the empire and 
government ; but at length his son Con- 
stantius was firmly seated on the throne. 
In the days of the father, the Arian 
heresy was considerably propagated, and 
the son it appears was a cordial friend 
to the professors of those principles, and 
soon began to wield the secular power 
against those professing the orthodox 
faith. On the death of Constantius, in 
the year 361, Julian succeeded to the 
crown ; but he no sooner attained the 
imperial dignity, than he renounced 
Christianity, and openly professed pa- 
ganism. He restored idolatrous wor- 
ship, re-opened the temples, built new 
ones, and gave universal countenance to 
all the heathen rites. On the death of 
Julian, Jovian, a christian, succeeded 
him as emperor of the west, and gave 
peace to the church of Christ. About 
366, Valen, the emperor of the east, who 
was a bigoted Arian, raised a furious 
persecution against the orthodox, which 



continued unabated till his'death, in 375. 
In this century the bishops of Rome 
began to usurp a lordly authority over 
other bishops and churches, and strug- 
gled violently to have all appeals made 
to them. Superstition made rapid ad- 
vances, ordinances were issued for ab- 
stinence from particular meats during 
stated fasts; celibacy began to be ad- 
mired and publicly commanded, and 
men and'women devoted themselves to 
single life and monkish habits, under the 
pretence of superior sanctity ; prayers to 
departed saints were introduced, and 
about the same time images and pictures 
in the churches, relics of martyrs, of the 
cross, &c., began to be revered. 

Century V. In the beginning of 
this century Arcadius and Honorius, 
sons of the emperor Theodosius, renewed 
the Arian persecution against the ortho- 
dox. The Goths, Huns, Vandals, and 
Heruli, continued to pour in upon the 
empire, until at length, in 476, it was 
totally subverted, and the Roman go- 
vernment existed no longer. In this age 
of the church the Pelagian, Nestorian, 
and Eutychian heresies greatly infested 
the church, and disturbed its peace. To 
this age also we must refer the origin of 
the celebrated doctrine of purgatory, or 
the middle state, in which some souls 
are supposed to be confined under 
punishment until the last day, unless 
delivered much earlier by the efficacy of 
prayers and masses performed for them 
by survivors. 

In this century St. Patrick, as he is 
called, visited Ireland, and, notwithstand- 
ing the discouragement which attended 
his first exertions, erected a great num- 
ber of churches, and instructed many of 
the Irish in the use of letters, as well as 
in the truths of the gospel. In the same 
century, the conversion of the southern 
or Lowland Picts, is said to have been 
eflfected through the instrumentality of 
a British bishop named Ninias. The 
baptism of Clovis, king of the Franks, 
took place about the year 496. 

Century VI. The Roman pontiff, 
Gregory the Great, sent a number of 
Benedictine monks as missionaries into 
Britain, under the superintendence of 
Augustine ; and a variety of circum- 
stances proved favourable to their recep- 
tion. Ethelbert, king of Kent, the most 
considerable of the Anglo-Saxon princes 
among whom the island was, at this 
time, di\'ided, consented to hear them 



CHR 



273 



CHR 



preach, and, after receiving the rite of 
baptism, he gradually introduced the 
profession of Christianity among his 
subjects. Augustine (who had been con- 
stituted archbishop of the English na- 
tion,) displayed great zeal to establish a 
complete uniformity in customs and dis- 
cipline. This was opposed by those pre- 
lates and monks in Wales, who were the 
successors of the first British christians, 
and altogether independent of the see of 
Rome. Violent altercations ensued; the 
Kentish prince was engaged in the quar- 
rel ; and the unfortunate Cambrians, 
whose only crime consisted in their con- 
scientious resistance to a foreign yoke, 
were doomed to suffer the invasion of 
their territories, and, in some instances, 
the loss of their lives. It has been judi- 
ciously remarked by Dr. Mosheim, that 
" The conversions and sacred exploits 
of this age will lose much of their impor- 
tance, in the esteem of such as examine 
with attention the accounts which have 
been given of them by the writers of this 
and the succeeding ages. For by these 
accounts it appears, that the converted 
nations retained a great part of their 
former impietj^ superstition, and licen- 
tiousness ; and that, attached to Christ 
by a mere outward and nominal profes- 
sion, they, in effect, renounced the pu- 
rity of his doctrine, and the authority 
of his gospel, by their flagitious lives, 
and the superstitious and idolatrous rites 
and institutions which they continued 
to observe." 

Century VII. Early in this century 
six Anglo-Saxon kings of the heptarchy, 
who had hitherto remained under the 
darkness of their ancient superstition, 
were induced, partly by the earnest 
entreaties of the Roman missionaries, 
and partly by the persuasion of their 
consorts, to enter the pale of the church. 
Paulinus was appointed bishop of York, 
and as Christianity had obtained admis- 
sion to the abodes of royalt)% the num- 
ber of adherents increased with great 
rapidity in all parts of the island. Wil- 
lebrod, an Anglo-Saxon, and eleven of 
his countrymen, crossed over into Bata- 
via, for the purpose of converting the 
Frieslanders to the christian faith. In 
692, they went into Fosteland, which 
most writers consider to have been the 
same with Heligoland ; but being cruelly 
treated there by Radbod, king of the 
Frieslanders, who put one of the mis- 
sionaries to death, they departed for 



Cimbria and the neighbouring parts of 
Denmark. The next year, however, they 
returned to Friesland, and proved much 
more successful than they had formerly 
been, in propagating the knowledge of 
divine truth. Willebrod was ordained 
archbishop of Wilteburgh, now called 
Utrecht, and died among the Batavians 
at an advanced age ; whilst his associates 
continued to spread the rays of divine 
light among the Westphalians, and the 
contiguous nations. About the year 636, 
a Syrian mission arrived in China, under 
the superintendence of a minister whom 
the Chinese called Olopuen ; and during 
some following centuries, Christianity 
prevailed with a few variations in the 
Chinese empire. It was in this century 
that the impostor, Mahomet, began to 
practise his deceptions upon mankind. 
See Mahomet. 

Century VIII. At the commence- 
ment of this century, when a consider- 
able part of Germany was buried in the 
darkness of pagan superstition, Winfrid, 
a Benedictine monk, went over into 
Friesland to tbe churches which Wille- 
brod had planted. He afterwards 
removed to Bavaria and Thuringia ; and 
throughout the greater part of Hesse, 
even to the frontiers of Saxony, he pub- 
lished the gospel in 719; Gregory II. 
made him bishop of the new German 
churches. Liefuvyn, another English- 
man, was particularly distinguished 
among those who laboured as missiona- 
ries in Germany. 

Century IX. A mission to Jutland 
was undertaken by two eminent French 
divines, named Ansgar and Authbert. 
In 831, Ansgar was created bishop of a 
new church at Hamburgh> and also of 
the whole north ; and to this dignity, 
the superintendence of the church at 
Bremen was added in 844. Ansgar ter- 
minated his life and labours in the year 
865. About the middle of this centurj', 
Christianity was propagated among the 
Bulgarians, a Sclavonic people of ex- 
traordinary fierceness ; also among the 
Sclavonians and the Chazari, who resided 
on the banks of the Danube ; the sub- 
jects of the prince of Moravia ; the Rus- 
sian inhabitants of the Ukraine, and the 
inhabitants of several provinces of Dal- 
matia. And Dr. Mosheim remarks that 
the missionaries of this period were 
superior, both in their principles and 
conduct, to those of preceding ages ; as 
they were more anxious to inform the 
2 N 



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minds of men, than to extend the domi- 
nation of the pope, and they made no 
attempts to add to the number of their 
converts by rigid and coercive measures, 
altogether inconsistent with the spirit of 
the gospel. 

Century X. This has been em- 
phatically styled " an iron age, barren of 
all goodness, a leaden age, abounding 
in all wickedness ; and a dark age, re- 
markable above all others for the 
scarcity of writers and men of learning." 
In this deplorable age of the church, 
however, sonse pleasing circumstances 
occurred. In Poland, a daughter of the 
duke of Bohemia induced her consort to 
receive christian baptism. Hungary, 
which had previously received some 
faint dawnings of the christian faith, now 
became more enlightened through the 
exertions of Sai'olta, wife of Geysa, the 
king of the Hungarians, whom she per- 
suaded to change his religion ; and in the 
reign of their son, Stephen, churches 
were erected, bishoprics were founded, 
and the profession of Christianity became 
general in all parts of the country. 

Century XL, though disgraced by 
the horrors and desolations, of what has 
been most improperly styled, the crusade, 
or holy war, affords some pleasing in- 
stances of the extension and the tri- 
umphs of the christian faith. See Cru- 
sades. In Sicily, Christianity, which 
had become nearly extinct, was happily 
revived ; and among various tribes of 
Russians, Poles, and Danes, the word of 
God was crowned with brilliant success; 
and in Denmark, especially, the effects 
of the gospel were obvious and striking. 
In Sweden, King Olaus evinced the ut- 
most zeal for the spread of divme truth; 
and here, a learned and pious English- 
man, named Ulfrid, appears to have la- 
boured with great success till the year 
1028, when he was cruelly murdered by 
the pagans, in consequence of his having 
hewed down their idol Thor, with a 
hatchet. 

Century XII. affords little more 
than a varied picture of the extension 
of the Romish faith, by force of arms. 
Thus, whilst the bishop of Bamberg, 
and the archbishops of Upsal and Lun- 
den are held up as apostles to the Po- 
meranians, the Finlanders, and the hea- 
then tribes on the Baltic, these nations 
were in reality compelled to change their 
religion by Boseslaus,duke of Poland.Eric, 
king of Sweden, and "Waldemar, king of 



Denmark. The Sclavonians, still attached 
to their ancient pagan rites, called forth 
the missionary zeal of Vicelinus, bishop 
of Oldenburg, aided by the military 
forces of Henry, duke of Saxony ; and 
the Esthonians and Livonians were con- 
verted in a similar manner, being literally 
baptized at the point of the sword. 

Century XIII. Whilst the crusa- 
ders, reckless of human life, and only 
intent on the accomplishment of their 
enthusiastic projects, continued to shed 
torrents of blood, and to disgrace the 
christian name and character, a people 
called the Waldenses were raised up to 
withstand the usurpation of the Roman 
pontiffs, and to contend boldly for the 
pure doctrines of Christianity ; nor did 
they shrink from the cause which they 
had espoused, though they were perse- 
cuted with such dreadful severity, that, 
in the city of Paris alone, 114 of 
their number were consigned to the 
flames. See Waldenses. During 
this century, Almeric and William of St. 
Amour, in France, Robert Grosthead, 
bishop of Lincoln in England, with many 
others, loudly remonstrated and de- 
claimed against the corruptions of the 
Romish clergy, although they did not 
profess, as the Waldenses did, to be 
perfectly distinct, as a church, from the 
papal hierarchy. 

Century XIV. Dante, Petrarch, 
. Cassidore, Casenas, Occam, and Mar- 
silius, very much exposed the errors of 
popery, and abominations of the clergy, 
although they remained in that commu- 
nion. The Waldenses still continued 
their testimony, notwithstanding the 
fury of the papists. In Bohemia, and 
Austria they were estimated at about 
80,000. About 1360, John Wickliff, an 
English rector, became famous for his 
opposition of the tyranny, superstition, 
idolatry, and errors of the church of 
Rome. He manifested great zeal in the 
cause of reformation during more than a 
quarter of a century ; and when he died, 
in 1387, left his doctrines spreading 
widely through the kingdom, and his 
books were read in the colleges of Ox' 
ford thirty years afterwards. 

Century XV. We are now arrived 
at the darkest age of the whole history of 
Christianity. In England the bones of 
Wickliff were dug up and burnt, about 
forty years from the time of his decease ; 
his books also were condemned and 
burnt. William Sawtre, Thomas Badley, 



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and Sir John Oldcastle, all of whom had 
embraced and propagated the principles 
of WicklifF, wei'e burnt j yet consider- 
al)]e numbers of the people of England, 
many of high rank, cherished the prin- 
ciples for which these martyrs died. The 
books of WiclclifF had passed over to the 
continent, and excited a spirit of inquiry 
there. In Bohemia, John Huss, and 
Jerome of Prague, instructed by them, 
became zealous reformers. About 1414 
a general council was called to meet at 
Constance. Its objects were various, 
and of high importance. The profligacy 
of the times seemed to call loudly for 
such an assembly. Ecclesiastical cor- 
ruptions had increased to an intolerable 
degree, and Christendom had been dis- 
tracted nearly forty years by a schism in 
the popedom. To settle this dispute i-e- 
specting the popedom, and restore peace 
to the church, appears to have been the 
most urgent business of the council. See 
Constance. 

1453. Constantinople was taken by 
the Turks, and this dreadful catastrophe, 
in some respects so much to be deplored, 
was the means of driving many learned 
Greeks into these parts of Europe, and 
thus disseminating that knowledge which 
was soon to be applied to the general ad- 
vancement of the christian faith. The 
fugitives were protected and encouraged 
by the celebrated family of Medici, and 
under the fostering care of that influence 
produced a considerable change in the 
sentiments of the students in the west. 
About this time the art of printing was 
discovered by Koster of Haerlem, and 
was soon improved by Guttemberg and 
SchoefFer. To this the revival of religion 
seems to have been more indebted than 
to any one human cause whatsoever. 
Learning of every kind now made rapid 
progress ; the oriental languages were 
studied, antiquities were explored, the 
muses wei'e brought into repute, and all 
the branches of the belles lettres pursued 
with eagerness and proportionate suc- 
cess. 

Century XVI. At the commence- 
ment of this century the external condi- 
tion of the church was extremely low. 
The Waldenses, Lollards, and Bohemi- 
ans, were now nearly extinct, and the 
spiritual worshippers of God were com- 
paratively few, and scattered abroad like 
sheep fleeing from a drove of hungry 
wolves. The corruptions of the Romish 
church were loudly complained of, and 



yet nothing eflfectual had been done for 
their reformation. The council of Con- 
stance, and after that another called at 
Basil, had in the preceding age attempted 
in vain to introduce salutary discipUne 
into the church, for the corruption of 
the more gross departures from the fun- 
damental principles of Christianity. An 
attempt of the same kind was again made 
in loll, by the council of Pisa; but all 
efforts to reform either the head or mem- 
bers of the Romish church proved fruit- 
less. In this state of the christian world 
Luther arose to protest against the cor- 
ruptions of Rome, and insist upon the 
necessity for a reformation. This pro- 
duced a severe contest between the Ro- 
manists and the reformers in 1517. This 
was 356 years from the reformation of 
religion in France by the Waldenses, 146 
years from the first confutation of the 
popish errors in England by John Wick- 
liff", 116 years from the time of John 
Huss, who opposed the papal influence 
and superstition in Bohemia, and 36 
years from the condemnation of John de 
Wesalia, who opposed popery at Worms. 
See Reformation. 

Century XVII. Christianity pene- 
trated into many parts of North America, 
and in New England it obtained great 
success ; yet the number of Protestants 
decreased about twelve or fifteen millions. 
Twice a prelatical persecution was ex- 
perienced in Great Britain : and in Ire- 
land, besides others less considerable, 
one most tremendous massacre of the 
protestants took place. These circum- 
stances for a few years rendered the fate 
of the reformed religion in the British 
isles most problematical. In Bohemia, 
and the Palatinate of the Rhine, the Ro- 
man catholics almost extirpated the pro- 
testants, and seemed at one time to 
menace the expulsion of the principles of 
the reformation from the whole German 
empire. By the interposition of Gustavus, 
king of Sweden, and after a war of thirty 
years, the protestants in general, compre- 
hending both Lutherans and Calvinists, 
had their religions liberties restored and 
ratifiedtothemby the treaty of Westphalia 
in 1648. In France, Louis XI II. harassed 
and threatened to exterminate his protes- 
tant subjects ; and his son, Louis XIV., 
openly repealed the edict of Nantz, which 
was the Magna Charta of their liberties. 
Great numbers apostatized from the 
faith of their ancestors, immense num- 
bers were most barbarously murdered. 



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and several hundred thousands with 
great difficulty fled to Holland, Bran- 
denburg, Britain, &c. Thus a famous 
protestant association, at one period 
comprising 2,000 churches, and some of 
those churches comprehending some 
thousands of communicants, was en- 
tirely ruined. 

Century XVHI. The commence- 
ment of this century exhibited the church 
of Rome still apparently seated upon an 
immoveable basis, notwithstanding her 
losses by the reformation in Europe. 
But while the successes which attended 
the efforts of these zealous sons of Rome 
seemed to promise her re-eslablishment 
in a state of perfect security, a new order 
of adversaries arose, more dangerous 
than any who had hitherto assailed her 
conclave, A body of men appeared who 
lived chiefly by their pens, and were, 
therefore, diligent in the dissemination 
of their writings. These productions 
abounded with wit and satire, and were 
chiefly levelled at the follies of corrupted 
Christianity. Their professed aim was 
the destruction of the christian faith. 
The progress of these principles was si- 
lent, but it was wide and devastating. 
France was the fruitful source, but Ber- 
lin was the Asphaltis, or Dead Sea, in 
which the noxious waters were collected. 
For a time Frederick the Great patro- 
nized the new philosophy, but finding it 
as inimical to good government and 
social order as to religion, he became its 
enemy. England felt the influence of 
deistical principles to a considerable 
extent, and probably would have become 
the prey to their revolutionary conse- 
quences, like the continental states, but 
happily for lier, pure and undefiled re- 
ligion was found in her ; and at that 
critical period the ministers of religion 
stood resolutely at their posts, and by 
giving a new impulse to the religious 
feelings of the nation, counteracted the 
designs of their enemies. Shortly after, 
societies began to be formed for the dis- 
semination of the scriptures, and the 
proclamation of the gospel in foreign 
parts ; and these have produced a moral 
yenovation throughout the kingdom of 
the most auspicious kind. 

Century. XIX. Of this century it 
is only necessary to observe that it has 
been justly said to deserve " the honour- 
able distinction of the missionary age," 
greater exertions having been made, and 
with more abundant success than in any 



period since the diffusion of Christianity 
in the primitive ages. This success has 
resulted, in a great degree, from the for- 
mation, plans, and operations of those 
societies which are peculiarly the off- 
spring of the present age. See Bible 
Society, Missionary Societies, &c. 
With Christianity civilization has invari- 
ably been connected ; and hence we may 
hope, by the gradual, but accelerated 
progress of religion, that future genera- 
tions will see the human race, from pole 
to pole, living in the enjoyment of all 
social comforts, embracing each other as 
brethren, and thus fulfilhng the objects 
which the author of Christianity had in 
view in its first introduction and subse- 
quent dissemination. 

CHRISTIE, James, a modern writer, 
son of an eminent auctioneer of that 
name, was born in 1/73. He was edu- 
cated at Eton, and was originally intended 
for the church. His first production, 
in 1802, was an essay on the ancient 
Greek game supposed to have been in- 
vented by Palamedes antecedent to the 
siege of Troy. In 1806 he published a 
volume entitled " A Disquisition upon 
Etruscan Vases." A limited number of 
copies having been printed, the work 
soon became scarce, and in 1825, Mr. 
Christie published a new and enlarged 
edition, adding an appendi.v, in which 
some most ingenious reasoning is em- 
ployed to refer the shape and colour of 
Greek vases to the water lily of Egypt. 
His third publication was an essay on 
the earliest species of idolatry, the wor- 
ship of the elements ; tlie purport of 
which is, to show for what purpose the 
elements were referred to hy early na- 
tions, what was understood of the Deity 
by their means, and by what miscon- 
struction they became objects of worship. 
Mr. Christie was a member of the Dilet- 
tante Society, and of the Antiquarian 
Society of Newcastle. He died Feb. 2, 
1831, in King-street, St. James's-square, 
after a long illness, aged 58. 

CHRISTINA, Queen of Sweden, 
daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, born in 
1626, and succeeded to the crown in 
1632, when only six years of age. She 
discovered even in her infancy, a great 
antipathy for the employments of women; 
had ability and taste for abstract specu- 
lation, and amused herself with the 
study of language and the sciences. At 
the age of 18, she assumed the reins of 
government. The chief public affair in 



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which she was employed, was the peace 
of Westphalia, concluded in 1648. She 
invited to her court all the distinguished 
characters of her time : Grotius, Pascal, 
Bochart, Descartes, Vossius, and many 
others. In 1652, she communicated her 
resolution to the senate to abdicate the 
throne, who, with the people, and Charles 
Gustavus her cousin and successor, 
joined in remonstrating against it : she 
yielded to their importunities, and con- 
tinued to sacrifice her own pleasure to the 
will of the public till the year 1654, when 
she carried her design into execution. 

1654. She paid a visit to France, where 
she was guilty of an action which has 
stained her memory — the murder of 
Monadechi, the master of her horse. 
Perceiving that this had greatly offended 
the French, she would gladly have visited 
England, but receiving no encourage- 
ment from Cromwell to do so, she re- 
turned to Rome. On the death of 
Charles Gustavus, she took a journey 
into Sweden, hoping to recover her 
crown; but, finding her people deter- 
mined to reject her claims, she returned 
to Rome where, after many wanderings, 
she died in 1689, aged 63. 

" She was indefatigable upon the throne ; 
firm in misfortunes ; impatient of con- 
tradiction ; but inconsistent in her in- 
clinations. The most striking instance 
of the inconsistency of her mind is, that 
while on the throne she was very desirous 
of a private station, and having obtained 
this, she was constantly repining, and 
anxious to recover the crown she had 
so capriciously resigned." 

CHRISTMAS, the feast of the nati- 
vity of Jesus Christ, said to have been 
first observed in 98. It appears from 
St. Chrysostom, that in the primitive 
times, Christmas and Epiphany were 
celebrated at one and the same feast ; 
that father observes, that it was but for 
a little while that Christmas had been 
celebrated at Antioch on the 25th of De- 
cember, as a distinct feast. The Arme- 
nians made but one feast of them, as 
late as the r2th century. The precise 
day, or even the month, in which our 
Saviour was born, is extremely uncer- 
tain, but it has been supposed proljable, 
that the era of the nativity was either in 
September or October, a.u.c. 748 or 
749. 

CHRISTMAS Island, in the Pacific 
Ocean, lying about 1100 miles south of 
the Sandwich islands. Well known as 



the spot on which Cook, in his third 
voyage in 1777, landed to observe an 
eclipse of the sun. It appears to be 
more than 60 miles in circumference. 
It was visited by Mr. Bennett about 
1835. 

CHRISTOPHE, late sovereign of 
Hayti, first aspired to the sovereignty 
on the death of Dessalines in 1806; 
maintained the conflict with Petion for 
five years. Published the constitutional 
law of the council of state, for the esta- 
blishment of royalty in Hayti, which 
was subscribed by all the members, and 
dated the 28th of March, 1811. Im- 
mediately on its publication, Christophe 
was proclaimed, and shortly afterwards, 
crowned king. He shot himself Oct. 9, 
1820. See Hayti. 

CHRISTOPHER'S Saint, island. 
West Indies, discovered by Christopher 
Columbus. First settled under William 
Warren, in 1623, to whom many French 
emigrants attached themselves. It was 
finally ceded to Great Britain at the 
peace of 1783. 

CHRONOLOGY. Most of the an- 
cient nations measured their time by the 
course of the sun, but some others by 
that of the moon. But as the ancient 
inhabitants of the world had no means 
of ascertaining the exact measure either 
of the year or the month, or of adjusting 
the moon's motion to that of the sun, 
much confusion would necessarily arise 
in their accounts of events. Even in 
the histories of Herodotus and Thucy- 
dides, there are no regular dates for the 
events recorded ; nor were there any 
endeavours to establish a fixed era until 
the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus (about 
A.c. 240) who attempted it by comparing 
and correcting the dates of the Olym- 
piads, the kings of Sparta, and the suc- 
cession of the priestesses of Juno at 
Argos. The early records of the Ro- 
mans were annihilated about a.c. 388, 
by the Gauls ; and Fabius Pictor, the 
most ancient of their historians, who is 
supposed to have flourished about a.c 
225, was obliged to borrow tlie chief 
part of his information from the 
Greeks. 

In other European nations the chrono- 
logy was necessarily much more imper- 
fect than at Rome ; as it was attended 
to at a later period than that of the 
Greeks and Romans. Scythia, beyond 
the Danube, had no letters, till Ulphilus» 
theirbishop, formed them, about A. D. 27^. 



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Germany had none till it received them 
from the western empire, about 400. 
The Huns had none as late as 526 ; and 
it was still later before the Swedes and 
Norwegians received them. For an ac- 
count of the improved systems of 
Chronology. See the Introductory 

CHAPTER TO THIS WORK. 

CHRONOMETER, a time-keeper, 
used for ascertaining the longitude at 
sea. The first person who proposed to 
ascertain the relative longitude of any 
place or ship at sea, by means of horo- 
logical machines for indicating the time 
of the first meridian, was Gemma Fri- 
eius, about the year 1530. This method 
was described and recommended in 
Carpenter's Geography, as early as the 
year 1635 ; but the state in which horo- 
logical machines were at that time, pre- 
vented his accomplishing the design. 
The discovery of the isochronism of the 
pendulum turned the minds of inge- 
nious men to the improvement of clocks. 
Lord Kincardine tried a marine pendu- 
lum clock by Dr. Hooke, in the year 
1662; and Christian Huygens, the ce- 
lebrated Dutch mathematician and me- 
chanician, contrived a time-keeper, ac- 
tuated by a spring, and regulated by 
a pendulum, which was tried at sea by 
major Holmes in the j'ear 1664. 

Hautefeuille, in the year 16/4, pre- 
sented to the Academy of Sciences at 
Paris, a balance with a straight spring, 
acting instead of an escapement, which 
had the same object in view. This so- 
ciety thought the subject of such im- 
portance, that, in 1720, they proposed 
the following question to be determined 
for a public reward ; viz. " What is the 
most perfect method of preserving on 
the sea the equable motion of a j)endu- 
lum, either by the construction of the 
machine, or by the suspension ?" A 
memoir, written by Massy, a Dutch 
clockmaker, obtained the prize, but he 
had not the satisfaction of seeing his 
plan executed. Henry Sully, an English 
clockmaker, who had settled at Paris, 
presented the same academy with a ma- 
rine time-keeper, made in 1721, and pub- 
lished a description of it in French, by 
the title of " Abridged description of a 
clock, of a new invention for the just 
measure of time at sea." Besides the 
above. Sully made a second marine 
time-keeper, which was tried at sea in 
1726, buttheinventordied two years after- 
wards, a martyr to his horological studies. 



The British parliament in 1714, first 
proposed a reward for any method of 
determining the longitude, and again in 
the year 1774. See Longitude. This 
produced several candidates. Mr. Har- 
rison, who has been justly celebrated, if 
not for the invention, at least for the in- 
troduction of the chronometer, as the 
means of measuring the longitude at 
sea, produced the first instrument of 
that kind in 1726, which, it has been 
said, did not err a second in a month for 
ten years together. During near forty 
years he made successive improvements 
in its construction, by the assistance of 
his son, who made several voyages under 
the direction of the board of longitude, 
for the purpose of proving the accuracy 
of the time-keepers. In this period, Mr. 
Harrison received different grants from 
government and the board, to the amount 
of £24,000. 

Since the time of Mr. Harrison, many 
and important improvements have been 
made in the chronometer, by Peter le 
Roy, Arnold, Mudge, Emery, Earnshaw, 
Brockbank, &c. Peter le Roy pre- 
sented his chronometer to the king of 
France, on August 5, 1766, for which 
the prize of the Academy of Sciences 
was awarded him on the last day of the 
same month. Mr. Arnold took out two 
patents for improvements in his chrono- 
meter. The former in 1776, was for the 
invention and application of compensa- 
tion bars in the construction of his ba- 
lance, together with the invention and 
application of what is called the helical, 
but which is properly the cylindrical 
balance-spring. The second patent in 
1782, was for three different ways of ap- 
plying the com])ensation-bars, for an 
improvement of the balance- spring, par- 
ticularly in the bending of the last coil 
at the end of it, for his invention and 
application of the spring-detent, and 
also for the cycloidal, or more properly, 
epicycloidal shape of the tooth of the 
balance-wheel. Mr. Mudge's time-keeper 
was tried in 1776, and a full description 
of it published in 1799. 

Messrs. Brockbank's chronometer was 
tried in 1796. In the report of Lord 
Hugh Seymour, who tried three of Mr. 
Mudge's time-keepers against one of Mr. 
Earnshaw's and one of Messrs. Brock- 
banks', in a cruise from the 18th of 
May, 1796, to August 19, following, it 
is stated, that, after a proper rate was 
assigned, Messrs. Brockbanks' chrono- 



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meter performed with a degree of accu- 
racy which far exceeded any of the other 
four, and which had seldom been equalled 
by any other. In 1802 and 1803 other 
trials were made and rewards were given 
to Messrs. Arnold and Earnshaw by the 
board of longitude. 

The accuracy of chronometers of recent 
construction is most surprising. In the 
Athenaeum for 1838, it is stated, "Sir 
Thomas Brisbane having observed the 
surprising accuracy with which the dif- 
ference of longitude of London and 
Paris had been obtained by Mr. Dent's 
chronometers, he applied to that gen- 
tleman, who placed at Sir Thomas 
Brisbane's disposal twelve of his va- 
luable chronometers. With these, the 
differences of longitude of London, 
Edinburgh, and Mackerston, were taken ; 
and by a mean of all the observations 
taken in going to the latter station and 
in returning, they were found to differ 
only by five one-hundredths of a se- 
cond." 

Sir John Herschel states, that Kessels, 
of Altona, had tried this method by tak- 
ing his chronometers to Berlin and back 
again (as he believed), and the entire 
error was considerably within one-tenth 
of a second : when the paved and almost 
impassable roads of the continent were 
taken into account, this was an astonish- 
ing degree of accuracy. Sir John 
said, that in a notice lately given by Mr. 
Dent, of a determination by himself and 
Major Sabine, of the diflference of lon- 
gitude of London and Paris, a statement 
was given of the error of the observa- 
tions which was not quite fair ; the truth 
was, Mr. Pond's assistant, in giving 
them the Greenwich time, had been in- 
advertently one second wrong; this 
error, of course, appeared in their result, 
but it was afterwards detected by the 
assistant himself, and corrected. This 
very fact, however, must be striking to 
the public, when an error of one single 
second was so readily detected, and be- 
came such a matter of debate among 
philosophers. Atheneum, 1838. 

CHRYSIPPUS, of CiLiciA, the Stoic 
philosopher, flourished a.c. 240 : he died 
in 207, aged 73. 

CHRYSOSTOM, an eminent father 
of the church, a native of Antioch, born 
about 347. The name of Chrysostom, 
signifying in the Greek, golden-mouth, 
was not applied to him till after his death, 
when his works had rendered him illus- 



trious for eloquence. When he was 
about 27 years of age, he retired from 
the world to an ascetic life, first in com- 
pany with a monk upon a mountain near 
Antioch, and then in a cave by himself. 
He returned to Antioch, and was or- 
dained a deacon, and afterwards a priest, 
and devoting himself to the labours of 
the pulpit, he became so celebrated for 
his eloquence, that, upon the death of 
Nectarius, he was unanimously chosen 
as patriarch or archbishop of Constan- 
tinople, in 397. 

Being accused of disrespect to the 
empress Eudoxia, and cruelty to some 
of the clergy, a synod was convened, in 
the year 403, before which articles of 
accusation were brought against Chry- 
sostom. Declining to put himself into 
the hands of his professed enemies, he 
was condemned, deposed, and banished. 
When this event was known at Con- 
stantinople, a dreadful tumult was ex- 
cited. Another synod assembled at 
Constantinople, and rescinded all that 
had been done against him, and he was 
restored with great triumph. 

Towards the end of the same year, of- 
fending the empress, she was bent on 
his destruction, in which she succeeded, 
and Chrysostom was deposed and ba- 
nished to Nice. His enemies afterwards 
procured an order for his removal still 
farther from the capital, to Pitycens, a 
town on the Euxine Sea ; but he died on 
his journey, at Comanis in Armenia, 
owing to the great hardships to which 
he was exposed. Chrysostom was un- 
doubtedly the most distinguished of all 
the Greek fathers, as Austin was among 
the Latins. The most complete edition 
of his works is that published by 
Montfaucon, the learned Benedictine, in 
1734. 

CHUBB, Thomas, a controversial 
writer, born Sept. 21, 1679, at a small 
village near Salisbury. In the year 
1715, appeared his principal work under 
the title of "The Supremacy of the 
Father asserted ; or Eight Arguments 
from Scripture, to prove that the Son is 
a Being inferior and subordinate to the 
Father, and that the Father is the Su- 
preme God." Mr. Chubb was assailed 
from various quarters with so much vehe- 
ment abuse, that he found himself called 
upon to vindicate himself and his work, 
and thus commenced a controversy 
that ended only with his life. He died 
Feb. 8, 1746-7. 



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CHUDLEIGH, Devonshire, nearly 
destroyed by fire, May 22, 1807. 

CHUMLEIGH, Devonshire, nearly 
destroyed by fire, Aug. 19, 1803. 

CHURCH. This term is applied either 
to the collective body of christians in 
all parts of the world, or to any parti- 
cular branch of it. The ancient chris- 
tian church, with regard to its local es- 
tablishment, extent, and influence, is 
frequently divided into eastern or Greek, 
and western or Latin. The first jealou- 
sies between the churches were excited 
at the council of Sardis, in 347, and a 
vindictive spirit prevailed for a long 
time between the bishops of Rome and 
Constantinople, which occasionally broke 
out into acts of violence. The latter 
seconded by the authority and power of 
the emperors, withdrew from the juris- 
diction of the Roman pontiff many pro- 
vinces, over which they had hitherto ex- 
ercised a spiritual dominion. 

The schism, or total separation, took 
place in the ninth century. Photius was 
elected patriarch of Constantinople in 
858 by the emperor Michael, in the 
place of Ignatius, whom that prince 
drove from his see and sent into exile. 
Pope Nicholas I. took part with the ex- 
iled patriarch, decreed the election to be 
unwarrantable in a council held at Rome, 
in 862, and excommunicated Photius. 
That patriarch assembled a council at 
Constantinople, in 866, and declared 
Nicholas unworthy of his rank in the 
church, and of even being admitted to 
the communion of christians. Ignatius 
was soon after restored to his high sta- 
tion by Balsidius, and Photius was con- 
fined in a monastery. Photius continued 
to feed the flame of discord, and having, 
about the same time, added the pro- 
vince of Bulgaria to the see of Constan- 
tinople, he now endeavoured to engage 
the oriental patriarch in his dispute, and 
drew up a violent charge of heresy 
against the Roman bishops. Upon the 
death of Ignatius in 878, the emperor 
took Photius into favour, and advanced 
him again to the patriarchal station from 
which he had been degraded. 

After some subsequent occasions of 
mutual offence, a new sentence of ex- 
communication was issued against Pho- 
tius. This sentence was treated with 
contempt by the haughty patriarch, who, 
in 886, was deposed by the emperor 
Leo from the patriarchal see, and con- 
fined in the Armenian mona-ster)', where 



he died in 891. The dispute between 
the two churches and their partisans was 
renewed ; religious as well as civil con- 
tests, occurred ; and by adding new 
controversies to the old, the fatal schism 
took place, which produced a total and 
permanent separation between the Greek 
and Latin churches. 

The Eastern or Greek Church 
is, unquestionably, the most ancient; 
it prevails at this day over a greater ex- 
tent of country than that of any other 
church in the christian world. It is 
professed through a considerable part of 
Greece, the Grecian isles, Walachia, 
Moldana, Egypt, Nubia, Lydia, Arabia, 
Mesopotamia, Syria, Cilicia, and Pales- 
tine ; all which are comprehended within 
the jurisdiction of the patriarchs of Con- 
stantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Je- 
rusalem; also throughout the whole of the 
Russian emj)ire in Europe, great part of 
Siberiain Asia, Astracan, Casan, Georgia, 
and White Russia in Poland. 

The doctrine of the Greek church, is 
partly derived from the first seven oecu- 
menical or general councils, viz. that of 
Nice 325, the first of Constantinople 
381, that of Ephesus 431 ; that of Chal- 
cedon 451 ; the second of Constantino- 
ple 553 ; the third of Constantinople 
in TruUo 680 ; and the second of Nice 
787. 

CHURCH OF Rome. The origin of 
the superiority of one episcopal see over 
another arose from the secular division of 
the empire in the fourth century. Hence 
the pre-eminence of the see of Rome, 
whose bishop, before the conversion of 
Constantine, had only the precedency 
among the prelates, as bishop of the 
imperial city ; but no jurisdiction beyond 
the bounds of the provinces. 

The law of Valentinian, in 372, 
which empowered the bishop of Rome 
to examine and judge other bishops, 
that religious disputes might not be de- 
cided by profane and secular judges, ap- 
proved and confirmed in a council at 
Rome in 378, proved very favourable to 
the ambition and advancement of the 
Roman pontiff; and his votaries have 
likewise laid great stress on the fourth 
canon of the council held at Sardis, in 
347, which prohibited the election of a 
successor to a bishop deposed by neigh- 
bouring prelates, before the bishop of 
Rome had examined the cause, and pro- 
nounced sentence. 

In the fifth century a variety of cir- 



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cuniistances united in augmenting the 
power and authority of the bishop of 
Rome ; though he had not, as yet, as- 
sumed the dignity of supreme lawgiver 
and judge of the whole christian church. 
The bishops of Alexandria and Antioch, 
iinable to make head against the prelate 
of Constantinople, fled often to th^ Ro- 
man pontiff for succour; and the inferior 
order of bishops used the same method, 
when their rights were invaded by those 
prelates. The protection afforded them 
by the Roman pontiflF, was the means of 
extending his dominion in the east, and 
of imperceptibly establishing his supre- 
macy. In the west its increase was 
owing to the declining power, and the 
supine indolence of the emperors, which 
left the authority of the bishop, who pre- 
sided in their imperial city, almost with- 
out control, and to the triumphs of the 
barbarians. 

Although the Roman pontiffs availed 
themselves of every circumstance that 
could contribute to their obtaining uni- 
versal dominion, towards the close of 
the sixth century, the emperors, and the 
nations in general, were far from being 
disposed to bear with patience the yoke 
of servitude, which the see of Rome was 
imposing upon the christian church. 

In the beginning of the seventh cen- 
tury, about 606, Boniface III. engaged 
the emperor Phocas to take from the 
bishop of Constantinople the title of 
oecumenical or universal bishop, and to 
confer it upon the Roman pontiffs. But 
the ambitious views of the Roman see 
were still vigorously opposed, and the 
pontiffs were obliged to acknowledge 
their subordination to the regal autho- 
rity. 

No event seems to have been more 
favourable to their ambitious views than 
the part they took in the eighth century, 
in promoting the advancement of Pepin 
to the throne of Childeric III., in a- 
nointing and crowning him as king of 
France. This proved an abundant source 
of opulence and credit to the church, 
and to its aspiring ministers ; for Pepin, 
having obtained two victories over Ais- 
tulphus, king of the Lombards, in 754 
and 755, compelled him to deliver up to 
the see of Rome the exarchate of Ra- 
venna, Pentapolis, and all the cities, cas- 
tles, and territories, which he had seized 
in the Roman dukedom. And thus the 
bishop of Rome was raised to the rank 
of a temporal prince. 



The power of the Romish church was 
augmented in a very considerable degr«e 
by the divisions and troubles that arose 
in the empire towards the close of the 
ninth century ; the emperors were di- 
vested of their ecclesiastical authority, 
the power of the bishops was greatly 
diminished, and even the authority of 
both provincial and genera] councils 
began to decline. The Roman pontiffs 
promoted an opinion that the bishop of 
Rome was constituted by Jesus Christ 
supreme legislator and judge of the 
church universal; and that, therefore, 
the bishops derived all their authority 
from the Roman pontiff, and that the 
council could not determine any thing 
without his permission and consent. 

In the tenth century some mercenary 
and interested prelates publicly main- 
tained that the Roman poniiff's were not 
only bishops of Rome, but of the whole 
world ; and that their authority, though 
divine in its origin, was conveyed to 
them by St. Peter, the prince of the 
apostles. 

The crusades of the 11th century very 
much contributed to the augmentation 
of the authority of the Roman pon- 
tiffs ; so that towards the close of this 
century they seem to have attained the 
zenithof their dominion. See Crusades. 

Fron the time of Leo IX., the popes 
employed every method, which the most 
artful ambition could suggest, to render 
their dominion both despotic and uni- 
versal. They aspired to the character 
of supreme legislators in the church, to 
an unlimited jurisdiction over all synods 
and councils, gave themselves out for 
lords of the universe, arbiters of the fate of 
kingdoms and empires, and supreme ru- 
lers over the kings and princes of the earth. 
Gregory VII. in the same century ex- 
ceeded all his predecessors in the lust of 
dominion, as well as in the success which 
attended his endeavours to obtain it. 
He considered the Roman pontiff, under 
the character of Christ's viceregent, as 
the king of kings, and the whole uni- 
verse as his rightful domain. He claimed 
tribute from France, Saxony, Spain, 
England, the most powerful of the Ger- 
man princes, Hungary, Denmark, Po- 
land, &c., soliciting them to do homage 
to the Roman see, to make a grant of 
their kingdoms to the prince of the 
apostles, and to hold them under the 
jurisdiction of his vicar at Rome, as 
fiefs of the apostolic see. 

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The power of erecting new kingdoms 
claimed by the pontiffs, was exercised 
by Alexander III. in a remarkable in- 
stance, in the year 1179. He conferred 
the title of king, with the ensigns of 
royalty, npon Alphonao I., duke of 
Portugal, who, under the pontificate of 
Lucius II., had rendered his province 
tributary to the Roman see. In the 13th 
century the same ambitious spirit go- 
verned the councils and proceedings of 
the Romish church, and they were in- 
dustrious in inculcating the maxim, that 
the bishop of Rome is the supreme lord 
of the universe, and that neither princes 
nor bishops, civil governors nor eccle- 
siastical rulers, have any lawful power 
in church or state, that is not derived 
from him. 

In the 14th century the papal autho- 
rity diminished by reason of the con- 
tinued residence of the popes in France; 
and in the 15th century, by the schism 
Avhich happened in the papacy, the 
davvnings of the reformation, and a va- 
riety of other concurring causes. In 
the councils of Constance, held in 1414, 
and of Basil, opened in 1431, the power 
of the Roman pontiffs was declared to 
be inferior and subordinate to that of 
general councils, and the papal imposi- 
tions, called expectatives, reservatives, 
and provisions, were entirely annulled. 

When the authority of the Romish 
church declined in Europe, the popes 
sought to extend the limits of their spi- 
ritual dominion to other parts of the 
globe, and for this purpose deputed mis- 
sionaries to gain proselytes. And a new 
order was formed, that became after- 
wards so famous, under the appellation 
of Jesuits. See the articles Jesuits, 
Pope, Reformation, &c. 

CHURCH OF England. Of the in- 
troduction of Christianity into England 
nothing is certainly known : but Euse- 
bius positively asserts, that the gospel 
was preached here by some of the apos- 
tles. It is a traditionary report, that 
early in the second century, great num- 
bers in Britain professed the true faith. 
Archbishop Usher represents, that a 
school existed in 182, for the purpose of 
qualifying persons for the office of 
teachers in the churches. Augustin the 
monk, and other missionaries, were sent 
to England from the court of Rome, 
but we read of no civil authority claimed 
by the pope in these kingdoms, till the 
era of the Norman Conquest ; when the 



reigning pontiff, having favoured duke 
William in his projected invasion, by 
blessing his host and consecrating 
his banners, laid hold of that opportuni- 
ty for the purpose of establishing his 
spiritual encroachments. 

For some time after this, the best liv- 
ings were filled by Italian and other 
foreign clergy, equally unskilled in and 
averse to the laws and constitution of 
England. The nomination to bishop- 
rics, was wrested from King Henry I., 
and afterwards from his successor King 
John ; and seemingly conferred on the 
chapters belonging to each see : but by 
means of the frequent appeals to Rome,^ 
was eventually vested in the pope. 

In order to encounter the growing 
evil of the papal usurpations in England, 
the legislature were led to frame the sta- 
tutes of praemunire. The first of these 
in the 35th of Edward I., was made the 
foundation of all the subsequent statutes. 

See PRiEMUNIRE. 

Edward III. and his nobility wrote 
an expostulation to the pope : but re- 
ceiving a menacing and contemptuous 
answer, withal acquainting him, that 
the emperor in 1323, had established a 
law against provisions, and also the king 
of France had lately submitted to the 
holy see ; the king replied, that if both 
the emperor and the French king should 
take the pope's part, he was ready to 
give battle to them both, in defence of 
the liberties of the crown. Hereupon 
more penal laws were devised against 
provisors, which enact severally, that the 
court of Rome shall not present or col- 
late to any bishopric or Jiving in Eng- 
land; and that whoever disturbs any 
patron in the presentation to a living by 
virtue of a papal provision, such provisor 
shall pay fine and ransom to the king at his 
will, and be imprisoned till he renounces 
such provision : and the same punish- 
ment is inflicted on such as cite the king, 
or any of his subjects, to answer in the 
court of Rome. 

At length, in the reign of Henry VIIL 
the usurped power of the pope was rout- 
ed and destroyed, the crown restored 
to its supremacy over spiritual men and 
causes, and the patronage of bishoprics 
once more indisputably vested in the 
king. This may be considered as the 
origin of the church of England as a legal 
establishment. 

Henry dissolved the religious houses, 
and confiscated their revenues through- 



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out the kingdom ; and both monks and 
nuns were ejected and left to starve. 
No radical reformation however was 
wrought ; this was reserved for Edward 
VI., who, seconded by the advice and 
instruction of Cranmer, with his friend 
Bishop Ridley, drew up 42 articles of 
religion, which were re\dsed and ap- 
proved by many other bishops and di- 
vines. This laid the foundation for that 
superstructure which is now known by 
the name of the Church of England. 
These were afterwards remodelled and 
reduced to 39. They were passed in 
convocation, and confirmed by royal 
authority, in 1562. They were afterwards 
ratified in 1571 ; and again by Charles L 
See Articles. 

The Liturgy was composed in 1547, 
but has since undergone •several altera- 
tions, the last of which was in 1661. 
Since that time several attempts have 
been made to alter and amend the litur- 
gy, articles, and some other things rela- 
tive to the internal government of the 
church ; but hitherto no change has 
taken place. 

During the last and present century, 
the question of subscription to articles, 
and the right of imposing a form of 
religious belief, was agitated among the 
clergy, and became the subject of peti- 
tion to parliament. Laws had also been 
enacted against those who dissented from 
the church of England and particularly 
against the Catholics but in the begin- 
ning of the present centuiy, these were 
repealed. See Catholics, Corpo- 
ration AND Test Acts, and Dis- 
senters. 

1835. An ecclesiastical commission 
was appointed for the purpose of con- 
sidei-ing the state of the church in Eng- 
land and Wales, and of suggesting a 
plan of church reform. The commis- 
sion consisted of the archbishops of Can- 
terbury and York, the bishops of Lon- 
don, Lincoln, and Gloucester, Sir Robert 
Peel, Mr. Goulburn, the Right Hon. C. 
W. W. Wynn, Henry Hobhouse, and 
Sir H. Jenner, Knt. The objects pro- 
posed for their consideration were — the 
more equal distribution of episcopal du- 
ties; the residence of the clergy; and 
such an adjustment of episcopal reve- 
nues as should permit the discontinu- 
ance of grants of commendams. They 
were also instructed to consider the state 
of the several cathedral and collegiate 
churches, with a view to the sugge.stion 



of such measures as might render them 
more conducive to the efficiency of the 
established church, by providing for the 
cure of souls, and by preventing plura- 
lism. A rich prebendal stall at West- 
minster having become vacant, it was 
not filled up, but left to be disposed of 
by the commission. Its revenues were 
applied for the purpose of furnishing 
additional spiritual instruction and su- 
perintendence in a neighbouring parish, 
where the existing provision for clerical 
functions was altogether inadequate to 
the number of the parishioners. 

The first report of this commission 
was presented to the house of commons 
March 19, It proposed a new arrange- 
ment of the dioceses, and the election 
of two new bishoprics, one of Man- 
chester, and another of Ripon ; the for- 
mer to be principally taken from the 
diocese of Chester, while the arch- dio- 
cese of York was to supply the latter. 
The sees of Bangor and St. Asaph were 
to be united, and those of LlandaflF and 
Bristol ; the outlying parts of the dio- 
cese of Bristol in Wiltshire and Dorset 
being joined to that of Salisbury, besides 
other changes. See Diocese. 

1836. Several bills were brought into 
parliament to carry into efl%ct the recom- 
mendations of the commissioners re- 
garding pluralities, and non-residence. 
Lord John Russell introduced into the 
lower house a bill founded on those re- 
commendations which regarded the new 
modelling of the episcopal sees, in rela- 
tion to territory and income; another 
measure was brought in, to carry the re- 
ports fully into effect, by providing for 
the suppression of cathedral and colle- 
giate preferments, and sinecure bene- 
fices, &c. 

The bill concerning th_e territory and 
revenues of the dioceses, or, as it was 
termed, the established church bill, 
passed in the commons by a majority of 
175 against 44. The lords, on the 5th 
of August, agreed to the bill; an amend- 
ment proposed by the bishop of Exeter, 
for the purpose of preventing the com- 
missioners being a perpetual corporation, 
having been rejected. By another act, 
the secular jurisdiction of the county 
palatine of Durham, with all forfeitures, 
mines, treasure-trove, and other rights 
belonging to that authority, were trans- 
ferred from the bishop of the diocese, 
and vested in the crown. A bill " for 
imposing certain restrictions on the re- 



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newal of leases by ecclesiastical persons," 
likewise passed into a law. 

CHURCH OF Scotland, that 
branch of the reformed church which 
was established in Scotland. One of the 
principal agents in the progress of the 
reformation there was John Knox. He 
began his public ministry at St. An- 
drew's in 1547. On the first introduction 
of his system, Knox did not deem it 
expedient to depart altogether from the 
ancient form. Instead of bishops, he 
proposed to establish 10 or 12 superin- 
tendents in different parts of the king- 
dom. These, as the name implies, were 
empowered to inspect the life and doc- 
trine of the other clergy. The first 
general assembly of the church Avas 
held December 20, 1560. In order to 
give greater strength and consistence to 
the Presbyterian plan, Knox, assisted 
by his brethren, composed the first book 
of discijiline, which contains the model 
or platform of the intended policy. From 
this period to the present time, the form 
of doctrine, worship, and discipline, that 
had been established at Geneva by the 
ministry of Calvin, and introduced with 
certain modifications by Knox into Scot- 
land, has been maintained with invin- 
cible steadiness and zeal. 

CHURCH, a christian temple built 
and consecrated to the honour of God ; 
and anciently, under the invocation of 
some particular saint, whose name it 
assumed. In the first ages the chris- 
tians assembled for social worship in 
private houses and sequestered places. 
It is the opinion of many learned men, 
that they had no public edifices during 
the three first centuries. 

Between the years 211 and 249, during 
a calm of 38 years, christians, it has 
been said, were permitted to erect and 
consecrate convenient edifices for the 
purpose of religious worship. Under 
the i)ersecuting edicts of Dioclesian, the 
christian churches were generally de- 
molished. 

The first church publicly built by the 
christians, some authors maintain to be 
that of St. Saviour at Rome, founded by 
Constantine. In that age the christian 
temples of Antioch, Alexandria, Jeru- 
salem, Constantinople, &c., displayed 
the ostentatious piety of a prince, ambi- 
tious, in a declining age, to equal the 
perfect labours of antiquity. The most 
precious ornaments of gold and silver, 
of silk and gems, were profusely dedi- 



cated to the service of the altar, and hi» 
magnificence was supported on the basis 
of landed property. In the space of 
two centuries, from the reign of Con- 
stantine to that of Justinian, there were 
1800 churches of the empire, enriched 
by the gifts of the prince and people. 

In the 10th century all Europe was 
alarmed with a terrifying apprehension, 
that the day of judgment was at hand, 
and, among the other eiFects of this 
general panic, the churches and monas- 
teries were suflTered to fall into ruin. 
When these apprehensions were re- 
moved, the temples were rebuilt, and 
the greatest zeal was employed in re- 
storing the sacred edifices to their former 
lustre. Accordingly, during the whole 
of the 11th century, all the European 
nations were diligently employed in re- 
building, repairing, and adorning their 
churches. 

In England most of the ancient 
churches were erected between the lllh 
and 15th centuries. The Normans had 
erected magnificent structures in their 
own country previous to their invasion 
of England, and when they had firmly 
established themselves, they displayed 
great zeal in raising ecclesiastical edifices. 
The period of the Norman architecture 
extends from the conquest in 1066, to 
the death of Stephen in 1154. The edi- 
fices in every part of the kingdom bear 
witness to the industry of these people, 
and the fifteen cathedrals, whose origin 
can be certainly ascertained, bear de- 
cided marks of Norman architecture. 

1711. April 6, it was decided by the 
Commons that 50 new churches should 
be erected, for the accommodation of all 
such as were of the communion of the 
Church of England, computing 4,750 
souls for each church; and they declared 
their willingness in an address to her 
majesty, to grant a sufficient supply, in 
consequence of the benefit that would 
thus accrue in abolishing schism, and 
promoting the interests of religion. 

About 1820, an act passed (58 Geo. 
III. c. 45) appointing commissioners for 
building of additional churches in popu- 
lous parishes, in England, empowering 
government to issue exchequer bills to 
make grants for that purpose. 

1827. The Seventh Annual Report to 
Parliament states that 69 new churches 
and chapels had been completed, which 
aflforded accommodation for 107,200 
persons (including 59,655 free seats) ; 



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that 48 churches and chapels were in 
progress. 

1830. By the 10th Annual Report 
of the Commissioners appointed under 
the act for huilding additional churches, 
it appears that, in the year ending July, 
they had completed 25 new places of 
worship, and determined on, and made 
provisions for, the erection of 220 in the 
whole. The commissioners had received 
additional applications for aid in building 
churches from 45 places, whose popula- 
tion, of all ages and sects, in the census 
of 1821, was returned at 985,252 per- 
sons; but whose church accommodation 
was calculated to be only for 134,918. 
The Exchequer bills issued up to the 
6th of July, 1830, for the above purpose, 
amounted to £1,262,500. Of the 
churches completed, or in progress, 
during the preceding year, ten were situ- 
ated in the metropolis. 

The Society for the Enlargement of 
Churches and Chapels incorporated in 
1818, materially promoted this object. 
They stated in their Twelfth Report 
dated May 12, 1830, that they had made, 
in the year preceding, 95 new or addi- 
tional grants in aid, amounting to 
£16,200. 

1835. The 15th Annual Building 
Commissioners' Report stated, that since 
the first institution of the commission, 
the sum of £1,500,000 in Exchequer 
bills had been expended under its' direc- 
tion. The number of churches and cha- 
pels which had been erected was 212, in 
which accommodation was provided in 
pews for 127,617 individuals; in free 
seats for 155,938 : total 283,555. 

Since the above time the following 
churches have been completed. 

By the 16th Annual Report, 1836, two 
chapels affording accommodation for 
2,772 persons, including 1,585 free seats, 
viz. one at North Shields, the other in 
the parish of St. Mary, at Dover. 

1837. By the I7th Annual Report, 
six new churches had been completed 
at the following places : — Tredegar, 
parish of Bedwethy, county of Mon- 
mouth ; Carmarthen ; Sheerness ; New- 
port, county of Monmouth ; Habergham 
Eaves, parish of Whalley, county of 
Lancaster ; and Vincent Square, pa- 
rish of St. John the Evangelist, West- 
minster. In the above places of worship 
accommodation had been provided for 
6780 persons, including 3761 free seats. 

1838. The 18th Report, this year. 



285 CHU 

stated that five churches had been 
completed ; and the 19th Report, 1839, 
announced that 18 more had been 
completed, affording accommodation for 
16,000 persons, including 9773 free 
sittings. Since their preceding report, 
18 others, several of which are in an ad- 
vanced state, are now in progress, and 
provide altogether 17,156 sittings, out 
of which number 9949 are free.. Plans 
for eight other churches have been 
approved of; and conditional grants of 
money have been made to 38 parishes 
and townships in aid of erecting churches 
and chapels, as also for providing sites 
for others in 46 different places. 

1840. In May, Sir R. H. Inglis 
brought in a bill proposing a grant of 
money for increased church accommo- 
dation, and an intended system of edu- 
cation in the principles of the established 
church. This measure received much 
opposition, both from dissenters and 
members of the church of England, and 
was finally rejected in July. 

CHURCH Benefices, forbidden to 
be held by foreigners, 1430. 

CHURCH Music introduced into 
worship, 350 ; choral service first used 
in England at Canterbury, Q77 ; chang- 
ed throughout England from the use of 
St. Paul's to that of Sarum, 1418; ca- 
thedral service first published in England, 
1550. 

CHURCH Rates, a tax grown out 
of prescriptive usage, collected for the 
support of the fabrics and worship of 
the church of England. In conse- 
quence of the opposition made by dis- 
senters to this tax, March 18, 1834, Mr. 
Divett moved a resolution, in the house 
of commons, " that, in the opinion of 
this house, it is just and expedient that 
effectual measures should be taken for 
the abolition of compulsory payments 
of church rates in England and Wales." 
The mover stated, that by a return of 
the local taxation of the country for the 
year ending March 27, 1827, the rates 
appeared to amount to £564,000. The 
repairs of the churches in one year had 
cost £248,000; the charges for organs 
and bells £41,000 ; for books and wine 
£46,000 ; for payments to clerks and 
sextons £126,000 ; and for other charges 
£184,000. Some part of this, indeed, 
was not now enforced by law ; but the 
rest was enforced, aud proved most in- 
jurious to the established church by en- 
engendering in the dissenters feelings of 



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dissatisfaction. Lord Althorp stated, 
that he himself had given notice of a 
motion on this subject, therefore Mr. 
Divett, expressed himself willing to 
await the appearance of the govern- 
ment plan, and withdrew his motion. 

1834. April 21, Lord Althorp brought 
forward his plan, in the shape of a reso- 
lution, " that, after a fixed time, church 
rates should cease and determine, and, 
in lieu thereof, a sum not exceeding 
£250,000, should be granted from the 
land-tax to be applied to the expenses 
of the fabrics of churches and chapels 
in such manner as parliament should 
direct." This proposition however did 
not appear satisfactory. The friends of 
the dissenters in the house stated, that 
they complained of the grievance of be- 
ing compelled to pay any thing towards 
the expences of a church which was not 
their own, and the relief tendered to 
them was, to continue to pay as much 
as before, for the same purpose, though 
in a different shape. The friends of 
the church objected to the plan, because 
in their view it questioned the rights of 
the church, infringed on some of them, 
and left others on a less sure founda- 
tion. On a division, the original mo- 
tion was carried by 256 to 140 ; but not- 
withstanding this majority, and the cer- 
tainty of ultimate success, ministers 
proceeded no farther with the proposed 
measure ; and the question of these 
rates remained at the close of the ses- 
sion in the same unsettled condition in 
which it had been at the beginning. 

1836. A meeting was held in Lon- 
don, Oct. 19. Charles Lushington, Esq., 
M.P. in the chair, for the purpose of 
forming a Church-Rate Abolition So- 
ciety. The object of the society was to 
effect the entire abolition of church- 
rates, without any charge upon the con- 
solidated fund or land-tax; and to in- 
troduce the principle of upholding the 
edifices of the Church, and the expenses 
of divine worship, either by pew-rents, 
voluntary contributions of the congrega- 
tions, or by payments out of Queen 
Anne's Bounty. 

1837- Feb. 1. A meeting was held at 
the Crown and Anchor, in the Strand, 
to petition parliament for the total abo- 
lition of church-rates. A considerable 
number of members of parliament at- 
tended the meeting. Among others the 
following resolutions were passed unani- 
mously : " That this meeting conceives it 



to be a duty devolving upon them, as 
citizens and christians, to employ all 
lawful and constitutional means to ef- 
fect the total abolition of church-rates. 
That they would most seriously depre- 
cate the imposition of the expenses hi- 
therto defrayed by church-rates, upon 
the land-tax, the consolidated fund, or 
any other branch of national revenue; 
because by such a transfer, the magni- 
tude of the evil of which they complain 
would be greatly increased, as the oppo- 
nents of church-rates would be deprived 
of the power they now possess of resist- 
ing the making of a rate ; because the 
application of any portion of the na- 
tional revenue to ecclesiastical purposes 
might tend seriously to embarrass the 
collection of the general taxation ; and 
because it would subject the inhabitants 
of Scotland and Ireland to the support 
of the Episcopal Church of England. 
That an interview be sought by the whole 
body of delegates, with the Right Hon. 
Lord Viscount Melbourne upon the sub- 
ject of church rates ; that application be 
made to his lordship for an appoint- 
ment." 

Next day, about 400 delegates from 
dissenting congregations an d anti-church- 
rate associations walked in procession 
from the Crown and Anchor to Dow- 
ning Street, to have an interview with 
Lord Melbourne. 

At a meeting of the delegates Feb- 
ruary 3, after their return from the con- 
ference with the Right Hon. Viscount 
Melbourne, it was resolved. "l.That 
this meeting unanimously express their 
grateful sense of the kind and polite at- 
tention with which the Right Hon. Vis- 
count Melbourne received the delegates, 
and their concurrence generally in the 
sentiments expressed by his lordship. 
2. That in reference to his lordship's 
statement ; " that he hoped and trusted 
the measure to be proposed by Lord 
John Russell would prove satisfactory to 
all the interests equally concerned in the 
statement of this great question," this 
meeting deem it due to their consti- 
tuents and themselves to declare, that 
nothing short of the total extinction of 
church-rates, without commutation, will 
satisfy their just expectations, and ter- 
minate the animosities which the sub- 
ject of church-rates has created in many 
of the parishes of the kingdom. 3. 
That the delegates composing this meet- 
ing pledge themselves to continue their 



CHU 



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CIB 



efforts by all constitutional means, to 
accomplish the object for which they had 
been appointed and had assembled ,- 
namely, the total abolition of church- 
rates. " 

CHURCH, States of the. The 
pope's dominions in Italy originated 
with the grant of Pepin, king of the 
Franks, in 754 ; Charlemagne confirmed 
this grant in 774 ; and in return, received 
the title of Roman emperor from Leo III. 
in 800. The structure of the papal 
temporal power was fully completed in 
1075, under Gregory VII. But the 
tyranny and corrupt life of the popes 
provoked the Romans to opposition, and 
they were obliged to transfer their resi- 
dence from 1305 to 1376, to Avignon. 

Julius 11. added Bologna to the papal 
dominions in 1513, and Ancona in 1532. 
The Venetians were obliged to cede 
Ravenna ; Ferrara was wrested from 
Modena in 1598, and Urbino was be- 
queathed to the papal chair in 1 626, by 
its last duke, Francis Maria, of the 
house of Rovera. The popes lost a great 
part of their temporal and spiritual influ- 
ence, to the diminution of which the 
rapid progress of the reformation from 
the year 16 17 greatly contributed. 

After the successes of the French in 
Italy, the pope was forced, at the peace 
of Tolentino, Feb. 13, 1797, to cede 
Avignon to France, and Romagna, 
Bologna, and Ferrara to the Cisalpine 
republic. An insurrection in Rome 
against the French, Dec. 28, 1797, 
caused the occupation of the city, Feb. 
10, 1798, and the annexation of the 
states of the church to the Roman re- 
public. Pius VI. died in France. The 
victories of the Russiatis and Austrians 
in Italy favoured the election of pope 
Pius VII., March 14, 1800, who, under 
the protection of Austrian troops, took 
possession of Rome. 

By the concordat, concluded in 1801, 
with the first consul of the French re- 
public, the pope again lost a great part 
of his temporal power. In 1807, the 
holy father was urged to introduce the 
code Napoleon, and to declare war 
against England. He refused ; and on 
the 3rd of April, France was declared to 
be at war with the pope, and Urbino, 
Ancona, Macerata, and Camerino, were 
added to the kuxgdom of Italy. The 
possessions of the church beyond the 
Apennines were all that remained to the 
the pope. Feb. 2, 1808, a French corps 



of SOOO men entered Rome ; the re- 
mainder of the papal states were added 
to France, and a pension of 2,000,000 
of francs settled on the pope, whose 
ecclesiastical power was to continue. 
The decree of May 17, 1809, put an end 
to the ecclesiastical state. 

The pope was detained in France until 
the events of 1814, again permitted him 
to take possession of his states, as 
formerly. These provinces are situated 
in the centre of Italy, between Lombardy 
Tuscany, Naples, and the Tuscan and 
Adriatic seas, and in 1816, with the ex- 
ception of Rome, Tivoli, and Subiaco, 
which are under the immediate admini- 
stration of the pope, were divided into 17 
delegations. 

CHURCH- WARDENS and overseers 
instituted, 1127. 

CHURCH-YARDS first consecrated, 
317 ; admitted into cities, 742. 

CHURCHILL, Charles, the satirist, 
received his education at Westminster 
school, and was admitted at Trinity col- 
lege, Cambridge, 1749. In 1761, he pub- 
lished the Rosciad. His next perform- 
ance was his Apology to the Critical Re- 
viewers, who had given to the public an 
unfavourable account of his work. After 
publishing many other poems of a po- 
pular kind, Mr. Churchill died in 1764. 
Dr. Kippis has justly remarked, that 
Churchill has "unhappily added another 
name to the catalogue, already too nu- 
merous in literary history, of those men 
of genius, who would have arisen to 
a much greater excellence in writing,^ 
and to a far more illustrious reputation, 
had their intellectual talents been ac- 
companied with the uniform practice of 
virtue." 

CHURCHILL, Duke of Marl- 
borough. See Marlborough. 

CIBBER, CoLLEY, an eminent actor, 
and dramatic writer, born in London, in 
1671. His first essay in writing, was 
the comedy of Love's Last Shift, acted 
in 1695. The Careless Husband, acted 
in 1704, is reckoned his best play ; but 
none was of more importance to him 
than the Nonjuror, acted in I7l7. and 
levelled against the Jacobites. This laid 
the foundation for the misunderstanding 
between him and Mr. Pope, and pro- 
cured for him from the king a grant of 
£200, and the office of poet laureat in 
1730. He then quitted the stage, except 
a few occasional performances ; and died 
in 1757, aged 87- 



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CIBBER, Mrs. Susannah Maria, 
the sister of Dr. Arne, has been justly 
celebrated as a great tragic actress. She 
first appeared on the stage as a singer, 
in her brother's opera of Rosamond; 
and afterwards sung in Handel's ora- 
torios of Sampson, and the Messiah, 
the first time they were performed in 
England. She died in 1766, aged 57. 

CICERO, Marcus Tullius, the 
celebrated orator, was born at Aspinum, 
A.u.c. 647, a.c. 107. He applied him- 
self to the study of poetry, at the early 
age of five years ; and while a boy, pub- 
lished a poem called Glaucus Pontius, 
which was extant in the days of Plutarch. 
Having finished his youthful studies, he 
was introduced into the forum, and 
studied the laws under the first lawyers 
and statesmen of the age. When the 
Italic war was begun by the principal 
cities of Italy, to support their claim to 
the freedom of Rome, Cicero followed 
the camp of Sylla. During the unhappy 
dissensions between Marius and Sylla, 
Cicero returned to the study of elo- 
quence. The first specimen he gave to 
the public was in defence of S. Roscius, 
who was acquitted A. c. 81. At the 
age of 28, he left the Forum, and made 
the fashionable tour to Greece. 

In his 37th year, he was elected sedile 
by the unanimous suflfrages of all the 
tribes, and in preference to eill his com- 
petitors. After the usual interval of two 
years from the time of his being chosen 
sedile, Cicero oflfered himself a candidate 
for the praetorship ; and was declared the 
first praetor by the suffrages of all the 
centuries. In his 43rd year, he declared 
himself a candidate for the consulship. 
The method of choosing was by a kind 
of ballot. But in Cicero's case, the 
people were not content with this secret 
and silent way ; but before they came 
to any scrutiny, loudly and universally 
proclaimed Cicero the first consul. The 
affair which constituted the glory of his 
consulship, and has transferred his name 
with such lustre to posterity, was the 
skill he showed, and the unwearied pains 
he took, in suppressing the conspiracy 
which was formed by Catiline. See Ca- 
tiline. 

Cicero, in the 45th year of his life, 
was involved in great and unexpected 
calamity in consequence of the pollution 
of the mysteries of the bona dea, by P. 
Clodius. Cicero gave testimony against 
Clodius, who soon formed a scheme of 



revenge. By his influence, Cicero was 
banished by the votes of the people 400 
miles from Italy, a. c. 58 ; his houses 
were ordered to be demohshed, and his 
goods set up to sale. When he had been 
gone little more than ten months, the 
senate passed a vote for his return, 
which was carried in a most triumphant 
manner. He returned to Rome amidst 
the acclamations of the people. In the 
56th year of his age he was made pro- 
consul of Cilicia, and his administration 
there gained him great honour. In his 
6 1st year he lost his daughter, Tullia, 
whom he tenderly loved. His aflBiction 
at this event was so great that, to shun 
all company, he retired to Asturia, one of 
his seats. 

The hope of saving his country in- 
duced him some time after again to take 
a part in public aflfairs ; but betrayed by 
Octavianus, whose cause he had espoused, 
he was given up to the vengeance of his 
rivals, Antony and Lepidus. A pro- 
scription took place at Rome, a. c. 43, 
and among many others, he was put to 
death, December 7, in the 64th year of 
his age. 

As an orator, Cicero is thus charac- 
terized by Dr. Blair : " His method is 
clear, and his arguments are arranged 
with exact propriety. In this respect, 
he has an advantage over Demosthenes. 
He never tries to move till he has at- 
tempted to convince; and in moving-, 
particularly the softer passions, he is 
highly successful. None ever knew the 
force of words better than Cicero. He 
rolls them along with the greatest 
beauty and magnificence; and in the 
structure of his sentences, is eminently 
curious and exact. This great orator, 
however, is not without his defects. In 
most of his orations there is too much 
art, even carried to a degree of ostenta- 
tion. Though the services which he had 
performed to his country were very con- 
siderable, yet he is too much his own 
panegyrist. Ancient manners, which 
imposed fewer restraints on the side of 
decorum, may, in some degree, excuse, 
but cannot entirely justify, his vanity." 

The most celebrated of his works are, 
his Tusculan Questions; a treatise on 
the Nature of the Gods ; Scipio's Dream; 
his dialogue, entitled Cato and Laelius 
on Old Age [and Friendship ; and his 
treatises, De Finibus, De Ofiiciis, and De 
Oratore. The editions of his works have 
been numerous. Some of the best are 



CI M 



289 



CIN 



those of Gronovius, l692j Paris, 1740; 
and Oxford, 10 vols. 4to., of more recent 
date. 

CIGNY, Duchess De, gold to the 
amount of 500,000 francs, found in her 
apartment, at her death, September, 
1832. 

CILICIA, an ancient kingdom of 
Asia, so called from Cilix, who first 
settled in the island of Cyprus, about 
A.c. 1493; from thence he passed into 
this country, which, from their leader, 
they called Cilicia, Afterwards several 
other colonies from different nations 
settled in this kingdom, particularly 
from Syria and Greece; whence the 
Cilicians in some places used the Greek 
tongue, in other, the Syriac. After the 
dovvnfal of the Persian empire, Cilicia 
became a province of Macedon; and, 
on the death of Alexander, fell to the 
share of Seleucus, and continued under 
his descendants till it was reduced to a 
Roman province by Pompey. 

A.D. 1190, the emperor Frederick Bar- 
barossa subdued Cilicia, and defeated the 
Saracens; but was killed by his horse 
throwing him into the river Salphet, or 
the Cydnus. Cilicia is now a province 
of Asiatic Turkey, and is called Cara- 
mania. 

CIMABUE, Giov., a Florentine his- 
toric painter, born 1240, died 1300. 

C IMA ROSA, the musician, died at 
Naples, 1801. 

CIMBRI, the most northern people 
of Germany, mentioned by Pliny, Strabo, 
Mela, Tacitus, and Plutarch; but they 
are not agreed with respect to their 
origin. About a.u.c. 645, they left 
their own country, and joined the Teu- 
tones, Ambrones, and Tigurians, ravaged 
part of Germany, Helvetia, and the 
Lyonnese and Narbonnese Gauls, and 
penetrated into Italy. After several 
other successes in Italy, during a war of 
eight years, they were totally defeated and 
destroyed by Marius and Catulus, A.u.a 
653, in endeavouring to enter Italy, 
through Noricum, now the Tyrol ; 
120,000 being kiUed, and 60,000 taken 
prisoners. Those who escaped the 
dreadful slaughter, probably returned 
into their own country; for they are 
said to have afterwards sent a submis- 
sive embassy to Augustus, and are hke- 
wise mentioned by an author of later 
date ; but their name was sunk either in 
that of the Teutones, or of the Saxons. 

CIMON, an Athenian, son of Milti- 



ades. He greatly distinguished himself 
in the naval combat of Salamis, a.c. 480. 
After the expulsion of the Persians, he 
was made admiral of the Athenian fleet, 
which was commanded by Pausanias. 
Among many other brilliant and impor- 
tant achievements, he reduced the island 
of Scyros, inhabited 'by pirates. He 
pursued the Persian fleet to the mouth of 
the Eurymedon, and there completely 
defeated it, destroying many vessels and 
capturing 200. On the same day, he 
gained a signal victory over the land 
forces of the enemy, A.c. 470. He died 
as he was besieging the town of Citium 
in Cyprus. 

CINCINNATUS,QuiNTius, an illus- 
trious Roman, of a patrician family, was 
taken from the plough, to be advanced 
to the dignity of consul, a.u.c. 292, in 
which office he restored public tranquil- 
lity, and then returned to his rural em- 
ployments. Being called forth a second 
time in the capacity of dictator, a.c. 
458, he conquered the enemies of Rome, 
and refusing all rewards, retired again 
to his farm, after he liad been dictator 
only 16 days. Twenty years after this, 
Cincinnatus was again made dictator, 
though then 80 years of age, and called 
upon to suppress a conspiracy. Having 
effected this to the satisfaction of his 
countrymen, he died about a.c. 3/6. 

CINCINNATUS, Order of, began 
in America, 1783. 

CINNA, Lucius Cornelius, raised 
himself to the highest honours of the 
Roman state, by attaching himself to 
the popular faction; first elected consul 
a.u.c. 667, during the tyranny of Sylla, 
though he had been the avowed friend 
of Marius. At the expiration of the 
consular year, Cinna nominated himself 
and Marius consuls for another year. 
He made himself also consul a third time, 
with Papirius Carbo. He was slain by 
his own soldiers, at the port of Ancona, 
a.u.c. 670. Cinna has been described 
as one who, having attempted what no 
good man would have dared, performed 
what none but a very brave man could 
have effected. 

CINNAMON Trade, known in the 
time of Augustus Csesar ; first regularly 
carried on by the Dutch, in 1506. 

CINQUE-PORTS. Five havens that 
lie on the east part of England, towards 
France, thus called by way of eminence, 
on account of their superior importance. 
They are Dover, Hastings, Romney, 
2 p 



CIR 



290 



CIR 



Hythe, and Sandwich ; to which Win- 
chelsea and Rye have been since added. 
Their charters are traced to the time 
of Edward the Confessor; they were 
confirmed by William the Conqueror, 
and by subsequent monarchs. William 
considering Dover Castle the key of Eng- 
land, gave the charge of the adjacent coast, 
with the shipping belonging to it, to the 
constable of Dover Castle, with the title 
of warden of the Cinque Ports ; an office 
resembling that of the count of the 
Saxon coast on the decline of the Roman 
power in this island. The lord warden 
has the authority of admiral in the 
Cinque Ports and its dependencies. He 
has under him a lieutenant and some sub- 
ordinate officers ; and there are captains 
at Deal, Walmer, and Sandgate castles, 
ArchclifF fort, and Moats bulwark. 

CINTRA, a town of Portugal, in the 
province of Estremadura. The Moorish 
palace at this place was destroyed by an 
earthquake in 1655 ; King Joseph built 
another, and equally splendid, on the 
same site. This place is celebrated in 
history for the treaty, called the conven- 
tion of Cintra, entered into between the 
British general. Sir H. Dalrymple, and 
the French general, Junot, on August 
22, 1808. 

CIRCARS, Northern, five pro- 
vinces of Hindoostan, in the Deccan, 
extending along the shores of the bay of 
Bengal. In the 16th century the govern- 
ment of the Circars, under the Mogul 
dynasty, was vested in the nizam of 
Deccan, but assigned to the French, in 
1752, for arrears of pay due to them as 
auxiliary forces. In 1759, they were 
conquered by the English, and formally 
ceded to the English East India Com- 
pany,during Lord Clive's administration, 
by Shah Alum, the Great Mogul. 

The local administration of the Cir- 
cars was continued under the manage- 
ment of the natives, and provincial 
chiefs and councils, until 1794. The 
system of a permanent assessment was 
established during 1802 and 1804, when 
the province was divided into five re- 
gular jurisdictions. From 1788 to 1823 
a peshcush was paid annually to the 
nizam on account of the northern Cir- 
cars; but in that year the whole was 
finally redeemed by the payment to the 
nizam of £1,200,000 sterling. 

CIRCASSIA, a government of Cau- 
cassia, in Asiatic Russia. After the fall 
of the Chazaric empire, the Circas- 



sians became subject to the Arabs, 
Tartars, and Georgians, but towards the 
close of the 1 6th century submitted to 
Russia. In 1565, the Czar Iwan Wasi- 
liewitsch sent an army under General 
Daschkow to the aid of the Circassian 
prince Temruk ; but after Iwan's death 
they were made tributary to the Cri- 
means, whose yoke they shook off in the 
18th century. Circassia was attacked 
by the Russians in 1836, but has never 
been thoroughly subdued. See Russia. 
CIRCUITS, Justiciary, estabUshed 
1176; in Scotland, 1712; English ex- 
tended into Wales, 1828. 

CIRCULATION of the Blood. 
See Blood. 

CIRCUMCISION instituted, a.c. 
1897. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS of Eng- 
land were Drake, undertaken in 1577; 
Cavendish, 1586; Cowley, 1683; Dam- 
pier, 1686; Cooke, 17O8 ; Clipperton 
and Shelooch, 1719; Anson, 1740; By- 
ron, 1764; Wallis, 1766; Carteret, 
1766; Cook, 1768, 1772, 1776; conti- 
nued by King, 1780; and since by 
Portlocke, in 1788. The principal voy- 
ages of the present century are those of 
Wilson, 1828; Bennett, 1833 ; Holman 
1834, &c. 

The first that entered the Pacific Ocean 
was Magellan, a Spaniard, 1520. Other 
Spanish circumnavigators were Groalva, 
1537; Avalardi, 1537 ; Mendana, 1567 ; 
Quiros, 1625. 

The Dutch circumnavigators were La 
Maire, 1615 ; Tasman, 1642 ; Roggewin, 
1721. 

The French were M. Bougainville, 
1776; La Perouse, 1782; De Noet, 
1801 ; D'Urville, 1826 to 1829; La Place, 
1830 to 1832, and again 1836 ; &c. 

CIRCUS. An edifice in use among 
the Romans for the" exhibition of chariot 
races and other games. The first per- 
manent circus at Rome was built by 
Tarquinius Priscus, about a.c. 605, in 
the valley of Murcia, between the Aven- 
tine and the Palatine hills. It obtained 
the appellation of Circus Maximus from 
its great superiority in size to those of 
a later date. It was enlarged by Juhus 
Caesar, rebuilt and richly ornamented 
by Augustus. It was three and a half 
stadia in length, or about 2187 Roman 
feet, and its breadth 960 feet ; and it 
contained 150,000 persons. In the time 
of the elder Pliny, the circus maximus 
had been so much enlarged as to be ca- 



CIT 



291 



CIV 



pable of containing 260,000 spectators ; 
and Trajan so much increased its dimen- 
sions, that an inscription placed over 
the great gate, of which Dion Cassius 
has given a translation in Greek, ex- 
pressed that this emperor had rendered 
it capable of containing the Roman peo- 

Sle. There were many other circuses at 
lOme. 

CIRENCESTER, a town in England 
of very ancient foundation, was occupied 
by the Romans ; stormed by the Danes 
in 879. Canute held a parliament here; 
the castle was garrisoned by Robert, earl 
of Gloucester, and taken and burned by 
King Stephen. It was defended by the 
barons against Henry III., who recover- 
ed and then demolished it. Lords Sur- 
rey and Salisbury attempting to restore 
Richard II., were slain at an inn in this 
town. The townspeople joined the par- 
liament against Charles I., and in 1688 
adopted the Stuart cause. 

CISALPINE Republic, proclaimed 
July 9, 1797, consisting of Austrian 
Lomhardy, the Bergamese, the Brescian, 
the Cremasco, and other parts of the 
Venetian states, Mantua and the Man- 
tuan, the duchy of Modena, Massa and 
Carrara, the Bolognese, the Ferrarese, 
and the Romagna ; the latter three were 
not added till the 27th of July, nor was 
the republic definitively formed till after 
the treaty of Campo Formio, October 17. 
This republic was new modelled January 
26, 1802. Buonaparte, in a sitting of the 
Cisalpine consulta, convoked by himself 
at Lyons, accepted the presidency of the 
Italian republic, originally the Cisalpine 
republic, which, with its name, changed 
its constitution. See Italy. 

CISBURY Fort, Wiltshire, built by 
Cissa, 547. 

CISTERCIANS, order of, instituted 
by Robert of Molesme, in 1098 ; they 
are also called Bernardines, from St. 
Bernard, who promoted the order about 
1116 ; they came to England, 1128. In 
1132, they were exempted from the pay- 
ment of tithes, and invested with other pri- 
vileges and immunities by Innocent II. 
In 1152, this order had no fewer than 
500 convents, all dedicated to the blessed 
virgin. 

CITY. Formerly the term was only 
understood of such towns as were bi- 
shops' sees ; but this distinction seems 
to be recognized only in England. 
Henry, surnamed the Fowler, who be- 
gan his reign 920, must be considered 



as the great founder of cities in Ger- 
many ; which he established in order to 
counteract the incursions of the Hunga- 
rians and other barbarous people. In 
the 11th century many slaves were en- 
franchised, and numbers of them settled 
in cities. Several mines were discovered 
and wrought in different provinces, which, 
drawing together a great concourse of 
people, also gave rise to several-cities. 

In the 12th century the cities began 
to form leagues for their mutual defence, 
and for repressing the disorders occa- 
sioned by the private wars among the 
barons, as well as by their exactions. 
The free cities of Italy joined together 
in a general league, and stood in their 
defence; and after a long contest, car- 
ried on with alternate success, a solemn 
treaty of peace was concluded at Con- 
stance, in 1183, by which all the pri- 
vileges and immunities granted by for- 
mer emperors to the principal cities of 
Italy were confirmed and ratified. 

In England the^establishment of com- 
munities or corporations, was posterior 
to the conquest ; and the practice was 
borrowed from France. The English 
cities were very inconsiderable in the 
12th century. It is said that they were 
first incorporated in 1201, and first re- 
presented in parliament in 1366. See 
Corporations. 

CITY OF London School, Honey- 
lane Market, Cheapside, founded 1835. 
The first stone was laid by Lord 
Brougham, October 21, in the presence 
of the committee appointed by the com- 
mon council to superintend the institu- 
tion, and the officers of the corporation. 
A very large assemblage was present ; 
and in the evening the event was cele- 
brated by a dinner at the City of London 
Tavern. 

CIUDAD RoDRiGo, town of Spain, 
founded by Ferdinand II., as a rampart 
or barrier town. The fort surrendered 
to Massena the French general, July 10, 
1810. It was stormed and taken by the 
duke of Wellington, after a siege of ] I 
days, January 19, 1812. The cortes 
conferred the title of duke of Ciudad 
Rodrigo upon the duke of Wellington, 
with the rank of a grandee of Spain of 
the first class. 

CIVIC Feast at Guildhall, given by 
the citizens of London to the prince 
regent, the emperor of Russia, the king 
of Prussia, and their field-officers, 1814. 

CIVIL Law, as applied to the legal 



CIV 



292 



Ci V 



institutions of ancient Rome, was for 
the most part, received and observed 
throughout all the Roman dominions for 
above 1200 years. It is contained in the 
institutes, the digest, the code, and the 
novels, otherwise called lex scripta, or 
the written law. It was little known in 
Europe, till a copy of Justinian's " Di- 
gests" was accidentally found at Amalfi, 
in Italy, about the year 1 1 30. After this 
time the study of it was introduced into 
several universities abroad, particularly 
that of Bologna, where exercises were 
performed, lectures read, and degrees 
conferred in this faculty, as in other 
branches of science. 

It was first brought into England by 
Theobald, a Norman abbot, who was 
elected to the see of Canterbury in 1138, 
and he appointed a professor, namely, 
Roger surnamed Vicarius, in the uni- 
versity of Oxford, to teach it to the peo- 
ple of this country. King Stephen, 
1149, issued a proclamation prohibiting 
the study of it ; though the clergy were 
attached to it, the laity rather wished to 
preserve the old constitution. However, 
the zeal and influence of the clergy pre- 
vailed ; and the civil law acquired great 
reputation from the reign of King Ste- 
phen to the reign of King Edward III., 
both inclusive. 

Many manuscripts of Justinian's In- 
stitute are to be found in the writings of 
our ancient authors, particularly of Brac- 
ton and Fleta; and Judge Blackstone 
observes that the common law would 
have been lost and overrun by the civil, 
had it not been for the incident of fixing 
the court of common pleas in one cer- 
tain spot, and the forming the profession 
of the municipal law into an aggregate 
body. 

In England the civ^il law is used in the 
ecclesiastical courts, in the high court 
of admiralty, in the court of chivalry, 
in the two universities, and in the courts 
of equity ; yet in all these it is restrained 
and directed by the common law. 

CIVIL List. The expenses formerly 
defrayed by the civil list were those that 
in any shape relate to civil government : 
as the expenses of the household ; all 
salaries to officers of state, to the judges, 
and each of the king's servants ; the ap- 
jiointments to foreign ambassadors ; the 
maintenance of the queen and the royal 
family; the king's private expenses, or 
j)rivy purse ; and other very numerous 
outgoings. These have sometimes so 



far exceeded the revenues appointed for 
that purpose, that application has been 
made to parliament to discharge the 
debts contracted on the civil list, particu- 
larly in 1724, when one million was 
granted for that purpose, by the statute 

II. Geo. Leap. I7 ; and in 1769 and 
1777, when half a million and £600,000. 
were appropriated to the like use, by the 
statutes 9 Geo. III. cap. 34. and 17 Geo. 

III. c. 47, Many of these expenses are 
now charged on the consolidated fund, 
and the civil list comprehends chiefly the 
support of the royal household. 

The Act 1 Victoria, c. 2., Dec. 23, 
1837, entitled, " An Act for the Support 
of Her Majesty's Household, and of the 
Honour and Dignity of the Crown of 
the United Kingdom of Great Britain, 
and Ireland,** after reciting several pre- 
ceding acts, and that her majesty had 
been graciously pleased to signify to her 
faithful commons in parliament assem- 
bled, that her majesty placed unreserv- 
edly at their disposal those hereditary 
revenues which were transferred to the 
public by her immediate predecessors, 
&c., enacts that the power of existing 
acts as to hereditary revenue, shall re- 
main in force; and that they shall be 
carried to the consolidated fund during 
the life of her majesty ; but after her 
demise shall be payable to her succes- 
sors. The clear yearly sum of ^385,000. 
shall be paid out of the consolidated 
fund for the support of her majesty's 
household, and of the honour and dig- 
nity of the crown ; to be applied accord- 
ing to the schedule. So much of the 
sum of 200,000^. granted by an act of 
last session to make civil list payments 
as shall have been so applied shall be re- 
paid out of the money granted for the civil 
list by this act. Provisions of all for- 
mer civil list acts to remain in force for 
the purposes of this act. 

CIVITA Vecchia, a town of Italy, 
States of the Church, was improved by 
the emperor Trajan, fortified by Pope 
Urban VIII, and declared free by Bene- 
dict XIV. in the year 174L Nearly de- 
stroyed by an explosion, Sept. 1779 ; 
taken by the French, Feb. 1799, and 
evacuated in Sept. following. Although 
the wealth and population of the coun- 
try round Civita Vecchia is much fallen 
off in modern times compared with an- 
tiquity, it still continues to be the entre- 
pot of Rome, and engrosses almost the 
entire trade of the papal dominions on 



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the side of the Mediterranean. Of the 
vessels entering the ports on the Me- 
diterranean in 1S33, full three-fourths 
entered Civita Vecchia, 

CLAIRAUT, Alexis Claude, a 
celebrated French mathematician, born 
at Paris in 1713. In his 13th year 
he read to the academy of sciences a 
memoir upon four new geometrical 
curves. In 1731, he was nominated 
adjunct mechanician to the academy ; in 
1733, associate; and in 1738, pen- 
sioner. In 1750, the academy of Peters- 
burgh proposed a prize for the year 1752, 
on the subject of the lunar motions, 
which Clairaut obtained, and his paper 
on the subject was printed at Peters- 
burgh in that year, in 4to. He also 
gained another prize for his lunar tables, 
published in 1754. 

About the year 1756, commenced the 
dispute between Clairaut and D'Alem- 
bert, concerning- their respective theories, 
which engaged the public attention for 
some years; the papers of Clairaut, re- 
lating to this controversy, were publish- 
ed in the "Journal des Savans," for 
1758, 1759, 1761, and 1762. Clairaut also 
published the following works separately; 
" On Curves of a double Curvature," in 
1730, 4to. ; " Elements of Geometry," 
1741, Svo.; "Theory of the Figure of 
the Earth," 1743, Svo. ; "Elements of 
Algebra," 1746, Svo. ; and "Tables of 
the Moon," 1754, Svo. He died May 
17, 1765, aged 52. 

CLAPHAM Church, built 1777. 

CLAPPERTON, Hugh, the African 
traveller, was born at Annan, in Scot- 
land, in 1788. At the age of seventeen 
he was bound an apprentice to the sea, 
and became the cabin-boy of Captain 
Smith, of the Postlethwaite, of Mary- 
port, trading between Liverpool and 
North America ; in her he repeatedly 
crossed the Atlantic, and was distin- 
guished even when a youth for coolness, 
dexterity, and intrepidity. On one oc- 
casion, the ship, when at Liverpool, was 
partly laden with rock-salt, and, as that 
commodity was then dear, the mistress 
of a house which the crew frequented, 
enticed Clapperton to bring her a few 
pounds ashore in his handkerchief. After 
some entreaty the youth complied; and, 
being detected by a custom-house oflBcer, 
was menaced with the terrors of trial 
and imprisonment, unless he consented 
to go on board the Tender. He chose 
the latter alternative, and, after being 



sent round to the Nore, was draughted 
on board the Clorinde frigate command- 
ed by Captain Briggs. Through the 
influence of friends combined with his 
own professional merit, Clapperton was 
speedily promoted to the rank of mid- 
shipman. 

1813. Clapperton and a few other 
clever midshipmen, were ordered to 
repair to Portsmouth dockyard, to be in- 
structed by the celebrated swordsman 
Arigelo, in what was called the improved 
cutlass exercise; this he taught the crew 
on board the Asia, seventy- four, the flag- 
ship of vice-admiral sir Alexander Coch- 
rane, and since engaged at Navarino. 
Her admiral had been intrusted with 
the command of our whole naval force 
on the coast of North America, and was 
making every thing ready to sail for his 
final destination. But the active work 
going forward on the lakes, had more 
attraction for Clapperton's enterprising 
mind, and, having procured a passage in 
a vessel to Halifax, he bade adieu to the 
flag-ship, to the regret of every individual 
on board. From Halifax he proceeded 
to Upper Canada, and, shortly after his 
arrival, was made a lieutenant, and sub- 
sequently appointed to command the 
Confidence schooner. 

1817- When our flotilla on the Ame- 
rican lakes was dismantled. Lieutenant 
Clapperton returned to England, on half- 
pay, and ultimately retired to his grand- 
father's native burgh of Lochmaben. 
There he remained till 1820, amusing 
himself with rural sports, when he re- 
moj'^ed to Edinburgh, and, shortly after, 
became acquainted with Dr. Oudney, at 
whose suggestion he first turned his 
thoughts to African 'discovery. 

Next year Major Denham, Captain 
Clapperton, and Dr. Oudney, undertook 
to penetrate from Tripoli southward into 
the interior of Africa. They arrived at 
Tripoli in November, 1821, and were 
kindly received by the pacha. Those 
enterprising travellers with their servants, 
amounting in aU to 13 persons, set out 
from Tripoh March 5, 1822, with about 
200 Arabs, and, travelling in a southern 
direction, passed through Mourzuk and 
Tegerhy, in lat. 24, N., the southern 
limit of Captain Lyon's travels, and ar- 
rived at Kouka, the capital of Bornou, 
February 24, 1823, having travelled over 
a space of 2000 miles. 

Dr. Oudney having died January 12, 
1824, on his journey, Clapperton reached 



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Sackatoo, the residence of the sultan 
Bello, February 16, and entered the city 
amid the hearty welcomes of young and 
old. The morning after his arrival. Cap- 
tain Clapperton had his first interview 
with the sultan, at his palace. Left 
Sackatoo May 3, on his return. After 
spending a few weeks at Mourzuk, to 
recover their strength, our travellers, on 
Dec. 12, commenced their return to Tri- 
poli, which they reached Jan. 26, 1825. 
August 1826, Captain Clapperton 
undertook a new journey, for the pur- 
pose of further exploring the interior of 
Africa. He landed at Benin, and his 
object was to pursue a north-easterly 
course to Sackatoo or Bornou, on the 
supposition that he would cross the 
course of the Niger in its way to the 
Bight of Benin. He was not destined, 
however, to witness the successful ter- 
mination of the adventure. He died at 
Sackatoo, April 13, 1827, where he had 
been detained for five months, in conse- 
quence of the sultan Bello of Sackatoo 
not permitting him to proceed, on ac- 
count of the war with Bornou. His ill- 
ness lasted thirty-two days. The morn- 
ing on which he died, he breathed loud 
and became restless, and shortly after 
expired in the arms of his faithful ser- 
vant Richard Lander, afterwards well 
known as the discoverer of the termina- 
tion of the Niger. He was buried by 
him at a small village (Jungali,") five 
miles to the S, E. of Sackatoo, and was 
followed to his grave by his faithful at- 
tendant and five slaves. 

CLARE HALL, Cambridge, founded 
1326. 

CLARENCE, Duke of, born Aug. 
21, 1765; married July 11, 1818, to the 
princess of Saxe Meiningen, succeeded 
his brother George IV. on the throne 
of England, June 26, 1830, with the 
title of William IV. See Britain. 

CLARENDON, Edward Hyde, 
Earl of, lord high chancellor of Eng- 
land, and an eminent statesman and his- 
torian, born in 1608. In 1640, he was 
chosen for Wotton Basset and Shaftes- 
bury, in the parliament summoned by 
Charles I. on account of the Scotch 
rebellion. In the year 1642, the king 
sent for him to York, where he assisted 
in drawing up various papers in the 
cause of the falling monarch. He was 
recalled by parliament, but he refused to 
obey the summons without the royal 
permission. 



After the breaking out of hostilities 
between the king and parliament, when 
the royal court was held at Oxford, Hyde 
was appointed chancellor of the exche- 
quer, sworn a member of the privy 
council, and created a knight. He con- 
tinued with his majesty till March, 1644, 
when he was appointed to accompany 
Prince Charles to the West, and after- 
wards to the island of Jersey. In 1648, 
he received orders to attend the prince at 
Paris, and after the death of Charles I., 
the council of the young king determin- 
ing to send ambassadors to Spain made 
choice of Sir Edward Hyde and Lord 
Collington, who arrived at Madrid in 
1649. 

Before the restoration his majesty 
made him lord chancellor of England 
in 1657, upon the death of Sir Edward 
Herbert ; and he spared no exertions to 
promote the restoration of his royal 
master to his lost dominions. He was 
chosen chancellor of the university of 
Oxford in 1660, and at the same time 
created a peer : in the year following he 
was made Viscount Cornbury and earl 
of Clarendon. 

Some public affairs having rendered 
him unpopular, he was, notwithstanding 
his former services, abandoned to the 
indignation of the people, and driven 
from every office of public trust in the 
month of August, 1667. He was 
charged with the crime of high treason 
by the house of commons, but the peers 
refused to commit him on their charge ; 
and while the dispute was undetermined. 
Clarendon received his majesty's orders 
to quit the kingdom. Having spent 
some time at Moulins, he fixed his re- 
sidence at Rouen, where he died in De- 
cember, 1674, in the 68th year of his age. 

His remains were brought to England 
and interred in Westminster Abbey. He 
was the author of " Contemplations and 
Reflections on the Psalms," "Animadver- 
sions on a book of Mr. Cressy's in the 
Roman Catholic controversy;" "A brief 
view of the Errors in Hobbes's Levia- 
than ;" but his chief work was his 
" History of the Rebellion." 

" As an historian. Clarendon will ever 
be esteemed an entertaining writer, even 
independently of our curiosity to know 
the facts which he relates. He is more 
partial in appearance than in reality. He 
is less partial in his relaition of facts than 
in his account of characters : he was too 
honest a man to falsify the former ; his 



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affections were easily capable, unknown 
to himself, of disguising? the latter." 

CLARENDON Press, printing- 
office, Oxford, founded 1781. 

CLARENDON Statutes, or Con- 
stitutions, a charter or code of laws 
established by the parliament at Claren- 
don in Wiltshire, 1164; 16 articles of 
which related particularly to ecclesias- 
tical matters, and were designed by King 
Henry IL to check the power of the 
pope and his clergy, and to limit the 
total exemption which they claimed from 
the secular jurisdiction. 

CLARKE, Dr. Samuel, a learned 
divine, born at Norwich, in 1675. In 
1691, he entered Caius college, Cam- 
bridge. In 1699, he published "Three 
Practical Essays on Baptism, Confirma- 
tion, and Repentance." " Some Reflec- 
tions on that part of a book called 
Amyntor, or, a Defence of Milton's Life, 
which relates to the writings of the Pri- 
mitive Fathers, and the Canon of the 
New Testament." In 1701, "A Para- 
phrase on the Gospel of St. Matthew," 
which was followed by the " Paraphrase 
on the Gospels of St. Mark, St. Luke, 
and St. John." In 1704, he was ap- 
pointed to preach "Boyle's Lectures," 
and he chose for his subject, "The 
Being and Attributes of God;" and in 
1705, he was again appointed, when he 
preached on the " Evidences of Natural 
and Revealed Religion." In 1712, Dr. 
Clarke published a beautiful edition of 
"Caesar's Commentaries." In 1715 and 
1716, he disputed with the celebrated 
Leibnitz, respecting the principles of 
natural philosophy and religion ; and a 
collection of the papers which passed 
between them was published in I7l7. In 
1724, he published 17 sermons, and in 
1729 the 12 first books of Homer's Iliad. 
He died in May, 1729. 

CLARKE, Dr. Edward Daniel, 
an eminent English traveller, born 1768. 
He was professor of mineralogy and li- 
brarian of the university of Cambridge. 
Soon after taking his degree Dr. Clarke 
accompanied the late Lord Berwick 
abroad, and remained for some lime in 
Italy. Shortly after his return to Eng- 
land, he embarked on those travels which 
have rendered his name celebrated 
throughout Europe. Upon his return 
from this extensive tour, during which 
he had visited nearly the whole of Eu- 
rope, and parts of Asia and Africa, Dr 
Clarke presented to the university those 



memorials of his travels which now de- 
corate the vestibule of the library. As 
some return, he was complimented in 
full senate with the degree of L.L.D. 
He died at Cambridge after a severe and 
painful illness, March 9, 1822. 

CLARKE, Adam, an eminent divine 
and commentator, born at Maggerafelt, 
about 30 miles from Londonderry, in 
1760. He was introduced at an early 
age to John Wesley, who invited'him to 
become a pupil in Kingswood School, 
then recently established. Whilst there, 
he purchased out of his scanty pocket- 
money, a Hebrew grammar, the study of 
which laid the foundation of his acquire- 
ments in Oriental learning. In 1782, 
Mr. Wesley appointed him, though only 
19 years of age, to the circuit of Brad- 
ford, Wilts. Mr. Clarke continued to 
travel in various circuits until 1805, 
after which he remained in London for 
several years, and devoted a great portion 
of his time to literature and bibliography. 
His first publication was a " Disserta- 
tion on the Use and Abuse of Tobacco," 
printed in 1797; his next, an undertak- 
ing of much more laborious character, 
was, " A Bibliographical Dictionary, 
containing a Chronological Account of 
the most curious books in all depart- 
ments of literature, from the infancy of 
printing to the .beginning of the 19th 
century ; to which are added, an ' Essay 
on Bibliography,' and an ' Account of 
the best English Translations of each 
Greek and Latin classic,' " 1802, 6 vols. 
12mo. and 8vo. Also the "Bibliogra- 
phical Miscellany, or, a * Supplement 
to the Bibliographical Dictionary, down 
to 1806," 2 vols. 12mo. and 8vo. 

1805. He received the honorary 
degree of M. A., and in the following 
year that of L.L.D., from the university 
of St. Andrews ; and he was subse- 
quently chosen to be a member of the 
Royal Irish Academy. During the se- 
veral years of his residence in London, 
Dr. Clarke was closely engaged upon 
his " Commentary on the Bible," but at 
the same time, he fulfilled the duties of 
his station as a preacher, and took a 
part in the management of various asso- 
ciations for literary, scientific, and bene- 
volent purposes. He also edited Bax- 
ter's several works, and was the author 
of many anonymous articles published 
in the " Classical Journal," in some early 
numbers of the " Eclectic Review," and 
in various other journals. 



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1807. Dr. Clarke was appointed 
one of the sub-commissioners of the 
public records. In 1808, he prepared 
several long and luminous reports on 
the origin and progress of that great 
national work, " Rymer's Foedera," and 
suggested a plan as to the best mode of 
selecting, arranging, and editing the 
materials necessary for its projected 
Supplement and Continuation. After a 
consideration of these several reports, 
the commissioners came to the resolution 
that the work would be best executed 
by a consolidntion of all the old and 
new materials in a chronological series, 
but only three volumes of the new edi- 
tion have been published. His learned 
Commentary on the Bible, the monu- 
ment by which he will be best known to 
future times, appeared under this title : 
"The Holy Scriptures, &c., &c., with 
the marginal readings, a collection of 
parallel texts, and copious summaries to 
each chapter; with a Commentary and 
Critical Notes, designed as a help to the 
better understanding of the Sacred 
Writings," 8 vols. 4to., 1810-1826. 

1815. Dr. Clarke was persuaded by 
some of his friends, who had observed 
with solicitude the decline of his health, 
to relinquish, for a time, all pubhc pur- 
suits, and retire into the country. By 
their munificence, an estate was pur- 
chased for him at Millbrook in Lanca- 
shire, where he continued his Commen- 
tary, and brought it nearly to a close. 
In 1818, the third year of his residence 
at Millbrook, he received into his house, 
at the request of the Wesleyan Mission- 
ary committee, and of Sir Alexander 
Johnston, two Budhist priests, whom 
that gentleman, at their own request, 
brought over from Ceylon, that they 
might be instructed in the princijjles of 
Christianity. His earnest desire for the 
due instruction of his two pupils, caused 
him to compile his " Clavis Biblica," 
which was published in 1820. During 
20 months the priests were carefully in- 
structed by him in the English language 
and in the evidences of our religion. 
In 1823, Dr. Clarke came to reside at 
Haydon-hall, in the parish of Ruslip, 
about 17 miles from London. In this 
abode he concluded his Commentary, 
on April 17, 1826; and he resided there 
till the time of his death, which took 
place August 26, 1832. 

CLARKE, Mr., murder of, by 
Housman and Eugene Arara, discovered 



after a lapse of 13 years, August, 
1759. 

CLARKE, Hewson, the author of 
the " Saunterer," born 1787, died 1818. 

CLARKSON, Christopher, an 
English historian, born 1758, died 1833. 

CLARKSON, Thomas, commenced 
his exertions for the suppression of the 
slave trade, 1787 ; presided at the anti- 
slavery convention, June, 1840. See 
Slavery. 

CLASSICAL Book, the first pub- 
lished in Russia was " Cornelius Ne- 
pos," on April 29, 1762. 

CLAUDE, John, a French protestant 
divine, born in 1618. In 1645, he was 
ordained pastor of the church at La 
Treyne. In 1 661, he visited Paris, in 
order to obtain the remission of the 
prohibition issued by the council against 
the exercise of his ministry in the 
province of Languedoc ; but not meet- 
ing with success, he retired to Mont- 
auban. In 1766, he drew up his 
" Essay on the Composition of a 
Sermon," for the use of his only son, 
who was then entering the ministry. 
About 1680, he held a conference with 
Bossuet, then bishop of Condom, on the 
protestant religion. On the revocation 
of the edict of Nantz, he retired to Hol- 
land, where he met with a kind recep- 
tion, and was honoured with a pension 
by the prince of Orange. He died in 1 68 7 . 

CLAUDE Lorraine, an eminent 
painter. See Lorraine. 

CLAUDIAN, Claudius Claudi- 
ANUS, an eminent Latin poet, who 
flourished in the fourth century, under 
the emperor Theodosius, and under his 
sons Arcadius and Honorius. He came 
to Rome 395, when he was about 30 
years old. Little is known of his sub- 
sequent history, and the time of his 
death is uncertain. 

CLAUDIUS I., emperor of Rome, his 
expedition into Britain, 43 ; died 54. 

CLAUDIUS II. defeated the tyrant 
Aureolus, 268; gained a great victory 
over the Goths, &c., 269 ; died of the 
plague, 270. 

CLEHANGER House, Hereford- 
shire, destroyed by fire, January 3, 1794. 

CLEMENS RoMANUs, one of the 
apostolical fathers, and first bishop of 
Rome of that name. He is said to have 
been born at Rome, and to have been 
fellow-labourer with St. Peter and St. 
Paul ; and he is supposed to be the 
Clement to whom St. Paul alludes in 



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Phil. iv. 3. Eusebius says, that in tlie 
beginning of Trajan's reign Clement still- 
governed the church of Rome, who was 
the third in that succession, after Paul 
and Peter, and that he died in the third 
year of Trajan (that is, 100), having been 
bishop nine years. The Epistle of Cle- 
ment, still extant, appears to have been 
written in the name of the whole church 
of Rome to the church of Corinth, and 
therefore it is called at one time the 
Epistle of Clement, and at another the 
Epistle of the Romans to the Corinthians. 
It appears, from expressions that occur 
in it, to have been written after some 
persecution, either that of Nero, about 
64, or that of Domitian in 94, or 93. 

CLEiVIENTI, Muzio, the celebrated 
pianist, was born in 1752, at Rome. 
When little more than tweh^e years old 
he wrote, without the knowledge of his 
master, a mass for four voices. About 
1764 he came to England, where he u'as 
soon after engaged to preside at the 
harpsichord in the orchestra of the King's 
Theatre. In 1780 he made a tour on the 
continent, whither his compositions and 
the fame of his talents had long preceded 
him. At Paris he remained till the sum- 
mer of 1781, when he proceeded, by the 
way of Strasburg and Munich, to Vienna, 
enjoying every where the patronage of 
sovereigns, the esteem and admiration of 
his brother musicians, and the enthusi- 
astic applauses of the public. At Vienna 
he became acquainted with Haydn, Mo- 
zart, Salieri, and many other celebrated 
musicians. 

1783. J. B. Cramer, then about 
fourteen years old, became Clementi's 
pupil, and attended him almost daily. 
From 1784 to 1802 he continued in Lon- 
don, pursuing his professional career 
with increasing reputation as an instruc- 
tor, composer, and performer. About 
the year 1800, upon the failure of the 
house of Longman and Broderip, he was 
induced by the representations of some 
eminent mercantile men, to engage in the 
music publishing and piano-forte manu- 
facturing business. A new firm was 
quickly formed, at the head of v/hich was 
Mr. Clementi's name. Availing himself 
of the peace of 1802, he proceeded 
in the autumn of that year for the third 
time to the continent, where he remain- 
ed eight years. Attempting to return, 
he was interrupted by the war, by which 
all communication for some time was 
suspended. Atlength, in the summer of 



1810, he landed in safety on the British 
shores. 

Subsequentl}', he adapted the twelve 
symphonies of Haydn for the piano-forte, 
flute, violin, and violoncello ; the " Sea- 
sons" of Haydn, for voices and piano- 
forte ; Mozart's overture to " Don Gio- 
vianni," and various select pieces from 
the vocal works of the same great mas- 
ter. In the years 1820 and 1821 he 
published several original works for the 
piano-forte, and an arrangement of the 
six symphonies of Mozart for the same 
instrument, with accompaniments. In the 
mean time he also gave the musical world 
two elementary books of the highest 
value : his " Practical Harmony," which 
Avas published in four volumes, between 
1811 and 181.5; and his "Gradus ad 
Parnassum," in three volumes. He died 
April 16, 1832, at his cottage in Wor- 
cestershire. 

CLEMENT'S Inn, society of, 
founded 1471. 

CLEOBURY Castle, Shropshire, 
built 1160. 

CLEOMENES II., king of Lacede- 
mon, born A.c. 235 j his war with Ara- 
tus, 227 ; put the Ephori to death, 225 ; 
was defeated, and retired into Egypt, 
222 • died 220. 

CLEOPATRA, queen of Egypt, 
the eldest daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, 
ascended the throne A. u.c. 703; a.c. 51. 
Poisoned her brother, A.c. 43; captivated 
Marc Anthony, but deserted him in the 
battle of Actium, 31, destroyed herself, 
30. With her terminated the family of 
Ptolemy Lagus, the founder of the 
Egyptian monarchy, after it had ruled 
over Egypt, from the death of Alexander, 
294 years ; or, as others affirm, 293 
years and three months. From this time 
Egypt was reduced to a Roman province. 

CLERC, John De le, an eminent 
scholar and critic, was born at Geneva, 
in March, 1657. His first publication 
appeared anonymously at Saumur, in 
1679, under the title of "Liberii de 
Sancto Amore Epistolse Theologicte." 
In 1685 he published his "Sentimens de 
quelques Theologiens de Hollande sur 
I'Histoire critique du Vieux Testament, 
composee par M.Rich Simon." In 1686, 
he commenced his " Bibliotheques," a 
series of papers comprising critical ana- 
lyses and reviews of the most remark- 
able publications of the time, inter- 
spersed with a variety of original essays 
and disquisitions on such topics as ex- 
2 a 



CLE 

cited tlie cliief attention of literary men. 
Li' Clerc continued this laborious course 
of writing until the year 1728, when a 
paralytic attack suspended his pursuits, 
by materially impairing his intellectual 
powers. In 1732, a second attack de- 
prived him of speech, and reduced him 
to a state little better than idiocy, in 
which he continued to the time of his 
death, which took place in 1736, in the 
79tli year of his age. 

CLblRGY, Bknefit OF,Privilegium 
Clcricale, an ancient privilege whereby 
one in orders might claim to be delivered 
to his ordinary to purge himself of felony. 
Originally the law was held that no man 
should be admitted to the benefit of 
clergy, but such as had the "habitum et 
tonsuram clericalem." But, in process of 
time, a much wider and more compre- 
hensive criterion was established ; every 
one that could read being accounted a 
clerk, or clericus, and allowed the bene- 
fit of clerkship, though neither initiated 
in clerkship, nor trimmed with the holy 
tonsure. But when learning began to 
be more generally disseminated than 
formerly, it was found that as many lay- 
men as divines were admitted to the 
priviiegium clericale ; and therefore by 
statute 4 Henry VII. c. 13, a distinction 
was once more drawn between mere lay- 
scholars and clerks that were really in 
orders. This distinction was aboUshed 
for a time by the statutes 28 Hen. VHI. 
c. 1 ; and 32 Hen. VHI. c. 3; but was 
held to have been virtually restored by 
statute 1 Edw. VI. c. 12. 

Afterwards it fell into disuse, and was 
formally abolished by 7 and 8 Geo. IV. 
c. 27, passed June 21, 1827, entitled "an 
Act for repealing various Statutes in 
England, relative to the Benefit of 
Clergy," &c. "Inorderthat the provisions 
contained in the various statutes now in 
force, in England, relative to the benefit 
of clergy, larceny, stealing, burglary, 
roljbery, and threats for the purpose oi 
robber}' or extortion, might be amended, 
and consolidated into one act, those sta- 
tutes are repealed; and also, with the 
same view, are repealed the various sta- 
tutes relative to malicious injuries to 
property, and to remedies against the 
hundred." 

CLERGY, excluded from seats with 
Irish parliament, Hen. VIII. 1536; 
voluntarily resigned the privilege ot ia.Y- 
ing themselves, 1664. E.vtreme distress 
of the clergy in Ireland by the resistance 



293 



CM 



to paying tithes, 1832. Bill passed for 
their relief, 1833. 

CLERGY OF Fr.\nce renounced 
their privileges. May 20, 1809. 

CLERGY, Sons of the, a benevo- 
lent institution, incorporated by charter 
July 1, 1678. 

CLERGYMEN'S Sons, &c., a so- 
ciety er^taldished in Scotland, Oct. 1794. 

CLERK, John, the author of the 
celebrated " Treatise on Naval Tactics," 
and the inventor of the system of naval 
tactics, (namely, piercing the enemy's 
line,) under which the British navy has 
acquired glory so unrivalled, died 1812. 

CLERKENWELL, monastery of, 
founded 1098; burncbyamob, 1381 ; new 
church, first stone of, laid Dec. 18, 1788. 

CLEVE Abbey, Somerset, foundeil 
in 1198. 

CLEVELAND, John, popular poet, 
born 1613, died 1658. 

CLEVES, town of Prussia, taken 
1760 ; by the French, 1794. 

CLIEFDEN, house burnt down. May 
14, 1795. 

CLIFF-WAGGON, for communi- 
cating with shipwrecked persons, at the 
bottom of high cliffs, to whom there is 
not access from the summit, or by Ijoats, 
on account of the heaviness of the .sea, 
and the rocky nature of the coast, in- 
vented I)y James Davison, in 1826. 

CLIFFORD, George, earl of Cum- 
berland, born 1558, died 1605. 

CLIFFORDS' Inn Society, esta- 
bhshed, 1345. 

CLINTON, George de Witt, gover- 
nor of New York, was the youngest son of 
Samuel Clinton, formerly British gover- 
nor there, and was born in 1740. He was 
educated for the bar, in which profession 
he con tinued till the commencement of the 
revolution in 1775. On the declaration 
of the independence of America, he took 
an active part in forming a constitution 
for the state of New York ; and in 1787, 
was elected governor, in which he con- 
tinued till 1795, when he retired on ac- 
count of ill-health, but was again elected 
in 1801 After that period he was also 
elected vice-president of the union. He 
died in 1828, aged 88. 

CLINTON, Sir Henry, a distin- 
guished British general, born in 1771. 
In 1786, he embarked as a midshipman, 
in the Salisbury, captain Erasmus Gore, 
carrying the broad pennant of commo- 
dore Elliott, and went to Newfoundland. 
In 1787, he resided at Maastricht, and 



CLI 



299 



CLI 



served temporarily in one of the Bruns- 
wick battalions there. In that service 
be continued from the autumn of 17SS, to 
the end of tlie summer of 1789 ; during 
which interval he passed through 
every duty, from the common soldier 
to that of the cor[)oral, sergeant, and 
sub-lieutenant, as is customary in the 
German service. He was appointed to 
an ensigncy in England, in the 1st regi- 
ment of foot guards, and joined that 
corps in the autumn of 1789; from 
which time, till the end of the campaign 
in 1815, his life was a series of active, 
and for the greater part of it, of very 
distinguished, military service. 

1803, He embarked for the East 
Indies, having been appointed adjutant- 
general to the king's troops in that coun- 
try ; and in 1806, went out with the 3rd 
battalion of guards, part of the brigade 
then proceeding to Sicily, and served in 
that island till the latter end of 1807. 
He returned to England early in 1808, 
and in the spring of that year, he was 
appointed to the command of a brigade, 
forming part of the troops which pro- 
ceeded in the month of May, under Sir 
John Moore, to Sweden. 

1811. He was appointed, (having then 
ol)tained the rank of major-general) to a 
brigade in Portugal. Lord Wellington 
appointed him to the command of the 
6th division of the army ; at the head of 
which he continued, with the exception 
of two short leaves of aljsence on account 
of ill-health, till tlie evacuation of France 
by the British army in the summer of 
1814. In the month of June, 1815, on 
the ever memorable day of Waterloo, 
Sir H. Clinton commanded a division 
of the corps under Lord Hill. Here Sir 
Henry's pubbc life may be considered 
as closed ; for although he was with liis 
division during a part of 1817, he was 
never entirely free from a malady with 
which he was attacked in the month of 
June, 1816. He died at Ashley, near 
Lymington, Hants, Dec. 11, 1829, in 
the 58th year of his age. 

CLITHEROE Castle, Lancashire, 
built in 1171. 

CLITHEROW, Mrs., in Crown-court, 
near Moorfields, with her family and 
lodgers, consisting of 11 persons, were 
blown up while making fireworks by 
candle light, November 3, 1791. 

CLIVE, Robert Lord, the cele- 
brated hero of India, born in 1725, at 
Styche, in Shropshire. When about 18 



years of age, he was sent as a writer in 
the East India service to Madras ; but 
being of a military turn, he entered the 
army first as an ensign, but soon ob- 
tained the rank of lieutenant. He first 
distinguished himself at the siege of 
Pondicherry, in 1748; and afterwards 
performed many noble actions. He was 
acknowledged to be the first who roused 
his countrymen to spirited action, and 
raised their reputation in the east ; and 
on his return to England, in 1763, he 
was presented by the court of directors 
with a sword set with diamonds. 

He returned to India in 1755, as go- 
vernor of Fort St. David, with the rank 
of lieutenant-colonel in the king's troops; 
when in conjunction with Admiral Wat- 
son, he reduced Angria the pirate, and 
took Geria, his capital, with all his ac- 
cumulated treasure. On the loss of Cal- 
cutta, and the well known barbarity of 
Dowlah, they sailed to Bengal, where 
they took Fort William, in January, 
1757 ; and Colonel Clive defeated Dow- 
lah's army at the famous battle of Plassey. 
See Plassey. He commanded in Ben- 
gal the two following years, and was 
honoured by the mogul with the dignity 
of an omrah of the empire. 

1760. He returned to England, where 
he received the unanimous thanks of the 
company, was elected member of parlia- 
ment for Shrewsbury, and was raised to 
an Irish peerage by the title of baron of 
Plassey. In 1764, fresli disturbances 
arising in Bengal, Lord Clive undertook 
the presidency. On his arrival in India, 
he quickly restored tranquillity to the 
province, and having raised the highest 
ideas of British power in the minds o{ 
the natives, he returned home in 1767. 
In 1772, a motion was made in the 
House of Commons, purporting that he 
had abused the power entrusted to him 
in India, by using improper means in 
acquiring wealth ; and though he suc- 
ceeded in defending himself from this 
charge, and a resolution was passed that 
he had rendered his country essential ser- 
vice : he sank into a state of depression, 
which at lavt induced him to put an end 
to his life, m 1774, leaving a widow and 
five children. He bequeathed £70,000 
to the sick in the company's service. 

" In the awful close of so much pros- 
perity and glory,'' says the Edinburgh 
reviewer of Sir John Malcolm's life, 
" some men so far forgot the maxims 
both of religion and of philosophy, as 



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300 



CLO 



coiifidenlly to ascribe the mournful event 
to the just vengeance of God, and the 
horrors of an evil conscience. It is with 
very different feelings that we contem- 
plate the spectacle of a great mind ruined 
by the weariness of satiety, by the pangs 
of wounded honour, by fatal diseases, 
and more fatal remedies. Clive com- 
mitted great faults ; and we haA'e not 
attempted to disguise them. But his 
faults when weighed against his merits, 
and viewed in connexion with his temp- 
tations, do not appear to deprive him of 
his right to an honourable place in the 
estimation of posterity." 

CLOCK-Makers, three from Delft, 
first settled in England, 1568. 

CLOCKS, called water-clocks, first 
used in Rome, ac. 158. Clocks and 
dials first set up in churches in the 14th 
century, one at Bologne, 1356; another 
at the palace of Charles V. 136-1 ; a 
striking clock in Westminster, 136s, 
made by three Dutchmen ; the first por- 
table one made, 1530; none in England 
that went tolerably till that dated 1540, 
now at Hampton-court palace ; clocks 
with pendulums, &c., invented by one 
Fromantil, a Dutchman, about 1656. 
The first made in England with a pen- 
dulum, was in the year 1662, about 
which time they became common there. 

Clocks in the parishes of St. Giles, 
St. Bride, &c., &c., London, lighted wdth 
gas, 1831. An ad valorem duty of 25 per 
cent, is laid on foreign clocks which pro- 
duced in 1 832, £6,024 8s. nett. It is prin- 
cipally derived from the wooden clocks 
brought from Holland and Germany. 

1840. A new mode of illuminating 
clocks invented. The Horse Guards 
dock was illuminated for the first time, 
July 16, by means of the "Bude light," 
which falls on the face ; thus differing 
from the ordinary transparent clocks, to 
■which it is much superior, both in clear- 
ness and beauty. It gives the clock face 
an appearance of being shone upon by 
a very powerful moonlight. See Budk 
Light. 

CLOCKS AND Watches taxed. 
1797 ; tax repealed, 1798. 

CLODIUS the Roman tribune, with 
his friends and servants, assassinated by 
T. Aunius Milo, for having refused him 
the consulship, a.c. 52. 

CLONDALKIN, Ireland, powder 
mills at, blew up, and shattered the 
dwellings to a considerable distance 
around ; only two lives lost, April 1 5, 1 787 . 



CLOTH, coarse woollen, introdrced 
into England, 1191 ; first made at Ken- 
dal, 1390; medleys first made, 1614. 

1839. A machine was invented, by 
an American, for the making of broad 
or narrow woollen cloths without spining 
or weaving. The machines are patented 
in this and every other manufacturing 
nation. Should this machine succeed to 
any thing near the expectation of the 
patentees, its abridgment of labour, as 
well manual as by machinery, will be 
very great. It is calculated that one set 
of machinery, not costing more than 
£600, will be capal)le of producing 600 
yards of v.'oollen cloth, 36 inches in 
width, per day, of 12 hours. 

CLOTH OF Gold, festival of, held 
June 7, 1820. 

CLOUD, St., town m France, the fa- 
vourite residence of the monarchs of that 
nation. Here Henry III. was assassi- 
nated by Clement, August 2, 1589 ; and 
it is also celebrated for the order of the 
IStb Brumaire, 1799, which annihilated 
the Director)' and established the con- 
sular government. St. Cloud was be- 
sieged by the vanguard of the allies, 
March 31, 1814, who made this their 
head-quarters from April 7, to June 3, 
in that year. In 1815, Blucher had his 
head-quarters at this place, and the con- 
vention by which Paris was resigned to 
the allies was here concluded. 

CLOVES. Owing to the expulsion 
of the English from Amboyna, in 1623, 
the Dutch have, a few short intervals 
only excepted, enjoyed the exclusive pos- 
session of the Moluccas, or Clove Islands. 
In England the duty on cloves was con- 
siderably reduced in 1819, and there has, 
in consequence, been a decided increase in 
the consumption of the article. In 1819, 
it was 34,254lbs., and in 1832, 82,672lbs. 
CLOVIS I. the first christian king 
of France, and founder of the French 
monarchy. Succeeded his father Chil- 
deric at 14 years of age, in 481. 
About 486 he conquered the several 
provinces of Gaul, in the possession of 
the Romans and Goths. These he unit- 
ed to the dominions of France, and re- 
moved the seat of government from 
Soisons to Paris. He was baptized, and 
encouraged the spread of Christianity 
in his dominions in 496. He was the 
author of the Salic law, which debars a 
wife from any share of inheritance, and 
which gave rise to the exclusion of 
females from the throne of France. He 



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C OA 



died in 511, in the 4Gth year of his age, 
and 31st of his reign. 

CLOWES Wood, Ireland, took fire 
when 30 acres of furze and heath were 
consumed, Jan. 1, 1805. 

CLUM, Mrs., near Litchfield, died 
Jan. 23, 1772, aged 138, and had lived 
103 years in one house. 

CLUN CASTLE,Shropshire,builtl 140. 

CLUNL Monastery of, founded 910. 

CLYNNOGVAWK Abbey, Carmar- 
thenshire, built 16 16 

COACHES. It is certain that a spe- 
cies of coaches were used at Rome ; but 
whether they were hung on springs, like 
those now made use of, is not certain. 
After the subversion of the Roman 
power, horseback was almost the only 
mode of travelling. About the end of 
the 15 th century, however, covered car- 
riages began to be employed by persons 
of distinction on great occasions. 

1550. There were at Paris only three 
coaches ; one of which belonged to the 
queen ; another to the celebrated Diana 
of Poictiers ; and the third to a corjiulent 
unwieldy nobleman, Rene de Laval, lord 
of Bois Daupliin. Coaches were seen 
for the first time, in Spain, in 1546. 
They began to be used in England about 
1580. An act passed to prevent men 
riding in coaches as effeminate, in 1601 ; 
private coaches began to be common in 
London, 1625. 

Hackney Coaches, began in 1634, 
when Captain Baily set up four in num- 
ber; were prohibited in 1635 ; 50 hack- 
ney coachmen only were allowed in 
1637; hmited to 200 in 1652; to 300 in 
1654; to 400 in 1661; to 700 in 1694, 
when they were first licensed ; to 800 in 
1710; to 1000 in 1771; to 1200 in 
1799. Hackney chariots not to exceed 
200, licensed in 1814. 

In the year 1736, the number of 
coaches made in this kingdom amounted 
to 40,000, one half of which, and up- 
wards, were e.\ported. By the duty on 
coaches it ap]>eared, in 1778, 23,000 
were kept in England, when their duty 
amounted to £117,000. The duty on 
coaches in 1785, was £154,988. in Eng- 
land, and in Scotland only £9000. Down 
to 1825, a duty was laid on all carriages 
made for sale. In 1812, 1,531 four- 
wheeled carriages, 1,700 two-wheeled 
ditto, and 105 taxed carts fsmall car- 
riages without springs,) were made. 

1839. A trial o{ Gray's patent safety 
coach, an ingenious improvement, was 



made in August, at the Hippodrome 
near Kensington. The coach is hung on 
springs which work longitudinally from 
the roof instead of laterally; from im- 
mediately above the perch, or under the 
coach itself. But the main point of the 
invention is, that these longitudinal 
springs work on. sliding blocks, by which 
a constantly levelling position is pro- 
duced. In the course of the experiment 
the wheels on the "off" side passed 
over a surface which was more than four 
feet higher than those which were on the 
" near " side, and yet the coach preserv- 
ed its perfect equilibrium. 

COACH-MAKERS, licensed, 1785. 

COAL. There are no mines of coal 
in either Greece or Italy; and no evi- 
dence has been produced to show that 
the ancients used coal. In England it 
does not seem to have been used pre- 
viously to the beginning of the 13th 
century ; for the first mention of it oc- 
curs in a charter of Henry III., granting 
licence to the burgesses of Newcastle to dig 
coal. In 1281, Newcastle is said to have 
had a considerable trade in this article. 

About the end of the 13th century, or 
the beginning of the 14th, coals began to 
be imported into London, being at first 
used only by smiths, brewers, dyers, 
soap-boilers, &c. This innovation was, 
however, loudly complained of, and, in 
1316, parliament petitioned the king, Ed- 
ward I., to prohibit the burning of coal, 
on the ground of its being an intolera- 
ble nuisance. He issued a commission 
of oyer and terminer, 1280, with instruc- 
tions to inquire as to all who burned 
sea coal within the city, or parts adjoin- 
ing, to punish them for the first otiPence, 
by " pecuniary mulcts ;" and upon a 
second offence, to demolish their furna- 
ces ; and to provide for the strict obser- 
vance of the proclamation in all times to 
come. 

In the reign of Charles I., the use of 
coal became universal in London, where 
it has ever since been used to the 
exclusion of all other articles of fuel. 
At the restoration, the quantity import- 
ed was supposed to amount to about 
200,000 chaldrons. In 1670, the imports 
had increased to 270,000 chaldrons. At 
the revolution, they amounted to about 
300,000 chaldrons, and have since gone 
on increasing with the growing magni- 
tude and population of the city ; being, 
in 1750, aoout 500,000 chaldrons; in 
ISOO, about 900,000 chaklrons ; and 



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at present about 1,700,000 chaldrons. 

The coal trade of Great Britain has 
been for more than a century and a half 
subjected to the most oppressive regu- 
lations. From a very early period, the 
corporation had undertaken the task of 
weigiiing and rneasurintf the coal brought 
to Loudon. In 1613, the power to 
make this charge was confirmed to the 
city by royai charter. 

Besides the above, duties for civic pur- 
poses have been laid on tlie coal import- 
ed into London from the reign of Charles 
IL downwards. They were originally 
imposed in l6Gr, after the great fire, in 
order to assist in the rebuilding of 
churches and other public edifices ; and 
have ever since been continued, to ena- 
ble the corporation to execute improve- 
ments in the city. At present, a duty of 
lOd. per chaldron, denominated the or- 
phans' duty, is appropriated, until 1858, 
to defray the expenses of the approaches 
to London bridge. Exclusive of the 
corporation duties, a duty payable to go- 
vernment was laid on all sea-borne coal 
in the reign of William IIL, which was 
only repealed in 1830. 

The value of coals and culm exported 
from Great Britain to foreign parts in 
1836, was £679,513; in 1837 £855,751; 
and in 1838 £1,051,061. 

Among the geological papers present- 
ed to the meeting of the British Asso- 
ciation in 1838,' was a communication 
" On the Newcastle coal-field," by Mr. 
John Buddie. This coal-field occupies 
a tract in the counties of Northumber- 
land and Durham, of about 700 square 
miles, the limits of which were accurately 
marked on a geological map of the dis- 
trict. Within this tract all the strata 
that compose the coal series may be 
traced continuously. The lowest bed in 
the series, that, namely, which lies next 
the millstone grit, is the Brockwell seam. 
There is, indeed, another seam of coal 
called the eight-inch seam, at a perpen- 
dicular depth of 97i fathoms below the 
Brockwell seam, but separated from it by 
the entire mass of the millstone grit, and 
the upper bed carboniferous limestone. 

Mr. W. Hawkes Smith, in a lecture 
recently delivered at Birmingham, offer- 
ed some calculation on the state of the 
mines of this field ; " inferring from the 
immense quantities consumed — jjrobably 
not less than the entire produce of an 
acre per week in the mining and iron 
works alone ; — from the separated posi- 



tion and inconsiderable thickness of the 
' ten yard ' measures in certain situa- 
tions, and from the problematical result 
of the bold experiments now carrying on 
l)y Lord Dartmouth, at Westbromwich, 
that the coal-basin is in reality circum- 
scribed, and its contents not so inexhaus- 
tible as some writers have deemed it to 
be, or as, from the present unrestricted 
perhaps wasteful, consumption of an un- 
renewable store, would seem to be ex- 
pected." A valuable mine of fine sea- 
coal has been discovered at Glen Cros- 
sack, in the Isle of Man, and is now be- 
ing profitably worked. A seam of fine 
coal, more than six feet thick, has been 
found at a comparatively small distance 
from the surface, in the Foi-est of Dean. 

Accidents in Coal Mines. — Coal- 
pit, near Renfrew, took fire, and continued 
to burn for nearly two days ; six men 
lost, 1804. 

Coal-pit, near Wakefield, inundated by 
a sudden gush of water, by which nine 
men and a boy perished, June 30, 1809. 

Coal-pit at Felling, near Gateshead, 
took fire, by which 93 persons perished, 
June 25, 1812. 

Coal-pit at Swiney Row, Durham, 
took fire, by which one man and six boys 
were severely hurt, October 6, 1812. 

Coal-pit, Harrington Mill, near the 
preceding, took fire, by which four 
men and 19 boys were killed, October 
10, 1812. 

Coal-pit, Collingvvood Main, took fire, 
by which eight men were killed, and two 
severely burnt, July 17, 1813. 

Coal-pit at Bradlej', fell in, by which 
eight persons were buried in the ruins, 
of whom seven were dug out alive after 
remaining seven days without food, Au- 
gust 10, 1813. 

Coal-pit at Felling took fire a second 
time, by which nine men, 13 boys, and 
12 horses were destroyed, Dec. 1813. 

Coal-pit, Hepburn, took fire, by which 
11 persons were burnt to death, Aug. 
27, 1814 

Coal-pit at Painshaw, Cumberland, 
three men killed by the choak damp in 
descending to examine the state of the 
air, March 15, 1815. 

Coal-pit belonging to Messrs. Ne- 
sham and Co., near Newbattle, Dur- 
ham, took fire, by which 7t> persons 
lost their lives, June 2, 1815. At 
the same colliery 57 persons were 
killed or wounded by the bursting 
of a steam-engine, July 31, following. 



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303 



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Coal-pit, Heaton Main, near Newcas- 
tle, inundated by a sudden gush of water, 
by which thirty-three men, forty-two 
boys, and thirty-seven horses perished. 
May 3, 1815. It was afterwards (Febru- 
ary 19, 1816) ascertained that they all 
perished by starvation, having been en- 
closed in a cavity which the water did 
not penetrate. 

Coal-pit at Chirk, in Denbighshire, 
destroyed by an inundation occasioned 
by a stoppage in the river Ceriog, in con- 
sequence of the fall of an embankment, 
December 28, 1816. The collieries were 
so extensive, that the loss was considered 
as a pubhc calamity. 

Coal-pit near Chester-le- Street, Dur- 
ham, took file, by which nearly 40 
persons lost their lives, July 1817 

A dreadful explosion in Springwell 
coal mine, about five miles from New- 
castle, by which 47 persons, only nine 
or ten of whom were adults, were 
killed ; not one surviving to relate the 
cause of the accident, May 9, 1833, 

An explosion of fire damp took place 
in a coal-pit at Wallsend,where 104 men 
and boys were at work, of vrhom only 
three men and a boy escaped alive, the 
other hundred persons having been suf- 
focated on the spot, June 10, 1835. 

COALITION, first, against France, 
1792 ; second ditto, 1799 ; third, 1805 ; 
fourth, 1806; fifth, 1809; sixth, 1813. 

COASTING Trade. It has been 
customary in most countries to exclude 
foreigners from all participation in the 
coasting trade. This policy began in 
England in the reign of Elizabeth 
(5 Eliz. c. 5), or, perhaps, at a more re- 
mote era, and was perfected by the acts 
of navigation passed in 1651 and 1660. 
A vast number of regulations have been 
since enacted at different periods. The 
existing rules with respect to it, which 
have been a good deal simplified, are 
embodied in the act 3 and 4 Will. IV. 
c. 52. 

COBBETT, William, was the son of a 
farmerat Ash, near Farnham, Surrey, and 
was born in 1762. In 1782 he left home 
and went on board the Pegasus man-of- 
war; but both the captain and port-admiral 
suspecting him to be arun-away, declined 
his services, and persuaded him to re- 
turn home. In 1783 he went to London, 
and procured a situation as copying- 
clerk to Mr. Holland, of Gray's-inn, 
where he remained for nine months 
closely confined to the desk, except on 



Sundays. In 1784 he quitted London 
for Chatham, where he enlisted into a 
regiment, the service companies of which 
were in Nova Scotia. He was soon 
raised to the rank of corporal, and at 
length sailed from Gravesend. He staid 
but a few weeks in Nova Scotia, being 
ordered to New Brunswick, where the 
regiment remained till September, 1791, 
and was then relieved and sent home. 

1792. He went again to America, 
and landed at New York in October. It 
was in America that Mr. Cobbett fir.st 
distinguished himself by his pen. Having 
proceeded from New York to Phila- 
delphia, he there opened a bookseller's 
shop, and commencing a periodical pa- 
per, or succession of pamjihlets, under 
the title of " Peter Porcupine," at once 
made a display of those extraordinary 
powers of style and expression which 
have rendered his name so celebrated. A 
Dr. Rush brought an action against 
him for a libel, and obtained 5,000 dollars' 
damages, which disgusted him with 
America so completely, that he quitted 
it, and came to England in 1800. In 
1801 he settled in London, and esta- 
blished a morning paper under the title 
of " The Porcupine," in which he 
warmly supported Mr. Pitt. That paper, 
however, soon failed, and he afterwards 
set uj) " The Register," which was con- 
tinued to his death. 

1805. From a hearty church and 
king man, Cobbett became as eager a 
radical. From this time he was, for 
some j^ears, a grievous thorn in the side 
of the ministry. At length, in 1810, an 
opportunity appeared to have arrived for 
putting him to silence. His remarks on 
some military flogging at Ely pro^'oked a 
government prosecution, upon which he 
was sentenced to two years' imprison- 
ment in Newgate, and to pay a fine of 
1000^. In 1816 he changed his " Re- 
gister, into a two-penny pamphlet, when 
the sale is said to have risen to the 
unprecedented number of 100,000. He 
again set off to America in April 1817, 
but returned to England in 1819. bring- 
ing with him the bones of the infidel, 
Tom Paine. He took a farm at Barnes 
Elms, in Surrey, where he attempted to 
grow several plants and trees indigenous 
to America, and to introduce Indian corn 
as a staple article of English produce. 
The project, however, failed ; he resigned, 
after a few years, his farm at Barnes, 
and rented of Colonel Woodrooffe, the 



COB 



304 



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farm of Normandy, consisting of not 
more than 120 acres, about seven miles 
from Farnham. Cobbett published, in 
1825, "The History of the Protestant 
Reformation in England and Ireland ;" 
and, in 1829, "Advice to Young Men 
and Women." 

1832. After the passing of the Re- 
form Act, he was returned to parliament 
for the new borough of Oldham, for 
which he was re-chosen at the next elec- 
tion, without opposition. On the voting 
of supplies on the 15th and 18th of May, 
1835, he exerted himself so much, and 
sat so late, that he laid himself up. He 
determined, nevertheless, to attend the 
House again on the evening of the mar- 
quis of Chandos's motion on agricultural 
distress on the 25lh of May, and the 
exertion of speaking and remaining late 
to vote on that occasion, were too much 
for him. He died June 18, 1835, at his 
farm at Normandy, aged 73. 

Besides the works already mentioned, 
Cobbett published " The Emigrant's 
Guide, in Ten Letters ;" " Cobbett's 
Poor Man's Friend ;" " Cottage Econo- 
my ;" " An English Grammar," in letters 
to his Son ; " A Grammar to teach 
Frenchmen the English Language," 
which is the standard book in French 
schools; "A Translation of Marten's 
Law of Nations ;" "A Year's Residence 
in America;" " Parliamentary History of 
England to 1803," in twelve volumes ; 
and "Debates from 1803 to 1810," 
in 16 volumes, royid octavo. When 
to these are added Porcupine's Works 
in the United States, from 1793 to 1801, 
in twelve volumes, and the " Political 
Register" from 1802, a due estimate may 
be made of the extraordinary quantity 
of matter which he passed through the 
press. 

COBLENTZ, an important town of 
Prussia. In 860 a council of the church 
was held here. In 1249 the town was 
M'alled round, and during the thirty 
years' war fell successively into the pos- 
session of the Imperialists, Swedes, 
French, and German Protestants. In 
1688 it was bombarded by the French 
ineffectually ; in 1792 it was the rendez- 
vous of the Prussian army; in 1794 it 
was taken by the French, and remained 
under their dominion until 1814, when 
it was restored to Prussia. 

COBURG, CoBouRG, or Saxe Co- 
BURG, a town and principality of Ger- 
many, which gives title to his royai liigh- 



ness Prince Albert, consort of her ma- | 
jesty. The house from which the name ' 
is descended is very ancient. In 1464 ( 
the territories of the house were divided I 
between two of the branches of the 
family, when the principality of Coburg 
fell to the share of the elector Ernest, an- 
cestor in the direct line of Prince Albert. ' 

ISOQ. Feudal privileges were abo- 
lished in the principality. In 1821 a 
representative l)ody was formed, who 
have a voice in the imposition of taxes ; 
and in 1826, the duke obtained an ac- 
cession of the duchy of Gotha, and se- 
veral minor states, to his dominions. 

Family of Prince Albert. The 
ancestors of the prince may be traced as 
far back as Wittekindl., duke of Saxony, 
who died in 807. But the greatness of 
the family may be said to have been 
founded and consolidated by Frederick, 
surnamed the Warlike, who became duke 
and elector of Saxony when the Ascanian 
line was extinct on the death of Albert 
III., in 1423. This prince was named by 
the emperor high marshal, and vicar of 
the empire; and, in addition to the mi- 
litary achievments which procured for 
him the surname above-mentioned, he 
was an enlightened patron of commerce, 
art, and literature. 

After the death of Frederick the se- 
cond, in 1464, when the territories were 
divided l)etween his two sons, Ernest and 
Albert, they became the founders of the 
two branches of the families that bore 
their respective names. The elector 
Ernest, the ancestor of Prince Albert, 
died in I486, and was succeeded by his 
son, Frederick III., surnamed Wise. It 
was he who founded the university of 
Wittenburg, where Luther was educated. 
When the imperial throne became vacant, 
in 1519, the electors offered him the 
crown. This, however, he declined, and 
afterwards gave his vote in favour of the 
grandson of the late emperor, afterwards 
celebrated as Charles V. 

1521. When Luther was summoned 
by the emperor before the dietof Worms, 
Frederick concealed Luther in the for- 
tressof Wurtzburg, where he commenced 
and completed his celebrated translation 
of the Bible. At the diet held at Spiers 
in 1529, John, his successor, took the 
lead among the princes who published 
that " Protest" which afterwards gave 
the name of Protestants to the professors 
of the reformed religion, and led to the 
declaiation of their opinions called the 



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305 



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Augsburg Confession. Frederick, his 
successor placed himself at the head of 
the protestant league, called the Schmal- 
kalden Confederacy ; and, for a time, 
maintained a gallant contest with the 
attempts of Charles to extirpate the re- 
formed religion. But he was at length 
taken prisoner at the battle of Muhtberg, 
was declared an outlaw, and condemned 
to be beheaded before the imperial camp 
at Wittenberg. The sentence was re- 
voked, buthe was removed to Innspruck, 
where he remained a prisoner for five 
years, and formed the plan of the uni- 
versity of Jena, which he afterwards 
founded, and which was completed by 
his sons. This illustrious prince died 
in 1553. The late duke died in 1806, 
and was succeeded by Ernest, the pre- 
sent duke, father of the illustrious con- 
sort of her present majesty. 

Prince Albert, Francis Augustus 
Charles Emanuel, of Saxe CoburgGotha, 
was born August 26, 1819, and received 
the first rudiments of his education in 
the castle of Erenburg. When in his 
11th year he became a visitor to the 
duchess of Kent at Kensington Palace, 
and received lessons in language, music, 
and the arts, in the comp?Riy of his 
illustrious cousin. He remained in 
England at that time for upwards of 
15 months, and then returned to Ger- 
many. He studied at the university 
of Bonn, where he distinguished himself 
by diligence in literary pursuits, amiable 
manners, and propriety of conduct. Af- 
ter finishing his studies at Bonn he 
visited this country in 1838, and after- 
wards travelled in Italy, accompanied by 
the baron Stockmar, and in the month of 
October, 1839, again arrived in England, 
when the arrangements for this alliance 
were finally settled. The marriage took 
place Febraary 10, 1840, and was at- 
tested by the cordial congratulations of 
all classes of the community. 

COBURG Theatre, Surrey, opened 
in 1816; its name altered to Victoria, 
1833. 

COCHIN, a province of Hindoostan, 
on the Malabar coast. The Cochin rajah 
maintained his independence much later 
than most of the other Hindoo princes, 
he was first compelled to pay a tribute to 
Tippoo, which is now received by the 
British. In 1791? by their assistance, 
he threw ofF the Mysore allegiance, and 
became tributary to them. In 1809, in 
consequence of an unprovoked rebellion. 



the tribute was increased, and, in 1810, 
the surrender of all the fortresses was 
stipulated for. In 1814, new distur- 
bances arose, in consequence of the chris- 
tians who paid tribute, having refused to 
acknowledge the authority of the rajah. 

COCHIN-CHINA, empire of, in 
India beyond the Ganges, extends along 
the sea of China, and, in its present 
form, includes all Cochin-China and 
Tonquin, a large portion of Cambodia, 
with the state of Siampa. Until a few cen- 
turies after the christian era, Cochin- 
China formed a part of the Chinese em- 
pire. Its ancient history is litlle known, 
but more accuracy exists in its records 
from 1774, when a revolt took place, 
and the reigning prince, Chaung Shaung, 
with his queen and family, were expelled 
from the capital Quinnong, by three 
brothers. In 1790, he ventured to re- 
turn, and succeeded in driving out the 
successors of the usurpers; he then, 
with the assistance of Adran, a French 
missionary, began many improvements 
in the state. European tactics were 
taught. He also undertook to reform 
the existing system of jurisprudence, 
declared his veneration for the christian 
religion, and tolerated all others in his 
dominions. Adran died in 1800. In 
1821, the king's name was Mingming, 
who succeeded Kealung. Attempts 
were made in 1778, in 1804, and in 1822, 
by the East India Company, to open 
an intercourse with Cochin-China, all 
which have proved unsuccessful. 

COCHINEAL, an important article 
of commerce used as a dye. It is found 
in Mexico, Georgia, South Carolina, and 
some of the West India islands ; but it 
is in Mexico only that it is raised with 
care. The cochineal insect was intro- 
duced into India in 1795; but a very 
inferior sort only is produced. 

The imports of cochineal usually A'ary 
from 220,000 to 330,000lbs. In 1831, 
the quantity imported amounted to 
224,37l]bs. ; of which 95,728lbs. were 
brought from Mexico, 69,824lbs. from 
the United States, 51,1461bs. from the 
British West Indies, and 4,370lbs. from 
Cuba and the foreign West Indies. The 
exports during the same year amounted 
to about 90,000lbs. The duty on foreign 
cochineal was reduced, in 1826, from Is. 
per lb. to &d. At an average of the three 
years ending with 1831, the entries 
for home consumption amounted to 
148,1311bs. a-year. 

2 R 



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306 



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COCHRANE, Admiral Sir Alex- 
ander, born 1759, died 1832. 

COCHRANE, Lord, now the earl of 
Dundonald, having joined the patriots 
of Peru and Chili, surprised and took 
Valdivia, 1820; returned from South 
America, August, 1825; was made com- 
mander of the Greek fleet, and appeared 
off the coast of Egypt, 1827- 

COCKERMOUTH Castle, Cum- 
berland, built 1069 

COCKERSEND Abbey, Lancashire, 
built 1200. 

COCK-FIGHTING. This inhuman 
diversion, according to Mr. Pegge, in 
his Archaeologia, had its origin among 
the Greeks. Jacobus Palmerius, a 
writer cited by Mr. Pegge, pretends that 
the traces of this diversion may be dis- 
covered among the barbarians of Asia, 
as early as the reign of Croesus, king of 
Lydia, a.c. 558. The Romans, who 
were prone to imitate the Greeks, fol- 
lowed their e.xample in this mode of di- 
version, said to have been instituted by 
them, after a victory over the Persians, 
A.c. 476. 

It is unknown when it was first 
brought to England, but it was probably 
introduced by the Romans, and about 
the time of Henry II., was a sport of 
school-boys on Shrove Tuesday. It 
was still followed, though disapproved, 
and prohibited by 39 Edward III., also 
in the reign of Henry VIII., 1569. It 
has by some been called a royal diver- 
sion ; and the cock-pit at Whitehall was 
erected for the more magnificent cele- 
bration of it. Cock-fighting was pro- 
hibited, by one of Oliver Cromwell's 
acts, March 31, 1664. 

" Cock-fighting," says Mr. Pegge, 
" is a heathenish mode of diversion from 
the first; and, at this day, ought cer- 
tainly to be confined to those barbarous 
nations where it has been practised, the 
Chinese, Persians, Malayans, and the 
still more savage Americans, whose ir- 
rational and sanguinary practices ought, 
in no case, to be objects of imitation 
to more civilized Europeans." 

COCKLEPARK Tower, Northum- 
berland, built before 1 100. 

COCK-LANE GHOST, imposition 
practised and detected, 1762. 

COD-FISHERY. The French, Por- 
tuguese, and Spaniards, engaged in the 
fishery soon after the discovery of New- 
foundland in 1497. The English were 
later in coming into the field. In 1578, 



France had on the banks of Newfound- 
land 150 vessels, Spain 120 or 130, Por- 
tugal 50, and England from 30 to 50. 
During the first half of last century, the 
fishery was principally carried on by the 
English, including the Anglo-Americans, 
and the French ; but the capture of 
Cape-Breton, and of their other posses- 
sions in America, gave a severe blow to 
the fishery of the latter. 

At an average of the three years ending 
with 1789, the English had 402 ships, 
1,911 boats, and 16,856 men, engaged in 
theAmerican fisheries. Duringlast war,the 
French being excluded from the fisheries, 
those of England attained to an extraor- 
dinary degree of prosperity; the total 
value of the produce of the Newfound- 
land fishery in 1814, having exceeded 
£2,800,000. But since the peace, the 
British fishery on the Newfoundland 
banks has rapidly declined. It is now 
carried on almost entirely by the French 
and the Americans. The average annual 
produce of the fisheries of all sorts, in- 
cluding seal, salmon, &c., exported from 
Newfoundland, during the three years, 
ending with 1832, was £516,417. 

COD-FISHERY, American, In 
1795, the "Americans employed in the 
cod-fishery about 31,000 tons of ship- 
ping; in 1807, they are said to have 
employed 70,306 tons; but it subse- 
quently declined for several years, and 
was almost entirely suspended during 
the late war. According to the oflicial 
returns for 1831, laid before the Con- 
gress, February 15, 1833, the shipping 
engaged that year in the cod-fishery 
amounted to 60,977 tons. During the 
year ending September 30, 1832, the 
Americans exported 250,514 quintals of 
dried, and 102,770 barrels of pickled 
cod; their aggregate value being about 
1,050,000 dollars. 

CODES, or collections of laws, &c. 
The Gregorian and Hermogenian pub- 
lished 290, the Theodosian published 
435, and reformed by Anicn, chancellor 
to Alaric, 506 ; the Justinian pubhshed 
529, the Napoleon published 1804. 

CODRINGTON, Christopher, a 
distinguished oflficer, born atBarbadoesin 
the year I6S8. He was sent to England, 
and, after some continuance at a private 
school at Enfield, was removed to Ox- 
ford, where he completed his studies, and 
justly obtained the character of an ac- 
complished gentleman and universal 
scholar. He afterwards joined the army, 



COF 



307 



cor 



and was instrumental in driving the 
French out of the island of St. Chris- 
topher's. He distinguished himself at 
the siege of Namur; and upon the peace 
at Ryswick, he was made captain- general 
and governor of the leward Caribbee 
Islands. For his conduct in this office 
he was charged with misdemeanors, and 
several articles of impeachment, were 
exhibited against him to the House of 
Commons in England , to which an 
answer was published, with attestations 
in his favour, from the lieutenant-gover- 
nor, members of the council, and the 
representatives of Nevis. In 1703, he 
showed the greatest courage in the at- 
tack upon Guadaloupe, though tho en- 
terprise failed. He died in 1710, at his 
seat in Barbadoes. In I7l6, his body 
was removed to England, and interred 
in the chapel of All-Souls College, Oxford. 

CODRINGTON, Admiral Sir Ed- 
ward, won the battle of Navarino, Oct. 
20, 1827. 

CODRUS, the last Athenian king, 
voluntarily gave his life for the good of 
his country, after reigning 21 years, 
A.c. 1069 

COFFEE. The first introduction of 
this beverage into Arabia is attributed to 
Megaleddin, mufti of Aden, about the 
middle of the 15th century. It rapidly 
extended to Mecca, Medina, and the 
other cities of Arabia Felix. The fame of 
this bewitching potation quickly reached 
Grand Cairo, and was received with 
equal avidity at Constantinople. At 
Grand Cairo it was opposed on religious 
grounds. In the year 1511, it was pro- 
hibited by Khaiae Beg, from a persuasion 
that it had an inebriating quality, and 
produced inclinations forbidden by the 
Koran. In 1523, Abdallah Ibrahim 
again denounced it in a sermon delivered 
in the mosque of Hassananie. 

The first mention of coffee in the west 
of Europe is by Rauwolff, a German 
traveller, who returned from Syria in 
1573. The tree was particularly describ- 
ed in 1591, by Prosper Alpinus, in his 
" Medicina .^gyptiorum," and also in 
his " History of Egyptian Plants," 
printed at Venice in 1592. Its use, as 
a beverage, is noticed by two English 
travellers in the beginning of the 17th 
century; Biddulph about 1603, and 
William Finch in 1607. In France it 
was introduced first at Marseilles, in the 
year 1644. 

The earUest statute respecting coffee 



is dated 1660, (12 Car. II. cap. 24,) when 
a duty of fourpence was laid upon every 
gallon of coffee made and sold, to be 
paid by the maker. In 1663, it was 
ordered, by a particular statute, that all 
coffee-houses should be licensed at the 
general quarter sessions of peace for the 
county. And in 1675, Charles II. issued 
a proclamation to shut them up as semi- 
naries of sedition. The Dutch were the 
first who made a successful attempt to 
introduce the plant in their colonies. 
Nicholas Witsen, burgomaster of Amster- 
dam, and governor of the East India 
company, instructed Van Hoorn, gover- 
nor of Batavia, to procure from Mocha, 
in Arabia Felix, some berries of the coffee- 
tree, to be sown at Batavia. About 1690, 
many plants were raised from seeds, 
one of which was sent to the garden at 
Amsterdam. 

1714. The magistrates of Amsterdam 
sent to Louis XIV. a fine tree about five 
feet high, in full foliage, with both green 
and ripefruit. In l7l 7, several plants were 
sent to Martinico, under the care of M 
de Clieux, who approved himself worthy 
of the trust. In 1718, the Dutch colony 
at Surinam, first began to plant coffee ; 
and, in 1722, the French governor of 
Cayenne, having business at Surinam, 
contrived by an artifice to bring away 
a plant, which, in the year 1725, had 
produced many thousands. In the year 
1732, coffee was cultivated in Jamaica, 
and an act passed to encourage its growth 
in that island. 

The history of the coffee trade, affords 
examples of the superior productiveness 
of low duties. In 1807, the duty was 
Is. 8d. a pound ; and the quantity en- 
tered for home consumption amounted 
to l,l70,164lbs., yielding a revenue of 
£161,245 lis. 4d. In 1808, the duty 
was reduced from Is. 8d. to 7d; and in 
1809, there were 9,251,8471bs. entered 
for home consumption, yielding a re- 
venue of £245,856 8s. 4d. The duty 
having been raised in 1819, from 7d. 
to Is. a pound, the quantity entered 
for home consumption, in 1824, was 
7,993,0411bs., yielding a revenue of 
£407,544 4s. 3c?. In 1824, however, the 
duty being again reduced from Is. to 6d., 
the quantity entered for home consump- 
tion, in 1825, was 10,766,1 12lbs., and in 
1831, it had increased to 22,740,627lbs., 
yielding a nett revenue of £583,751. 
The consumption of the United King- 
dom may, at present, be estimated at 



COF 



308 



COI 



about 23,000,000lbs., producing about 
£600,000 of revenue. 

The quantity of Coflfee imported into 
the United kin<i;dom from the British 
Colonies and Plantations in the year 
ending Jan. 5, 1833, was 49,932,939lbs. 
The quantity exported for the same pe- 
riod, was 25,719, 724lhs. The total im- 
ports in 1839, were 39,220,60llbs. 

COFFEE House, the first in Eng- 
land was kept by Jacob, a Jew, at the 
sign of the Angel, in Oxford, in l650. 
Mr. Edwards an English Turkey mer- 
chant, brought home with him a Greek 
servant, who kept the first house for 
making and selling coffee in London, 
1652. The Rainbow coffee-house, near 
Temple-bar, was, in 1657, represented as 
a nuisance to the neighbourhood. 

COFFINS were anciently made use 
of in Egypt ; and antique coffins of 
stone, and sycamore wood, are still to be 
seen in that country. The Romans 
made coffins of stone, and sometimes of 
marble; and this custom was followed 
by the ancient Britons. After this, leaden 
coffins were adopted, and are still in use. 
Other materials have also sometimes 
been used. Alexander is said to have been 
buried in a golden coffin ; and Mr. Gough 
says, that glass coffins have been found 
in England. The most ancient instance 
of wooden coffins on record among us, 
is that of king Arthur, who was buried 
in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed. 
The Monk of Glastonbury calls it " Sar- 
cophagus ligneus." The practice of 
stealing dead bodies from churchyards, 
for anatomical piu'poses, having for many 
years excited much disturbance in the 
metropolis, Mr. Gabriel Aughtie turned 
his attention to the subject, and invented 
a coffin from which it is almost impossi- 
ble to steal the body ; for which he took 
out a patent in 1796. 

A stone coffin cut out of a solid block 
containing a complete skeleton, was found 
under the parish church in Leeds, in 1809, 
which was built 700 years ago. Another 
supposed to contain the bodies of the 
queen of Edward IV. and one of her 
children, discovered in Cardinal Wol- 
sey's chapel at Windsor, Oct. 26, 1810. 
A stone one, of immense size, contain- 
ing the perfect skeleton of a man, with 
the teeth entire, discovered in digging a 
road from Burford, in Oxfordshire, to 
Barrington, supposed to have been de- 
posited thei'e in the middle of the eighth 
century, Dec. 20, 1814. 



COHORN, Mich. French Engineer 
born 1632, died 1704. 

COIF, the Serjeant's, was originally an 
iron scull- cap, worn by knights under 
their helmets. Blackstone says it was 
introduced before 1259, to hide the ton- 
sure of such renegado clerks as chose 
to remain as advocates in the secular 
courts, notwithstanding their prohibition 
by canon. 

COIMBRA, a city of Portugal, suf- 
fered considerable injury by tlie great 
earthquake in 1755. In 1810, the rear 
of Massena's army was intercepted and 
made prisoners here by a detachment of 
Wellington's army commanded by gene- 
ral Trant. 

COIMBRA, University of, found- 
ed, 1391, enlarged, 1503. 

COIN. When the precious metals 
first began to be used as money, or as 
standards by which to measure the value 
of different articles, they were in an un- 
fashioned state, in bars or ingots. Hav- 
ing agreed upon the quantity of metal, 
to be given for a commodity, the exact 
amount was then ascertained by weight. 
To ascertain the purity of the metal, and 
to avoid the trouble and expense of 
weighing it, each piece was marked with 
a stamp, declaring its weight and firm- 
ness, lliis invention was made at a very 
early period. 

Silver is said to have been first coined 
by Phidon, king of Argos a.c. 869. 
Silver money was coined at Rome A.c. 
269 ; before |then, brass money was only 
used, a sign of no correspondence with 
the East, where gold and silver was used 
long before, a.c. 25, coin was first used 
in Britain. 

A.D. 223, in Scotland, coins of gold 
and silver first introduced. In 1101, 
coin was first made round in Eng- 
land. Silver halfpence and farthings 
were coined in the reign of John, and 
pence, the largest current coin. 1087, 
gold first coined in England. 1301, 
groats first coined in Bohemia. 1345, 
gold next coined in England. 1346. 
gold first coined in Venice. 

1347. A pound of silver was coined 
in England into 22 shillings ; in 1352, 
into 25 shillings. In 1354, the money 
in Scotland, till now the same as in 
England, began to be debased ; in 1399, 
copper money was used only in Scot- 
land and Ireland. In 1414, a pound ol 
silver was coined into 30 shillings ; in 
1500, into 40 shillings; and in 1530, 



COI 



309 



COL 



it was extended to 62, which is the 
present number. In 1551, crowns and 
half-crowns Avere first coined; in 1580, 
copper money was introduced into France 
by Henry III. 

1609. The first legal copper coin was 
introduced, which put an end to private 
leaden tokens, universally practised, 
especially in London ; in 1620, copper 
money was fully introduced into England 
by James I. ; in 1662, miUing coin intro- 
duced; in 1672, halfpence and farthings 
first coined by government, August 16 ; 
in 1673, guineas first coined. 

1710. One million pounds were coined 
from French Louis-d'ors ; in 1732, broad 
pieces of gold called in by government, 
and coined into guineas; in 1716 and 
1761, five shillings-and-threepenny 
pieces, in gold, were issued; in 1786, 
halfpence issued for the Isle of Man by 
England ; in 1797, dollars were issued 
by the Bank, at 4s. 9d. each, March 4 ; 
the same year seven-shilling pieces were 
issued in December. 

1816. Old silver coin of shillings and 
sixpences, &c. was called in, and a new 
issue of the same coinage given in ex- 
change; in 1820, sovereigns and half- 
sovereigns were issued; in 1836, four- 
penny pieces. 

In 20 years, from 1790 to I8O9 both 
inclusive, the amount of gold coined was 
£21,493,640. 3s. dd., during which pe- 
riod the greatest annual amount coined 
was in 1798, being £2,967,504. 15s. Od. 
The silver coined during the same period 
amounted only to £1216 15s. 2d. In 
the 20 yearsfrom 1810 to 1829 the coin- 
age of gold amounted to £45,387,423 
8s. 4d., during which period the great- 
estamount coined was in 1821, being 
£9,520,758 13s. lOd. During the same 
period, £9,149,411 4s. id. was also coin- 
ed in silver; £2,436,297 12s. Od. of 
which was in 1827- 

The amount of gold coined in 1836, 
was £1,787,782 ; in 1837, £1,253,088. 
Of silver in 1836, £508,857 ; in 1837, 
£76,111. Of copper in 1836, £1,792; 
in 1837, £5096. 

The mint of the United States of Ame- 
rica was established in 1793, which issued 
gold and silver coin ; copper had been 
delivered before. The gold coins are, 
eagles, half-eagles, and quarter-eagles. 
The first is exactly 45s, English money, 
or 10 dollars American coin. The dol- 
lars are coined in the same divisions of 
half and quarter, which makes the course 



of exchange simple, and suits the reckon- 
ing to every capacity ; as our readers 
will perceive that ten quarter-dollars 
make a quarter-eagle, ten half-dollars 
the half-eagle, and ten dollars the eagle. 
There is besides, one more silver coin, 
which is called a dime, and is the tenth 
part of a dollar. 'I'he copper coin is 
called a cent, and is the tenth part of a 
dime. 

COINING Press, said to be invented 
by AntonieBrucher,in 1553 ; introduced 
into England in 1562. 

COINING MACHINERY, intro- 
duced by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 
near Birmingham, about 1800. See 
Mint. 

COKE, Sir Edward, Lord Chief 
Justice of England, in the reign of James 
I., born at Mileham, Norfolk, in 1550. 
In the 35th year of queen Elizabeth 
the House of Commons chose him for 
their speaker. The queen conferred on 
him successively the offices of solicitor- 
general and attorney -general. In 1603, 
he was knighted by king James I. He 
was afterwards appointed lord chief jus- 
tice of the common pleas, and lord chief- 
justice of the king's bench; and, in 1613, 
was sworn one of the privy council. In 
1615, he was very vigorous in the disco- 
very and prosecution of the persons em- 
ployed in poisoning Sir Thomas Over- 
bury, in the Tower. But his unbending 
behaviour towards the favourites of the 
king, and the boldness with which he 
opposed the illegal pretensions of the 
crown in parliament, deprived him of 
the royal favour. He was first suspended 
from his office, and afterwards com- 
mitted to the Tower, and his papers 
seized. In 1628, he was chosen knight 
for the county of Buckingham. He died 
in 1634, at his house in the same 
county. 

COL BERG, in Pomerania, surren- 
dered to the Russians, 1761. 

COLBERT, John Baptist, marquis 
of Segnelai, one of the greatest statesmen 
of France, was born at Rheims in I619. 
Louis XIV. made him intendent of the 
finances ; and his exertions in this situa- 
tion were highly beneficial to his country. 
In 1664, he was appointed superinten- 
dent of the buildings ; and from that 
time applied himself diligently to the 
enlargement and adorning of the palaces 
and public edifices of Paris. He esta- 
blished the French Academy of Painting ; 
and the institution of the Academy of 



COL 



310 



COL 



Sciences, as well as that of Inscriptions, 
was chiefly owing to his exertions. He 
died in 1683. He was a wise, active, 
and generous minister ; ever attentive 
to the interests of his king, the happiness 
of the people, and the progress of arts 
and manufactures. 

COLCHESTER, the Camalodunum 
of the Romans, was in existence in the 
second century; castle built, 912; mo- 
nastery of St. John built 1097 ; town 
walled, 1382. 

COLD-NORTON Priory, Oxford- 
shire, built 1160. 

COLDINGHAM Nunnery, Scot- 
land, ravaged by the Danes, 869- 

COLERIDGE, Samuel Taylor, 
was the youngest son of the Rev. John 
Coleridge, vicar of St. Mary, Ottery, 
Devonshire, and was born in that parish, 
Dec. 30, 1772. He was admitted to 
Christ's Hospital, July 18, 1782. On 
September 7, 1791, he was sent from 
Christ's Hospital with one of the ex- 
hiljitions belonging to that foundation, 
to Jesus College, Cambridge, where he 
remained till October term, 1794, when 
he quitted the university without any 
cause assigned, and without taking a 
degree. 

Mr. Coleridge, in 1796 and 1797, 
published his first poetical volume, in 
conjunction with a few poems by his 
friends, Charles Lamb and Charles Lloyd. 
In 1798, commenced his travels in Ger- 
many, accompanied by Mr. Wordsworth. 
^ Of these travels, the only records are 
contained in a few letters in " The 
Friends," (repeated in the " Biographia 
Literaria,)" but the fruits of his Ger- 
man studies of men and books, are ap- 
parent in every after-production of his 
mind and pen. On his return from 
Germany, in 1800, he went to reside at 
Keswick, where Mr. Southey had, after 
filling for some time the situation of sec- 
retary to Mr. Corry, the Irish chancellor 
of the Exchequer, finally settled. In 
1800, was published, his translation of 
Schiller's " Wallenstein." 

1804. Mr. Coleridge made a voyage 
to Malta where he remained from May, 
1804, to October, 1805. In 1809-10, 
^ he issued from Grasmere, a weekly essay, 
stamped, to be sent by the general post, 
called "The Friends." In 1812, he 
edited, and contributed several very in- 
teresting articles to Mr. Southey's "Om- 
niana," in two small volumes. In 1816, 
hepubhshed "The Statesman's Manual; 



or, the Bible the best Guide to Political 
Skill and Foresight, a Lay-Sermon ;" 
and in the following year, " A Second 
Lay- Sermon, addressed to the Higher 
and Middle Classes, on the existing Dis. 
tresses and Discontents." In 1816, 
was published the ballad tale of " Chris- 
tabell;" in 1818, the drama of " Za- 
polya;" and in 1830, a small volume, 
" On the Constitution of the Church 
and State, according to the Idea of each, 
with Aids towards a right Judgment on 
the Catholic Bill." 

1828. The whole of his poetical works, 
including the dramas of Wallenstein 
(which had been long out of print), Re- 
morse, and Zapolya, were collected in 
three elegant volumes, by Mr. Pickering, 
the British classical publisher ; who, 
during the very year of the poet's death, 
reprinted them with additions. The 
latter years of Mr. Coleridge's life were 
made easy by a domestication with his 
friend, Mr. Gillman, the surgeon, of 
Highgate Grove. He died on the 25th 
of July, 1834. 

COLES, Elisha, the grammarian, 
&c., died in 1680. 

CO LET, John, Dean of St. Paul's, 
and celebrated as the founder of St. 
Paul's school, was born at London, in 
1466. In 1483, he was sent to Oxford, 
and probably to Magdalen College. In 
1502, he was appointed prebendary of 
Sarum; and in 1505, prebendary of St. 
Paul's, and immediately after, dean of 
that cathedral, having previously taken 
the degree of doctor of divinity. About 
1508, he formed his plan for the founda- 
tion of St. Paul's school, which he com- 
pleted in 1512, and endowed with ample 
estates. He died in 1519, in the 53rd 
j'ear of his age. Dean Colet was one of 
the brightest ornaments of his country, 
and of his age, and must be remembered 
with gratitude, as one of the chief instru- 
ments in the hands of Providence, for 
bringing about the reformation from 
popery. 

COLIGNI, Gaspard de, an emi- 
nent French Huguenot chief, was born 
in 1517. Upon the death of Henry L, 
he avowed his adherence to the Pro- 
testant religion. Excepting the prince 
of Conde, he was at the head of the 
party, both in matters of diplomacy, 
and as a soldier. He was the first vic- 
tim of the infamous massacre which 
took place on St. Bartholomew's day, 
1572. 



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311 



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COLISEUM, a name given to the 
celebrated amphitheatre at Rome, built 
by Vespasian in 69 or 70. See Amphi- 
theatre. This term has been adopted 
to designate an exhibition in Regent's 
park. 

COLLEGE. The establishment of 
colleges or universities is a remarkable 
era in literary history. The first obscure 
mention of academical degrees in the 
university of Paris, from which the 
other universities in Europe have bor- 
rowed their institutions, occurs in 1215. 
See American Colleges, and Uni- 
versities. 

COLLEGE OF Physicians, a 
corporation of physicians in London ; 
who, by several charters and acts of par- 
liament of Henry VIIL and his succes- 
sors, have certain privileges. Ihe pro- 
ject and plan of this institution were 
formed by Dr. Thomas Linacre, physi- 
cian to Henry VHL, and patronised by 
Cardinal Wolsey, at whose desire the 
king granted a charter, Sept. 23, 1518. 
This charter was confirmed by parlia- 
ment in 1523, 15 Henry VIH. The 
number of fellows was anciently 30, till 
King Charles H., who renewed their 
charter in 1663, increased their number 
to 40 ; and King* James 11., giving them 
a new charter, allowed the number of 
fellows to be enlarged, so as to exceed 
80. Since that time they have been 
limited to no certain nvimber, but re- 
main candidates a year, before their 
admission as fellows. The society had, 
anciently, a college in Knight-Rider- 
street, the gift of Dr. Linacr6. Since 
that, they have had a house built for 
them by the famous Dr. Harvey, in 
1652, at the end of Amen-Corner, which 
he endowed with his whole inheritance 
in his lifetime ; but this being burnt in 
the great fire in 1666, a new one was 
erected at the expense of the fellows, in 
Warwick-lane ; with a noble library. 
After continuing on this site for more 
than a century and a half, the society 
removed to their present commodious 
and elegant building in Pallmall, East. 

COLLEGE, South Africa, an- 
nounced in the South African Gazette, 
to be opened on October 1, 1829 : pro- 
fessors appointed for the English, Dutch, 
French, and classical languages ; writing, 
arithmetic, geography, astronomy, ma- 
thematics, and m.echanics. 

COLLIN, H.J. Van, dramatic writer, 
born at Vienna, 1772, died 1811. 



COLLINGWOOD,Cuthbert,Vice 

Admiral LoRD,was]3ornat Newcastle- 
on-Tyne, Sept. 26, 1750. In l76l, at 
the early age of 11, he entered the navy. 
In 1775, he was made a lieutenant by 
Admiral Graves. In 1776, he was on 
the Jamaica station, as lieutenant of the 
Hornet sloop, when Nelson, then of the 
same rank, was in the Lowestoffe, and 
on the same service. From a very early 
period a close intimacy subsisted between 
these distinguished officers. CoUing- 
wood succeeded Nelson first, in the 
Lowestoffe, then in the Badger, of which 
ship Collingwood was commander in 
1779, and afterwards in the Hinchin- 
broke, which made them both post-cap- 
tains. The Hinchinbroke was, in the 
spring of 1780, employed on an expedi- 
tion to the Spanish Main, from whence 
it was proposed to pass into the South 
Sea, by opening a navigable communi- 
cation through the isthmus of Panama, 
along the river San Juan, and the lakes 
Nicaragua and Leon. The climate was 
deadly, and no constitution could resist 
its effects, so that, of his ship's com- 
company, he buried, in four months, 
180 of the 200 who composed it. 

From this service Collingwood was re- 
lieved in August, I780,and in the follow- 
ing year was wrecked, in the Pelican 
frigate, on the Morant Keys. After the 
peace of 1783, he was employed with his 
friend Nelson, in suppressing the illicit 
traffic carried on by the citizens of the 
United States, with the British West 
Indian islands. Here he remained till 
the latter end of 1786, when, during an 
interval of repose, he visited his native 
county, Northumberland. From hence, 
in 1790, he was again recalled to the 
West Indies ; but, returnhig to England 
that same year, he was engaged in battle 
on Jime 1, 1794; and, though he did 
his duty nobly, was capriciously over- 
looked by Lord Howe, in the distribution 
of medals. He was subsequently ap- 
pointed to the Excellent, and sailed to 
the Mediterranean. Here he again met 
with his old friend Nelson, in the com- 
mand of the captain, blockading Leg- 
horn. Both had their share in the battle 
of Feb. 14, 1797, off Cape St. Vincent; 
in which Nelson performed feats of va- 
lour, and CoUingwood was acknowledged 
by Lord St. Vincent, to have " contri- 
buted very much to the fortune of the 
day." 

When Lord St. Vincent informed him 



COL 



312 



COL 



that he was to receive one of the medals 
distributed on this occasion, he told the 
admiral, with great feeling and firmness, 
that he could not consent to receive a 
medal while that, for June 1, was with- 
held. " I feel," said he, " that I was 
then improperly passed over, and to re- 
ceive such a distinction now, would be to 
acknowledge the propriety of that in- 
justice." "That is precisely the answer 
I expected from you, Captain CoUing- 
wood," was Lord St. Vincent's reply. 
Soon after this, the two medals were 
transmitted, at the same time, by Lord 
Spencer, with a civil apology for some 
delay in transmitting that for June 1. 

1797. Captain Collingwood was again 
employed in the blockading system 
before Cadiz, in which harassing ser- 
vice, by the strictness of which the Spa- 
nish trade was ruined, he was continued 
till Jan. 1799. Having been advanced 
to the rank of a rear-admiral, he was 
ordered to hoist his flag on board the 
Triumph. In June, we find him with 
Lord Keith in the Mediterranean, en- 
gaged in the tedious blockade of Brest 
which followed. 

The short interval of peace in 1802, 
enabled Lord CoUingwood once more 
to return to Morpeth, his family seat. 
In the spring of 1803, he was once more 
called from his home, to which he never 
returned again. His first ship at this 
period, was the Venerable ; from her he 
shifted his flag to the Culloden, then to 
the Dreadnought ; and lastly into the 
Royal Sovereign. It was in this ship 
that he bore so conspicuous a part in 
the battle of Trafalgar. See Trafal- 
gar. 

Admiral Colhngwood's conduct in 
this battle was justly rewarded by his 
being raised to the peerage, by the title 
of Baron Collingwood, of Caldbourne 
and Hethpole, in the county of Nor- 
thumberland ; he also received the thanks 
of both houses of parliament ; and the 
grant of a pension of £2000, for his own 
life, and in the event of his death £1000. 
per annum to lady Collingwood, and 
£500, to each of his two daughters. 

After the battle of Trafalgar, Lord 
Collingwood received a commission as 
commander-in-chief of the Mediterra- 
nean station, to the same extent as that 
which Lord Nelson had held. This 
formed an entirely new era in his life, 
and no man could have filled the impor- 
tant station, or managed the various po- 



litical transactions in which he was ne- 
cessarily engaged, with more dignity, 
judgment and good effect, than he did. 
In all these varied transactions, he show- 
ed himself a profound, and provident, 
and truly English-hearted statesman. 
Indeed, so satisfied were the ministry 
with all his proceedings, that he was 
kept on this station, contrary to his 
ardent desire to return to the bosom of 
his family, till he was fairly worn out 
with anxiety, fatigue and disease, to 
which, at last, he fell a victim. 

He died at sea, the day after he set 
sail on his return to England, March 7, 
1810, a martyr to his high sense of pro- 
fessional duty. In his own words, " his 
life was his country's," and in her ser- 
vice it was sacrificed. It is observed by 
his biographer, that " the length and 
hardships of his sernce are without 
any parallel ; that, of fifty years nearly, 
during which he continued in the navy, 
about 44 were passed in active employ- 
ment, chiefly abroad; and that in the 
eventful period, from 1793 till his death 
in 1810, he was only one year in Eng- 
land, the remainder of the time being 
principally employed in tedious block- 
ades, rarely visiting a port ; that, on one 
occasion, he actually kept the sea for the 
almost incredible space of 22 months, 
without once dropping his anchor." 

COLLINS, John, mathematician, 
born 1624, died 1683. 

COLLINS, William, an admired 
English poet, was born at Chichester, in 
1720; received his early education at 
Winchester, after which he studied first 
at Queen's College, and afterwards at 
Magdalen College, Oxford. He applied 
himself to the study of poetry, and pub- 
lished his Oriental Eclogues, before he 
left the University. In 1746, he pub- 
lished his Odes, descriptive and allego- 
rical; but the sale of this work did not 
answer his expectations. He died in 
1756, at Chichester, aged 36. 

The following character of the poetry 
of Collins drawn by Mrs. Barbauld, is 
extracted from an essay prefixed to an 
edition of his works published in 1797. 
" He will be acknowledged to possess 
imagination, sweetness, bold and figura- 
tive language. His numbers dwell on 
the ear, and easily fix themselves in the 
memory. His vein of sentiment is by 
turns tender and lofty, always tinged 
with a degree of melancholy, but not 
possessing any claim to originality. His 



COL 



313 



COL 



originality consists in his manner, in the 
highly figurative garb in which he clothes 
abstract ideas, in the felicity of his ex- 
pressions, and his skill in embodying 
ideal creations." 

COLLINSON, Peter, an eminent 
botanist and antiquary, born Jan. 14, 
1693-4. In 1728, he became a fellow 
of the Royal Society. He died Aug. 11, 
1768. 

COLMAN, George, an English dra- 
matic writer, born at Florence about 
1733. He received the early part of his 
education at Westminster school, and 
was sent from thence to Christ Church, 
Oxford. He published in 1760, a 
dramatic piece of great humour, called 
Polly Honeycombej and the following 
year he gave to the world his comedy of 
the Jealous Wife. By the death of 
Lord Bath, he came to the possession of 
a handsome fortune, which was further 
augmented by the death of General Pul- 
teney, in 1767. He still continued to 
write for the stage, and produced in 
conjunction with Garrick, the Clandes- 
tine Marriage. He also translated the 
comedies of Terence into a kind of 
])lank verse, which gained him consi- 
derable applause. In 1768, he purchas- 
ed a share of Covent Garden Theatre, 
but this he soon disposed of, and made a 
purchase of the Haymarket Theatre, 
from Mr. Samuel Trote. His under- 
standing was much impaired by a stroke 
of the palsy, which seized him in 1785; 
in consequence of which, his son was 
entrusted with the management of the 
theatre. He died Aug. 1794, aged 62. 

COLMAN, George, the younger, 
was born Oct. 21, 1762, and was edu- 
cated at Westminster school. His fa- 
ther's residence was in Soho Square, 
whither he was permitted to repair on 
holidays ; and by this means he was, 
while a child, brought into the company 
of Johnson, Gibbon, Goldsmith, and 
that " constellation of genius," which 
crowded round his father's table. In 
1777, Colman, "the elder" being the 
proprietor of the little theatre in the 
Haymarket, the boy, who was now 
about 15 years of age, " after long and 
vehement suit," gained admittance to 
the green room of the theatB|, and the 
greater part of his midsummer holidays 
were ever after spent within its purlieus. 
In 1779, he left Westminster school, 
and became an under graduate in Christ 
Church, Oxford. 



1784. His first acknowledged play, 
called " Two to One," a musical comedy, 
was brought forward, June 29, and in- 
troduced to the public by an admirable 
prologue from the elder Colman, an- 
nouncing it to be from the pen of " a 
chip of the old block." Its success was 
prodigious. In the latter part of the 
year 1784 he eloped with Miss Catherine 
Morris, and was married to her at Gretna 
Green. In the summer of 1785, the 
elder Mr. Colman being seized with a 
paralysis, a sudden transition of fortune 
plunged the Colmans from affluence 
into penury. 

After his father's demise, George Col- 
man " the younger" reigned monarch of 
the Haymarket Theatre. He opened it 
for the season, 1795, with a very clever 
" occasional piece," entitled " New Hay 
at the Old Market," since called Sylves- 
ter Daggerwood. In 1807 he admitted 
partners into the concern of the Hay- 
market Theatre, not having money suf- 
ficient to carry it on alone. Through the 
kindness of the late king George IV. he 
was at length, in February 1824, relieved 
from these distresses by an appointment 
to the situation of licenser and examiner 
of plays. His emoluments were from 
£300 to £400 a year. He died October 
26, 1836. 

Besides the plays already mentioned, 
Mr. Colman wrote a great number of 
others, the principal of which were the 
following : — The opera of " Inkle and 
Yarico," first acted August 11, 1787; 
" The Mountaineers," " The Iron Chest," 
founded on Godwin's novel " Caleb 
WiUiams ;" " The Heir at Law," one of 
the best of his comedies, and the enter- 
tainment of "Blue Beard," the latter 
first acted June 16, 1798 ; "John Bull," 
a comedy, in 1805 ; " We Fly by Night," 
a farce, in 1806 ; "The Africans," a play, 
in 1808 ; " The Law of Java," rather a 
dull musical drama, in 1822 ; together 
with countless lively prologues and epi- 
logues. 

COLNETT, James, who was the first 
explorer of the western coast of Japan, 
died 1683. 

COLOCOTRONI, and the other con- 
spirators against the Greek government 
were tried, and found guilty ; sentence 
of death commuted into 20 years' im- 
prisonment, June 24, 1834. 

COLOGNE, ancient town of Ger- 
many. The Romans gave it the name 
of Colonia Agrippina, from Agrippina, 

2 S 



COL 



314 



COL 



(the mother of Nero,) who was born 
here. The cathedral, or minster of St. 
Peter, was begun about the year 1248. 
Tlie university was established in 1388. 
The French suppressed it, and erected in 
its place a central school, or Ij'ceum. 
Cologne carried on a considerable trade 
with England, and obtained several im- 
portant privileges in the Steel Yard. In 
1814 it was made over to Prussia. The 
fortifications were restored in 1815, and 
strengthened by a chain of casemated 
towers. Tlie city of Dentz, on the op- 
posite bank of the river, is also fortified, 
completing the double tete de pont. 

COLO MB propagated Christianity 
among the Picts, 565. 

COLOSSUS OF Rhodes, one of 
the wonders of the world, a brazen statue 
of Apollo, so high, tiiat ships passed 
with full sails betwixt its legs. It was 
the workmanship of Chares, a disciple 
of Lysippus, wlio spent 12 years in 
making it. It was at length overthrown 
by an earthquake, a.c. 224. after having 
stood about 66 years. The colossus 
lay neglected on the ground for the 
sj)ace of 896 years, at the expiration 
of which ))eriod, or aiiout A.D. 6/2, 
Moawyas, the sixth caliph, or emperor 
of the Saracens, made himself master of 
Rhodes, and afterwards sold their statue, 
reduced to fragments, to a Jewish mer- 
chant, who loaded 900 camels with the 
metal ; so that allowinj/ 800 pounds 
weight for each load, the brass of the co- 
lossus, after the diminution which it had 
sustained l)y rust, and ]»robably by theft, 
amounted to 720,000 pounds weight. 

COLSTON, Edvitard, institutor of 
several charitable establishments, born 
1636, died 1721. 

COLTON, Rev. Caleb, the author 
of " Lacon," died April 28, 1832. 

COLUMBIA, or Colombia, one of 
the new republics of South America, ari- 
sing out of the struggle of the Spanish co- 
lonies for independence. See America. 
At first it consisted of one state, com- 
prising the north-western division of 
the vast peninsula of South America, 
including the isthmus of Panama. The 
constitution was formed at a congress 
assembled at Cucuta, July 18, 1821. 
The legislative power was vested in a 
congress consisting of two bodies — the 
senate, and the house of representatives. 
Every four years the body of the people 
were appointed to assemble and choose 
electors of the canton, who formed a 



provisional assembly, meeting on the 1st 
of October, llie executive was vested 
in a president and vice-president, the 
former of whom must have the qualifi- 
cations of a senator. This office was 
filled by general Bolivar. But about 
1826 the spirit of ci^dl discord tore to 
pieces the infant republic, and the de- 
partment of Venezuela, in particular, 
having declared itself independent of the 
central government, established a system 
of polity of its own, with general Paez 
at its head. Other convulsions after- 
wards distuibed the republic. 

1828. Insurrection and discovery of 
a conspiracy against tlie government, 
and the influence of Bolivar, of which 
General Padilla was the head. The in- 
surrection \Aas suppressed immediately 
by General Montilla, and Padilla saved 
himself by flight. This was followed 
by the proclamation of martial-law 
throughout the province. In 1830, se- 
paration between Venezuela and Bogota, 
and a new constitution framed. Bolivar 
resigned the presidency and died Dec. 
17, 1831. See Bolivar. 

1832. The contending interests of 
the separate states of Columbia, which 
the supremacy of Bolivar had for a time 
suppressed, but without preventing the 
conjtant increase of jealousy and dis- 
sension, now produced their natural 
fruits. The republic fell in pieces, and 
out of its fragments were formed three dif- 
ferent commonwealths, Venezuela, New 
Grenada, and the Equator or Uruguay. 

1833. A conspiracy to overthrow the 
government was discovered at Bogota. 
July 23, was fixed upon for making the 
attempt, but the plot was detected, and 
of the 70 conspirators, all except five, 
were apprehended. In this year, ail 
the })ortions of the republic, were 
agitated in regard to the payment of 
the Columbian debt. The congress of 
Venezuela passed a decree for determin- 
ing the relations between it and the 
other two Columbian states, taking mea- 
sures for the liquidation of the debt, 
declaring that the engagements entered 
into when these states were united, had 
not become less binding in consequence 
of their separation, and directing the 
executive to enter immediately into such 
stipulations with the government of New 
Grenada and the Equator, as might be 
necessary for the liquidation and divi- 
sion of the general debt contracted by 
Columbia. 




Columbus fixsi lands ai S' Salvado 
Coliraibus lands at TseLbella and Mils anAllig'al.or. The Natives assist C61-um>nis rn u-nlcfedirrp" the wreck at Pantg San. 

IheCaribbces attack the Spaniards 



LONDON: THOMAS KELLY, 1840. 



COL 



315 



COL 



COLUMBO. the modern capital of 
Ceylon. In 1656, the town and fortress 
were taken from the Portuguese by the 
Dutch, in wliose possession they remain- 
ed until 1796, when ihey were captured 
by the English, and subsequently ceded 
to them by tlie treaty of Amiens. 

COLUMBUS,"Christopher. the 
celebrated navigator, and discoverer of 
America, was a citizen of the republic of 
Genoa, born in 1447. Having attained 
with surprising quickness a competent 
knowledge of geometry, astronomy, and 
the theory of navigation, he went to sea 
at the age of 14. His first voyages were 
to those parts of the Mediteranean fre- 
quented by the Genoese, after which he 
took a voyage to Iceland, and proceeding 
further north, advanced several degrees 
within the polar circle. Having enter- 
tained the notion that, by sailing across 
the Atlantic ocean, directly towards the 
west, new countries, which he supposed 
formed a part of the vast continent of 
India, must infallibly be discovered, in 
1474, he communicated his ideas on this 
Bubject to his contemporary Paul, a 
physician of Florence, a man eminent 
for his knowledge of cosmography and 
geometry, who encouraged him to secure 
the patronage of some of the European 
powers. 

Many years were spent in fruitless 
attempts "to accomplish this end, and 
Columbus was treated as a visionary, 
who would doubtless perish in making 
so desperate an attempt. At length,- 
he gamed the approbation of Isabella, 
queen of Portugal, and a treaty was 
signed with Columbus, April 17, 1492. 
The chief articles of it were, that Co- 
lumbus should be constituted admiral 
of all the seas, islands, and continents 
he should discover, with the same powers 
and prerogatives that belonged to the 
admiral of Castile, within the limits of 
his jurisdiction. 

1492. Columbus sailed August 3, 
and after many difficulties, discovered 
San Salvadore, October 12, and after- 
wards most of the "Bahama or Lucayo 
group, with the islands of Cuba and 
Hispaniola. 

1493. Columbus returned to Europe, 
and arrived at Palos, in Spain, March 
15. As soon as his ship was discovered, 
the inhabitants ran eagerly to the shore, 
to welcome their relations and fellow- 
citizens, and to learn the tidings of their 
voyage. Columbus repaired to the court, 



then at Barcelona, where he was received 
with all the respect and honours due to 
his great achievements. He set off on 
his second voyage in September, in the 
course of which he discovered Dominica, 
Mariengalante, fiuadalonpe, Montserrat, 
Antigua, Porto Rico, and Jamaica. 

1496. Columbus returned to Sjiaia 
disgraced, through the envious and mu- 
tinous temper of the colonists. The 
dignity of his conduct silenced his ene- 
mies, and, with the assistance of the gold 
and precious commodities which he had 
brought with him, he recovered the good 
opmion of his sovereigns. They resolved 
to make every exertion to render the 
new colony a permanent and com])lete 
establishment, i)y sending out such re- 
inforcements as Columbus thought neces- 
sary for the purpose. 

1498. Columbus sailed a third time 
to the west, and discovered the Ameri- 
can continent, near the mouth of the 
river Oroonoko, August 1. During his 
absence, a rautiny.had been excited, and 
some of his people had seceded from tlie 
main body. New complaints were se- 
cretly transmitted to court against him 
and his brothers. Columbus was then 
recalled, and Francis de Bovadilla ap- 
pointed in his stead. On his arrival in 
Spain, he was instantly set at liberty, 
and treated with that civility and kind- 
ness from the king and queen which he 
had formerly experienced. 

1502. He made a fourth voyage, and 
on arriving off St. Domingo, he found 
eighteen ships, richly laden, ready to 
depart for Europe. His own experience 
led him to perceive an approaching storm; 
he accordingly requested permission to 
enter the harbour, and at the same time 
warned the fleet of the dangers to which 
it would infallibly be exposed by sailing 
at that juncture. His request and his 
warning were equally disregarded. The 
hurricane came on, and though, by pro- 
per precautions, he saved his own vessel, 
it fell upon the fleet with so much vio- 
lence, that only two or three vessels es- 
caped ; and Bovadilla, with several others 
of his most inveterate enemies, perished 
with all their ill-gotten wealth. In jmr- 
suing his voyage, he traced the coast of 
Darien, in hopes of discovering a strait, 
which he imagined would open a new 
track to the East Indies. 

On his voyage, he was driven back by 
a violent tempest, from the coast of Cuba, 
his ships fell foul of one another, and_ 



COM 



316 



COM 



were so much shattered by the shock, 
that, with the utmost difficulty, they 
reached Jamaica. Here he endured the 
greatest calamities, as well from the 
mutinous dispositions of his own men, 
as from the suspicions of the natives, 
who refused to supply them with pro- 
visions, till by his skill in astronomy, he 
predicted the event of an approaching 
eclipse, a circumstance that gave him an 
irresistible authority over their minds. 
Columbus was at length delivered by a 
fleet sent from Hispaniola; and, after 
various difficulties, he arrived at St. 
Lucar, in Spain, in December, 1504. 

Isabella being dead, he applied to the 
king, who only amused him with pro- 
mises, and instead of granting his claims, 
insulted him with the proposal of re- 
nouncing them all for a pension. Ex- 
hausted with the calamities which he had 
endured, and broken with the infirmities 
which these brought upon him, he died 
at ValladoUd, May 20, 1506, in the 59th 
year of his age. He was buried in the 
cathedral at Seville, and on his tomb was 
engraven an epitaph, in memory of his 
renowned actions and discovery of a 
new world. 

COLUMBUS, Barthol., map and 
chart-maker, brother of the preceding, 
died 1514. 

COLUMELLA, Lucius Junius 
MoDERATUS, a Roman agricultural 
writer, was a native of Cadiz, and lived 
under the emperor Claudius, about 42. 
He is chiefly celebrated as the author of 
a work which has come down to our 
own times, entitled " De Re Rustica," 
and which contains, in 12 books, rules 
concerning the culture of various vege- 
tables, and the management of domestic 
animals. 

COLUMN of fire appeared in the air 
at Rome, 30 days, 390. 

COMBE Abbey, Warwickshire, built 
1150. 

COMBE, William, author of " The 
Tour of Dr. Syntax in search of the Pic- 
turesque," " Devil on Two-Sticks, in 
England," and several other works, died 
1823. 

COMBERMERE Abbey, Cheshire, 
built 1134. 

COMBINATIONS amongst journey- 
men forbidden by law, June 2, 1799. 

COMBUSTION, Spontaneous, of 
trees, grass, &c. in the church-yard of 
Plain Palais, Geneva; and of the roots of 
trees, at the village of Magland, Savoy, 



Aug. 1832. Of a fountain in Italy, 
May, 1833. Of turpentine in Mr. Mur- 
phy's turpentine distillery, Ireland, May 
25, 1836, 

COMEDY, the first acted in Athens, 
on a scaffold, by Susarian and Dolon, 
A. c. 562 ; those of Terence first acted 
A.c. 154; the first in England, A. D. 1551. 
See Drama. 

COMENIUS, J. Amos, Moravian 
grammarian, died 1671. 

COMET, a heavenly body which re- 
volves about the sun, though in a far 
more eccentic orbit. Many of the ancient 
Chaldeans considered comets as lasting 
bodies, having stated revolutions like the 
planets. But the Greeks supposed that 
a comet was a vast assemblage of small 
stars meeting together, by reason of the 
inequality of their motions. Pythagoras 
about A.c. 512, believed them to be a 
kind of planets or wandering stars, dis- 
appearing in the superior parts of their 
orbits, and becoming visible only in the 
lower parts of them. Seneca, who lived 
in the first century, was the first who 
entertained just notions of comets. He 
foretold that at some future time, their 
nature would be known, their magnitude 
demonstrated, and their routes explained. 

Several ages elapsed before this pre- 
diction was fulfilled. Tycho Brahe was 
the first who attempted to restore the 
comets to their proper rank in the 
creation. Having diligently observed 
the comet of 1577, and finding that it 
'had no sensible diurnal parallax, he very 
properly determined its true place to be 
among the other revolving bodies in the 
planetary regions, as appears by his book 
De Cometa, 1577- 

According to Hevehus, the diameter 
of the comet of 1652, was to that of the 
earth as 52 to 100. Flamsteed measured 
the comet of 1682, and found that the 
diameter of its atmosphere was 2' while 
that of the nucleus was no more than 11" 
or 12". The diameter of the comet of 
1744, when at the distance of the sun 
from us, measured about l', consequently 
its diameter must have been about three 
times that of the earth. 

Comets traverse all parts of the hea- 
vens; their paths have every possible in- 
clination to the plane of the ecliptic. 
The identity of the elements is the 
only proof of the return of a comet to 
our system. 

Halley's comet. Halley comput- 
ed the elements of the orbit of a comet 



COM 



that appeared in the year 1682, which 
agreed so nearly with those of the 
comets of 1531 and 1607, that he con- 
cluded it to be the same body returning 
to the sun, at intervals of about 75 years. 
He consequently predicted its re-appear- 
ance in the year 1758, or in the begin- 
ning of 1759. Science was not suffi- 
ciently advanced in the time of Halley 
(who died in 1742,) to enable him to de- 
termine the perturbations, or irregulari- 
ties of motion, this comet might expe- 
rience ; but Ciairaut computed that it 
would be retarded in its motion a hun- 
dred days by the attraction of Saturn, 
and 518 by that of Jupiter, and conse- 
quentlj-^, that it would pass its perihelion 
about the middle of April, 1759, requir- 
ing 618 days more to arrive at that 
point in its preceding revolution. This, 
however, he considered only to be an ap- 
proximation, and that it might be 30 days 



Pontecoulant 

Long, perih. on the orbit.. 304° 31' 43" 

Long. asc. node 55 30 

Inclination 17 44 24 

Eccentricity '9675212 

Semiaxis major 17"98705 

Perihel. passage ; Paris mean 

time — from midnight. 1835, Nov. 

Besides Halley's comet, the following 
are now proved to form part of our system; 
that is to say, they return to the sun at 
intervals, one of 1207 days, and the other 
of six and three-quarter years, nearly. 

Encke's comet, or the comet of the 
short period, was first seen by M. M. 
Messier and Mechain in 1786, again by 
Miss Herschel in 1795, and its returns 
in the years 1805 and 1819, were ob- 
served by other astronomers, under the 
impression that all four were diflferent 
bodies. However, Professor Encke not 
only proved their identity, but deter- 



317 COM 

more or less : the return of the comet, 
March 12, 1759, proved the truth of the 
prediction. M. M. Damolseau and Pon- 
tecoulent predicted that this comet would 
return in Nov. 1835. 

By observations made at the obser- 
vatory at Rome, we learn that a comet 
answering to the description, was visible 
there so early as the month of August, 
1835, and it is well known that it was 
seen in England in September of the 
same year, and continued visible for 
several months. This is the first comet 
whose periodicity has been established ; 
it is also the first whose elements have 
been determined from observations made 
in Europe. The resulting sets of ele- 
ments by diflferent observers are here 
given in which the longitude of the peri^- 
helion is reckoned on the orbit instead 
of on the ecliptic. 



Damoiseau . 

304° 27' 24" 

55 nP 7 

17 41 5 

•9673055 

17"9852 



Lubbock 

304° 23' 39" 

55 3 59 

17 42 50 

967348 

17-98355 



7*2 1835, Nov. 4-32 1835,Oct. 301993 

mined the circumstances of the comet's 
motion. Its re-appearance in the years 
1825, 1828, and 1832, accorded with the 
orbit assigned by M. Encke, who thus 
established the length of its period to 
be 1207 days, nearly. 

Ephemeris of Encke's comet, near the 
time of its passing the perihelion, in the 
year 1832; computed from the follow- 
ing elements of its orbit, as corrected 
from the latest observations, and for 
the principal perturbations, up to Jan. 
1832 :— 



Passage of the perihelion 1832, May 3, 98444. 

Longitude of the perihelion on the orbit. . 

Longitude of the ascending node 334 

Inclination 13. 

Eccentricity sm. 57. 

Mean daily motion 

Log. of the semi-axis major 



Meantime at Greenwich. 

157° 21' 2", 4 
32. 5, 2 
22. 12, 3 
43. 6, 3 
107r',09598 
0,3467855 



i 
sin. <p 

m 
log. a 



Biela's Comet. The other comet 
belonging to our system, which returns 
to its perihelion after a period of 6f 
years, has been accelerated in its mo- 
tion by a whole day during its last re- 



volution. It was discovered by M 
Biela at Johannisberg, Feb. 27, 1826, 
and 10 days afterwards, it was seen by 
M. Gambart at Marseilles, who comput- 
ed its parabolic elements, and found 



COM 318 COM 

that they a{i;reed with those of the co- tober 29, 1832, a little before midnight, 
mets which had appeared in the years Ephemeris of the comet of six and 

1789, and 1795, whence he concluded three-quarter years, near the time of 

them to be the same body movintj in an its passing the perihelion, in the year 

ellipse, and accomplishing its revolution 1832, by Thomas Henderson, Esq. ; 

in 2460 days. The perturbations of computed from the following elements 

this comet were computed by M. Da- of its orbit, as deduced by M. Damoi- 

moiseau, who predicted that it would seau from M. Gambart's Elements for 

cross the plane of the ecliptic, Oc- 1826. 

Passage of the Perihelion 1832, Nov. 26, 9743. 

Meantime at Greenwich. 

Longitude of the perihelion on the orbit 109° 56' 45" ir 

Longitude of the ascending node 248. 12. 24 Q 

Inclination 13. 13. 13 t 

Eccentricity sin. 48. 44. 31 J sin. ^ 

Log. of the semiaxis major 0,5486. 142 log. a 

TheNewComet. 1839. At 28 minutes seen at the Cambridge Observatory on 

after three in the morning of Decern- the mornings of Dec. 28, 29, 30, 1839; 

ber 9, Encke observed a new comet and Jan. 2 and 3, 1840. The api)arent 

at the Royal Observatory at Berlin, right ascensions and declinations, (exclu- 

where he found its right ascension to be sive of corrections for parallax,) were 

13 hours, 42 minutes, and 44 seconds; found on those days to be nearly as fol- 

its southern dechnation being 11 minutes lows, at the subjoined times from Green- 

and 30 seconds. This comet was also wich, mean midnight. 

Time from midniKht. ^ Right ascension. Declination, 

h. m. h. m. s. deg. m. s. 

5 59,83 16 29 50 3 • 21 23 N. 

5 52,74 16 37 37 3 13 31 

6 9.54 16 45 15 3 14 20 

7 14,45 17 7 3 2 53 40 
5 54,94 17 13 29 2 44 20 

The following table contains a list of Years. Per. Dist. Calculated by 

the principal comets that have been pro- 1759 80139 Pmgre. 

perly observed during the last and the 1759 96599 La Caille. 

present century. The whole number on 1759 96180 Chappe. 

record is said to exceed 500. 1762 101415 Maraldi. 

Years. Perihel. Calculated by ^763 49876 Pmgr^. 

Distance. 1764 55522 Pingre. 

1702 64590 La Caille. 1766 50532 Pingre. 

1706 42581 La Caille. 1766 33275 Pingre'. 

1707 86350 Houtteryn. 1769 12376 De la Lande. 
1707 85974 La Caille. 1770 62959 Pingre'. 
1718 102655 La Caille. 1770 67438 Le.xell. 
1723 99865 Bradley. 1770 52824 Pingre. 
1729 406980 Douwes. 1771 90576 Pingre'. 
1737 22282 Bradley. 1772 101814 De la Lande. 
1739 67160 Zanotti. 1773 113390 Pingre. 

1742 76555 Struyck. 1774 142525 De Saron. 

1743 83811 Struyck. 1779 71322 De Saron. 

1743 52057 KUiikenberg. 1780 9781 Lexell. 

1744 22206 Belts & Bliss. 1781 1027558 Boscovich. 
1744 22250 La Caille. 1781 77586 Mecbain. 

1747 229388 Cheseaux. 1781 96101 Mechain 

1748 84066 Maraldi. 1786 Encke's (see above) Messier, &c. 
1748 65525 Struyck. 1795 Ditto Herschel. 

1757 33754 Bradley. 1826 Biela's (see above) Henderson. 

1758 21535 Pingre. 1835 (Halley's (do.) Sundrv ob 

1759 58255 Messier. servers. 
1759 58360 Maraldi. 1839 New comet (do.) Encke. 



O M 



319 



COM 



COM 1 NES, Philip de. celebrated 
historian, born in Flanders 1445, entered 
the service of Louis XI. of France, 1472, 
died 1509. 

COMMANDMENTS given to 
Moses, A. c. 1401. 

COMMANDMENTS, Creed, and 
Lord's Prayer, translated into the Saxon 
language, 781. 

COMMEKCE. Athens and Corinth 
were the chief commercial cities of 
Greece. It is prohable that they traded 
to all the ports of Asia Minor and 
Italy. The Romans attached but little 
importance to commercial pursuits ; but 
when the empire was overrun by bar- 
barians, some straggling people laid 
the foundation of the city and republic 
of Venice, which became the mart of 
all nations, and mistress of the sea. 
This example was followed by Genoa 
and Pisa, till the 14ih century, when 
Constantinople became the only great 
commercial city. It was about this 
time, 1362, that an Italian, a citizen of 
Amalti, discovered the use of the com- 
pass. 

In the reign of Elizabeth a spirit of 
enterprise was spread through England, 
by the wise laws and prudent manage- 
ment of that queen and her minister 
Cecil. The first step to improvement 
was the discovery of a passage to Arch- 
angel, and, by tliis means, a free trade 
was opened with Russia. The nation 
had, for some time, eagerly sought some 
means of commencing a direct trade 
with India, and the rich prizes captured 
by Sir Walter Raloigb, near the Azores, 
laid tlie foundation of the East India 
Company, about 1600. 

In the reign of Charles II., the quan- 
tity of shijjping greatly increased, so that 
at the revolution, it was found to be 
nearly double. It was also computed 
that the rental of England was nearly 
tripled, the circulation quadrupled, and 
the capital increased five times, between 
the years 1600 and 1688 ; and since that 
period, the ratio of increase has been 
scarcely less remarkable. These facts 
are usually considered as proofs of in- 
creasing national wealth. 

The commerce of Britain is almost 
without a rival. The exports consist 
chiefly of her manufactured articles. 
In 1838, the quantity of manufactures 
and produce exported was valued at 
above 50 millions sterling. 

COMMERCIAL Philanthropic 



Society, instituted 1321, — Travellers' 
Society, 1831. 

COMMISSIONERS op sewers 
first ajijjointed, 1425. 

COMMISSIONERS of public ac- 
counts appointed, 1780. 

COMMODUS, Lucius Aurelius 
Antoninus, the Roman emperor, suc- 
ceeded his father in 180. He was na- 
turally cruel and fond of indulging his 
licentious propensities, but at the soh- 
citation of his concubine Martia, re- 
mitted the persecution of the christians. 
In 181, he made peace with the German 
tribes and entered Rome in triumph. 
He was poisoned by Martia on Dec. 31, 
192, aged 31. 

COMMON-COUNCIL of London 
first ajipointed, 1208. 

COMMON-PLEAS, court of, esta- 
blished 1215, erected in Westminster- 
hall, 1741. Opening of the court to the 
bar by warrant, April 25, 1834. The 
warrant, after reciting the inconvenience 
occasioned by the enjoyment of the mo- 
nopoly of pleading in term by the Ser- 
jeants of the common pleas, directed 
that all barristers should be at liberty, 
after the first day of Trinity term, to 
plead in that as in the other courts, 

COMMON-PRAYER pubhshed in 
English, with the authority of parlia- 
ment, 1548. 

COMMUTATION Tax commenced, 
1784. 

COMORN, a town of Hungary, 
taken in 1543, by Sultan Solyman, 
sacked by the Turks in 1594, by the Im- 
perialists in 1597, by the Turks again in 
1598. It was nearly destroyed by fire 
in 1767, again in 1768, and shattered by 
earthquakes in 1763 and 17S3. 

COMPASS, Seaman's, invented in 
China, a.c. 1120; said to be used at 
Venice, a.d. 1260 ; improved at Naples, 
1302; its variations observed, 1500; 
its dipping, 1576, 

COMPOSTELLA, University of. 
Spain, founded, 1517. 

COMPOUNDS, New Chemical. 
On April 23, 1838, Dr. Apjohn commu- 
nicated to the Royal Irish Academy a 
paper upon the subject of a new and 
very complicated compound, consisting 
of iodine, iodide of potassium, and the 
essential oil of cinnamon. Stated to have 
been first observed in 1837, in a solution 
prescribed by a medical gentleman of 
Diiblin, of iodine and iodide of potassium 
in cinnamon- water. As the result of 



CON 



320 



CON 



several experiments, the author arrived 
at the following numbers, expressing the 
composition of 100 parts of the com- 
pound. 

Iodide of potassium. . . . 12.55 

Iodine 28.14 

Oil of cinnamon 59.31 

100 
Prof. Johnston, the same year, described 
to the British Association, a compound of 
sulphate of lime, deposited from a high- 
pressure boiler, containing half an atom 
of water. The compound was in the 
form of a powder, and its composition 
was considered interesting, inasmuch as 
it contained a different quantity of water 
to any other composition of the kind. 

M. Fritche discovered a new compound 
of sulphate of magnesia and water; when 
a concentrated solution of sulphate of 
magnesia is exposed to the temperature 
of freezing water, there soon forms, in 
the midst of small lamellar crystals of 
ice, a salt, white as enamel. When large 
masses of this solution are allowed to 
cool during the winter, the salt often 
separates in crystals of a finger's length ; 
and by gently thawing the liquid, they 
may be separated, for they undergo no 
change in water at 32°, These crystals 
could not be dried even between folds 
of blotting-paper, without losing some 
water, and becoming slightly opaque at 
the surface : submitted to analysis, the 
crystals were found to consist very 
nearly of — 

One eq. of sulphate of 

magnesia 60 — 35.77 

Twelve eqs. of water. . . 108 — 64.23 

168 100 
COMPTERS OF London, built near 
Newgate, 1789 to 1791; cost £20,473. 
CONCA, Cavalier Sebastian, a 
celebrated historical painter, was born 
at Gaeta in 1676. Amongst his large 
works at Rome, the "Assumption, at the 
Church of St Martino;" andthe" Prophet 
Jonas, at St. Diovanni Laterano," are of 
the best. He died in 1764. 

CONCEPTION, La, city. South 
America, republic of Chili, founded in 
1550, by Peter Valdivia; overthrown by 
an earthquake, April 2, 1750; suffered 
from the memorable earthquake, Feb. 20, 
1835. It commenced at 40 minutes after 
11. In less than six seconds the whole city 
was in ruins. About half-an-hour after 
the shock, an enormous wave was seen 
forcing its way through the western pas- 



sage which separates Quinquina island 
from the mainland, passed rapidly along 
the western side of the bay of Concep- 
tion, sweeping the steep shores of every 
thing moveable within 30 feet (vertically) 
from high-water mark. So little was the 
ground at rest after the great ruin, that, 
between the 20th of February and the 
4th of March, more than 300 shocks were 
counted. Much misery was alleviated 
by the good conduct and extreme hospi- 
tality of the inhabitants of Conception. 

CONCERT, the first subscription one 
was at Oxford, 1665; the first at London 
in 1678. 

CONCLAVE, an assembly of all the 
cardinals that are at Rome, shut up for 
the election of a pope ; had its rise in 
the 13th century, on the following oc- 
casion : Clement IV. being dead at Vi- 
terbo, in 1268, the cardinals were nearly 
three years, namely, from the 29th of 
November, 1268, to the 1st of September 
1271, without being able to agree on 
the election of a successor. The magis- 
trates of Viterbo, by the advice of 
St. Bonaventure, shut the gates of 
their city, and locked up the cardinals 
in the pontifical palace adjoining to the 
cathedral, till they were brought to a bet- 
ter understanding. Hence arose the cus- 
tom, which has since prevailed, of shut- 
ting up the cardinals in a single palace 
till thev have elected the pope. 

CONCORD, order of knighthood, 
began in Brandenburg, 1660. 

CONCORDANCE, a dictionary or 
index to the Bible. Cardinal Hugo de 
St. Charo, employed 500 monks at the 
same time in compiling a Latin concor- 
dance. R. Mordecai Nathan has furnished 
us with a Hebrew concordance, first 
printed at Venice in 1523. But the best 
and most useful Hebrew concordance is 
that of Buxtorf, printed at Basil in 1632. 
Dr. Taylor pubhshed, in 1754, a Hebrew 
concordance in two volumes folio, adapt- 
ed to the Enghsh Bible, and disposed 
after the manner of Buxtorf. 

1718. Trommins published his Greek 
concordance for the Septuagint at Am- 
sterdam, in two volumes folio ; and 
Schmidius improving on a similar work 
of H. Stephen, has given an excellent 
Greek concordance for the New Testa- 
ment, the best edition of which, is that of 
Leipsic, in 1717. Calasius, an Italian 
cordelier, has given us concordances of 
the Hebrew, Latin, and Greek, in two co- 
lumns, 4 vols, folio, printed at Rome, 1621. 



CON 



321 



CON 



We have several very copious con- 
cordahces in England ; but the last and 
best esteemed is that in 4to. by Alex- 
ander Cruden, the first edition of which 
was published, 1737. 

CONCORDAT, used among the 
French, for an agreement concluded at 
Bologna in 1516, between Pope Leo X. 
and Francis I. of France, for regulating 
the manner of nominating to benefices. 
A concordat was made between Buona- 
parte and Pope Pius VII., in 1801 ; and 
aftenvards confirmed by the same pope 
in 1802. 

CONDAMINE, Charles Maria 
DK LA, a French philosopher, born at 
Paris in 1701. He had been for some 
time an active member of the Society of 
Arts, when, in 1730, he was admitted 
into the Academy of Sciences at Paris. 
When the academy undertook to mea- 
sure a degree of the meridian and of the 
equator in Peru, in 1736, Condamine 
was one appointed to carry it into exe- 
cution. In 1760, he was admitted a 
member of the Academy of Inscriptions 
and Belles Lettres ; and paid a visit to 
England in 1763, where he was admitted 
fellow of the Royal Society. He died 
February 4, 1774, aged 73. 

CONDE', Lours I., de Bourbon, 
was born in 1530. On the death of 
Henry II., he made himself active among 
the Huguenots. In 1569, he was shot 
at the battle of Jarnac. 

CONDE', Louis II., de Bourbon, 
prince of, commonly known by the ap- 
pellation of the Great Conde. In 1642, 
at the age of 22, he obtained the com- 
mand of the army destined to defend 
Champagne and Picardy, from the in- 
vasion of the Spaniards; and the signal 
victory he obtained over them at Rocroi, 
made him from that time considered as 
the guardian genius of his country. Af- 
ter many signal conquests, in which he 
was ill treated by the court, being af- 
flicted with the gout, he refused the 
command of the army in 1676. He then 
retired to Chantilly, where he was as 
much esteemed for the virtues of peace, 
as he had formerly been for his military 
talents. He died in l686,at Fontainbleau. 

CONDORCET, Jean Antoine, 
Nicholas Caritat, marquis of, born 
in 1743, and educated at the college of 
Navarre. He first attracted the attention 
of the public as a mathematician, by his 
" Treatise on Integral Calculations, " 
which he composed at the age of 22. He 



was admitted into the academy in 1782, 
on which occasion he pronounced an 
oration on the influence of philosophy. 
On the death of D'Alembert, which 
happened that year, he succeeded to the 
station of secretary. The writings of 
Condorcet and his associates, unques- 
tionably accelerated the French revolu- 
tion of 1789- He was author of the 
manifesto addressed to the European 
powers by the people of France, on the 
approach of war. During the violent 
struggle between the Gironde and Moun- 
tain parties, Condorcet took no decided 
part with either, but having employed 
his pen against the monster Robespierre, 
a decree was issued against him in July, 
1793. He, however, found means to 
conceal himself for several months. 
Worn out at length with hunger and 
fatigue, he was apprehended and con- 
signed to a dungeon, where he expired, 
as is supposed, from poison. 

CONFEDERATION of the Rhine, 
an act by which, in the year 1806, dur- 
ing the reign of Buonaparte in France, 
several German states, situated between 
the Rhine and the Maine, separated 
themselves from the Germanic body, and 
associated cis confederated states of the 
Rhine, under the protection of the French 
empire. A similar confederation pro- 
fessedly for securing the tranquillity of 
Germany, and independence of its dif- 
ferent states was signed at Vienna, June 
8, 1815. See Holy Alliance. 

CONFESSION, Auricular, intro- 
duced 1254. 

CONFIRMATION supposed to have 
first taken place 190. 

CONFUCIUS, or Kung-foo-tsze, 
the most celebrated ancient philosopher 
of China, born in the reign of the Em- 
peror Ling-te, about a.c. 550 ; therefore 
contemporary with Pythagoras, and prior 
to the public appearance of Socrates. 
He formed a plan for general reforma- 
tion both in morals and politics, and his 
councils were for some time productive 
of the most beneficial consequences. 
But finding that vice was every where 
triumphant, he was induced to adopt the 
employment of a teacher of youth. He 
finished his honourable career in the 
72nd year of his age, in his native 
country Loo. 

The productions of his pen, which 
rank in the first class of the King, or 
canonical books, are 1. A commentary 
on the lines of Fo-shee, which forms 

2 T 



C ON 



32'J 



CON 



the principal part of the book Y-king ; 

2. The second canonical book, called 
Shoo-king, a collection of the earliest 
historical records of the Chinese nation ; 

3. A book of his maxims, collected by 
his disciples, and forming part of the 
canonical book called Le-ke ; 4. The 
fifth canonical book called Chun-tsew ' 
consisting of the annals of his native 
country, the kingdom of Loo, cora- 
mencincr a.c. 722. 

CONGO, a kingdom of Africa, dis- 
covered by the Portuguese in 1484, and 
at that time very populous ; but little 
known to Europeans till the expedition 
under Captain Tuckey, in 1816, and that 
under Captain Owen, in 1822, who both 
explored the river Conn^o. 

CONGRESS OF America, abolished 
the British authority in the American 
colonies, May 5, 1776. 

CONGRESS OF Vienna, which pro- 
duced that confederation termed, " the 
Holy Alliance," September 26, 1815. 

CONGRESS AT Aix-la-Ch.\pelle, 
when the plenipoteniiaries of Russia, 
Au.stria. Prussia, and Great Britain 
agreed, that the allied troops should 
quit the French territory on payment 
of the subsidy remaining due of 2C5 
millions of francs, October 9, 1818. 

CONGREVE. William, a celebrated 
writer of English drama, born in Ireland 
in 1672. His first performance was a 
novel entitled " Love and Duty Recon- 
ciled." In 1694, he produced the "Dou- 
ble Dealer." In 1695, Betterton opened 
his new theatre with Congreve's comedy 
of "Love for Love;" which was followed 
in 1697, by his tragedy of the "Mourn- 
ing Bride;" both of which gained him 
great reputation. Soon after he pub- 
lished his last and best play, "The Way 
of the World." This not meeting with 
so much a])plause as the former ones, 
he determined never more to write for 
the stage. In the year 1718, he was 
appointed secretary for Jamaica; so that 
the greatest part of the last 20 years of 
his life was spent in ease and retirement 
He died January 19, 1729, aged 57. 

CONGREVE, Sir William, inven- 
tor of the rocket which bears his name 
born May 20, 1772, was the eldest son 
of lieutenant general Sir William Con- 
greve, the first baronet of the name. In 
1808 he first invented that formidable 
engine of warfare, the Congreve Rocket, 
which he succeeded in establishing as a 
permanent instrument of the nnlitary and 



naval tactics of the country, and which 
foreign nations have found it necessary 
to adoj)t. For the effect of the rockets 
at the battle of Leipsic in 1813, the order 
of St. Anne of the second class was con- 
ferred on Sir William by the emperor of 
Russia ; and when the emperor visited 
England in 1814, he was particularly 
interested by an exhibition of their j)ow- 
ers at Woolwich. Sir William had a 
private factory at West Ham in Essex. 

1811. Sir William Congreve was 
elected fellow of the Royal Society. In 
IS 12 he was returned to parliament for 
Gralton; and in 1820 and 1826 for Ply- 
mouth. He succeeded his father in the 
baronetcy April 30, 1814. In 1815 ap- 
peared " A Description of the Construc- 
tion, Properties, and Varieties of the 
Hydro-Pneumatic Lock," for which he 
obtained a patent in that year. In 1819 
a patent was granted to him for an im- 
proved mode of inlaying or combining 
different metals. In 1823 Sir Williaiu 
published, by oi'der of government, a 
very interesting report on the gas light 
established in the metropolis. He died 
at Toulouse, May, 1S28, aged 56. 

CONI, a town in the north of Italy, 
taken by Napoleon in 1796. In 1799 
the Austrians took it by storm ; in 1800 
it was again brought under French do- 
minion, and in 1814 was returned to the 
kings of Sardinia. 

CONIC Sections. Supposed that the 
first author who wrote on their properties, 
was Mensechmus (probably), a.c. 300. 
Complete treatise on, by Apollonius of 
Perga, about a.c. 150 ; translated by the 
Arabs about a. d. 850. Seven remaining 
books of the eight of Apollonius, trans- 
lated by Borelli, in 1661. The parabola 
was applied to projectiles by Galileo, and 
the ellipse to the orbits of planets by 
Kepler. 

The application of algebra to geometry 
was first introduced by Vieta, and subse- 
quently adopted by Des Cartes. But 
the discovery of the method of fluxions 
about 1688, by Sir I. Newton, has fur- 
nished means for more complete and essen- 
tial service to this department of science 
than any other. The principal modern 
writers on conic sections are, Gregory 
St.Vincent, DeWitte, De la Hire, Halley, 
Wallis, Sirason, Emerson, MuUer, Hut- 
ton, Robertson, &c. The properties of 
the Conic Sections, by W. Jones, esq , 
F.R.S. in 1774, comprises, in a small 
compass, most of the properties of these 



CON 



323 



CON 



curves, deduced in a A'eiy compendious 
and general manner. 

CONNECTICUT. In 1662 Connec- 
ticut and New Haven were united by- 
charter of Charles I!., which union was 
finally completed in 1665. In 1687 this 
charter was suspended by Sir Edmund 
Andres, but restored after the revolution 
of 1688, and formed the basis of the. 
government untd a new constitution was 
granted in 1818. 

CONON of Samos, a Greek astrono- 
mer, flourished a.c. 300. 

CONQUEST, the Norman, of Eng- 
gland, 1066. See England. 

CON RAD IN, prince of Naples, de- 
feated and put to death by Charles, king 
of Sicily, 1268. 

CONSECRATION of churches in- 
stituted, 153. 

CONSECRATION of bishops, the 
form ordained 1549- 

CONSERVATORS of public liber- 
ties chosen m England, 1215. 

CONSPIRACIES AND Insurrec- 
tions, the most remarkable in ancient 
and modern history : — 

A.c. 507. A conspiracy was formed 
against the infant republic of Rome to 
restore the banished Sextus Tarquinand 
the regal government, in which the two 
sons of Junius Brutus, the first consul, 
being concerned, were publicly condem- 
ned, and put to death by their father. 

496. Another by the Tarquin faction 
against the Roman senators. Publius 
and Marcus discovered it. The other 
conspirators were put to death. 

62. Of Catiline and his associates to 
murder the consuls and senate, and to 
burn the city of Rome; discovered by 
Cicero, consul for the year. 

A.D. 1560. An insurrection in Spain, 
cost the lives of 30,000 Spaniards, and 
double that number of Moors. 

1749. At Malta, to destroy the whole 
order, for which 125 slaves suffered 
death, June 26. 

1758. At Lisbon, liy several of the 
nobility, who shot the king. 

1769. At Madrid, when they obliged 
the king to banish the Marquis Squil- 
laci. 

1772. At Brazil, which threatened its 
loss to the Portuguese. 

1773. At Palermo, October 26. 
1794. At St. Domingo, and the other 

French West India Islands, where near 
1 6,000 negroes were slain, and 400 whites, 
.and 550 plantations destroyed. 



1803. At Dublin ; Lord Kilwarden 
assassinated, July 23. 

1807. Of the prince of Asturias against 
his father. 

1808. Of the inhabitants of Madrid 
against the French, in which many per 
sons were killed. 

1811. In Sicily, for delivering it into 
the hands of the French. 

1812. In Paris, for which the conspi- 
rators, three ex-general, and eleven offi- 
cers, were executed, October 30. 

1812. At Travencore, to massacre the 
European officers, at an entertainment. 

18 17 At Lisbon, to overturn the Por- 
tuguese government. May. 

1830. The trial of Messrs. Potter, 
Tielmans, Bartels, and others, charged 
with a conspiracy against the govern- 
ment of the Netherlands, which had 
lasted for a fortnight, at Brussels, was 
concluded April 27 : the three persons 
named were found guilty ; the others 
were acquitted. The sentence of the 
court was, to be banished for eight years, 
against M. de Potter, and for seven years, 
against M. M. Tielmans and Bartels. 

1833. Martial law declared throughout 
the kingdom of Greece, in consequence 
of the discoA'^ery of a conspiracy against 
the government of king Otho, organised 
under the direction of Colocotroni, who 
was seized and imprisoned, Oct. 

1834. A conspiracy, concocted by the 
governor of the young emperor, at Brazil 
to overthrow the constitution, and restore 
Don Pedro, discovered and defeated. 

1836. Conspiracy against the life of 
the king of the French, by Fiesche, and 
others, called " the conspiracy of 
Neuilly," the object of which was to 
take away the life of the king. 

CONSPIRACIES AND Insurrec- 
tions in England : — 

1088. Against William II. of England, 
by his uncle Orlo, bishop of Bayeux, 
to set Robert on the throne. 

1 173 Against Henry II., by his queen 
and children. 

1224. Insurrection of Foulk de Brent 
against Henry III. 

1227. A conspiracy against the same 
king f«i cancelling Magna Charta. 

1258. Of the barons against Henry III. 

1400. Of the duke of Exeter, and 
others, against the life of Henry IV., dis- 
covered by dropping a paper accidentally. 

1415. Against Henry V., by the earl 
of Cambridge and others. 

1483. Of Richard, duke of Glouces, 



CON 



324 



CON 



ter, ajjainst his nephews, Edward V. and 
his brother, whom he caused to be 
murdered. 

1506. Of the earl of Sussex and 
others, against Henry VII. 

1527. Insurrection of the London ap- 
prentices, 7 Henry VIJI. 

1571 Against Queen Elizabeth, by 
Dr. Story; 1586, by Anthony Babing- 
ton and others; 1593, by Lopez, a Jew, 
and others; 1594, by Patrick York, 
an Irish fencing-master, employed by 
the Spaniards to kill the queen; 1598, 
of Walpole, a Jesuit, who engaged one 
Squire, to poison the queen's saddle. 
Ali these conspirators were executed 

1605. Against James I., by the Mar- 
chioness de Verneuil, his mistress, and 
others. ' 

1605. The gunpowder plot discovered, 
Nov. 5. 

1656. Of Sindercomb, and others, 
to assassinate Oliver Cromwell; disco- 
vered by his associates; Sindercomb was 
condemned, and poisoned himself the 
day before he was to have been executed. 

1657. An insurrection of the Puritans. 
1660. An insurrection of the fifth- 
monarchy-men, against Charles II. 

1668. Of the French, Spanish, and 
English Jesuits, countenanced b) the 
pope, to assassinate Charles II., said to 
have been discovered by Dr. Tongue and 
Titus Oates ; 1683, another to assassinate 
him at the Ryehouse farm, near Hoddes- 
«3on, Hertfordshire, in his way from 
Newmarket, called the Ryehouse Plot. 

1670-71. A conspiracy of Blood and 
his associates, who seized the duke of 
Ormond, wounded him, and would have 
hanged him if he had not escaped; they 
then attempted to steal the crown. 

1691. Of Lord Preston, the bishop of 
Ely, and others, to restore King James. 

1692. Of Granvil, a French chevalier, 
and his associates, to assassinate King 
William, in Flanders. 

1695. A conspiracy by the earl of 
Aylesbury, and others, to kill the king, 
near Richmond, as he came from hunt- 
ing, discovered by Pendergrass, called 
the Assassination Plot. 

1703. Of Simon Frazer, Lord Lovat, 
in favour of the Pretender against Queen 
Anne. 

1710 Of the MarqueaS Guiscard. 

1718. To assassinate George I., by 
James Sheppard, an enthusiastic youth, 
who had been taught to consider the 
king as an usurper. 



1722. Of Counsellor Layer, and others, 
to bring in the Pretender. 

1803. Of Colonel Despard, and his as- 
sociates, to assassinate King George III., 
and to overturn the existing govern- 
ment. See Riots. 

1814. Conspiracy for raising the funds, 
Feb. 21 ; of which Charles Random de 
Beringer, Lord Cochrane, and others, 
were convicted, June 9. 

1816. George Vaughan, a police offi- 
cer, and others, convicted of a conspiracy, 
to induce William Hurley and others to 
commit a burglary, and sentenced to 
five years' imprisonment in the house of 
correction, Sept. 21. 

1816. Conspiracy for charging others 
with crimes, between Solomons, a Jew, 
and certain police oflScers, by which 18 
persons were convicted of uttering base 
money, detected, Oct. 22. 

1820. Of Thistlewood, and his asso- 
ciates, for the assassination of the minis- 
try, and overthrow of the existing go- 
vernment. See Cato Street. 

1839. Of the chartists, which pro- 
duced the attack on Newport. See 
Chartists. 

CONSTABLE, Lord High of Eng- 
land, an ancient officer of the crown, 
now disused in England, except on so- 
lemn occasions, as at the king's coro- 
nation, &c. The first was created by 
the conqueror, who appointed Ralph de 
Mortimer, one of the principal com- 
manders of the array; and the office 
continued till the reign of Henry VIII. 
1521; when it became extinct. About 
a century after, viz. in 1627, it waa also 
suppressed in France, by an edict of 
Louis XIII ; though the office has been 
exercised in the command of the mar- 
shals by the first officer in the army. 

CONSTABLES. From the above 
mighty magistrates, are derived the in- 
ferior ones, since called the constables of 
hundreds and franchises : these were 
first ordained in the 13th year of Ed- 
ward I. by the statute of Winchester, 
(13 Ed. I. Stat. 2. c. 6.) These are what 
are now called constabularii capitales, 
or high constables ; because continu- 
ance of time and increase of people, &c., 
have occasioned others of same nature, 
but inferior authority, in every town and 
parish, called petty constables, or sub- 
constabularii, first instituted (as some 
say,) about the reign of Edward III. 
The duties of a constable are described 
and enforced by many statutes. But in 



CON 

the metropolis and other large towns 
since 1829, these are superseded by the 
New Pohce. See Police. 

1836. A commission was appointed 
by William IV., to enquire as to the 
best means of establishing an efficient 
constabulary force in the counties of 
England and Wales, for the prevention 
of offences, and detection and punish- 
ment of criminals, the due protection of 
property, and the more regular obser- 
vance of the laws of the realm. This 
commission was revived by her present 
majesty, and from it emanated a report 
in 1839, containing the following heads. 
1. Nature and extent of the chief evils 
to be prevented and repressed. 2. Exist- 
ing force for their prevention or repres- 
sion. 3. The trial of a paid constabu- 
lary force in Cheshire, &c., and of a 
trained constabulary force elsewhere. 

4. The public services which may be 
rendered by a trained force in addition 
to the prevention and repression of crime. 

5. The proposed establishment of a gene- 
ral trained constabulary force. 

CONSTANCE, a city, of the grand 
duchy of Baden. In 1414 and 1418, 
religious councils were held here, at 
which the emperor and the pope were 
present. At these solemn but mistaken 
assemblages, John Hviss was condem- 
ned to be burned. Constance was seized 
by the French, Aug. 2, 1796, and again 
1799. 

CONSTANT, Benjamin, French 
orator and political writer, died 1830. 

CONSTANTINA, formerly the capi- 
tal of Numidia now the capital of the 
province of the same name, state of Al- 
giers. Celebrated for the many beauti- 
ful and interesting remains of Roman 
architecture, that still survive here. The 
description given of this place in the 
Jugurthine war by Sallust, is applicable 
and true in the 19th century ; it has 
scarcely been known to Europeans till 
since the French occupation of Algiers. 
See Algiers. 

1837. Constantina taken by general 
Damremont the commander-in-chief of 
the French troops in Africa, Oct. 13, 
carried by assault after a desperate resis- 
tance on the part of the native troops 
and inhabitants. Damremont was killed 
by a cannon ball. Achmet Bey retired 
from Constantina with 1200 men, as the 
French entered it. 

CONSTANTINE I, Flavius ^a- 
LE«ius, Burnamed the Great, was the 



325 



CON 



first emperor of the. Romans who em- 
braced Christianity. His father Constan- 
tius Chlorus, rendered himself famous 
by his victorious e.xpeditions io Germany 
and Britain, Constantine was born at 
Naissus, in Decia. 274 ; his mother He- 
lena was the daughter of an innkeeper, 
and educated him in the christian faith. 

On the death of his father 306, at 
York, in Britain, July 25, Constantine 
succeeded to the empire, by the suffrages 
of the army ; but the pretorian band at 
Rome set up Maxentius, son of the late 
emperor Maximianus Hercules, who also 
himself endeavoured, next year, to re- 
cover the empire. 

312. Constantine is said to have seen 
a vision of a cross in the clouds, and to 
have been converted, or rather confirm- 
ed in the principles wherein his mother 
Helena had educated him. Crossing the 
Alps, he arrived at Rome, and defeated 
Maxentius, who perished in the Tiber, 
Sept. 24, when the Roman indiction began. 

315. Constantine ordered the punish- 
ment of crucifixion to be abolished. 

319. Licinius the other emperor ba- 
nished the christians from his presence, 
prohibited their holding councils, and 
enacted several other regulations against 
them : but Constantine publicly favour- 
ed them, and endeavoured to reconcile 
the differences between Alexander and 
Arius, but in vain. 

323. Commencement of the civil war 
between the two emperors. Constan- 
tine rescinded all the laws that Licinius 
had made against the christians, and 
gave them full liberty for the exercise of 
their religion. 

324. Constantine defeated Licinius, 
first at Adrianople, July 3, and at 
Chalcedon Sept. 18. The victor granted 
Licinius his life, at the suit of Constan- 
tina, sister to Constantine and wife of 
Licinius ; but, being detected in a con- 
spiracy, he was afterwards banished to 
Thessalonica. Constantine remained 
sole emperor. 

325. The first general council con- 
voked at Nice, by order of the emperor, 
began June 19, and ended Aug. 25. 
Licinius being detected in exciting fresh 
troubles at Thessalonica, was put to 
death by order of Constantine. 

326. Crispus, the eldest son of the 
emperor, being falsely accused by his 
step-mother, Fausta, was poisoned by 
order of Constantine. Constantine pro- 
hibited meetings of the heretics, and de- 



CON 



32G 



CON 



stroyed their temples, or gave them to 
the orthodox. He built a sujierb cliurch 
at Jerusalem, and his mother Helena 
erected two others, one on the Mount of 
Olives, and another at Bethlehem, 
on the spot where our Saviour was born. 

328. Constantine, having repaired and 
beautified the city of Byzantium, in 
Thrace, transferred the seat of the empire 
thither. See Constantinople. 

332. The emperor sent his son Con- 
stantine the Younger with succours to 
the Sarmatians against the Goths, 
100,000 of whom were slain in battle. 
In 334, the Sarmatian slaves revolted from 
their masters, and put them to flight. 
Constantine received 300,000 of the fu- 
gitives, of both sexes, of all ages, distri- 
buted them in various parts of the em- 
pire, and gave them land to cultivate. 
In 336, Constantine ordered the relics of 
St. Lvike, St. Andrew, and St. Timothy, 
to be conveyed to Constantinople, 

337- Constantine died on Whitsunday, 
May 22, at a small country-house near 
Nicomedia, aged 66. Eusebius, and 
other ancient writers, say be was bap- 
tized a short time before his death, by 
Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia ; but the 
fact has been much doubted. He was 
succeeded by his three sons, Constantine 
the Younger, Constans, and Constantius, 
who divided the empire bet^'een them. 
. CONSTANTINE the Younger, 
who had Gaul, Britain, and Spain, for 
his portion, was killed in battle by the 
troops of Constans, at Aquileia, and his 
body thrown into the Alse (now the 
Ansa) in 340. 

CONSTANTINOPLE, built by Con- 
stantine on the site of ancient Byzantium 
in Tiirace, and now the capital of the 
Turkish empire. The seat of the empire 
removed from Rome to this city, 330. 
Inclosed in strong fortifications by Theo- 
dosius the younger in 41 :'• These walls 
were destroyed !)y an earthquake in 
447, but rebuilt by Cyrus the prefect. 

After the death of Constantine it con- 
tinued to be the capital of the eastern 
em])ire till the 11th century, when the 
Turks attacked it. The war was carried 
on for two centuries with various suc- 
cess. Before the conquest and final de- 
struction of the empire Constantinople 
was attacked by the Latins ; after a 
siege of more than three months, the 
city was taken, and plundered, 1204, 
and thousands of its inhabitants put to 
the sword. It continued subject to the 



Latins till the year ]2Gl, when they were 
expelled by Alexius Strategopulus, the 
general of Michael Paleologus ; and 
thus the city was restored to the Greeks; 
but it had been so much injured, that it 
never regained its former splendour. 
It was taken by Mahomet II., sultan 
of the Ottoman Turks, on May 29, 1453, 
the emperor Constantine was killed, and 
with him ended the eastern empire. 

Constantino])le has frequently suffered 
from fires, plagues, and other calamities. 
Above 12,000 houses and 7000 inhabi- 
tants were destroyed by a fire Sept. 27, 
1729; another, vvhich burnt five days. 
May 31, 1745; again, 12,000 houses, 
Jan. 29, 1749-50; again, near 10,000, 
in June, 1750; again 4000; by the 
plague lost 7000 persons in 1751; nearly 
destroyed by an earthquake and 3000 
inhabitants killed, Sept. 2, 1754; had 
5000 houses burnt, 1756; had 15,000 
houses and 1000 persons burnt, July 5, 
1756; considerable havoc made in 
1761, 1765, 1767, 1769, 1771; had 
2000 houses burnt, Sept. 4, 1778; 600 
houses burnt, Feb. 19, 1782; June 10, 
following, 7000; and August 22, fol- 
lowing, there were 10,000 houses, 50 
mosques, 100 corn mills, &c., destroy- 
ed. On August 5, 1784, 10,000 houses, 
&c., were destroyed ; another destroyed 
10,000 houses, Aug. 4, 1784 ; 32,000 
houses were destroyed by fire between 
March and July, 1791 ; 7000 were de- 
stroyed, 1782; and the same number 
were destroyed August, 1795. The 
suburb of Pera had 1300 houses and 
several magnificent buildings burnt down 
March 13, 1799. In 1812 and 1813, 
300,000 of the inhabitants destroyed by 
a pestilence In Aug. 1816, 1200 houses 
and 2000 shops destro)-ed by fire ; 12,000 
houses, 30 mosques, 400 boats, and 400 
people burnt in 1823. Extensive fire 
Jan. 22, 1830. extinguished by the active 
exertions of a detachment of the crew 
of the English frigate, the Blonde, which 
was sent to the assistance of the Capitan 
Bey. A great fire, Aug. 30, 1833, again, 
by which one-fourth of the city was con- 
sumed, and devastation extended over a 
circuit of three miles. This conflngra- 
tion was considered as a result of the 
public discontents. 

1S36. Mr. Churchill a British mer- 
chant, settled at Constantinople, acci- 
dentally wounded a young Turk. He was 
seized, dragged before the cadi of Scru- 
tari, severely bastinadoed, and thrown 



CON 



3-2/' 



COO 



into the Bajrnio, or common Turkish 
prison. Tlie British ambassador. Lord 
Poiisonhy, took up the matter. The 
Reis Effendi, having evaded the subject, 
the ambassador apphed directly to the 
sultan, and, after some delay and nego- 
tiation, the Reis Eftendi was dismissed, 
and the inferior actors in the punish- 
ment of Mr. Churchill, were bastinadoed 
and thrown into the Bagnio. 

1839. A destructive fire at Pera and 
Galata, Constantinople, Aug. 9- The 
losses were estimated at £4,800,000., and 
the number of houses consumed 5,000. 

CONSTANTIUS, emperor of Rome, 
died at York, 306. 

CONSULAR government in France 
began, 1799, ended 1804. 

CONSULS first appointed at Rome, 
A.u.c. 244, after the expulsion of the 
Tarquins ; the people obtained the privi- 
lege of election, 388. This custom lasted 
from A.u.c. 244 till 1294, or a.d. 541. 

CONSULS in commercial aiFairs, 
originated in Italy, about the middle of 
the 12th century. Soon after this, the 
French and other christian nations began 
to stipulate for liberty to appoint consuls 
to reside in the ports frequented by their 
ships. The practice was gradually ex- 
tended to other countries ; and, in the 
I6th century was, by degrees, established 
all over Europe. The first English one- 
in Italy, 1485; in Portugal, 1683. 

CONTRACTORS with government 
disqualified from sitting in parliament, 
1782. 

CONTRIBUTIONS from the pubUc 
demanded by act of parliament, from all 
persons whose wages were £4. per an- 
num, 1695. 

CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary, 
to support the British government 
against the machinations of France, 
amounted to £2,500,000., 1798; trans- 
mitted to England from India, £200,000. 

CONTRIBUTIONS for the rehef of 
the widows and orphans of those who 
fell at thebattleof the Nile,£35,260 85.6c?. 

CONVENTICLE Act, 16 Car. II. 
c. 4, 1664, was made to prevent and 
suppress conventicles. This statute, 
which was enacted for three years, 
ha 'ing expired, was revived, 1670, by 22 
Car. II. c. 1. The persecution under 
this act continued to be very severe, till 
the operation of the act was suspended by 
the exercise of a dispensing power, and 
the king's declaration of indulgence, 
1671-2. 



CONVENTION, National, of 
France, met, Sept. 21, 1792 ; terminated 
its sittings, Oct. 26, I'^gS. 

CONVENTIONS and Treaties. 
See Treaties. 

CONVENTS, and other religious 
orders, suppressed in the two Sicilies, by 
order of king Joachim Murat, I8O9. 
Abolished in Spain, 1811; restored in 
Spain, May, 1814; and in the two Sici- 
lies, 1815. Suppressed in Portugal, 
1835; in Spain, 1S36. See Monas- 
teries. 

CONVICTS, first sent to Botany Bay 
1787. See Botany Bay. 

CONVOCATION of the clergy first 
summoned to meet by writ, 23 Edwd. I., 
1305. 

CONWAY Castle, built by Edwd. 
I. in 1284. 

COOK, Captain James, the cele- 
brated navigator, was born in 1728; 
entered the navy in 1755. In 1762, he 
was with the Northumberland, assisting 
at the recapture of Newfoundland. In 
1763, when Captain Greaves was ap- 
pointed governor of Newfoundland, he 
went out with him to survey the coasts 
of that island. In 1764, Sir Hugh -Pal- 
liser being appointed governor of New- 
foundland and Labrador, Mr. Cook ac- 
companied him in the capacity of sur- 
veyor. In this situation he continued 
till 1767, during which time he pub- 
lished charts of the coast. 

1768. He was appointed to direct the 
expedition to the southern hemisphere, 
to observe the transit of Venus over the 
sun. He sailed in the Endeavour from 
Plymouth, August 26, and anchored in 
MatavaiBay, in Otaheite, April 13, 1769. 
Having collected all the curious infor- 
mation in his power, respecting this 
island, the Endeavour left it on the 13th 
of July. Captain Cook surveyed the 
neighbouring islands, ascertained their 
relative situations, and gave the name 
of Society Islands to the whole group. 
Having spent several months in ex- 
ploring the islands of New Zealand, 
he sailed from thence on April 19, 
1770, and proceeded to New Holland. 
Left New Holland Aug. 23, and steered 
towards New Guinea, which he reached 
Sept. 3. Remained at New Guinea long 
enough to prove that it was an island 
distinct from New Holland ; then sailed 
for Batavia. Tlie most important dis- 
covery made in this voyage was that of 
excellent fresh water in the Prince of 



coo 32S 

Wales's Island, which led to a settlement 
there. Captain Cook lost many of his 
crew by the unhealthy climate of Bata- 
via, and more on his voyage to England, 
which he reached June 12, 1771. 

1772. July 13. Captain Cook again 
sailed to explore the southern hemisphere, 
from which expedition he returned July 
30, 1775. During his voyage, viz : in 
1774, he discovered New Caledonia. 
After his return, in 1776, he presented 
to the Royal Society the method he had 
adopted for preserving the health of his 
crew. 

The English government having re- 
solved to explore the eastern and western 
coast of America, the Resolution, under 
Captain Cook, and the Discovery, under 
Captain Clarke, were fitted out, and 
sailed from Plymouth, July 12, 177G. 
In this voyage he discovered Nootka 
Sound ; the Sandwich islands were also 
discovered by Captain Cook, where the 
two vessels arrived November 26, 1778. 
Wishing to survey them more fully 
than be had done before, the captain 
sailed round them m various directions, 
and at length discovered one larger than 
any of the rest, called 0-vvhy-hee, where 
he met his death, Sunday, Feb. 14, 1779. 
On account of the barbarous disposi- 
tion of the Indians, it was found impos- 
sible to recover his body ; but by threats 
and negotiations, some of the principal 
parts were procured, which, being put 
into a coffin, and the service read over 
them, were committed to the deep, with 
the usual military honours, February 21, 
1779. 

Dr. Kippis says of Captain Cook, 
" What enabled him to persevere in all 
his mighty undertakings, was the invin- 
cible fortitude of his spirit. The fortitude 
of Captain Cook being founded upon 
reason, and not upon instinct, was not 
an impetuous valour, but accompanied 
with complete self-possession. To all 
these qualities Captain Cook added the 
most amiable virtues ; that it was impos- 
sible for any one to excel him in hu- 
manity, is apparent from his treatment 
of his men through all his voyages. 
In the private relations of life. Captain 
Cook was entitled to high commenda- 
tion. He was excellent as a husband 
and a father, sincere and steady in 
his friendships, and to this it may be 
added, that he possessed that general 
sobriety and virtue of character, which 
will alwa3's be found to constitute the 



COO 

best security and ornament of every 
moral qualification." 
• COOK'S Straits, discovered by 
Captain Cook, 1768, on his voyage round 
the world, which occupied from 1768 to 
1771. 

COOK, Thomas, bookbinder, hung 
and gibbeted at Leicester, for the mur- 
der of Mr. Paas, August 10, 1832. 

COOKE, George, the actor, born 
April 27, 1756, died at New York. Sept. 
26, 1826. 

COOPER, Rev. Edward, di^•inity 
writer, author of " The Crisis ;" pre- 
sented to the rectorship of Youall, Staf- 
fordshire, 1809, died Feb. 26, 1833. 

COOPER, Thomas, bishop of Win- 
chester, chronologist, born about 1517, 
died, 1594. 

COOPER, Anthony Ashley, first 
earl of Shaftesbury, and a celebrated 
statesman of the 17th century, was born 
atWinbourne in 1621. He was elected 
member for Tewksburj', at 19 years 
of age, in the short parliament of 
1640. On the king's restoration, he 
was sworn of his privy council; and 
was soon after made chancellor of the 
exchequer, and a commissioner of the 
treasury. In 1672, he was created earl 
of Shaftesbury, and raised to the post of 
lord chancellor. He drew upon himself 
the hatred of the duke of York, by 
steadily promoting the project of an ex- 
clusion bill. In 1678, pleased with the 
opportunity aflForded him by the disco- 
very of the popish plot, of shaking the 
power of the duke of York, he was so 
eager in his pursuit of the parties accused, 
that he was suspected of being himself 
the contriver of the plan. 

1682. Having engaged in a real conspi- 
racy, known by the name of the Rye- 
house plot, began to be impatient at the 
numerous delays of the conspirators, 
and thought it most safe to withdraw to 
Holland, where his active life was closed 
January, 1683, in his 62nd year. 

"The character of Shaftesbury has been 
a subject of much controversy, though 
the majority of writers agree in censuring 
him in very strong terms. He certainly 
had no claim to solidity of public princi- 
ple, since he did not scruple to use any 
means, or embrace any sentiments, which 
best suited his ambition. The best part 
of his character is his entire freedom 
from the influence of avarice ; a circum- 
stance very uncommon among the minis- 
ters of that age." 



COP 



329 



COP 



COOPER, Anthony Ashley, earl 
of Shaftesbury, grandson of the preceding, 
bom 1671, died l7l3. 

COOPERS' Company, London, in- 
corporated, 1501. 

C O O R G, principality Hindoostan, 
subdued by Hyder Ali, in 1773 ; but in 
1788, Tippoo was driven out of his ter- 
ritory by the rajah of Coorg, and in 1791 
and 1799, the rajah was the most faith- 
ful ally of the British in their war against 
Tippoo. On his decease, in 1808, he left 
his dominions by will to his daughter 
Dewa Amajee, then a child, but in 1810, 
she resigned in favour of Linga Rajah, 
and his claims were acquiesced in by the 
Bengal presidency. 

1834. The revolt of the rajah of 
Coorg, led, about this time, to a short 
but severe contest between his people 
and a body of British forces, which ter- 
minated in the Adctory of the latter, and 
the deposition of the rajah. 

COOTE, Sir Eyre, British general, 
born 1726, died 1783. 

COOTE, Charles, D.C.L., author 
of the History of Ancient Europe, &c., 
died 1835, aged 76. 

COPENHAGEN, founded, 1169; 
made a city, 1319 ; made the capital of 
Denmark, 1443 ; burnt, 1728, when 77 
streets were destroyed; had its royal 
palace destroyed by fire, Feb. 26, 1794, 
to the amount of 20,000,000 of rix-dol- 
lars, equal to £4,500,000 sterling ; abore 
100 persons lost their lives. Its arsenal, 
admiralty, &c., with near 50 streets, 
having 1363 houses, were destroyed by 
fire June 5, 1795; it raged 48 hours. 
Bombarded by the English fleet under 
Lord Nelson, April 4, 1801. On this oc- 
casion he captured the Danish navy, 
obliged the government of that country 
to enter into an armistice, signed on the 
9th, by which the armed neutrality of 
the North was destroyed. 

1807. Sept. 2, the city of Copen- 
hagen and the Danish fleet surrendered 
to the British force, under Lord Cathcart 
and Admiral Gambler, who had been 
landed on the island of Zealand for 
21 days. Six weeks after, the British 
retired, taking with them the whole 
Danish navy, naval stores, &c. 

The trade of Copenhagen is not very 
considerable, and has latterly declined 
from the above and other causes. In 
1831, there entered the port of Copen- 
hagen, 1,505 ships; of which 309 were 
from Sweden, 305 from Prussia, 208 



from Norway, 160 from Great Britain, 
137 from Russia, 90 from Finland, 29 
from France, &c. 

COPENHAGEN, University of, 
founded, 147. 

COPERNICUS, Nicholas, founder 
of the Copernican system of astronomy, 
was born at Thorn in Prussia, February 
10, 1473. At Bologna, in 1497, he first 
observed the occultation of Palilitium by 
the moon. He left Bologna for Rome, 
where he observed an eclipse of the moon 
in the year 1500. He began to form his 
system about 1507 ; but did not finish 
it till 1530. 

Cardinal Nicholas Schonburg, in 1534, 
by a letter which does honour to his sen- 
timents, invited Copernicus to publish 
his new system. But his modesty was 
still resisting this pressing application, 
when Rheticus, professor of mathematics 
at Wittenberg visited him at Frauen- 
burg, in 1539. To him Copernicus 
trusted his work, which, in J 543, was 
printed at Marienburg, but he did not 
live to read his book in print. A copy 
of it reached him only a few hours before 
his death, which happened at Frauen- 
burg, May 22, 1543. 38 years after his 
death, Cromerus, bishop of Ermeland, 
caused an inscription to be placed on his 
tomb-stone. 

COPPER, first discovered, or at least 
wrought, to any extent, in the island of 
Cyprus. Except gold and silver, copper 
seems to have been more early known 
than any other metal. In the first ages 
of the world, before the method of work- 
ing iron was discovered, copper was the 
principal ingredient in all domestic uten- 
sils and instruments of war. 

British Copper. Great Britain has 
various copper mines, in Cornwall, 
Devonshire, Wales, &c. Though known 
long before, the Cornish copper mines 
were not wrought with much spirit till 
last century. From 1726 to 1735, they 
produced at an average about 700 tons 
a year of pure copper. During the 10 
years from 1766 to 1775, they produced, 
at an average, 2,650 tons. In 1798, the 
produce exceeded 5,000; and it now 
amounts to about 12,000 tons. 

1768. The famous mines in the Pary's 
mountain, near Amlwch, in Anglesea, 
were discovered. At present the mines 
in Anglesea, and other parts of Wales, 
yield from 1,750 to 2,000 tons of cop- 
per; those of Devonshire yield about 
500 tons ; the quantity produced in the 

2 U 



GOP 



330 



COR 



other parts of England being quite in- 
cciisideraljle. 

1839. Mr. L. Thompson, of Lam- 
beth, received a gold medal from the 
Society of Arts, for a new method of 
purifying copper, which has long been 
a desideratum. This method is so sim- 
ple as to require no particular manage- 
ment on the part of the workmen. 

Take of impure copper 100 parts ; 
copper scale, 10 parts; ground bottle 
glass, or any other flux 10 parts; heat 
the whole together in a covered crucible, 
and keep the copjier in a state of fusion 
for 20 mmules, or half an hour, at the 
end of which time it will be found at 
the bottom of the crucible, perfectly 
pure. 

Foreign Copper. Copper ores are 
abundant in Siveden, Saxony, Russia, 
Persia, Japan, China, Chili, &c. Near 
Fahlun, in the province of Dalecarlia, 
in Sweden, is the celebrated copper mine 
of the same name, supposed to have 
been wrought nearly 1,000 years. To- 
wards the beginning of the I7th cen- 
tury, it yielded an annual produce of 
about 8,000,000lbs. of pure metal; but 
it has since greatly declined; and it is 
most probable that at no distant period 
it will be wholly abandoned. The cop- 
per mines of Japan are said to be among 
the richest in the world. The Dutch 
annually import about 700 tons of their 
produce into Batavia ; and the Chinese 
from 800 to 1,000 tons into Canton and 
other ports. It is purer, and brings a 
higher price, than any other species of 
slab copper. 

COPPER Money, first coined in Ire- 
land, 1399; in Scotland, by order of 
parliament, 1466; in France, 1580; in 
England tradesmen's tokens, or half- 
pence, were coined in 1672; the first 
legal, in 16S9. Penny pieces first issued 
July 26, 1797 ; halfpence on the same 
principle issued January, 1800. 

COPYHOLD AND Freehold es- 
tates made assets of payment of simple 
contract and specialty debts, 1833. 

COPYRIGHT Act first passed, 
1710, farther secured in 1814; modified 
1833. 

1836. 6 and 7 Will. IV. August 20, 
repeals so much of an act of the 54 
Geo. III. respecting copyrights, as re- 
quires the delivery of a coj>y of every 
published book to the libraries of Sion 
College, the four universities of Scotland, 
and of the King's Inns, in Dublin. But 



compensation is to be granted by the 
treasury on an average of three years, 
to be applied in the purchase of books, 
&c. 

The act 2 Vic. c. 13, June 4, 1839, 
extends the protection afforded by the 
27 Geo. III. c. 38, and the 34 Geo. III. 
23, to copyright in designs for calico- 
printing, to all fabrics woven of wool, 
silk, or hair, and to mixed fabrics com- 
posed of any two or more ot the mate- 
rials, linen, cotton, wool, silk, or hair. 
It also extends the protection to Ire- 
land. 

1839. 2 Vic. c. 17, June 14, secures 
to projmetors of designs, for articles of 
manufacture, the copyright of such de- 
signs for a limited time. It enacts that 
every proprietor of a new and original 
design, made for any of the following 
purposes, and not pubhshed before July 
1, 1S39, shall have the sole right to use 
the same for any such purpose during 
12 calendar months from its being re- 
gistered, according to this act. It di- 
rects the appointment, by the board of 
trade, of a registrar, deputy registrar, 
and clerks, who are to give certificates 
of registration, and be entitled to the 
fees to be paid by the treasury, and liable 
to a penalty of £50 for extortion. Sche- 
dule— 27 Geo. III. c. 38 ; 29 Geo. Ill, 
c. 19; 34 Geo. III. c. 23; 2 Vic. c. 
15. 

CORAL was well known to the an- 
cients, but it M'as reserved for the mo- 
derns to discover its real nature. It is, 
in fact, the nidus or nest of a certain 
species of vermes, which has the same 
relation to coral, that a snail has to its 
shell. Coral is found in very great 
abundance in the Red Sea, the Persian 
Gulf, in various places in the Mediter- 
ranean, on the coast of Sumatra, &c. 

CORAL Isles. Mr Darwin, who 
accompanied Captain Fitzroy, as natu- 
ralist, in his recent expedition in H.M.S. 
Beagle, entertains the following new 
views respecting the history of the Coral 
Isles. Those vast tracts of the Pacific, 
contain, along with small portions of 
scattered land, innumerable long reefs 
and small circles of coral which have 
hitherto been full of problems, of which 
no satisfactory solution could be found. 
Mr. Darwin supposes that, " all these 
circumstances, the linear or annularfonn, 
their reference to the boundary of the 
land, the clusters of .'ittle islands occu- 
pying so small a portion of the sea, and. 



COR 



above all, the existence of the solid coral 
at the bottom of deep seas, point out to 
us that the bottom of the sea has de- 
scended slowly and graduallj', carrying 
with it both land and coral; while the 
animals of the latter are constantly em- 
ployed in building to the surface, and 
thus mark the shores of the sub- 
merged lands, of which the summits 
may or may not remain extant above the 
waters." 

Mr. Darwin explains " how corals, 
which, when the level is permanent, 
fringe the shore to the depth of 20 fa- 
thoms, as the land gradually sinks, be- 
come successively encircling reefs at a 
distance from the shore; or barrier reefs 
at a still greater distance and depth, or, 
when the circuit is small, lagoon islands: 
— how, again, the same corals, when the 
land rises are carried into elevated situa- 
tions, where they remain as evidences 
of the elevation." Mr. Darwin has, upon 
evidence of this kind, divided, in a map, 
the surface of the Southern Pacific and 
Indian Oceans, into vast bands of alter- 
nate elevation and depression. " We 
have seen the remarkable confirmation 
of his views in the observation that 
active volcanos occur only in the areas 
of elevation ;" and the author has pre- 
sented this subject under an aspect 
which cannot but have the most power- 
ful influence on the speculations con- 
cerning the history of our globe. — The 
Rev. Mr. WheweWs address to the Geo- 
logical Society, February, IS 38. 

CORAM, Captain Thomas, pro- 
jector and founder of the Foundling- 
hospital, died, March 29, 1751, aged 84. 

CORBET, Bishop of Norwich, 
English poet, died 1635. 

CORCYRA, (now Corfu,) one of the 
Gi-eek islands, situated in the Ionian 
sea. The Corinthians sent hither a nu- 
merous colony, A.c. 756. The Corcy- 
rians submitted to Alexander, and re- 
mained subject to the kings of Macedon, 
till they were delivered by the Romans, 
in the reign of Perses ; from which time 
they enjoyed their liberty, till the reign 
of Vespasian, when they underwent the 
common fate of the other Greek islands 
and states, both in Europe and Asia. 
See Corfu. 

CORDAGE. In 1839, Messrs. Lan- 
dauer, of Stuttgard, patented a new 
species of cordage, the threads of which 
are not twisted one over the other, but 
united in a parallel direction. A cord, 



331 COR 

one inch and three quarters in circum- 
ference, has sustained a weight of 
l,300lbs., without breaking; and when, 
at last, an additional weight caused it to 
break, the fracture resembled a cut with 
scissors, which proves that each thread 
was of equal strength. A cord of 504 
threads, three inches and three-six- 
teenths in circumference, 111 feet long, 
woven in this manner, only weighed 
IQlbs., whilst an ordinary cord of the 
same circumference and length, and as 
many threads, weighed 51 pounds and 
a half. 

CORDER, "William, tried at Bury 
St. Edmund's for the murder of Maria 
Marten, May 18, 1827, a young woman 
whom he had decoyed from her home 
to a barn, near Polstead, and there mur- 
dered. The prisoner was found guilt}'', 
and afterwards confessed the crime. He 
was executed August 11. An extraor- 
dinary excitement throughout the king- 
dom u-'as produced by this murder and 
trial. 

CORDOVA, a town of Spain, an- 
ciently called by the Romans Colonia 
Patricia, afterwards Corduba. The time 
of its foundation is not known.- In 572, 
it was conquered by the Goths, and in 
692, by the Moorish chief Abderahman, 
who afterwards renounced his allegiance 
to the caliph of Damascus, and made 
Cordova his royal residence : taken by 
the French, November, 1809. 

CORDOVA, university of, founded 
968. 

CORDWAINERS' Company, Lon- 
don, incorporated 1410. 

COREA, a country to the north east 
of China, which had always been sup- 
posed to be a peninsula till 1816, when 
the vessels which conveyed the British 
embassy to China exjolored its coast, and 
it was then found to consist of an im- 
mense number of islands. 

CORELLI, Arcangelo, a celebrated 
Italian musician, born in 1653, at Bo- 
logna. In 1680 he visited Germany, and 
met Mdth a reception suitable to his me- 
rit from most of the German princes, 
particularly the elector of Bavaria. His 
proficiency on his favourite instrument, 
the violin, was so great, that the fame of 
it spread throughout Europe. He died 
at Rome in 1713. 

CORELLI, SiGNORA, the learned 
Italian lady, received the triumph of a 
coronation at Rome, .July 31, 1755. 

CORENTIN, or Corkntyn, a river 



COR 



332 



COR 



of South America, first explored by Mr. 
Schomburgk, 1835-6. 

CORFE CASTLE, Dorset, built 970. 
Borough of, disfranchised 1832. 

CORFU, the ancient Corey ra. The 
present name of Corfu is said to be de- 
rived from the Greek verb, to overtop, 
alluding; to the hill, or turret-like rocks, 
on which the modern citadel is built; 
the name being given after the destruc- 
tion of the eastern empire. About the 
close of the 14th century it came into, 
the power of the Venetians ; it was 
afterwards taken by the French, and 
formally ceded to them by the treaty of 
Campo Formio, in 1797. In March, 
1799.. it was wrested from the French by 
the united powers of Russia and Turkey, 
associated with the neighbouring isles 
of Cephalonia and Zante, and erected 
into a republic under the denomination 
of "The Seven Islands." 

CORINTH was for some time the 
most illustrious of all the Greek cities, 
said to have been founded a.c. 1514, by 
Sisyphus, the son of iEolus, and then 
called Ephyre. Corinthus, the son of 
Pelops, afterwards rebuilt and beautified 
the city, and it has since been called by 
his name. The genius of the Corinthians 
led them to commerce rather than mar- 
tial exploits, and their city became the 
finest in all Greece. It was adorned 
with the most sumptuous temples, pa- 
laces, theatres, porticoes, &c., all of them 
enriched with beautiful columns, thence 
called Corinthian. 

The Heraclidse began to reign there 
A c. 1111. It became a republic under 
annual prytanes, 757- Cypselus be- 
came tyrant 659 ; recovered its liberty, 
582 ; joined the Achaean league 243 ; 
was conquered by the Romans 146. The 
town lay desolate until Julius Caesar 
settled there a Roman colony. Strabo 
was at Corinth soon after its restoration 
by the Romans; and, about 200 years 
after it was visited by Pausanias. 

The Roman colony suffered the same 
calamity as the Greek city. It was be- 
sieged and taken, a.d. 1456, by Maho- 
met II. Corinth, with the Morea, was 
yielded to Venice in 1698 ; and again 
by Venice to the Turks in 1715 It 
gradually decayed under their infatuated 
government until the Greek revolution, 
after which it w&s included in the new 
kingdom of Greece. 

CORIOLANUS, Caius Marcius, a 
celebrated Roman general, derived his 



sur-name from Corioli, a town of tha 
Volci, which he had taken a.c. 493. About 
this time dissensions prevailed between 
the patricians and ])lebians. Coriolanus 
took part with the former, but disgusting 
the people by his haughtiness, he was 
banished Rome by the tribune Decius, 
A.c. 491. He went over to the Volci, 
and persuading them to take up arms 
against the Romans, they encamped 
within four miles of the city, a.c. 488. 
He would not listen to proposals of 
peace till he was prevailed upon by his 
wife and mother. Some historians say 
he lived to a great age ; others maintain 
that he was slain in a tumult excited 
against him for yielding to the prayers 
of his country. 

CORK, the thick and spongy bark of 
a species of oak (quercus suber Lin). 
The Greeks and Romans were both well 
acquainted with cork. They seem also 
to have occasionally used it as stoppers 
for vessels ; but it was not extensively 
employed for this purpose till the 17th 
century, when glass bottles, of which 
no mention is made before the 15th 
century, began to be generally intro- 
duced. 

CORK, city of, Ireland, founded pro- 
bably in the seventh century, walled in 
the ninth century, granted to Fitzstephen 
in 1177 by Henry II., besieged by the 
earl of Marlborough in 1690, when the 
duke of Grafton was killed. Monastic 
houses were founded here in 696, 1134, 
i214, 1229. 

CORN. Ceres has the credit of being 
the first that showed the use of corn, on 
which account she was placed among the 
gods. Others give the honour to Trip- 
tolemus ; others share it between the 
two — make Ceres the first discoverer, 
and Triptolemus the first planter and cul- 
tivator of corn. The Athenians pretend 
it was among them that the art began ; 
and the Cretans, or Candiots, Sicilians, 
and Egpytians, lay claim to the same. 
It is generally reckoned, however, that 
it was in Egy})t that the art of cultivating 
corn first began ; and it is certain there 
was corn in Egypt and the east long 
before the time of Ceres. See Agricul- 
ture. 

Egypt was anciently the most fertile 
of all countries in corn, as ap[)ears both 
from sacred and profane history. It 
furnished a good part of the people 
subject to the Roman empire, and was 
called the dry nurse of Rome and Italy, 



COR 



England, France, and Poland, seem now 
to have supplied the place of Egypt, and 
with their superfluities support a good 
part of Europe 

CORN Laws and Trade. From 
the circumstance of corn forming the 
principal part of the food of most coun- 
tries, the trade in it has for nearly seven 
centuries been the subject of legisla- 
tion. For a long time the legal regu- 
lations were principally intended to 
promote abundance and low prices. But, 
though the purpose was laudal)le, the 
means adopted for accomplishing it 
had, for the most part, a directly oppo- 
site effect. 

Directions are given m the statute en- 
titled Judicium Pillorie, supposed to be 
of the date of 51 Henry III. (1266-70 
to ascertain the avei-age price of wheat 
and other grain. In 1351, when the 
statute of labourers was passed, wages 
were, under some circumstances, regu- 
lated by the market price of corn. In 
1360 the exportation of corn was pro- 
hibited by statute 34 Edw. III. c. 20. 
In 1389, a statute was enacted which 
prohibited innkeepers and others taking 
more than one halfpenny per bushel for 
oats over the common price in the mar- 
ket. 13 Ric. II. s. 1. c. 18. In 1393, 
corn might be exported by king's sub- 
jects, " to \yhat parts that please them," 
except to the king's enemies. " Never- 
theless," it is added, " the king wills 
that his council may restrain the said 
passage when they shall think best for 
the profit of the realm. 17 Ri'c II. c. 7- 
Two statutes passed respectively in 
1391, 15 Ric. II. c. 4. and in 1413, I. 
Hen. V. c. 10. notice the irregularity 
which existed throughout the country in 
buying and selling corn. 

1436. The exportation of wheat was 
allowed by statutes, without the neces- 
sity of obtaining the king's license, when 
the price per quarter at the place of 
shipment was 6s. 8d. 15 Hen. VI. c. 
2. In 1441, this statute was continued, 
and in 1444-5 it was rendered per- 
petual. 

About 20 years afterwards occurred the 
first symptoms of a protective corn-law 
from which we may conclude that the 
balance of prices had turned, in a sta- 
tute passed in 1463, (3 Edw. IV. c. 2.) 
in the preamble of which it is remarked 
that " whereas the labourers and occu- 
piers of husbandry within this realm be 
daily grievously endamaged by bringing 



333 COR 

of corn out of other lands and parts into 
this realm, when corn of the growing of 
this realm is at a low price," in remedy 
of which it is enacted that wheat should 
not be imported, unless the price at the 
place of importation exceeded 65. 8d. 
per quarter. 

After a considerable period had elaps- 
ed, the foreign trade in wheat and 
other grain again became the object of 
new enactments. The corn dealers 
were looked upon with suspicion by 
every one. The agriculturists concluded 
that they would be able to sell their pro- 
duce at higher prices to the consumers, 
were the corn dealers out of the way : 
while the consumers concluded that the 
profits of the dealers were made at their 
e.xpense; and ascribed the dearths that 
were then very prevalent, entirely to the 
practices of the dealers, or to their buy- 
ing up corn and withholding it from 
market. These notions, which have 
still a considerable degree of influence, 
led to various enactments, particularly 
Stat. 5, 6 Ed. VI. 1551-2, by which 
the freedom of the internal corn trade 
was entirely suppressed. By this en- 
actment engrossers (persons buying 
corn to sell again,) were subjected to 
heavy penalties. For the third offence 
they were to be set in the pillory, to 
forfeit their personal effects, and to be 
imprisoned during the king's pleasure. 

The acts of 1436 and 1463, before re- 
ferred to, regulating the prices when ex- 
portation was allowed and when impor- 
tation was to cease, continued nominally 
in force till 1562, when the prices at 
which exportation might take place were 
extended to 10s. for wheat and 6s. 8d. 
for barley. But a new principle — that 
of imposing duties on exportation — was 
soon after introduced ; and, in 1571, it 
was enacted, 13 Eliz. c. 13. that wheat 
might be exported, paying a duty of 2s. 
a quarter, and barley and other grain a 
duty of Is. 4c?., whenever the home 
price of wheat did not exceed 20s. a 
quarter, and barley and malt 12s. In 
1592-3, the price at which exportation 
was permitted was raised to 20s. per 
quarter, and the customs duty was fixed 
at 2s. In 1603-4 the importation price 
was raised to 26s. 8d. per quarter ; and 
in 1623, to 32s. — having risen, in the 
course of 65 years, from 6s. 8d. By 
the 21 Jac. I. c. 28. no alteration was 
made in the unenhghtened restrictions 
imposed by the 5 and 6 Edward VI. c. 



COR 



334 



COR 



H. about 70 years before ; and, unless 
wheat was under 32s. per quarter, and 
other grain in proportion, buying corn 
and selling it again was not permitted. 
The king could restrain the liberty of 
exportation by proclamation. In 1G60, 
a new scale of duties was introduced. 
When the price of wheat per quarter 
was under 44s. the duty rose to 6s. 8d. 
Exportation was permitted free wlien- 
ever the price of wheat did not exceed 
40s. per quarter. 

Up to the middle of the l7th century 
the object of legislating on food was 
professedly the welfare of the poor, who, 
in those times, always suffered severely 
when the supply was limited ; but, in 
1663, a statute was passed 15 Car. II. 
c. 7, which was avowedly for the pro- 
tection of another interest in the com- 
munity. By this act the high duties on 
exportation were taken off, and an ad 
valorem duty imposed in their stead, at 
the same time that the hmit of exportation 
was extended. In 16/0, a still more de- 
cided step was taken in favour of agri- 
culture ; an act being then passed which 
extended the exportation ])rice to 53s. 
4d. a quarter of wheat, and otlier grain 
in proportion, imposing at the same time 
prohibitory duties on the importation of 
wheat till the price rose to 53s. 4c/., and 
a duty of 8s. between that price and 
80s. But the real effects of this act 
were not so great as might have been 
anticipated. The extension of the limit 
of exportation was rendered compara- 
tively nugatory, in consequence of the 
continuance oi the duties on exportation 
caused by the necessities of the crown, 
while the want of any jn-oper method 
for the determination of prices went 
far to nullify the prohibition of impor- 
tation. 

At the accession of William III., 
1668, a new system was adopted. The 
interests of agriculture were then looked 
tipon as of paramount importance : and 
to promote them, not only were the 
duties on exportation totally abolished, 
but it was encouraged l)y the grant of a 
bounty of 5s. on every quarter of wheat 
exported while the price continued at or 
below 48s. ; of 2s. 6d. on every quarter 
of barley or malt, while their respective 
prices did not exceed 24s. ; and of 3s. 6(/. 
on every quarter of rye, when its price 
did not exceed 32s. (1 Will, and Mary, 
c. 12.) A bounty of 2s. 6d. a quarter 
was sul)sequently given upon the expor- 



tation of oats and oatmeal, when the 
price of the former did not exceed 15s. 
a qu<arter. Importation continued to be 
regulated by the act of 1670. 

1701 — 1750. There was a large export 
of corn from England. In 1750, the 
wheat exported amounted to 947,000 
quarters ; and the total bounties paid 
during the 10 years, from 1740 to 1/51, 
reached the sura of £1,515,000. But the 
rapid increase of population, gradually 
reduced this excess of exportation, and 
occasionally inclined the balance the 
other way. This led to several suspen- 
sions of the restrictions on importation ; 
and, at length, in 1773, a new act was 
framed, 13 Geo. III. by which foreign 
wheat was allowed to be imported on 
paying a nominal duty of 6d. whenever 
the home price was at or above 48s. a 
quarter, and the bounty and exportation 
were together to cease when the price 
was at or above 44s. This statute also 
permitted the importation of corn at any 
price, duty free, in order to be again 
exported, provided it were in the mean 
time, lodged under the joint locks of 
the king and the importer. 

The act of 1773 was a material im- 
provement on the former system, but 
the landholders considered the liberty of 
importation granted by it as injurious to 
their interests. A clamour, therefore, 
was raised against that law ; and, in ad- 
dition, a dread of becoming habitually 
dependent on foreign supplies of corn, 
produced a general acquiescence in the 
act of 1791. By this act, 29 Geo. III. 
the price when importation could take 
place from abroad at the low duty of 6d., 
was raised to 54s. ; under 54s. and above 
50s., a middle duty of 2s. Qd. ; and under 
50s., a prohibiting duty of 24s. 3d. 
was exigible. The bounty continued as 
before, and exportation, without bounty, 
was allowed to 46s. It was also enacted, 
that foreign wheat might be imported, 
stored under the king's lock, and again ex- 
ported free of duty ; but, if sold for home 
consumption, it became liable to a 
warehouse duty of 2s. 6d., in addition to 
tiie ordinary duties payable at the time 
of sale. 

1804. By Stat. 44 Geo. III. the rate 
for the admission of foreign corn esta- 
blished, was as follows : — Wheat under 
63s. per quarter, the high duty of 24s. 3d. 
payable ; at 63s. and under 66s. the first 
low duty ; and at or above 66s. the se- 
cond low duty; which amounted only to 



COR 



335 



COR 



6d. The protecting price was thus raised 
from 54s., at which it stood in the act of 
1790-1, to 66s. — an iHcrease of 12s. The 
bounty of 5s. on exportation was paid 
when the average price of wheat was at 
or under 48s. ; and when the average 
rose to 54s., exportation was pro- 
hibited. 

1806. An act passed of the greatest 
importance in respect to the supply of 
food, entitled "An Act to permit the 
free interchange of every species of grain 
between Great Britain and Ireland," 
46 Geo. III. c. 97. 

In the session of 1814 two bills were 
introduced, one for regulating the im- 
portation of foreign corn, and another 
for the repeal of the bounty, and for 
permitting unrestricted exportation. The 
former encountered very keen opposi- 
tion. Meetings were very generally 
held, and resolutions entered into 
strongly expressive of this sentiment, 
and dwelling on the fatal consequences 
which a continuance of high prices 
would have on our manufactures and 
commerce. This determmed oppposi- 
tion caused the miscarriage of the bill. 
Early in 1815, a bill was brought in, 
giving effect to the recommendation of 
the committee of the previous year, and 
fixing 80s. as the lowest point at which 
importation could take place. The mea- 
sure produced great excitement through- 
out the country, particularly in the ma- 
nufacturing districts and in all the large 
towns, where it was believed that such 
a high prohibitory rate would limit the 
supply of food to a much greater extent 
than was compatible with the welfare of 
the country, or than the interests of agri- 
culture required. After much opposi- 
tion, on March 23, the bill received the 
royal assent. Until the average price of 
wheat rose to 80s., the ports were effec- 
tually closed. Colonial wheat was ad- 
mitted when the average prices reached 
67s. per quarter. Such was the leading 
feature of the new act, 55 Geo. III. 
c. 26. 

1816, 1817, and 1818. Three defi- 
cient harvests occurred, that in the 
former year being below an average crop, 
to a greater extent than in any year since 
the periods of scarcity at the commence- 
ment of the century. Prices rose above 
the rate at which foreign supplies were 
admitted, and in two of these years above 
2,500,000 quarters of wheat were im- 
ported. From January 1816 to June 



1817, prices rose from 53s. \d. to 
112s. 7d. From June to September, 
1817, they fell from 112s. 7d. to 74s.; 
but, three years afterwards, in 1821 and 
1822, the agriculturists endured the se- 
verest season of distress which had been 
experienced by that body in modern 
times, and the engagements which they 
had been induced to make under the 
fallacious hopes excited by the last corn 
act, occasioned them to be swept from 
the land by thousands. In the week 
ending Dec. 21, 1822, the average prices 
of corn and grain were as follow : — 
Wheat, 38s. 8d. ; barley, 29s. 4d. ; oats, 
18s. 9d.; rye, 23s. 6d. ; beans, 28s. 
lOd. ; peas, 29s. 4d. This made wheat 
41s. 4:d. ; barley, 10s. 8d. ; oats, 8s. 3d. ; 
rye, 29s. 6d. ; beans, 24s. 2d. ; peas, 
23s. 8d. lower than the scale which was 
framed for the farmer's protection. The 
highest price of wheat for any one week 
in 1822 was 50s. 7d. 

The cry of distress was heard from 
every part of the country. In 1820, the 
number of agricultural petitions claim- 
ing the commiseration of the legislature, 
was 159; in 1821, 187; and in 1822, 
129. Committees of the House of Com- 
mons were appointed to inquire into the 
condition of agriculture, in the two latter 
years. In the spring of 1822, numerous 
projects were offered to the considera- 
tion of parliament for the alleviation of 
the general distress of the agricultural 
class. 

The utter inefficacy of the act of 1815, 
to secure the objects for which it had 
been enacted having been fully proved, 
a new act received the royal assent on 
July 15, 1822, entitled, " An act to 
amend the laws relating to the importa- 
tion of corn." It alters and amends 
the 55 Geo. III. c. 26 (the act of 1815) ; 
and enacts that " as soon as foreign 
wheat shall have been admitted for home 
consumption under the provision of the 
said act, the scale of prices at which the 
home consumption of foreign corn, meal, 
or flour, is permitted by the said act 
shall cease and determine." The new 
scale was as follows : — Wheat at or above 
70s., duty 12s.; and for the first three 
months of the ports being open, an addi- 
tional duty of 5s. per quarter. Above 
70s. and under 80s., the " first low 
duty" of 5s. : above 80s., and under 
85s., the " second low duty" of Is. 
This act did not come into operation, 
as prices never reached 80s. 



COR 



336 



COR 



1825. Another act was also passed, 
which showed the necessity of a more 
elastic corn law. It was entitled, *' An 
act to allow, until the 15tl) of August, 
1825, the entry of warelioused corn, 
grain, and wheaten flour for home con- 
sumption, on payment of duty;" that 
is, at a duty lower than that payable 
under the prev^ious law. The act provided 
that foreign corn secured in warehouse 
before May 13, 1822, and wheaten flour, 
warehoused under 5 Geo. IV. c. 70, 
might be taken out of bond under the 
following regulations: — Between June 
15 and July 15, half the quantity ware- 
housed might be liberated ; and the re- 
mainder between July 15 and August 
15, at a duty of 10s. Other descriptions 
of grain were permitted to be liberated 
on corresponding terms. 

In the following year the government 
was driven to a still more decisive step 
to correct the operations of the corn 
law ; and on Sept. 1, an order in council 
was issued, admitting certain descrip- 
tions of grain for home consumption, 
until 40 days after the ne.xt meeting 
of parliament, at an almost nominal rate 
of duty, on the ground that, " if the 
importation for home consumption of 
oats and oatmeal, and of rye, peas, and 
beans, be not immediately permitted, 
there is great cause to fear that much 
distress may ensue to all classes of his 
majesty's subjects." in the ensuing 
sessions of parliament ministers obtained 
an act of indemnity for this order. 

1827. After these indications of im- 
perfection had given strength to the opi- 
nion that a belter system must be de- 
vised, Mr. Canning introduced certain 
resolutions in the House of Commons, 
and a bill was brought in, founded on 
these resolutions, fi.xing a duty of Is. 
on foreign wheat, when the average price 
was 70s. per quarter ; a duty of 2s. being 
imposed for the reduction of each shil- 
ling in the averages. In respect to co- 
lonial wheat, the duty was fixed at 6d., 
when the averages were 65s. per quarter, 
and when under that sum, at 5s. per 
quarter. The bill was not carried 
throutjh the House of Lords. In 1828, 
Mr. Charles Grant (now Lord Glenelg) 
introduced a series of resolutions slightly 
differing from those which had been 
moved by Mr. Canning. After a good 
deal of debate, Mr. Grant's resolutions 
were carried in the house ; and the act 
embodying them (9 Geo. IV. c. 60^ is 



that by which the corn trade is now re- 
gulated. 

This measure is entitled " An act to 
amend the laws relating to the importa- 
tion of corn," and repeals 55 Geo. III. 
c. 26 (1815;) 3 Geo. IV. c. 60 (1822,) 
and 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 58 (1827.) The 
aggregate for si.x weeks regulates the 
duty on importation. 

The importation of foreign wheat, in 
1838, amounted to about 1,500,000 
quarters, the duty having fallen to is. 
in the month of September. 

1840. Multitudes of petitions en the 
subject of the corn laws were presented. 
Mr. Villiers brought in a motion in 
April, "That the house resolve itself 
into a committee of the whole house, to 
take into consideration the act of Geo. 
IV., regulating the importation of foreign 
grain." But, although the motion was 
lost, it was the opinion of many that the 
corn laws was a question not to be so 
easily got rid of, 

CORN Exchange, the New London, 
opened June 24, 1828. 

CORNEILLE, Peter, an eminent 
French poet, and dramatist, was born at 
Rouen, in 1606. At the age of 31, he 
produced the famous tragedy of the 
" Cid," the principal beauties of which 
were, however, borrowed from the Spa- 
nish theatre ; and afterwards, succes- 
sively, the beautiful tragedies of the 
"Horatii, " "Cinna," " Polyeucte, " 
"Pompee," and Rodogune." In 1647, 
he was chosen a member of the French 
Academy. He afterwards produced four 
tragedies more, and died October 1, 
1684, in the 79th year of his age. 

CORNEILLE, Thomas, a poet and 
historian, brotlier of the preceding, born 
1615, died 1709, aged 84. 

CORNELIUS Nepos, the Roman 
biographer, died about a.c. 25. 

CORNWALL was the country of the 
Cimbri, Cornabii, and Dannii ; under the 
Romans it formed part of Britannia 
Prima. The Cornish Britons repulsed 
the invasion of Egbert, king of Wessex, 
in the yth century; but in the 10th 
century, Cornwall was added to Britain 
by Athelstan. In Cornwall, Perkia 
Warhcck landed in 1497 ; and here, also, 
two violent insurrections originated 
against the government of Henry VII. 
Tiie effects of the royalists in favour of 
Charles I. expired latest in this county. 
After the subjugation of this district by 
Athelstan, it was placed under the admi- 



COR 

nistration of a feudal government, which 
continued until the creation of the duke- 
dom, in favour of Edward the Black 
Prince, from which period the eldest 
sons of the kings of England have borne 
the title of dukes of Cornwall. 

CORNWALLIS, Marquis, K.G., 
born 1738, died in India, 1805. 

CORONATION. The custom of 
placing crowns upon the heads of princes 
on their accession to the regal office, ap- 
pears to have descended from very 
remote antiquity. The origin of this 
ceremony, as observed in Great Britain, 
is lost in obscurity ; but the numerous 
tenures and dependencies determinable 
by the non-performance of services at 
the solemnity, show how important it 
was intended to be in the eyes of the 
people. Among these, one of the most 
curious and imposing, was the office of the 
king's champion, formerly observed. 
Ever since the coronation of Richard II., 
this has been continued in the family of 
Dymocke, who held the manor of Scri- 
velsby, in Lincolnshire, hereditary from 
the family of the Marmions, who had it 
before, by grand-sergeantry ; on condi- 
tion that the lord thereof should be the 
king's champion. Accordingly, Sir Ed- 
ward Dymocke performed this office at 
the coronation of King Charles II. A 
person of the name of Dymocke also 
performed it at the coronation of his 
late majesty, George III. ; and another 
individual of the same name and lineage, 
at that of his late majesty, George IV., 
since which it has been discontinued. 

An account of the ceremonies to be 
observed at the coronation of a Bri- 
tish sovereign, is preserved in an an- 
cient book, called " The Liber Regalis," 
deposited in the care of the dean and 
chapter of Westminster. There are still 
in existence records which establish the 
prices formerly given for places at the 
coronation of our kings ; the earliest of 
them are in coins now unknown. The 
price of a good place at the coronation 
of the Conqueror, was a blank; and 
probably the same at that of his son, Wil- 
liam Rufus. At that of Henry I., it was a 
crocard ; and at Stephen and Henry 
II. 's, a pollard. At Richard (and John's, 
who was crowned frequently), it was a 
suskin ; and rose at Henry III., to a 
dodkin. In the reign of Edward, the 
coins began to be more intelligible; 
and we find that, for seeing his coro- 
nation, a Q, was given, or half a ferling. 



337 COR 

or farthing. At the coronation of Ed- 
ward II., it was a farthing ; and at his 
son, Edward III.'s, a halfpenny. In 
Richard II. 's reign, it was a penny, and 
continued the same in that of Henry 
IV. At Henry V.'s coronation, it was 
twopence, or the half of a grossus, or 
groat ; and the same at that of Henry 
VI. At the coronation of Edward IV. 
it was again the half groat ; nor do we 
find it raised at those of Richard HI., or 
Henry VII. At that of Henry VIII., it 
was the whole groat or grossus ; nor was 
it altered at those of Edward VI., and 
Queen Mary ; but at Queen Elizabeth's, 
it was a teston or tester. At those of 
James I., and Charles I., a shilling was 
given; which was advanced to half-a- 
crown at those of Charles II., and James 
II. At King Williams, and Queen 
Anne's, it was a crown ; and the coro- 
nation of George I., was seen by many 
for the same price. At that of George 
II., some gave half-a-guinea. At the 
coronation of George HI., the front seats 
in the galleries of the abbey, were let at 
ten guineas each. Latterly greater ac- 
commodation has been afforded, so that 
the price has been very moderate. The 
price of admission to view the proces- 
sion at the coronation of Queen Victoria, 
varied from two to five guineas. 

The dates of the coronation of the mo- 
narchs of England will be found under 
the articles Britain and England 

CORONATION of George IV., 
was rendered unusually attractive from 
the length of time which had elapsed 
since the occurrence of a similar spec- 
tacle. It was not only celebrated with 
a degree of magnificence and splendour 
hitherto unequalled, but with the strictest 
attention to heraldic forms and prece- 
dents. The 1st of August, 1820, had been 
originally fixed upon for the ceremonial, 
but circumstances afterwards occurring 
to render its postponement necessary, 
it was not observed till July 19, in the 
following year, and is stated to have 
cost £243,000. 

CORONATION of William IV, 
and Queen Adelaide, was conducted on 
a much more economical plan. It took 
place September 8, 1831. On this occasion 
the walking procession of the estates of 
the realm, the banquet at Westminster- 
hall, with the ceremonies of the cham- 
pion, and all other feudal services at- 
tendant thereon, were omitted ; the ex- 
pense did not exceed £50,000. 

2 X 



COR 



338 



COR 



CORONATION of Queen Vic- 
toria. This event, which, from the 
age and sex of the sovereign, excited an 
extraordinary degree of interest among 
all classes, took place June 28, 1838. 
According to the statement made in the 
House of Commons, no less than 
400,000 persons came into London to be 
present on the occasion, and upwards of 
£200,000 was in consequence expended. 
It is said to have cost the public only 
£70,000. The coronation was conducted 
in most respects after the abridged model 
of that of her immediate predecessor; 
the walking procession, the banquet in 
Westminster-hall, with all the feudal 
services being wholly dispensed with. To 
meet, in some degree, the general wishes 
expressed for a coronation more stately 
than the last, the exterior cavalcade was 
increased in splendour and numbers, and 
a much more extended line of approach 
was adopted. It was thus brought to 
resemble, still more closely than on the 
former occasion, the procession through 
the metropolis, which was formerly con- 
sidered a necessary part of the solemnities 
of the coronation, but which was last 
performed by King Charles II. The 
main difference was that the modem pro- 
cession was not through the city of 
London, but through that of Westmin- 
ster, a city now much larger, and far 
more magnificent than ancient Lon- 
don. 

As nearly as possible to 10 o'clock, 
the head of the procession moved from 
the palace. When the queen stepped 
into her carriage, a salute was fired from 
the guns ranged in the enclosure. The 
only novel feature of the procession were 
the equipages of the foreign ambassa- 
dors extraordinary, which were all new 
for the occasion, and very superb. The 
most striking and elegant coach was that 
of Marshal Soult. The queen reached 
the western entrance of the Abbey at 
half-past 11, and was there received 
by the great officers of state, the noble- 
men bearing the regalia, and the bishops 
carrying the patina, the chalice, and the 
bible. Immediately under the central 
tower of the Abbey, in the interior of the 
choir, a platform was raised, five steps 
from the ground, on a carpet of gold and 
purple. The platform itself was covered 
with cloth of gold ; and on it the chair 
of homage, superbly gilt, was placed, 
facing the altar. Further on, within the 
chancel, and near the altar. Was St, Ed- 



ward's chair. The altar was covered 
with massive gold plate. As the queen 
advanced slowly towards the centre of 
the choir, she was received with hearty 
plaudits ; the anthem, " I was glad," 
bemg sung by the musicians, and the 
Westminster boys chanted " Vivat Vic- 
toria Regina." The queen moved to- 
wards a chair placed midway Ijetween 
the chair of homage and the altar, then 
took her seat in the chair ; and the cere- 
monial proceeded. 

The Recognition. The archbishop 
of Canterbury, advanced to the queen, 
accompanied by the lord chancellor, the 
lord chamberlain, the lord high consta- 
ble, and the earl marshal, preceded by 
the deputy garter, and repeated these 
words, " Sirs, I here present unto you 
Queen Victoria, the undoubted queen 
of this realm ; wherefore, all you who 
are come this day to do your homage, 
are you willing to do the same ?" Then 
burst forth the universal cry from the 
portion of her majesty's subjects pre- 
sent, " God save Queen Victoria." The 
archbishop turning to the north, south, 
and west sides of the Abbey, repeated 
" God save Queen Victoria ;" the Queen 
turning at the same time in the same 
direction. 

The Offering. The queen, at- 
tended by the bishops of Durham, 
Bath and Wells, and the dean of West- 
minster, with the great officers of state, 
and noblemen bearing the regalia, ad- 
vanced to the altar, and kneeling upon 
the crimson velvet cushion, made her 
first offering, being a pall, or altar-cloth 
of gold. The Treasurer of the House- 
hold then delivered an ingot of gold, of 
one pound weight, to the Lord Great 
Chamberlain ; who having presented the 
same to the queen, her majesty delivered 
it to the archbishop, by whom it was 
put in the oblation basin. 

The Service. The archbishop de- 
livered a prayer in the prescribed form. 
The regalia was laid on the altar, by the 
archbishop. The great officers of state, 
except the Lord Chamberlain, retired to 
their respective places ; and the bishops 
of Worcester, and St. Da\-id's read the 
Litany. Then followed the communion 
service, read by the archbishop of Can- 
terbury, and the bishops of Rochester, 
and Carlisle. The bishop of London 
preached the sermon from the second 
Book of Chronicles, chap, xxxiv. ver. 
31. 



COR 



339 



COR 



The Oath. At the conclusion of 
the sermon. " The Oath" was admi- 
nistered to the queen by the archbishop 
of Canterbury. The form of swearing 
was as follows :--The archbishop put 
certain questions, which the queen an- 
swered in the affirmative, relative to the 
maintenance of the law and the esta- 
blished rehgion ; and then her majesty, 
with the lord chamberlain, and other of- 
ficers, the sword of state being carried 
before her, went to the altar, and laymg 
her right hand upon the gospels in the 
bible carried in the procession, and now 
brought to her by the archbishop of Can- 
terbury, said, kneeling, "The things 
which I have here before promised I will 
perform and keep. So help me God." 
The queen kissed the book, and signed 
a transcript of the oath presented to hei 
by the archbishop. 

The Anointing was the next part 
of the ceremony. The queen sat in King 
Edward's chair; four knights of the 
garter, the dukes of Buccleuch and Rut- 
land, and the marquesses of Anglesea and 
Exeter, held a rich cloth of gold over her 
head ; the dean of Westminster took the 
ampulla from the altar, and poured some 
of the oil it contained into the anointing 
spoon; then the archbishop anointed 
the head and hands of the queen, marking 
them in the form of a cross, and pro- 
nouncing the words, " Be thou anoint- 
ed with holy oil, as kings, priests, and 
prophets were anointed. And as Solo- 
mon was anointed king by Zadok, the 
priest, and Nathan, the prophet ; so be 
you anointed, blessed, and consecrated 
queen over this people, whom the Lord 
your God hath given you to rule and 
govern, in the name of the Father, and 
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. 
Amen." 

Presenting THE Spurs. The spurs 
were presented by the lord chamberlain, 
and the sword of state by Lord Mel- 
bourne; who, however, according to 
custom, redeemed it " with a hundred 
sliillings," and carried it during the rest 
of the ceremony. Then followed the in- 
vesting with the " Royal Robe, and the 
delivery of the Orb," and the " Investi- 
ture per annulum et baculum"— the ring 
and sceptre. 

The Coronation. The archbishop of 
Canterbury offered a prayer to God to 
bless her majesty, "and crown her with 
all princely virtues." The dean of West- 
minster took the crown from the altar ; 



and the archbishop of Canterbury with 
the archbishops of York and Armagh, 
the bishops of London, Durham, and 
other prelates, advanced towards the 
queen, and the archbishop taking the 
crown from the dean, reverently placed 
it on the queen's head. This was no 
sooner done, than from every part of 
the crowded edifice arose a loud and en- 
thusiastic cry of "God save the queen!" 
mingled with lusty cheers, and accom- 
panied by the waving of hats and hand- 
kerchiefs. At this moment too, the 
peers and peeresses present put on their 
coronets, the bishops their caps, and 
the kings of arms their crowns, the 
trumpets sounding, the drums beating, 
and the tower and park guns firing by 
signal. 

The Bible was presented by the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury to the queen, who 
delivered it again to the archbishop, and 
it was replaced on the altar by the dean 
of Westminster. 

The Benediction was delivered by 
the archbishop; and the Te Deurn 
sung by the choir. At the commence- 
ment of the Te Deum, the queen went 
to the chair which she first occupied, 
supported by two bishops. She was 
then " enthroned," or "lifted," as the 
formulary states, into the chair of ho- 
mage, by archbishops, bishops, and peers 
surrounding her majesty. Her majesty 
delivered the sceptre with the cross to 
the lord of the manor of Worksop, (the 
duke of Norfolk,) and the sceptre with 
the dove to the duke of Richmond, to 
hold during the performance of the 
ceremony of homage. 

The Homage. The archbishop of 
Canterbury knelt and did homage for 
himself and other lords spiritual, who all 
kissed the queen's hand. The dukes of 
Sussex and Cambridge, removing their 
coronets, did homage in these words, — 
"I do become your liege man of life and 
limb, and of earthly worship, and faith 
and truth I will bear unto you, to live 
and die, against all manner of folks. So 
help me God." It was observed that 
her majesty's bearing towards her uncles 
was very kind and affectionate. Lord 
Rolle, who was upwards of 80, stumbled 
and fell, on going up the steps. The 
queen immediately stepped forwards and 
held out her hand to assist him, amidst 
the loudly expressed admiration of the 
entire assembly. 

While the lords were doing homage. 



COR 



340 



COR 



the earl of Surrey, treasurer of the 
household, threw coronation medals, in 
silver, about the choir and lower gal- 
leries, which were scrambled for with 
great eagerness. At the conclusion of 
the homage, the choir sung the anthem, 
" This is the day which the Lord hath 
made." The queen received the two 
sceptres from the dukes of Norfolk and 
Richmond ; the drums beat, the trum- 
pets sounded, and the assembly cried 
out, " God save Queen Victoria." The 
solemnity was followed by some remain- 
ing religious services, including the 
communion. 

The queen then left the throne, and, 
attended by two bishops, and noblemen 
bearing the regalia and swords of state, 
passed into King Edward's chapel, the 
organ playing. The queen delivered the 
sceptre with the dove to the archbishop 
of Canterbury. She was then disrobed 
of her imperial robe of state, and ar- 
rayed in her royal robe of purple velvet, 
by the lord chamberlain. The arch- 
bishop placed the orb in her left hand. 
The gold spurs and St. Edward's staff 
were delivered by the noblemen who 
bore them to the dean of Westminster, 
who placed them on the altar. The 
queen then went to the west door of the 
abbey, wearing her crown, the sceptre 
with the cross, being in the right, and 
orb in the left hand. The swords and 
regalia were delivered to gentlemen who 
attended to receive them from the jewel 
office. It was about a quarter to four 
o'clock when the royal procession pass- 
ed through the nave, in the same order 
as before, at the conclusion of the cere- 
mony in the abbey. 

The usual ceremony of the banquet 
being dispensed with, her majesty enter- 
tained a party of 100 at dinner; and in 
the evening witnessed from the roof of 
her palace, the fireworks discharged in 
the Green park. The duke of Welling- 
ton gave a grand ball at Apsley House, 
for which cards of invitation were issued 
for 2,000 persons. In almost every town 
throughout the country, the heartiest 
demonstrations of public rejoicing took 
place. Public dinners, feasts to the 
poor, processions, and illuminations, 
were the order of the day. 

CORONATION Chair, commonly 
called St. Edward's chair, is a very an- 
cient chair of solid hard wood, with 
back and sides of the same, variously 
painted, in which the kings of Scotland 



were heretofore constantly crowned; but 
being brought out of that kingdom by 
King Edward I., after he had overcome 
John Baliol, king of Scots, it has ever 
since remained in the abbey of West- 
minster, and has been the royal chair in 
which the succeeding kings and queens 
of this realm have been inaugurated. 
At nine inches from the ground there is 
a bottom-board, supported at the four 
corners by four lions, and between the 
seat and the said bottom-board is en- 
closed a stone, commonly called Jacob's 
Stone, or the Fatal Marble Stone, fabled 
to be the stone whereon the patriarch 
Jacob laid his head, in the plain of Luza. 
It was brought to Brigantia, in the 
kingdom of Galicia in Spain, in which 
place Gathol, king of Scots, sat on it, 
as his throne; thence it was brought 
into Ireland by Simon Breach, first king 
of Scots, about A. c. 700; from thence 
into Scotland by King Fergus, about 
A.c. 330. A.D. 859, it was placed in the 
abbey of Scone, in the sheriffdom of 
Perth, by King Kenneth, who caused it 
to be enclosed in this wooden chair, and 
this prophetical distich to be en- 
graved: — 

Ni fallat Fatum, Scoti hunc quocunque locatum, 
Invenient lapidem, regnwe tenentur ibidem. 

If fate go right, where'er this stone is found. 
The Scots shall monarchs of that realm be 
crown'd. 

Which is the more remarkable by being 
fulfilled in the person of King James I. 
This antique regal chair having, together 
with the golden sceptre and crown of 
Scotland, been solemnly offered by the 
fore-mentioned King Edward I. to St. 
Edward the Confessor, in 1297, (from 
whence it has the name of St. Edward's 
chair,) has ever since been kept in St. 
Edward the Confessor's chapel. 

CORONERS, ancient officers of 
the realm, whose duty is to inquire, on 
the part of the king, how any violent 
death has occurred. Mention is made 
of this office as early as the time of King 
Athelstan, in 925. 

CORONETS for earls were first al- 
lowed by Henry III. ; for viscounts, by 
Henry VIII.; for barons, by Charles 
II. 

CORPORATION, a body politic, 
authorised by the king's charter to have 
a common seal. These political consti- 
tutions were first invented and intro- 
duced, according to Plutarch, among 



COR 



the Romans by Numa, in order to break 
the force of the two rival factions of 
Sabines and Romans ; by instituting 
separate societies of every manual trade 
and profession. Of corporations, some 
are aggregate and others sole. The for- 
mer consist of many persons united 
together into one society. The latter 
consist of one person only and his suc- 
cessors, in some particular station, who 
are incorporated by law, in order to give 
them some legal capacities and advan- 
tages. 

Corporations were formerly establish- 
ed for a variety of purposes. Lay cor- 
porations were created for the good 
government of a town, or particular dis- 
tricts ; as a mayor and commonality, 
bailiff and burgesses, &c. — some for the 
advancement and regulation of manu- 
factures and commerce, as the trading 
companies of London, and of other 
towns : — and some for the more effec- 
tual accomplishment of various special 
purposes, as the Royal Society, for the 
advancement of natural knowledge. 

Civic Corporations were emi- 
nently useful in checking the oppression 
of the feudal government in England 
in former times, and in extending per- 
sonal and political liberty. See City. 
They were established by charter from 
the king ; but becoming subject to in- 
convenience by obstructing the free cir- 
culation of labour in large cities, and 
other abuses, they were recently made 
subject to the following act of parlia- 
ment. 

Municipal Corporation Act. By 
this act, 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 76, Sep- 
tember 9, 1835, entirely new regulations 
are introduced in all the principal cor- 
porations in the kingdom. The fol- 
lowing are the chief enactments. 1. 
This statute repeals all royal and other 
charters, grants, and letters patent to 
the boroughs, as particularised in the 
act, so far as inconsistent with this act. 
2. Reserves all rights of property, and 
beneficial exemptions to freemen, their 
widows and orphans, including all in- 
cohate rights. 3. Freedom not to be 
acquired by gift or purchase. 4. Par- 
liamentary franchise reserved to freemen. 
5. "The freemen's roll" to be kept by 
the town clerk ; to be examined, and 
copies furnished on payment. 6. Cor- 
porations to be styled " The mayor, 
aldermen, and burgesses." 7. Boun- 
daries as settled by the parliamentary 



3il COR 

reform act, until altered by parliament. 
8. Places, precincts, or parts of districts 
included within boroughs or counties, 
are to be taken as part of the divisions 
wherein situated : proportional amounts 
of payments to be settled by a ward of 
barristers, &c. 9. Occupiers of houses, 
warehouses, counting-houses, and shops, 
rated for three years, of resident house- 
holders within seven miles entitled to 
become burgesses ; exclusive of aliens 
and receivers of parochial relief. 10. 
Medical assistance and public instruction 
not to be deemed parochial relief. 11. 
Occupiers may claim to be rated ; where 
rates are payable by the landlord, claim 
of occupier not to be annulled thereby. 
12. In titles by descent, marriage, &c. ; 
the time of rating to include the pre- 
vious occupancy. 13. Occupancy, and 
payment of rates, the only grounds of 
claiming to be enrolled. 14. Exclusive 
rights of trading by retail, &c., wholly 
abolished. 15. "The burgess list" to 
be made out annually, September 5. 16. 
When no town clerk, persons doing 
duties of town clerk, to act ; where no 
overseers, such place to be deemed as 
belonging to neighbouring parish. 17. 
Regulates notices as to omission of 
names, objections to names, and publi- 
cation thereof; lists to be kept, con- 
sulted, &c., and sold at Is. each. 18. 
The mayor, and two assessors chosen by 
the burgesses, to revise lists annually. 

Mayor, aldermen, and councillors 
to be elected by the burgesses. One- 
third of the council to go out of office 
annually, but are re-eligible Coimcillors 
to be chosen November 1, annually, &c. 
Barristers appoint boundaries of wards ; 
and also assign the number of coun- 
cillors, &c. Burgesses to elect coun- 
cillors and assessors in their respec- 
tive wards. Bankruptcy, &c., to dis- 
qualify and displace mayor, aldermen, 
and councillors. If convicted of bribery, 
penalty £50, and disqualified from all 
elective rights. Persons offending, if 
they detect and convict others so offend- 
ing, to be themselves exempt from 
penalties. A watch committee to be 
appointed: constables of boroughs to 
act for the counties. The crown to ap- 
point justices at pleasure ; stipendiary, 
if at request of councils ; qualification not 
requisite ; but not to sit at jaol delivery, 
&c. Council to find " police officers." 
The crown, on petition, may grant char- 
ters of incorporation. 



COR 



342 



COT 



CORPORATION AND Test Acts, 
repealed by 9 Geo. IV. c. 17; passed 
May 9, 1828. After reciting: the 13th 
Car. II. s. 2, c. 1, the 25th Car. II. c. 
2, and the l6th Geo. II, c. 30, this act 
enacts, that so much and such parts of 
the said several acts as require the per- 
son or persons in the said acts respec- 
tively described, to take or receive the 
sacrament of the Lord's supper accord- 
ing to the rights or usages of the church 
of England for the several purposes 
therein e.Ypressed, shall be repealed. 

CORPUS Christi Day, May 25, 
the profane exhibition of the cat on, 
suppressed 1757 ; festival of, appointed 
1265. 

CORPUS Christi College, Ox- 
ford, founded 1516. 

CORPUS Christi College, Cam- 
bridge, founded 1351. 

CORSICA, island in the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, anciently occupied by the 
Phoenicians, Lacedemonians, and Car- 
thaginians, to whom the Romans suc- 
ceeded. In the 5th century the Goths 
were its masters ; in the 8th the Sara- 
cens. Next it submitted to Pope Gre- 
gory VII., after that to the Pisans, and 
in 1297, to James II. of Arragon; the 
Genose retained it from 1480 to 1730; 
the celebrated Corsican revolt occurred 
in 1730. In 1755, Paoli, the patriot 
general flourished ; in 1768, the island 
was ceded to France by the Genoese ; 
and in 1769, Paoli took shelter in Eng- 
land, and left Corsica under French 
domination. From 1796-1797, it was 
in the possession of the English, from 
whom it was retaken by the French, and 
its two departments Golo and Liamone 
formed into one, and finally annexed to 
that country. This interesting island 
was the birth place of Napoleon. See 
Ajaccio. 

CORTES OF Spain, assembled and 
installed in the Isle of Leon, November 
24, 1810. Dissolved by Ferdinand VII., 
May 4, 1814; all the papers in which 
the proceedings of that assembly were 
mentioned, collected and burnt at Ma- 
drid by the government, November,1814. 
Patriotic members of, confined at Ceuta, 
were taken out of their beds, carried on 
board a xebeck, loaded with irons, and 
conveyed to some unknown place, July 
19, 1816. Assembled to consider the 
constitution of 1812, November, 1836. 

CORTEZ, Fernando, the celebrated 
conqueror of Mexico, was born at Me- 



dellin, in Estremadura, in 1485. In 
1504, began his expedition to the New 
World, and having signalized himself in 
several instances byhis intrepidity, he was 
selected, 1511, by Velasquez to conduct 
his followers to the conquest of Mexico, 
which he had then just discovered to be 
a rich and populous kingdom. Cortez 
completed this conquest in 1521. The 
crown of Spain afterwards confirmed 
his authority, and appointed him cap- 
tain-general and governor of New Spain. 
His designing enemies, however, suc- 
ceeded in filling the mind of Charles V. 
with suspicions, and he ordered an in- 
quest into his conduct, in 1522. Cortez 
immediately determined to return to 
Spain, and face his enemies, rather than 
stand a trial in the country he had con- 
quered. Here he was received in the 
most respectful manner, but though dig- 
nified with new titles, he returned to 
Mexico in 1530, with diminished autho- 
rity. The military department, with 
powers to attempt new discoveries, was 
left in his hands; but the supreme direc- 
tion of civil affairs was placed in a board 
called "The Audience of New Spain." 
Dissatisfied and disgusted, on a variety 
of accounts, he once more sought redress 
in his native country, and returned 
thither in 1540; but his reception was 
very different from that which gratitude, 
and even decency, ought to have secured 
for him. At length broken down by 
age, and the vexation of disappointment, 
he ended his days, December 2, 1547, 
aged 62. 

CORUNNA, seaport tov/n in Spain. 
On the heights of Corunna, Jan. 16, 
1809, Marshal Soult vainly, but obsti- 
nately endeavoured to intercept the em- 
barkation of the British army. In this 
action Sir John Moore was killed. 

CORYAT, Thomas, author of "Cru- 
dities," and remarkable for the prepos- 
terous vanity of publishing in an Index 
Expurgatorius, 1000 of the verses made 
upon himself and his book, by the men 
of wit and learning of that age, and in 
which they ridicule him in a style of 
high panegyric: born 1577j and died 
aged 64. 

COSTARD, George, astronomical 
writer, born about 1710, died 1782. 

COTES, Roger, the mathematician, 
born 1682, died 1716. 

COTOPAXL volcanic mountain. 
South America. The most remarkable 
eruptions were the following : — In 1698, 



COT 



343 



COT 



when Tacunga and most of its inha- 
bitants were overwhelmed; in 1738, the 
flames ascended 3000 feet above the 
brink of the crater; in 1/42 and 
1744, when its roarings were heard 
at Honda on the Magdalena, 600 miles 
distant; in 1766 and 1768; in 1803, 
the noise of the explosion was heard 
by Humboldt at Guayaquil, 52 leagues 
distant, and then resembled frequent 
discharges of artillery. 

COTTE, the French architect, born 
1656, died 1735, aged 79. 

COTTON, Sir Robert, the antiqua- 
rian, born 1570, died 1631, aged 60. 

COTTON Manufacture has been 
carried on in Hindostan from the re- 
motest antiquity. Herodotus mentions 
(lib. iii. c. 106) that in India there are 
wild trees that produce a sort of wool 
superior to that of sheep, and that the 
natives dress themselves in cloth made 
of it. The manufacture obtained no 
footing worth mentioning in Europe till 
last century. The first authentic men- 
tion of it in England is by Lewis Ro- 
berts, in his "Treasure of Traffic," pub- 
lished in 1641, where it is stated, " The 
town of Manchester, in Lancashire, 
•must be also herein remembered, and 
worthily for their encouragement com- 
mended, who buy the yarne of the 
Irish in great quantity, and weaving it, 
return the same again into Ireland to 
sell. Neither doth their industry rest 
here ; for they buy cotton wool in Lon- 
don that comes from Cyprus and Smyr- 
na, and at home work the same, and 
perfect it into fustians, vermilions, di- 
mities, and other such stuffs, and then 
return it to London, where the same is 
vented and sold, and not seldom sent 
into foreign parts, who have means, at 
far easier terms, to provide themselves 
of the said first material." 

From the first introduction of the 
cotton manufacture into Great Britain 
down to 1773, the weft, or transverse 
threads of the web, only, were of cot- 
ton ; the Avarp, or longitudinal threads, 
consisting wholly of linen yarn, princi- 
pally imported from Germany and Ire- 
land. In the first stage of the manu- 
facture, the weavers furnished them- 
selves as well as they could with the 
warp and weft for their webs, and car- 
ried them to market when they were 
finished. But about 1760, the Man- 
chester merchants began to send agents 
into the country, who employed weavers. 



whom they supplied with foreign or 
Irish linen yarn for warp, and with raw 
cotton, which being carded and spun 
by means of a common spindle or dis- 
taff, in the weaver's own family, was 
then used for weft. 

The entire value of all the cotton 
goods manufactured in Great Britain, at 
the accession of George III. in 1760, 
was estimated toamounttoonly£20Q,000 
a-year, and the number of persons em- 
ployed was quite inconsiderable : but in 
1767, James Hargraves, a carpenter at 
Blackburn in Lancashire, invented a 
spinning jenny. The jenny was appli- 
cable only to the spinning of cotton for 
weft, being unable to give to the yarn 
that degree of firmness and hardness 
which is required in the longitudinal 
threads or warp : but this deficiency 
was soon after supplied by the introduc- 
tion of the spinning frame, invented by 
Sir Richard Ark\vright, for which he 
received a patent in 1769. He also ap- 
plied the same principle to different 
stages of the preparation of the raw ma- 
terial, for which he obtained a patent in 
1775. About 1779, Mr. Samuel Comp- 
ton invented a machine compounded of 
both the former ones, and which was on 
this account called the mule. 

Since this time the progress of disco- 
very and improvement in every depart- 
ment of the manufacture has been most 
rapid ; by the power-loom, invented by 
the Rev. Mr. Cartwright, and innume- 
rable other inventions, the prices of cot- 
ton cloth and yarn have gone on pro- 
gressively diminishing. But as the de- 
mand for cottons has been, owing to 
their extraordinary cheapness, extended 
in a still greater degree, the value of the 
goods produced, and the number of 
persons employed in the manufacture, 
are now decidedly greater than at any 
previous period. In 1817, Mr. Kennedy, 
one of the best informed cotton manu- 
facturers in the empire, in a paper pub- 
lished in the "Manchester Transactions," 
estimated the number of persons em- 
ployed in the spinning of cotton in 
Great Britain at 110,763; the aid they 
derived from steam-engines as equal to 
the power of 20,768 horses ; and the 
number of spindles in motion at 6,645,833. 
Mr. Kennedy further estimated the num- 
ber of hanks of yarn annually produced 
at .3,987,500,000; and the quantity of 
coal consumed in their production at 
500,479 tons. But the cotton raana. 



cou 



344 



COU 



facture has increased rapidly since then. 
Mr. Huskisson stated in the House of 
Commons, in March, 1824, that he be- 
lieved the total value of the cotton goods 
then annually manufactured in Great 
Britain amounted to the sum of 33 mil- 
lions and a half, and it is supposed not 
to have in the least decreased. A large 
portion of this is used for foreign con- 
sumption. 

The declared value of British cotton 
manufactures exported to foreign parts 
in the year ending January 5, 1839, 
was as follows : — entered by the yard 
£15,554,733; hosiery, lace, flannel wares, 
£1,161,124 ; cotton twist and yarn, 
£7,431,869. 

COTTON Wool. Brazil, the East 
Indies, Egypt, &c., are, after the United 
States, the countries that furnish the 
largest supplies of cotton wool for ex- 
portation. Of 288,674,OOOlbs. of cotton 
wool imported into the United Kingdom, 
in 1831, 219,333,000lbs. were from the 
United States, 31,695,000lbs from Bra- 
zil, 25,805,000lbs. from the East Indies, 
7,714,OOOlbs. from Egypt, 2,401,000lbs. 
from the British West Indies, 334,000lbs. 
from Columbia, 366,000lbs. from Tur- 
key and Continental Greece, 344,000lbs. 
from Malta, &c. 

In the year ending January 5, 1839, 
the total quantity imported amounted to 
£507,286,744, of which £460,755,023, 
were entered for home consumption. 
The duty paid that year was £559,250. 

COTTON Manufactory, at Dur- 
ham, totally consumed by fire, January 
7, 1804. 

COTTON'S Wharf, London, burnt, 
when damage amounting to £49,000 was 
sustained, August 12, 1751. 

COrrONlAN Library, settled on 
the public, 1701 ; damaged by fire, Oct. 
25, 1731. 

COUCHMAN, lieutenant of the 
Chesterfield, and Morgan, lieutenant of 
marines, shot pursuant to sentence, on 
board the Chesterfield, at Portsmouth, 
July 14, 1749. 

COUNCIL, in ecclesiastical history, 
a synod or assembly of prelates and 
doctors, met for the regulation of mat- 
ters relating to the doctrine or disciphne 
of the church. Although the meeting 
of the church of Jerusalem, in 48, men- 
tioned in the 11th chapter of Acts, is 
commonly considered as the first chris- 
tian council, yet, Mosheim observes that 
this consisted only of one church, and. 



therefore, cannot be called a council. 
This institution had its origin among 
the Greeks, and consisted of deputies or 
commissioners of several churches, the 
name of " synods" was appropriated by 
the Greeks, and that of " councils " by 
the Latins. No trace of such assemblies 
can be found before the middle of the 
second century. The following is a list 
of the principal councils, arranged chro- 
nologically. 

269. At Antioch. 

314. At Aries, at which three En- 
glish bishops were present. 

325. At Nice, when 328 fathers at- 
tended against Arius. This was the 
first of the ecumenical councils establish- 
ed by Constantine. 

381. The first at Constantinople, 
when Pope Damascus presided, and 150 
fathers attended. 

400. That at Sardis, when 376 fathers 
attended. 

431. The first at Ephesus, when Pope 
Celestine presided, and 200 fathers at- 
tended. 

451. That at Chalcedon, when Pope 

Leo presided, and 600 fathers attended. 

552. The second at Constantinople, 

when Pope Virgilius presided, and 165 

fathers attended. 

568. One called the Milevetan coun- 
cil. 

600. At Constantinople. 
649- At Rome. 

680. The third at Constantinople, 
when Pope Agatho presided, and 289 
fathers attended. 

787. The second at Nice, when 
Pope Adrian presided, and 350 fathers 
attended. 

869. The fourth at Constantinople, 
when Pope Adrian presided, and 101 
fathers attended. 

1053. That at Vercellus, when Pope 
Leo IX. presided. 

1123. The Lateran one, when Pope 
Calixtus II. presided, and 300 fathers 
attended. 

1139. The second Lateran one, when 
Pope Innocent II. presided, and 1000 
fathers attended. 

1179. Third Lateran one, when Pope 
Alexander III. presided, and 300 fathers 
attended. 

1215-1217. The fourth Lateran one, 
when Pope Innocent III. presided, and 
1185 fathers attended. 
1255-1274. At Lyons. 
1311. That at Vienna, when Pope 



cou 



345 



GOV 



Clement V. presided, and 300 fathers 
attended. 

1414. One at Constance, when Pope 
John XXII. and Martin V. presided. 

1431. There have heen several other 
provincial councils, and others, as that 
of Avignon, in France, and at Bituria, 
in Tuscany. 

1448 At Tours, in France. 

1449. At Florence, in Italy. 

1473. At Toledo, in Spain. 

1513. The fifth Lateran one, when 
Pope Julian III. and Pius IV. presided 
against Luther. 

1548. At Aspurgh, in Germany; at 
Cologne, in Germany; and at Treves, 
in Germany. 

1549. At Cologne, in Germany, and 
at Mentz, in Alraaine. 

1550. At Numantia, in Spain. 
COUNSEL first allowed to persons 

guilty of high treason, April, 21, I696. 

COUNTIES, first division of, in Eng- 
land, 900 ; first sent members to parlia- 
ment, 1258. 

COUNTY Gaols have cost building 
as follows : — Gloucester, £18,009, con- 
tains 170 cells; Monmouth, £4,000, 
contains 26 cells ; Ipswich, £13,000, 
contains 86 cells ; Sussex, £5,500, con- 
tains 30 cells ; Oxford city, £4,500 con- 
tains 30 cells; Oxford county, £10,000, 
contains 80 cells ; Manchester, £15,000, 
contains 140 cells; Preston, £9,000 con- 
tains 70 cells; Staflford, £18,000, con- 
tains 140 cells; Liverpool, £25,000, con- 
tains 300 cells; Dorchester, £12,000, 
contains 100 cells ; Devon, £20,000, 
contains I60 cells. 

COUNTY Courts first erected, 
896. 

COURIERS, OR Posts, invented by 
Charlemagne, 808. 

COURLAND, government of Euro- 
pean Russia, was a part of Livonia, con- 
quered in the 13th century by the Teu- 
tonic knights, and became a fief of 
Poland under its hereditary dukes, until 
1737. In 1762, Biren, grand chamber- 
lain of Russia, was acknowledged duke, 
and on the decease of his son, in 1795, 
Courland was received under Russian 
protection, the peasants declared free, 
and the privileges of the nobles preserved 
to them. 

COURTS OF Conscience, or Re- 
auESTS, in London, began 1517 ; again 
in 1603 ; in Bristol, Gloucester, and 
Newcastle, 1689 ; extended to the sum 
of £5, Oct. 1800. 



COURTS OF Justice instituted at 
Athens, a.c. 1272. 

COVELL Islands, in the Pacific 
Ocean, 14 in number, lat. 40° 30' N., 
Ion. 168° 40' E., discovered 1832. 

COVENANT, a contract or con- 
vention agreed to by the Scotch, for 
maintaining their religion fi-ee from in- 
novation. In 1581, the general assembly 
drew up a confession of faith, or national 
covenant, condemning episcopal govern- 
ment, which was signed by James I. It 
was again subscribed in 1590 and 1596. 
The subscription was renewed in 1638, 
and the subscribers engaged by oath to 
maintain religion in the same state as it 
was in 1580; those who subscribed it 
were called covenanters. 

COVENANT, Solemn League and, 
was established in the year 1643, and 
formed a bond of union between Eng- 
land and Scotland. Ratified by the 
general assembly of Scotland in 1645. 
King Charles I. disapproved of it when 
he surrendered himself to the Scots' army 
in 1646; but in 1650, Charles II. de- 
clared his approbation both of this and 
the national covenant by a solemn oath, 
which was also renewed on occasion of 
his coronation at Scone, in 1651. It 
produced a series of distractions in the 
subsequent history of that country, and 
was voted illegal by parliament, and pro- 
vision made against it, stat. 14 Car. 11. 
c. 4. 

COVENT Garden Souare, built 
1633. 

COVENT Garden Church, built 
by Inigo Jones; repaired 1789; burnt 
down September 17, 1795 ; rebuilt after 
the same design, 1798. 

COVENT Garden Market, the 
new buildings completed, 1830. 

COVENT Garden Theatre, built 
1733; enlarged 1792; burnt down Sep- 
tember 20, 1808 ; rebuilt 1809. 

1839. September, a public meeting 
of the performers, creditors, and friends 
of Covent Garden theatre, to consider 
of the best means of preventing the sale 
of property under an execution for paro- 
chial rates, and of enabling the theatre 
to open again at the proper season, at 
which, after some discussion, a subscrip- 
tion was resolved upon. 

COVENTRY, Warwickshire, an an- 
cient city. The old convent (whence the 
place derives its name,) was ruined by 
the Danes, 1016, but rebuilt by Leofric, 
earl of Mercia. The Countess Godiva, 

2 V 



cow 



346 



COW 



wife of Leofric, is said to have rode 
through the streets of Coventry with no 
other covering than her long flowing 
tresses, which reached to her feet, to 
obtain some important privileges for the 
citizens, from their feudal lord, her hus- 
band. The Godiva procession, which 
was begun in the reign of Charles II., 
is still celebrated on May 2, in each 
year. 

Edward III. granted a charter to 
Coventry. Henry VI. encircled it with 
walls ; Edward IV. kept here the festi- 
val of St. George. Queen Elizabeth 
was the guest of the corporation, and 
Mary, queen of Scots, was in the city, 
for some time a captive. James I. granted 
the city a charter, but the citizens hav- 
ing joined the Cromwellians, Charles II. 
threw down their tower and city walls. 
COVENTRY Abbey, built 1043. 
COW-POX, inoculation by, as a se- 
curity against the small-pox, introduced 
by Dr. Jenner, 1800. See Vaccina- 
tion. 

COWDLEY House, Kent, the seat 
of Viscount Montague, destroyed by fire, 
with all its valuable paintings and fur- 
niture, September 25, 1793. 

CO WES Castle, in the Isle of 
Wight, built 1540. 

COWLEY Abraham, one of the 
earliest British poets, born at London, 
in 1618. Admitted king's scholar at 
Westminster. His first inclination to 
poetry was excited by reading " Spenser's 
Faery Queen." A collection of his 
poems was published in 1633. In 1636, 
he removed to Trinity College, Cam- 
bridge. His zeal for the royal cause 
engaging him in the service of the king, 
who valued his abilities, he attended his 
majesty in many of his expeditions. His 
amorous poems, entitled the "Mistress," 
were published at London, in 1647. He 
was created doctor of physic at Oxford, 
December 2, 1657. At the restoration 
he obtained a pension of £300 a year. 
He died July 28, 1667, in the 49th year 
of his age. On August 3, following, 
he was interred in Westminster abbey. 
A monument was erected to his memory 
by George Villiers, duke of Bucking- 
ham, in 1675. 
COWLING Castle, Kent, built 1481. 
COWPER, William, a distinguish- 
ed modern poet, born at Berkhampstead, 
in Hertfordshire, Nov. 26, 1731. Was 
sent to Westminster school which he 
left at the age of 18; here he had acquir- 



ed the accomplishments and reputation 
of scholarship, as well as the esteem of 
some aspiring youths, who afterwards 
rose to eminence. From Dec. 1763, to 
the following July, he suflfered all the 
wretchedness attendant on mental de- 
rangement. In 1767, removed with 
Mrs. Unwin to Olney. Here he con- 
tracted a close friendship with the late 
Mr. Newton, then rector of the parish, 
and afterwards for many years rector of 
St. Mary Woolnoth, London. 

1768. He was visited by a heavy af- 
fliction, in the illness and death of his 
brother, for whom he possessed the 
highest esteem and affection. Cowper 
hastened to Cambridge on the first news 
of his illness, and the scenes which pass- 
ed between these two affectionate bro- 
thers are beautifully described in a nar- 
rative, which Mr. Newton published in 
1802. In 1781, our poet pubhshed his 
first volume containing many poems of 
extraordinary merit. The " Task," with 
his " Tirocinium," and several miscella- 
neous pieces, formed his second volume, 
which was published in 1784. 

1794. A pension from his majesty 
was granted him, which would have re- 
lieved the poet's mind from all anxiety 
on account of his circumstances ; but 
his malady had deprived him of all 
power of receiving comfort. In a few 
months he again sunk into the most 
pitiable melancholy. In December, 1796, 
Mrs. Unwin, whose powers had been 
gradually wasting, expired without a 
struggle. Cowper was much distressed 
at taking his leave of the corpse, but 
never mentioned the name of his friend 
again. 

In the latter end of March 1799, he 
wrote some stanzas entitled the " Cast- 
away," founded on an anecdote in An- 
son's Voj'ages. He afterwards became 
too ill to attend to any employment ; 
and on April 13, 1800, alarming symp- 
toms appeared. A deadly change was 
afterwards observed to have taken place 
and after remaining for 12 hours in an 
insensible state, he ceased to breathe, 
April 25, 1800. 

"The person and life of Cowper," 
says Mr. Hayley, " seem to have been 
formed with equal kindness by nature; 
and it may be questioned, if she ever be- 
stowed on any man, with a fonder pro- 
digality, all the requisites to conciliate 
affection and to inspire respect. He was 
beloved and revered by all who knew 



cox 



347 



CRA 



him, with a sort of idolittry. I may be 
suspected of speaking with fond par- 
tiality the unperceived exaggerations of 
friendship ; but the fear of such a censure 
will not deter me from bearing my most 
deliberate testimony to the excellency of 
him whose memory I revere, and saying 
that as a man he made, of all men whom 
I have ever had opportunities to observe 
so minutely, the nearest approaches to 
moral perfection." Lord Thurlow has 
expressed the same idea of his charac- 
ter ; for being once requested to describe 
him, he replied, with that solemn air of 
dignified elocution by which he was ac- 
customed to give a very forcible effect to 
a few simple words, " Cowper is truly a 
good man." 

COX, Bishop, translator of the bible, 
born 1499, died 1581. 

COXE, William, author of Travels 
in Switzerland, was born in Dover Street, 
Piccadilly, March 7, 1747- In 1753, he 
was sent to Eton, and continued his 
education there under the Rev. Dr. Ber- 
nard, till 1765; when he was elected to 
King's College, Cambridge. In 1768, 
he was chosen a fellow of that college; 
and distinguished himself for his classi- 
cal attainments. Having devoted him- 
self to the church, in 1771, he was ad- 
mitted to deacon's orders. In March, 
1771, he was appointed to the curacy 
of Denham, near Uxbridge, but was 
afterwards made tutor to the marquis of 
Blandford. 

1775. Mr. Coxe accompanied the late 
earl of Pembroke, then Lord Herbert, in 
a tour on the continent. He made a 
second tour in the summer of 1779, 
which produced his " Travels m Swit- 
zerland, and the country of the Orisons," 
in 3 vols. 8vo. In 1784, appeared "Tra- 
vels into Poland, Russia, Sweden, and 
Denmark," in five vols. 8vo. He made 
another tour on the continent, with the 
late S. Whitbread, esq., and returned 
to England, in May 1786 ; and shortly 
after, he again visited the Continent 
with H. B. Portman esq., eldest son of 
W. H. Portman, esq. of Bryanston, Dor- 
set. In 1786, he was presented by the 
society of King's College, Cambridge, to 
the living of Kingston on Thames, which 
he resigned in 1788, on being presented 
to the rectory of Bemerton by the earl 
of Pembroke. Here he chiefly fixed his 
subsequent residence. 

1794. He again repaired to the Con- 
tinent with lord Brome, eldest son of the 



Marquis Cornwallis. In 1803, he was 
elected one of the canons residentiary of 
the cathedral of Salisbury; and in 1805, 
appointed archdeacon of Wilts, by the 
venerable Bishop Douglas. He wrote 
"Memoirs of John duke of Marlborough," 
principally drawn from the rich collec- 
tion of papers preserved at Blenheim. 
Of this elaborate work, the first volume 
appeared in 1817, the second in 1818, 
and the third in 1819. His other writ- 
ingsareverynumerous. Hediedathis rec- 
tory of Bemerton, June 8, 1828, aged 81. 

CRAB BE, Rev. George, the ad- 
mired poet, was born on Dec. 24, 1754, 
at Aldborough, in Suffolk, and was ap- 
prenticed to a surgeon and apothecary. 
Having imbibed a taste for poetry, in 
1778, he resolved to abandon his pro- 
fession. With the very best verses he 
could write, and with very little more, 
he quitted the place of his birth, and 
repairing to the metropolis, fixed his 
residence with a family in the city, near 
some friends, of whose kindness he was 
assured. In 1771, he offered a poem 
for publication, but did not find a pur- 
chaser among the booksellers. He, at 
length, hazarded the publication of an 
anonymous performance, " The Candi- 
date ; a poetical epistle to the authors 
of the Monthly Review," which was 
printed in quarto in 1780. In this httle 
publication, he was unfortunate. Mr. 
Burke, however, took him by the hand; 
and Crabbe submitted to this distin- 
guished critic a large quantity of mis- 
cellaneous compositions. From these 
Mr. Burke selected " The Library" and 
"The Village." "The Library" was first 
published, and gave some reputation to 
the writer, and encouraged him to pub- 
lish, in 1783, his second poem, "The 
Village," which was corrected, and a 
considerable portion of it written in the 
house of Mr. Burke. 

Having resolved to take holy orders, 
Mr. Crabbe was ordained a deacon by 
Dr. Yonge, bishop of Norwich, in 1781, 
and priest by the same prelate in the fol- 
lowing year. He immediately after be- 
came curate to the Rev. James Bennett, 
at Aldborough. He was introduced to 
the late duke of Rutland, who made him 
his domestic chaplain. He shortly after 
undertook the curacy of Strathern, near 
Belvoir Castle, where he continued to 
reside until the duke of Rutland's death, 
in 1787. 

1783. Lord Chancellor Thurlow, 



CRA 



348 



CRA 



through the recommendation of Mr. 
Burke, presented Mr. Crabbe to the 
rectory of Frome St. Quentin, in Dor- 
setshire, which he held for about six 
years. In 1785, he produced " The 
Newspaper," a poem, which was well 
received by the public. In 1789, Lord 
Thurlow presented him with the rec- 
tories of Muston, in Leicestershire, and 
West Allington, in Lincolnshire. In 
1 807, " The Parish Register" appeared. 
It was submitted to Mr. Fo.x,and, in part, 
read to him during his last illness. The 
observations he had made in a populous 
town and a noisy seaport, were conveyed 
in " The Borough, a poem ; in 24 Let- 
ters," pubhshed in 1810; and "Tales 
in Verse," which appeared in 1812. 
After a removal of more than 20 years, 
Mr. Crabbe returned to his parsonage at 
Muston in Leicestershire, and again re- 
ceived the favourable notice of the Rutland 
family. In 1813, the duke presented 
him to the rectory of Trowbridge, and 
with it to the smaller benefice of Croxton 
Kerryel in Leicestershire. To the former 
place he removed, and from that time he 
resided in the parsonage till his death, 
which took place Feb. 8, 1832. 

Mr. Crabbe's only prose publications 
were a funeral sermon on Charles, duke 
of Rutland, 1789, preached in the chapel 
of Belvoir Castle ; and " An Essay on 
the Natural History of the Vale of Bel- 
voir," written for the " History of Lei- 
cestershire." Mr. Nicholls, the author 
of that production, says, " Mr. Crabbe's 
communications, in the progress of this 
laborious work are such as to entitle 
him to my warmest and most grateful 
acknowledgments." 

CRACOW, republic and city of Po- 
land, supposed to have been founded 
by Pinia Cracus in 700 ; adopted the 
Magdeburg law in 1237. On the par- 
tition of Poland in 1795, Cracow fell to 
Austria; in 1809, together with West 
Galicia, it was included with the duchy 
of Warsaw. In 1815 (by act of con- 
gress at Vienna,) Cracow, together with 
487 square miles of territory, and 
108,000 inhabitants, was declared a re- 
public under the protection of Russia, 
Austria, and Prussia, on condition that 
no exile or criminal of any of those em- 
pires should find an asylum here. 

1836. Cracow was occupied in Feb. 
by Russian and Austrian troops, under 
the alleged necessity of protecting it 
from revolutionary movements. 



CRANBOURN Prioky, Dorsetshire, 

built, 980. 

CRANIOLOGY, first presented in 
the form of a science by Dr. Gall, to 
those who attended his lectures, in va- 
rious parts of Germany, at the com- 
mencement of the present century. He 
then visited most of the principal towns 
in the north of Germany, and afterwards 
resided for some time at Paris, where, 
in conjunction with Dr. Spurzheim, he 
published a splendid work entitled, 
"Anatomie et Physiologic du Systeme 
Nerveaux en general, et du Cerveau 
en particulier, &c.," about 1803. The 
science is now more usually called 
Phrenology. See Phrenology. 

CRANMER, Thomas, archbishop of 
Canterbury, and a celebrated reformer, 
was born at Aslacton, in Nottingham- 
shire, in 1489. In 1523, he took the 
degree of doctor of divinity, and was 
made theological lecturer and examiner. 
In 1533, he was consecrated archbishop 
of Canterbury ; in May following he 
pronounced the sentence of divorce be- 
tween the king and Queen Catharine ; 
and, soon after, married the monarch to 
Anne Boleyn. In 1536, he divorced the 
king from Anne Boleyn. In 1 540, he was 
appointed one of the commissioners for in- 
specting matters of religion and explain- 
ing its chief doctrines. On this occasion 
he published an admirable work entitled, 
"A Necessary Erudition of any Christian 
Man." In 1542, he procured the act for 
the advancement of true religion, which 
moderated the rigour of the six articles. 
In 1556, he crowned young Edward, 
during whose short reign he promoted 
the reformation to the utmost of his 
power ; and was particularly instru- 
mental in composing, correcting, and 
establishing the liturgy. 

On the death of Edward, Cranmer 
opposed the settlement of the crown 
upon Lady Jane Grey, though at last he 
was prevailed upon to sign it as a wit- 
ness. Upon Queen Mary's accession to 
the throne, he was committed to the 
Tower. In April, 1554, Cranmer, Rid- 
ley, and Latimer, were removed to Ox- 
ford, in order to dispute with the leaders 
of the catholics. In these disputations 
the reformers defended themselves with 
the most dignified eloquence, but were 
treated with contempt and insult. Cran- 
mer afterwards signed the recantation of 
his principles, which has left a shade 
upon his admirable character. 



CRE 



349 



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On the 24th of February, 1556, a writ 
was signed for the burning of Cranmer ; 
and, on the 24th of March, which was 
the fatal day, he was brought to St. 
Mary's church, Oxford, and placed on a 
stage over against the pulpit, where Dr, 
Cole, provost of Eton, was appointed to 
preach a sermon on the occasion. When 
the fire was applied to him, he stretched 
out his right hand into the flame, and 
held it there unmoved (except once with 
it he wiped his face) till it was consumed, 
often repeating, " This unworthy hand," 
He stood unmoved, keeping his eyes 
fixed to heaven, and repeating more than 
once, "Lord Jesus receive my spirit," 
till the flames reached his vitals, and he 
expired. Such was the fate of Thomas 
Cranmer, in the 67th year of his age. 

CRASSUS, governor of Syria, put to 
death, 175. 

C R A T I N U S, the comic poet, died 
A.c. 431. 

CREAK Priory, Norfolk, built 1206. 

CREATION of the world began, ac- 
cording to archbishop Usher, on Sunday, 
October 23, in the year before the vulgar 
era of the birth of Christ, as given in 
the Hebrew text, 4004 ; in the LXX, 
5872 ; in the Samaritan, 4700, of the 
JuUan period, 710. Adam and Eve 
were created on Friday, October 28. 

CREBILLON, a tragic writer, born 
1674, died 1726. 

CREDITON, Devonshire, 460 houses 
at, destroyed by fire, August 14, 1743. 

CREED, summary account of the 
chief articles of the christian faith. The 
principal of these creeds are the Apos- 
tles', the Athanasian, and the Nicene. 

Apostles' Creed, so called, because 
for many ages it was believed to have 
been framed by the apostles before they 
left Jerusalem. Although the exact 
form of the present creed cannot pretend 
to be so ancient as the time of the apos- 
tles by 400 years, yet a form not very 
different from it was used long before, 
as we learn from Irenaeus and TertuUian. 
The repetition of a creed at every assem- 
bly was appointed by the eastern church 
in 521. In the western churches the 
general and constant reading of the creed 
does not seem to have prevailed till about 
590, when the third council of Toledo 
enjoined that the creed should be re- 
peated with a loud voice every Lord's day. 

Athanasian Creed hasbeen falsely 
attributed to Athanasius, bishop of 
Alexandria, who died in 373. The 



learned Dr. Cave says, that it never wss 
cited till about the year 800, above 400 
years after the death of Athanasius, and 
that it was not received in the church 
till so late as about the year 1000, 

Nicene Creed was composed and 
estabhshed as a proper summary of the 
christian faith by the council of Nice, in 
325, against the Arians. This is also 
called the Constantinopolitan creed, be- 
cause it was confirmed, with some few 
alterations, by the council of Constan- 
tinople in 381. The rest of this creed, 
after |' Holy Ghost," was added at the 
council of Constantinople, except the 
words, "and the Son," which follow the 
words, " who proceedeth from the Fa- 
ther," and they were inserted 447. The 
insertion of the words, " and the Son," 
was made by the Spanish bishops ; and 
they were soon after adopted by the 
christians in France. The bishops of 
Rome for some time refused to admit 
these words into the creed ; but at last, 
in the year 883, when Nicholas L was 
pope, they were allowed, and from that 
time they have stood in the Nicene creed 
in all the western churches; but the 
Greek church has never received them. 
These three creeds are enjoined by the 
eighth article of the church of England. 

CREMA, in Hungary, destroyed by 
an earthquake, 1 802. 

CREMENTZ, in Hungary, totally 
destroyed by a fire, 1777, 

CREMONA, a city of the Lombardo- 
Venetian territory, was a Roman colony 
A.c. 291. It was for some centuries 
part of the Venetian republic. In 1702, 
Villeroi, the French general, was sur- 
prised here, and made prisoner, by Prince 
Eugene and the Imperialists. Napoleon 
made it the capital of the department of 
Alto-Po. 

CRESCENT, order of knighthood, 
began at Naples, 1448. 

CRESSY, or more properly, Crecy, a 
town of France, in the department of the 
Somme, 36 miles north west of Amiens, 
famous for the battle ^vhich was fought 
here in 1346, between Philippe deValois, 
king of France, and Edward, king of 
England. Edward encamped at Cressy 
August 24, and the day afterwards, at 
four o'clock, the battle began. The 
French army consisted of above 100,000 
men. The king of Bohemia was slain, 
and his standard, on which was embroi- 
dered in gold three ostrich feathers, with 
these words, " Ich Dien," that is, " I 



CRI 



350 



CRI 



serve," was taken, and brought to the 
prince of Wales, who, in memory of 
that day, bore three ostrich feathers in 
his coronet, with the same motto, which 
is still continued by all princes of Wales. 
The English in this battle gained a 
complete victory, and Edward the Black 
Prince immortal honour. France lost in 
this battle besides the king of Bohemia, 
the earl of Alengon, the duke of Lorrain, 
the earl of Flanders, the earl of Blois, 
11 princes, eight bannerets, 1,2C0 
knights, upwards of 80 standards, and 
above 30,000 common soldiers. 

CRETE. See Candia. 

CREVIER, author of "The History 
of the Roman Emperors," born at Paris, 
1693, died 1765. 

CRICHTON, James, who, for bis 
extraordinary endowments both of per- 
son and mind, obtained the appellation 
of the "Admirable Crichton," was born 
about 1551, according to others, 1560. 
He had scarcely arrive<l at the 20th year 
of his age, when he had made himself 
master of the sciences, and could speak 
and write ten different languages. He 
had likewise attained a great skill in 
riding, dancing, singing, and playing 
on all musical instruments. 

Thus accomplished, he set out upon 
his travels, and first paid a visit to Paris, 
where he greatly distinguished himself. 
After this, at Rome, he exhibited himself 
with equal success and applause before 
the pope, and the most eminent literary 
characters in that city. From Rome 
Crichton went to Venice, where he con- 
tracted an intimate friendship with Aldus 
Manutius, and other learned persons, to 
whom he presented several poems in 
commendation of the city and university. 
At Mantua he fought with a gladiator, 
who had foiled the most celebrated fen- 
cers of Europe, and had lately killed 
three antagonists in the city of Mantua. 
The skill and coolness of Crichton over- 
came the eager impetuosity of his anta- 
gonist, who, after being thrust through 
three times, expired. 

The following account is given of Crich- 
ton's death. One night as he was walking 
along the streets of Mantua, and playing 
upon his guitar, he was attacked by se- 
veral persons in masks. The assailants 
were not able to maintain their ground 
against him, till at length the leader of 
the company being disarmed, jmlled off 
his mask, and begged his life, telling him 
he was the prince his pupil. Crichton 



immediately fell upon his knees, and ex- 
pressed concern for his mistake. Then 
taking his own sword by the point, he 
presented it to the prince, who received 
it, and brutally ran Crichton through 
the heart, in June, 1583. Though cer- 
tainly an extraordinary man, and an ac- 
complished scholar, Crichton cannot be 
ranked among those who have enriched 
science by the efforts of their genius, or 
added to the comfort and happiness of 
mankind. 

CRICKEITH Castle, Caernarvon- 
shire, built, 1206. 

CRIDA, founded the Sa.xon kingdom 
of Mercia, 582. 

CRIMEA, OR Crim Tartary, 
anciently Chersonesus Taurica. This 
peninsula has been known more than 
3000 years since the first naval expedi- 
tion of the Argonauts. The Greeks were 
driven out by the Sarmatians; and these 
by the Alani and Goths. The Hunga- 
rians, the Cossacks, and Tartars, suc- 
ceeded in their turn ; while the Genoese, 
in the 12th century, held a temporary 
and precarious possession of the sea- 
ports, which they were obliged to yield 
to the Turks in 1475. At the peace of 
1774, the Tartars of the Crimea were 
declared independent; and, in 1783, this 
peninsula was united to the Russian em- 
pire, and now forms part of the govern- 
ment of Taurida 

CRIMINAL Law. The multiplicity, 
perplexity, and sanguinary nature, of the 
penal statutes, have, for a long time, be- 
come the subjects of general and growing 
dissatisfaction. The first extant statute 
appears to have been passed in the reign 
of Edward III., and was directed against 
bringing false money into the realm. 
Three other statutes were passed in the 
same year, one relating to a similar 
offence, the others to acts of high trea- 
son. The next bears the date of the 
reign of Henry VII. Three were passed 
in the reign of Henry VIII. 

In the reign of Edward VI., horse- 
stealing, robbing in a booth, or in a 
dwelling-house, and being accessary 
before the fact, were first rendered 
punishable with death. In the sangui- 
nary reign of his successor, four new 
penal laws were added to the statute 
book. In the reign of Elizabeth further 
penal laws were enacted for the protec- 
tion of the coinage ; rape and burglary 
were also made capital, as well as being 
accessary to those and some other capital 



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offences. During the l7th century, xip 
to the accession of William and Mary, 
eight more offences were added to the 
list of capital crimes. During that reign, 
18 penal laws were passed, 10 in the 
reign of Queen Anne, 32 in that of 
George I., 51 in that of George II., and 
up to the year 1806, 72 had been added 
within the reign of George III. ; 165 
offences, therefore, have been rendered 
capital by statute since the commence- 
ment of the last century. 

But late years appear to have occa- 
sioned a manifest improvement in the 
character of legislative proceedings. Sir 
Samuel Romilly brought in a series of 
bills, the object of which was to miti- 
gate, in certain specified cases, the se- 
verity of the penal law. His first bill, 
which afterwards passed into a law 
(48 Geo. III. c. 129,) was for repealing 
so much of the statute of the 8 th of 
Elizabeth as takes away the benefit of 
clergy from persons stealing privily from 
the person. This was followed by others. 
Sir James Macintosh, inl819, moved for 
" a select committee to consider of so 
much of the criminal laws as relates to 
capital punishments for felonies." 

Hitherto the efforts of our statesmen 
and lawyers had usually gone to the re- 
modelling of the criminal code altogether, 
and therefore had generally failed. But 
Mr. (now Sir Robert) Peel, preferred the 
plan of remedying these by simple and 
practical corrections. His repealing act 
7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 27, annihilates not 
less than 138 statutes many of great 
length and much obscurity. The parts 
repealed contained 623 sections and 
about 8472 lines; while the substance 
has been condensed into four acts : viz., 
that for further improving the adminis- 
tration of justice, that for consolidating 
and amending the laws for larceny, that 
for consolidating and amending the laws 
relative to malicious injuries to property, 
and that for consolidating and amending 
the laws relative to remedies against the 
hundred. 

These new laws put all together con- 
tain only 152 sections, instead of 623 
sections repealed. Mr. Peel's first act, 
of 1826, (7 Geo. IV. c. 64,) for the 
improvement of the administration of 
justice in criminal cases, repeals 31 sta- 
tutes, scattered through the statute book, 
from 3 Edw. I. to 6 Geo. IV. which 
contained 98 sections, and about 1490 
lines — while the new act is comprised in 



32 sections and 447 lines. The jury law 
of 1825, (6 Geo. IV. c. 50,) which is 
comprised in 64 sections and 1130 lines, 
repeals and consolidates the provisions of 
26 former acts, extending from 43 Henry 

III. to 5 Geo. IV.— 42 of them being 
passed previous to the reign of Elizabeth. 

Several acts of an ameliorating nature 
were passed from 1832, to 1835. But it 
is during the reign of her present ma- 
jesty that the most extensive and bene- 
ficial alterations have been effected. The 
following are the most important : 

1 Victoria, c. 84. — July 17, 1837, re- 
citing various acts ; viz. 1 Will, IV. 
c. 66 ; 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 59 ; 2 and 
3 Will. IV. c. 123; 2 and 3 Will. IV. 
c. 125 ; and 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 45. 
&c., by which the forging of the diffe- 
rent instruments, &c., therein specified 
was made punishable by death, enacts 
that persons convicted of any such of- 
fences, shall be liable to be transported 
for life, or for not less than seven years, 
or to be imprisoned for not exceeding 
four years, nor less than two years. See 
Forgery. 

1 Victoria, c, 85 — July 17, 1837, re- 
citing that it is expedient to amend so 
much of 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, and 10 Geo. 

IV. c. 34, as relates to any person who 
shall unlawfully and maliciously admi- 
nister or attempt to administer to any 
person, any poison, &c., or to drown, suf- 
focate, or strangle, any person, &c., repeals 
such provisions after Sept. 30, 1837, and 
enacts the following punishments. For 
administering poison or doing other 
bodily injury with intent to commit mur- 
der shall be felony, and death. For of- 
fences with intent to commit murder, 
though no bodily injury shall be done, 
transportation for life. Cutting and 
maiming with intent to disfigure, trans- 
portation for life, or for not less than 15 
years, or imprisonment not exceeding 
three years, &c. 

1 Victoria, c. 86 — July 17, 1837, 
amends so much of 7 and 8 Geo. I\'. 
as relates to the punishment of any per- 
son convicted of burglary, &c., and enacts 
that burglars using violence shall suffer 
death. Punishment of burglary, trans- 
portation for life, or for not less than 10 
years, or imprisonment for not exceeding 
three years. See Burglary. 

1 Victoria, c. 87, July 17, 1837, re- 
lates to robber}^ &c. from the person. 
1 Victoria, c. 88, July 17, 1837, to pi- 
racy. 1 Victoria, c. 89, July 17, 1837, 



CRI 



352 



CRI 



to arson, &c. 1 Victoria, c. 90, July 17, 1837, also abolishes the punish- 
17, 1B37, to transportation for life, in ment of death in certain other cases. See 
certain cases. 1 Victoria, c, 91, July the article, Capital Punishments. 

In the following table a comparison is made of the capital sentences and exe- 
cutions in each year, commencing the three last decennial periods : — 



OFFENCES. 



Arson 

Burglary 

Cattle stealing 

Coining 

Feloniously uttering counterfeit coin, . . . 

Forgery 

Horse stealing 

Housebreaking 

Larceny in'dwelling-houses, to value of 40s. 
Larceny privately in shops, to value of 5i'. 
Larceny on navigable rivers, to value of 40a\ 
Larceny of naval stores, to value of 20a-. 
Letter-stealing by servants of thePost-office 

Murder 

Shooting, stabbing, &c.,tomurderormaim 
Rape, and carnally abusing infants .... 

Riot and felony 

Robbery 

Sacrilege 

Sheep stealing 

Sodomy 

Smugglers, feloniously armed to resist . . 
Transports, being at large under sentence 

Total 



1818 



7 
346 

27 

99 

3 

86 

130 

150 

142 

41 

2 

4 

13 
6 
2 

107 
7 

177 
1 



3 

17 
1 



1828 



1,254 



97 



2 
171 

28 

6 

4 

42 

135 

353 

69 



1 
20 
20 

5 

2 
158 

7 

122 

21 

11 

7 



3 

»> 
2 

>> 

4 

6 

11 



1,165 I 59 



1838 



§ 2 



1 

30 



116 



H 



In the first of the above periods, in 
1818, the criminal proceedings are shown 
at the time of the greatest severity of the 
criminal code. In the next period, 1828, 
the criminal procedure is shown after the 
passing of Mr. Peel's acts before men- 
tioned. In 1838 the results produced by 
the abolition of capital punishments in the 
years 1832, 1833, 1834, 1835, and by the 
important changes effected by the acts 
of the 1st Victoria, just stated, are shown. 

The acts of the 1st Vic. have, also both 
directly and indirectly, caused a great 
reduction in theseverity of the secondary 
punishments. Of 13 oflfences subject to 
ti-ansportation for life, for six of which 
that punishment was a fixed term, the 
period has been -reduced to a term of 
transportation not exceeding 15 years 
at a maximum, or to imprisonment for 
any term. 



CRIMINALS, Remarkable. 1594. 
John Chastel, attempted to kill Henry 
IV., of France, December 27. He was 
executed two days afterwards. 

1605. Gunpowder plot conspirators, 
executed at the west corner of St. Paul's 
church-yard. See Gunpowder Plot. 

1671- Colonel Blood attempted to 
steal the crown from the Tower, May. 
He died 1680, and lies buriOT in the 
chapel at Tothill Fields. 

1733. Sarah Malcolm, whose memory 
has been perpetuated by Hogarth, ex- 
ecuted for the murder of three women. 
The ordinary who attended her sold her 
confession for £20. She lies buried in 
St. Sepulchre's church-yard. 

1 752. Mary Blandy, hanged at Oxford 
for poisoning her father, at the instiga- 
tion of her lover, Cranstoun. 

1757. Damiens attempted to assassi- 



CRI 



353 



CRO 



nate Louis XV., king of France, and was 
executed March 29. 

1759. Eugene Aram executed August 
6, for the murder of Daniel Clarke, 
which crime was concealed 14 years. 

1760 Lord Ferrers executed at Ty- 
burn for the murder of his steward. 

1767. Mrs. Elizabeth Brownrigg ex- 
ecuted for the murder of one of her ap- 
prentices. Her skeleton is preserved in 
a glass case at Surgeons' Hall. 

1772. Counts Struensee and Brandt, 
the minister and favourite of the king 
of Denmark, executed on the accusation 
that the former had had an intrigue 
with the queen of Denmark. 

1777. Rev. Dr. William Dodd execut- 
ed at Tyburn for forgery. In 1773 he 
was the prosecutor of a highwayman, 
who suffered on the same spot on which 
Dr. Dodd expiated his crime four years 
afterwards. 

1779. Rev. Mr. Hackman executed at 
Tyburn for the murder of Miss Ray, 
whom he shot through the head under Co- 
vent-garden Piazzas, He was tried, 
and suffered within a week after the 
murder. 

1783. Ryland, the engraver, executed 
at Tyburn for forgery. He was appre- 
hended from having sent a pair of boots 
to be mended, inside of which was writ- 
ten his name. 

1802. J. Wall, governor of Goree, for 
the murder of Sergeant Armstrong. 

1803. Colonel Edward Marcus Des- 
pard, executed in the Borough for high 
treason. He lies buried in the cemetry 
belonging to St. Faith, in St. Paul's 
church-yard. 

1811. Hon. Arthur Hodge, in Tor- 
tola, for the murder of his slave, 

1812. John Bellingham, executed for 
the murder of Mr. Perceval, chancellor 
of the exchequer. May 18. 

I8I7. John Cashman, a sailor, one of 
the Spafields rioters, executed for steal- 
ing fire-arms from the shop of Mr. Beck- 
with, March 12. 

1824. Henry Fauntleroy, executed 
for forgery, Nov. 30. 

1831. Bishop andWiUiams.for the mur- 
der of the Italian boy, and other persons, 
for the purpose of disposing of their 
bodies to the surgeons, executed Dec. 5. 

1836. Fieschi, Pepin, and Morey, 
executed in February, for attempting to 
assassinate the king of the French, 
July 28, 1835. 

1836. Alibaud beheaded; July 11, for 



attempting the life of the French king 
June 25. 

1840. Edward Oxford, for shooting at 
the Queen and Prince Albert, June 10. 
Confined during her majesty's pleasure, 
on the ground of insanity, Julv. 

CRIMP-HOUSES, in London, de- 
stroyed by the mob, Sept. 1794-5. 

CRIPPLEGATE, London, pulled 
down and sold for £91., July, 1760. 

CRISPUS, son of Constantine the 
Great, poisoned by order of his father, 
under a false accusation of his mother- 
in-law, 326. 

CROCKERY first manufactured, a. c. 
1309. 

CRCESUS, king of Lydia, flourished 
A.c. 562. 

CROFT, William, musician, born 
1677, died 1727, aged 70. 

CROIX. Saint, a Swedish island in 
the West Indies, taken by the English, 
March 31, 1801. 

CROMWELL, Thomas, earl of Es- 
sex, was the son of a blacksmith at Put- 
ney, born 1490. In 1510, he visited 
Rome. On his return he was patronised 
by Cardinal Wolsey,and assisted him in 
founding the two colleges of Christ- 
church, Oxford, and Ipswich, and in pro- 
curing, in 1525, the suppression of some 
monasteries for their endowment. He 
became, by degrees, the favourite and 
afterwards prime minister of Henry 
VIII., who rewarded his services by 
many honourable offices, and at length 
gave hira a seat in the house of peers, 
with the title of Lord Cromwell, of Oke- 
ham. He was appointed chief justice 
itinerant of the forests beyond Trent, 
and in 1 539 was advanced to the dignity 
of earl of Essex, and lord high cham- 
berlain of England, He advised the 
king to marry Anne, of Cleves, whose 
friends were Lutherans. Henry took 
a dislike to this lady, and determined to 
be revenged on Cromwell. He was ac- 
cordingly arrested on the charge of high 
treason, condemned without any oppor- 
tunity of defending himself, and was be- 
headed on Tower Hill, July 28, 1540. 

CROMWELL, Oliver, Protector of 
England, was born in the parish of St. 
John, Huntingdon, on April 35 or 26, 
1599, and educated at a free-school in 
that town. From this school he was re- 
moved to Sidney College, Cambridge, 
where he was admitted in 1616. His 
father died when he had been two years 
at college, and Cromwell was called home; 
2 z 



CRO 



354 



CRO 



but the irregularity of his life so much 
grieved his mother, that, by the advice 
of some friends, she sent him to Lon- 
don, and placed him in Lincoln's Inn. 
He was elected a member of the tliird 
parliament of Charles L, vi'hich met on 
Jan. 10, 1628, and was a member of 
the committee for^ considering matters 
of religion, where he distinguished 
himself by his zeal against popery. 

1638. Cromwell first came into pub- 
lic notice through the recommendation 
of his friend and relation Mr. Hampden. 
He was elected member of the Long Par- 
liament, for Cambridge, in the year 
1640. In 1642, he raised a troop of 
horse, of which he took the command 
by a commission from the earl of Essex. 
In 1643-4, made lieutenant-general of 
the horse in the army of the duke of 
Manchester, and in the battle of Marston- 
moor, July 3, 1644, his cavalry turned 
the fortune of the day, and gave the first 
severe blow to the royal party. On 
June 15, 1645, he distinguished himself 
by the most brilliant exploits in the battle 
of Naseby. He went out in 1649, in 
quality of lord lieutenant of Ireland, 
with ample powers. He reduced Ire- 
land to obedience, and returned to Lon- 
don in the following spring. Went to 
Scotland in 1658, where the battle of 
Dunbar, fought Sept. 3, terminated in a 
complete victory over the Scots, with 
great slaughter. Cromwell followed the 
king to England, and at Worcester on 
Sept. 3, 1651, he obcained over the royal 
army what he denominated his " crown- 
ing victory," attended with the total de- 
struction of his opponents. 

The Long Parliament had become ex- 
ceedingly unpopular in the country. 
Cromwell took advantage of the odium 
which attached to them, and resolved on 
their dissolution. Having prepared the 
way, on April 19, 1653, he called a 
council of officers, took a parcy of 300 
soldiers, whom he placed about the ave- 
nues to the parliament-house, and en- 
tered himself as a spectator of their i)ro- 
ceedings. After some altercation," Come, 
come," said he, " I will put an end to 
your prating. You are no longer a par- 
liament; I say, you are not a parlia- 
ment." To conclude the scene, he 
seized the books and papers, turned the 
members out of the house, and locked 
the doors. 

He was made Protector of the Common- 
wealth of England, Scotlajid, and Ireland, 



Dec. 16, 1653, and he was solemnly in- 
vested with the trust in Westminster- 
hall. He applied himself to state aflTairs 
made peace with Holland, and entered 
into treaties with Denmark, Sweden, and 
Portugal. France and Spain appeared 
ambitious of his friendship, and the 
general state of Europe was such as to 
give to England a large share of conse- 
quence among surrounding nations. 

1656. Cromwell had recourse to an- 
other parliament in order to obtain the 
necessary pecuniary supplies. Conspira- 
cies were discovered, and many suffered. 
From this time the health of the Pro- 
tector began visibly to decline ; the cares 
and the fears, connected with his great- 
ness, were doomed to bring him to a 
speedy end. A slow fever terminated his 
e.xistence, Sept. 3, 1658. See Britain. 

" Oliver Cromwell," says Mr. Gran- 
ger, " united in a very high degree, the 
characters of the politician and general ; 
and occasionally assumed those of the 
buffoon, and the preacher. He broke 
from his obscurity, at an age when 
others think themselves doomed to it 
for ever ; and when many begin to en- 
tertain thoughts of retiring from the 
world, he began to take the most con- 
spicuous part in it. He availed himself 
of the virtues and vices, the talents and 
weaknesses of mankind ; and such ob- 
stacles as would have been insurmount- 
able to an inferior genius, helped greatly 
to carry him on in his career. He has 
been regarded by foreigners, and of 
late, by many of his countrymen, as 
the greatest man this nation ever pro- 
duced. It has been disputed which he 
most deserved, a halter or a crown ; 
and there is no less disparity betwixt the 
characters drawn of him, and the reports 
propagated by his enemies and his 
friends." 

CROMWELL, Richard, eldest son 
of the protector, was born at Hunting- 
don, in 1626. Proclaimed protector, Sept. 
1658; resigned. May, 1659; died, 1712. 

CROMWELL, Mrs. S., great-great- 
granddaughter of the protector, Oliver 
Cromwell, and last of the name, died at 
Cheshunt, Feb. 28, 1834, aged 90 years. 
CRONSTADT, near St. Petersburg, 
founded by Peter the Great, of Russia, 
1704 ; considerably injured by fire 1741.. 

CROSS Street Hospital, Win- 
chester, built, 1132. 

CROSS, the sign of, first used by 
christians, 110. 




CroTnwell dissdviDg ibe Long Parb amen.l . 
Chafles V.' demancLs the Five MenibGr s . V) aLtle of Nasbey. 

The King dclivpreAup by the Scots. Kxcmijon 



CRO 



355 



CRO 



CROSSES, first set upon steeples and 
spires, 568. 

CROWE, William, author of the 
" Treatise on English Versification," 
and public orator of the university of Ox- 
ford ; born in 1766, died Feb. 9, 1829, 
aged 83. 

CROWN, the first Roman that wore 
one was Tarquin, a.c. 6l6. 

CROWN OF England, Succes- 
sion OF THE. Egbert was sole monarch 
of England, 82/. From Egbert the 
crown descended regularly, and with 
very little deviation. In the three suc- 
ceeding reigns, it was suspended by 
force, till the Saxon line was restored in 
Edward the Confessor, who, indeed, was 
not the next heir ; because Edmund II. 
had a son living, Edward, an outlaw, in 
Hungary. On Edward the Confessor's 
decease, Harold II. usurped the throne, 
though the right remained in Edgar 
Atheling, son of Edward, the outlaw, 
and grandson of Edmund II. 

At this time, William I., duke of Nor- 
mandy, claimed a right from a grant of 
Edward the Confessor, and by conquest 
transferred the crown to a new family. 
From him it descended to his second 
emd third sons, William II., and Henry 
I., his eldest son, Robert, being kept out 
of possession by his brothers. Henry 
I. was succeeded by Stephen, grandson 
of WiUiam I., by his daughter Adelicia; 
his eldest brother, Theobald, waving 
his claim ; and Maud, the daughter of 
Henry I., and grandson of Edward the 
outlaw, to whom the succession belong- 
ed, being excluded by force. However, 
her son, Henry II., as heir of William 
I., succeeded Stephen; though the pro- 
per heirs in the Saxon line were sons of 
Malcolm, king of Scotland, by Margaret, 
the daughter of Edward the outlaw. 
But Henry I. having married the daugh- 
ter of Edgar Atheling, by whom he 
had Maud, and her son, Henry II., 
coming to the crown, in some measure 
restored the Saxon line. 

From Henry II., the crown descended 
to his eldest son then living, Richard I., 
on whose death it was seized by his bro- 
ther, John, Henry's youngest son, in 
exclusion of his nephew, Arthur. On 
the death of Arthur, and his sister, Ele- 
anor, without issue, the crown properly 
descended to Henry III., in an hereditary 
line of six generations, to Richard II., 
and this right of succession was declared 
in parliament, by 25 Edwd. HI. Rich- 



ard II. resigned the crown, and the right 
resulted to the issue of his grandfather, 
Edward III., and should have fallen on 
the posterity of Lionel, duke of Clarence, 
the first son of Edward III. ; but Henry, 
duke of Lancaster, descended from the 
third son of Edward III., usurped it 
under the title of Henry IV., pretending 
to be the next heir. Parliament (7 Hen. 
IV.) settled it on him and his heirs. 
Henry IV. was regularly succeeded by 
his son, and grandson, Henry V. and 
VI. Under Henry VI. the house of 
York, descended from Lionel, duke of 
Clarence, by the mother's side, began to 
to claim their dormant right, and esta- 
blished it in Edward IV. by parliament. 
This king was succeeded by his eldest 
son, Edward V,, who was deposed and 
succeeded|by his unnatural uncle, Rich- 
ard III., his father's brother, on a pre- 
tence of bastardy. 

During this reign, Henry VII., earl 
of Richmond, and descendant of the 
house of Lancaster, assumed the throne; 
and his possession was established by 
parliament, 1485. By his marrying Eliza- 
beth of York, Edward IV.'s daughter, 
the undoubted heiress of William the 
Conqueror, the families of York and 
Lancaster were united in Henry VIII,, 
her eldest son, who transmitted the 
crown in succession to his three chil- 
dren, confirmed by parliament, 25 Henry 
VIII. c. 12. This statute was repealed 
by 28 Henry VIII. c. 7, by which, 
after the king's divorce from Anne 
Boleyn, Mary and Elizabeth were bas- 
tardized. They were again legitimated, 
and the succession was restored by 35 
Henry VIII. c. 1. 

Parliament now asserted its right of 
directing the succession by 13 Elizabeth, 
c. 1. On the death of Elizabeth, suc- 
ceeded James VI. of Scotland, our James 
I., (the lineal descendant of Margaret, 
daughter of Henry VII., and his wife, 
Elizabeth of York, the wife of James IV. 
of Scotland,) and in him were united, 
not only the principal competitors since 
the conquest, but likewise the right of 
the Saxon monarchs, he being the direct 
lineal descendant of Malcolm, who mar 
ried Margaret, daughter of Edmund II„ 
From James I., the crown descended to 
his second son, Charles I., his eldest son, 
Arthur, being dead. 

After him, the succession was inter- 
rupted by the usurpation of Oliver 
Cromwell, and his son Richard, but re- 



ctiU 



356 



CRU 



8tore(l in I660, in Charles II., eldest son 
of Charles I. He dying without legiti- 
mate issue, it passed to his brother 
James II., whom parliament excluded, 
and called in William of Orange, and 
his wife, Mary, the eldest daughter of 
James II., 1668, to the exclusion of her 
father and her brother. 

On the death of William III., Anne, 
second daughter of James II., reigned, 
and she leaving no issue, the crown de- 
scended, as settled by parliament, 12 and 
13 William III., on the princess Sophia 
of Hanover, the youngest daughter of 
Elizabeth, queen of Bohemia, who was 
the daughter of James I., and her heirs, 
being protestants. She dying before 
Queen Anne, her son, George I., suc- 
ceeded, in which family the crown has 
regularly descended to the present time. 
See Britain. 

CROWN-LANDS, in England, va- 
lued at £120,626 14*. id. per annum, 
the leases of which were between three 
and 31 years unexpired, ordered by par- 
liament to be sold, 1786. 

CROWN-POINT, United States, 
taken by the English, 1759 ; by the pro- 
vincials. May 14, 1775. 

CROWN-ROYAL, order of knight- 
hood, instituted in France, 802. 

CROXTON-ABBEY, Staffordshire, 
built, 1180. 

CROYLAND-ABBEY, Lincolnshire, 
built, 7I8 ; destroyed by the Danes, 867; 
rebuilt, 945 ; destroyed by fire, 1091 ; 
again built, 1112, about 30 years after 
which it was again burnt down, and fi- 
nally rebuilt, 1170. 

CROYLAND, the monk of, murdered 
at Peterborough, 863. 

CRUCIFIXES, painted, in churches, 
and chambers, first introduced, 461. 

CRUDEN, Alexander, the author 
of a concordance, generally allowed to 
be the best in the English language, 
was born at Aberdeen, in May, 1701. 
In 1732, he settled in London, partly as 
a bookseller, and partly as a corrector of 
the press. About two years afterwards, 
he was appointed the queen's book- 
seller. In 1733, he began to compile 
his "Concordanceofthe Holy Scriptures." 
The first edition was published in 1737, 
and dedicated to Queen Caroline. The 
author's affairs were now embarrassed ; 
he had none to look to for assistance; 
and in a fit of despondency, he gave up 
his trade, and became a prey to melan- 
choly. Shortly after this, he assumed 



the title of *' Alexander the Corrector," 
maintained that he was divinely com- 
missioned to reform the manners of the 
age, and restore the due observance of 
the sabbath. In 1770, he took lod- 
gings at Islington, where he died Novem- 
ber 1. 

CRUSADES, or Croisades, aname 
given to the expeditions of the christians 
to deliver Judea from the power of the 
Saracens. In 1065, the Turks took Je- 
rusalem from the Saracens, and the pil- 
grims found they could no longer per- 
form their devotions with safety. Peter, 
the hermit, having made the pilgrimage 
to Jerusalem, returned in 1093 ; deeply 
affected with the dangers to which the 
pilgrimswere exposed,he formed the bold 
design of leading into Asia, armies suffi- 
cient to subdue those potent and war- 
like nations which at that time held the 
Holy Land in slavery. 

The first crusade, consisting of 800,000 
men, in separate bodies, and under dif- 
ferent commanders, set out for Constan- 
tinople, in 1096. The first successful 
enterprise was the siege of Nice, the ca- 
pital of Bithynia, which was taken inl097. 
The conquest of Jerusalem, which, after 
a siege of five weeks, submitted to their 
arms, in 1099, seemed to crown the ex- 
pedition of the crusaders M'ith success. 
The famous Godfrey was saluted king of 
Jerusalem with an unanimous voice. 

The second, crusade, undertaken in 
1 144,at the request of the christians at Je- 
rusalem,wa8 unsuccessful. It was headed 
by the emperor Conrad III., and Louis 
VII., king of France ; but Saladin, who 
had raised himself to the sovereignty of 
Persia, Arabia, Syria, and Egypt, turned 
his attention to the conquest of Judea, 
and in 1187, took the city of Jerusalem. 
The third crusade was undertaken in 
1189, by Frederic I., surnamed Barba- 
rossa, emperor of Germany, whose ex- 
ample was followed, 1190, by Philip 
Augustus, king of France, and Richard 
Coeur- de-lion, king of England. These 
two monarch s arrived in Palestine in the 
year 1191, and succeeded in their first 
encounters with the infidels. Richard 
at length, deserted by the French and 
Italians, concluded, 1192, with Saladin, 
a truce of three years, three months, and 
three days, and soon evacuated Pales- 
tine with his whole army. 

The fourth crusade was undertaken 
in the year 1195. In this expedition 
the chiistians gained several battles 



CUB 



357 



CUL 



against the infidels, and took a great 
many towns. 

The fifth crusade was proclaimed by 
order of Pope Innocent III., in 1198. 
A certain number of French nobles 
entered into an alliance with the repub- 
lic of Venice, and set sail for the east, 
but instead of steering their course to- 
wards Palestine, sailed directly for Con- 
stantinople, which they took by storm, 
in 1203. It was several years after this 
that the Grecian emperor, Michael Pa- 
laeologus, became master of Constan- 
tinople, and forced the Latin emperor, 
Baldwin II., to abandon the city. 

The sixth crusade began in 1228 ; in 
which the christians took the town of 
Damietta, but were forced to surrender 
it again. About 1240, Richard, earl of 
Cornwall, brother to Henry III., king 
of England, arrived in Palestine, at the 
head of the English crusaders, but being 
too late to accomplish any thing but the 
conclusion of a peace, he re- embarked 
and steered towards Italy. 

The seventh crusade was headed by 
Louis IX. of France, in 1249, who took 
the town of Damietta, but the plague 
breaking out in the army, the king en- 
deavoured to retreat ; in which l)eing 
pursued by the infidels, most of the 
army were slain, and himself and the 
nobility taken prisoners. 

The eighth crusade, in 1270, was 
headed by the same prince, who made 
himself master of the port and castle of 
Carthage in Africa ; but this first success 
was soon followed by a fatal change in 
his aflTairs. The monarch was carried 
off by a pestilential disease, on August 
25. Louis was the last of the European 
princes that embarked in the holy war ; 
the dangers and diflficulties, the calami- 
ties and disorders, and the enormous 
expenses that accompanied each crusade, 
disgusted the most jealous, and discou- 
raged the most intrepid promoters of 
these fanatical expeditions. 

CTESIAS, the Greek philosopher and 
historian, flourished a.c. 398. 

CTESIBIUS, of Alexandria, the ma- 
thematician, flourished a.c. 186. 

CTESIBIUS, the historian, flourished 
A.c. 256. He died aged 104. 

CUBA, island in the West Indies, 
discovered in 1492, by Columbus, and 
subdued in 1511, by Don Diego Velas- 
quez, who took the native chief prisoner. 
In 1762, the island was taken by theEng- 
hsh, but restored in 1763 to the Spani- 



ards in exchange for the Floridas,and has 
remained ever since in their possession. 
Cuba was damaged by an earthquake and 
violent rain, June 21, 1791, when 3000 
persons perished,and 11,700 cattle of va- 
rious kinds, amongst them 3700 horses. 

CUBIC EauATioNS, solution of, 
discovered by Leonardus Pisanus ; in 
1202. Improved by Scipio Ferreus, 
professor of mathematics at Bononia, 
about the year 1505. First published 
by Cardan, in the 10th book of his Al- 
gebra, printed at Milan in 1545. 

CUDDALORE, a town of Hindoos- 
tan. The site of this town was pur- 
chased by the East India Company in 
1686, and became, by degrees, a fortified 
place. It was taken by the French in 
1758, but restored to the British at the 
peace. Reduced by the French in 1781 ; 
and in 1783 was retaken by the British, 
after a very severe contest. 

CUDWORTH, Rev. Ralph, meta- 
physical writer, born I6l7, died 1688. 

CUJACIUS, James, jurist, born 
1520, died 1590. 

CUJAS, James, French writer, born 
1520, died 1590. 

CULDEE, a term applied to the 
monks and priests of Scotland and Ire- 
land, in the early ages of Christianity. 
They were remarkable for the religious 
exercises of preaching and praying, and 
were called, by way of eminence, Cul- 
tores Dei; from whence is derived the 
word Culdees. The overthrow of the 
Culdean worship was finally effected by 
Pope Adrian, 1155, when he claimed 
the sovereignty of these islands. 

CULLEN, Dr. William, an emi- 
nent Scotch physician, born in Lanark- 
shire, Scotland, Dec. 11, I7l2. After 
serving an apprenticeship to a surgeon 
apothecary in Glasgow, he went several 
voyages to the West Indies as a surgeon, 
in a trading vessel from London. In 
1746, having taken the degree of doctor of 
medicine, he was appointed a lecturer in 
chemistry at the university of Glasgow : 
and in October began his lectures in 
that science. In 1751, he was appointed 
professor of medicine in the university 
of Glasgow ; professor of chemistry at 
the university of Edinburgh, in 1756; 
and professor of medicine at Edinburgh 
in 1765. He died February 5, 1790, 
aged 77. 

According to the observation of one 
who was well acquainted with the cha- 
racter of Cullen, he was eminently dis- 



CUM 858 

tinguished as a professor for three tilings. 
'• The energy of his mind, by which he 
viewed every subject with ardour, and 
combined it immediately with the whole 
of his knowledge ; the scientific ar- 
rangement which he gave to his subject; 
and the wonderful art of interesting the 
students in every thing which he taught, 
and of raising an emulative enthusiasm 
among them." 

CULLERNE, Wiltshire, six miles 
from Bath, burnt, and 32 families re- 
duced to destruction, April 1, 1774. 

CULLODEN, Battle of, fought 
April 16, 1746, in which the duke of 
Cumberland obtained a complete victory 
over the rebels. They lost 2,000 men on 
the field and in the pursuit; the royal 
forces captured 222 French, and 326 
rebels prisoners. All their artillery and 
ammunition were captured, together with 
the Pretender's baggage; there were also 
12 stands of colours taken. The battle 
did not last half an hour, during which 
time no quarter was given on either side, 
so that the conflict was most bloody. 
The greatest part of the rebel chiefs were 
killed or captured, and the young Pre- 
tender was wounded, who fled by Inver- 
ness, being pursued by the light horse. 

CULROSS Forest took fire acci- 
dentally, July 25, 1803. 

CULVERINS first made in England, 
1534. 

CUMBERLAND, Richard, English 
dramatic writer born February 19, 1732, 
died May 7, 1811. 

CUMBERLAND,DuKE of, now king 
of Hanover, attempt to assassinate him, 
May, 1810; married thedowager princess 
of Salm, 1814, at New Strelitz, and Aug. 
29, 1815 re-married at Carlton House; 
motion for settling £6,000 per annum 
additional on both duke and duchess 
negatived in the House of Commons by 
a majority of one, July 3, 1815. His 
conduct in connection with Orange 
lodges, brought before the House of 
Commons by Mr. Hume, 1835. 

1837. The duke of Cumberland, by 
the death of his brother, and the acces- 
sion of Queen Victoria, having become 
king of Hanover, made a solemn entry 
into his kingdom. The crowns of the 
United Kingdom and Hanover had be- 
come separated by the accession of 
Queen Victoria, through the operation 
of the Salique Law, by which female^do 
not succeed in the Hanoverian kingdom. 
June 5. A proclamation of this date 



CUR 



was issued by the king of Hanover in- 
forming his subjects that he intended to 
abrogate the constitution granted by his 
brother, William IV., in 1833. 

CUMOONA, in the East Indies, sur- 
rendered to the British forces, Nov. 21, 
1807. 

CUNNINGHAM, John, the poet, 
born 1729, died 1773. 

CUNNINGHAM, Alan, the colonial 
botanist, than whom few men of his 
time have d(me more for botany and 
geography, died 1839. 

CUP, Sacramental, restored to the 
laity, 1547. 

CURACOA, seized by Holland, 1634; 
taken by the English, September 14, 
1800; and January 1, 1807; restored at 
the general peace, 1814. 

CURATES, Stipendiary, law for the 
better support and maintenance of, 181 3. 

CURFEW-BELL, established by Wil- 
liam theConqueror, 1068, abolished, 1 103. 

CURRAN, John, the Irish orator, 
born 1750, died 1817. 

CURRIE, Dr. James, a celebrated 
phj^sician, born at Kirkpatrick Fleming, 
Dumfriesshire, Scotland, in 1756. He 
left his native country in 1771, and dur- 
ing his voyage suflFered many hardships. 
Settled at Liverpool in October, 1780, 
and by his superior talents and persever- 
ing exertions, succeeded in securing an 
extensive practice. In 1790, he was 
admitted a member of the London Medi- 
cal Society ; and about two years after- 
wards a fellowship of the Royal Society 
was conferred on him. In October, 1797- 
Dr. Currie sent forth a work entitled 
" Medical Report on the Effects of Wa- 
ter, cold and warm, as a Remedy in Fever 
and Febrile Diseases," &c. ; to which he 
chiefly owes his great celebrity in the 
medical world. But he obtained the 
highest general reputation by publish- 
ing, in 1800, the works of his country- 
man, Robert Burns, with an account of 
his life, and criticisms on his writings. 
Early in 1804, Dr. Currie's health 
began to decline. He died August 31, 
1805, in the 50th year of his age. 

CURRIERS' Company, London, in- 
corporated, 1605. 

CURTIS, William, naturalist, born 
1746, at Alton, Hants. In March, 1786, 
he began the "Botanical Magazine," 
which has been regularly published 
monthly ; this work, his " Flora Lon- 
dinensis," and his "Lectures on Botany," 
excited a spirit of inquiry into botanical 



cus 



359 



CUS 



science, which has continued to spread 
with still increasing energy. He died 
July 7, 1799. 

CURT I US, M. rode into a gulf at 
Rome, A.c. 362. 

CURTIUS, auiNTUs,author of " His- 
tory of Alexander," flourished a.c. 64. 

CUSTOM House, Lower Thames- 
street, London, first built 1559; burnt 
down and rebuilt, 1718 ; burnt down 
again February 12, 1814 ; rebuilt and 
opened for business. May 12, 1817. 
Long room of, fell in Janiiary 26, 182JI^ 
Foundation gave way, February, 1825 ; 
opened for the first time after repairs, 
March 3, 1828. 

1833. February 14, a valuable col- 
lection of diamonds was stolen from 
Hall's bonded v/arehouse. Custom-house 
Quay. They had formerly been the 
property of a distinguished Spanish 
countess, who, after the death of King 
Ferdinand, and when a civil war was 
threatened by the partisans of Don Car- 
los, sent them to this country for their 
better security ; they were valued at 
£6,000. December 1 , by the most sin- 
gular accident, a portion of the diamonds 
was discovered in such a manner as to 
leave no doubt whatever that they had been 
in the possession of William Jourdan, 
who, with his accomplices was brought 
to trial March, 1836, and convicted. 

CUSTOM House, at Dublin, aban- 
doned by the commissioners of excise 
and customs, the boards being dissolved, 
and all the revenue business (as also 
that of Scotland) being transferred to 
the board in London. January 6, 1830. 

CUSTOMS, or Duties, charged upon 
commodities on their being imported 
into, or exported from a country, seem 
to have existed from time immemorial 
in every commercial country- The Athe- 
nians laid a tax of a fifth on the corn 
and other merchandise imported from 
foreign countries, and also on several of 
the commodities exported from Attica. 
The portaria, or customs payable on the 
commodities imported into, and export ed 
from, the different ports in the Roman 
empire, formed a very ancient and im- 
portant part of the public revenue. Un- 
der the imperial governnjent, the amount 
of the portaria depended as much on the 
caprice of the prince, as on the real 
exigencies of the state. Though some- 
times diminished, they were never en- 
tirely remitted, and were much more 
frequently increased. Under the By- 



zantine emperors, they were as high as 
12^ per cent. 

Customs existed in England before 
the conquest; but the king's claim to 
them was first established by stat. 3 
Ewd. L, 1274. These duties were, at 
first, principally laid on wool, woolfels, 
(sheepskins) and leather, then exported. 
The duties of tonnage and poundage, of 
which mention is so frequently made in 
English history, were custom "duties ; 
the first being paid on wine by the tun, 
and the latter being an ad valorem duty 
of so much a pound on all other mer- 
chandise. The various custom duties 
were collected, for the first time, in a 
book of rates published in the reign of 
Charles H. ; a new book of rates being 
again published in the reign of George 
L But exclusive of the duties entered 
in these two books, many more had been 
imposed at diflferent times ; so that the 
accumulation of the duties, and the com- 
plicated regulations to which they gave 
rise, were productive of the greatest 
embarrassment. 

1787. The Customs Consolidation 
Act, introduced by Mr. Pitt, did much 
to remedy these inconveniences. The 
method adopted was, to abolish the 
existing duties on all articles, and to 
substitute in their stead one single duty 
on each article, equivalent to the aggre- 
gate of the various duties by which it 
had previously been loaded. The reso- 
lutions on which the act was founded 
amounted to about 3,000 

Revenue dekived from the 
Custom Duties. In 1590, in the 
reign of Elizabeth, it amounted to no 
more than £50,000. In 1613, it had 
increased to £148,075 ; of which no less 
than £109,572 were collected in Lon- 
don. In 1660, at the restoration, 
the customs produced £421,582; and 
and at the revolution, in 1688, they pro- 
duced £781,987- During the reigns of 
William III., and Anne, the customs 
revenue was considerably augmented, 
the nett payments of the exchequer, in 
1712, being £1,315,423. During the 
war, terminated by the peace of Paris 
in 1763, the nett produce of the customs 
revenue of Great Britain amounted to 
nearly £2,000,000. In 1792, it amount- 
ed to £4,407,000. In 1815, at the close 
of the war, it amounted to £11,360,000; 
and in 1832, it amounted to about 
£17,000,000, and, including Ireland, to 
about £18,500,000, 



CUV 360 C U Z 

•<• 

Amount of Customs of the United Kingdom, for the years 1837 and 1838. 

Countries. Gross Receipts in 1837. Gross Receipts in 1838. 

£. £. 

England 19,321,324 19,585,250 

Scotland 1,626,291 1,666,399 

Ireland. 1,945,849 1,951,507 

Grand total 22,893,464 23,203,156 

CUTLERS' Company, London, in- philosophic chair for his lectures. The 

corporated, 1417. restoration of the Bourbons, in 1814, 

C UTT A C K, district, Hindoostan. made little change in his position. On 
This country was conquered by Solyman fne accession of Louis-Philippe, he was 
Kerang, governor of Bengal, in 1569, made a peer, his previous title of baron 
and then annexed to that province. It having been merely nominal. The 
was subdued by the British in 1803, and Cabinet of Comparative Anatomy, form- 
since that time, has remained in their ed wholly by him in the Jardin des 
possession. Plantes, is a monument of his genius, 

CUTTING Grass. On Nov. 20, and is at once the illustration and result 
1838, was read to the Linnsean Society, of his splendid works on fossil remains 
an account of a new species of Leptos- and comparative anatomy. He died at 
permea, by Dr. John Lhotsky, who dis- his residence in the Jardin des Plantea 
covered it in Tasman's Peninsula, Van at Paris, May 13, 1832. 
Diemen's Land. It is nearly allied to CUVIER, Frkderick, the jcounger 
theLeptospermeaelatiorof Labillardiere, brother of the illustrious baron Cuvier, 
and is remarkable for the great length and recently Professor of Animal Physi- 
of its leaves, varying from ten to 20 feet, ology to the Museum of Natural His- 
The leaf of the specimen exhibited was tory at Paris,, and Inspector-General of 
upwards of 13 feet long. It is termed the University. His appointment as 
" cutting grass ;" the sharp edges of its keeper of the Menageries at the Jar- 
leaves inflicting wounds on the unwary din des Plantes, furnished him with the 
traveller who passes the plant hastily. mostfavourable opportunities of studying 

CUVIER, Baron, George Leo- the habits of animals, their physiology, 

FOLD, the celebrated comparative anato- and structure. The "Annales d' His- 

mist, was the son of an officer in the Swiss toire Naturelle," and the '* Memoires 

regiment of Waldner, and born in Aug. du Museum," contain a series of his 

1769,. at Montbeliard. Having removed memoirs on zoological subjects of great 

to Normandy, and assumed the office of value and interest ; and his work, " Sur 

instructor to the children of the Comte les Dens des Mammiferes considerees 

D'Hericy, he found ample leisure for the comme Caracteres Zoologiques," has 

study of nature ; and tiirned his atten- always been considered as one of the 

tion to zoology. In this branch of pur- most valuable contributions which has 

suit, Cuvier made such discoveries as at been made to the science of zoology in 

once introduced him to the consideration latter times. The great work " Sur 

and friendship of the naturalists of Paris; I'Histoire des Mammiferes," of which 

and M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire oiFered to 70 numbers have been published, un- 

undertake a work in conjunction with dertaken in conjunction with GeoflTroy 

him. This connection called Cuvier to St.Hilaire, to which he contributed, is the 

Paris, where he established his reputa- most considerable and most extensive 

tion by an introductory Essay on Zoo- publication on zoology which has ap- 

logy. He was soon after appointed to peared since the time of Buffon. He 

the Professorship of Comparative Ana- died m 1838. 

tomy. Napoleon patronised his talents, CUZCO, a city of Peru, the ancient ca- 

and raised the professor into a minister, pital of the Peruvian empire, was founded 

Under successive grades and titles, according to the common tradition, in 

during the imperial reign, he performed 1043, by Manca Capac, the first Inca of 

the principal functions of Minister of Peru. The grandeur and magnificence 

Public Instruction, and in that office of the edifices, of the fortress, and of the 

became as famed for his reports as in the temple of the sun, struck the Spaniards 



CYP 



361 



CYR 



with astonishment, in 1534, when the 
city was taken possession of by Francis 
izarro. 

1838. Mr. J. B. Pentland, her ma- 
jesty's consul in Bohvia, stated, that he 
had just returned from a two months' 
tour into the southern provinces of an- 
cient Peru, during which he had visited 
the capital, Cuzco, and the many inte- 
resting localities round that imperial city, 
following a route hitherto untrodden by 
scientific travellers. In the course of 
this journey, he had fixed the position 
of the city of Cuzco, whence it appears 
that the Temple of the Sun, now the 
church of San Domingo, is situated in 
latitude, south 13° 30'55", long, west of 
Greenwich, 72° 4' 10", and at an eleva- 
tion above the sea of 1 1,380 feet. 

CYCLOPiEDIA. See Encyclo- 
paedia. 

CYDONIA, a town which recently 
sprung up on the coast of Asia Minor, 
opposite the coast of Mitylene. Half a 
century ago it was a poor village, when 
a Greek native, of the name of Econo- 
mos, succeeded in obtaining from the 
Porte a firman, by which his countrymen 
on this spot enjoyed a protection, and 
even privileges, elsewhere denied. In 
1820, Cydonia was estimated to contain 
35,000 inhabitants. Next year, on oc- 
casion of the general rising of the Greek 
nation, the pacha of Brusa sent a body 
of troops to occupy the place. A gene- 
ral descent being soon after made by the 
Greek fleet, the Turkish garrison was 
driven out ; but in retreating, they set 
fire to the city in more than 20 places, 
and the native population had scarcely 
time to make their escape, when it was 
reduced to a heap of ashes. No ac- 
count has yet been received of its revival. 

CYMMER Abbky, Merionethshire, 
built 1200. 

CYPHERS, OR Ciphers, digits or 
figures in arithmetic, supposed to have 
been known in Hindoostan in the sixth 
century ; introduced among the Arabic 
Moors, 900. 

CYPRIANUS,Thascius C^cilius, 
commonly called St. Cyprian, was born 
at Carthage about the close of the second 
century. His conversion is fixed by 
Pearson, in the year 246, and is attribut- 
ed to the instructions of Csecilius, a 
priest of the church of Carthage, whose 
name Cyprian afterwards assumed. The 
bishop of Carthage ordained him a priest, 
and on the death of the bishop, in the 



year 248, Cyprian was appointed to suc- 
ceed him. When the persecutions were 
begun under Decius, Cyprian became an 
obnoxious person ; and in the beginning 
of the year 250, the heathens in the 
circus and amphitheatre, insisted loudly 
upon his being thrown to the lions. Cy- 
prian, however, contrived to conceal him- 
self ; and he wrote, in the place of his 
retreat, instructive letters to those who 
had been his hearers. At length he died 
a martyr in the persecution of Valerian 
and Gallienus, Sept. 14, 258. Cyprian 
wrote 81 letters, and several treatises. 
The best edition of his works are those 
of Pamelius in 1568, and of Oxford in 
1682. 

CYPRUS, island in the Mediterra- 
nean Sea, was first discovered by the 
Phenicians, about A.c. 1045. It was 
divided among several petty kings till 
the time of Cyrus, who subdued them 
all. In the reign of Darius Hystaspes, 
they attempted to shake off the yoke, 
but with bad success. They made ano- 
ther more successful attempt about a.c. 
357. Alexander the Great subdued the 
island, and at his death the dominion of 
Cyprus was disputed by Antigonus and 
Ptolemy the son of Lagus. After a long 
and severe contest Antigonus prevailed, 
and the whole island submitted to him, 
about A.c. 304. It was recovered by 
Ptolemy, and quietly possessed by him 
and his descendants till a.c. 58. 

A.D. 648. It was conquered by the 
Saracens ; but recovered by the Romans 
in 957. It was reduced by the crusaders, 
and Richard I. of England, gave it to 
the princes of the Lusignan family, who 
held it till the year 1570, when it was 
taken by the Turks, and has since con- 
tinued a part of the Ottoman empire. 

CYRENE, formerly a celebrated town 
in northern Africa, now an interesting 
group of ruins in Barca. The town was 
founded about a.c. 628, when, accord- 
ing to Herodotus, a colony of Greeks 
from the Egean isles, under Battus, were 
conducted by the Libyan nomades to 
this delightful spot, then called Irasa. 
In the time of Aristotle, Cyrene was a 
republic, and continued to be governed 
by their own laws till the reduction of 
Egypt by the Macedonians. After the 
death of Alexander, it was comprised, 
with Egypt and Lybia, in the vice-royalty 
of Ptolemy Lagus, and continued to 
form part of the empire of the Ptolemies 
till it was made over by Ptolemy Physcoii 

3 A 



DAC 



362 



DAG 



to his illegitimate eon, Apion, who, on 
his death, bequeathed the Cyrenaica to 
the Romans. The ruins of Cyrene, 
which may be said to be a recent dis- 
covery, are finely situated on a high 
table plain, descending abruptly towards 
the sea by successive stages, along each 
of which is a smooth rocky path, still 
marked by the wheels of the ancient 
chariots, 

CYRIL, bishop of Jerusalem, was 
born about 315, ordained presbyter in 
344 or 345, and bishop in 350 or 351, 
and died 386. Whilst Cyril was bishop 
of Jerusalem, the emperor Julian is said 
to have proposed to the Jews the re- 
building of their temple, but the bishop 
considering the prophecies of Daniel, 
and the words of our Lord recorded in 
the gospels, confidently asserted, that 
it could not be, that the Jews should 
be able to lay there, one stone upon 
another. 

CYRIL, bishop of Alexandria, was a 
native of that city, and succeeded Theo- 
philus as bishop of it in 412. Cyril 
owed his chief fame to his dispute with 
Nestorius, against whom he maintained, 
that the virgin Mary ought to be called 
the mother of God. This dispute ter- 
minated in a severe contest, and a general 
council was summoned at Ephesus in 



order to decide it. Cyril distingushed 
himself by a defence of the christian 
religion against the emperor Julian, con- 
sisting of 10 books, and dedicated to 
Theodosius the younger. He died in 
444. 

CYRUS THE Great, king of Persia, 
supposed to have been bom about a.c. 
590. When he was 16 years of age, he 
accompanied Astyages, his grandfather, 
in an attack upon the Assyrians, who 
had made inroads upon the Persian terri- 
tories j his behaviour on this occasion 
was such, that the victory obtained was 
imputed to his energy and superior prow- 
ess. He was appointed generalissimo of 
the Medes and Persians, which led to the 
establishment of that vast empire, of 
which he was the founder. He complet- 
ed the reduction of Lesser Asia, and 
invested Babylon, a.c. 538, which he 
took after a siege of two years, and thus 
put an end to that great and powerful 
monarchy. In a.c. 536, he issued an 
edict, which has given celebrity to his 
name, permitting such of the Jews as 
were remaining from the Babylonish 
captivity, to return to Jerusalem and re- 
build their temple. According to Xeno- 
phon Cyrus died in peace after a long 
and prosperous reign, aged 70. 



D. 



DAC I A, an ancient city of Europe, 
situated between the Danube and the 
Capathian mountains, first mentioned by 
historians when Darius marched his 
army against the Daci, a.c. 508. They 
frequentlyinsucceedingages armed them- 
selves and invaded the Roman domi- 
nions, and were not completely subdued 
till the time of Trajan. Dacia was 
reduced to the state of a Roman pro- 
vince, A.D. 103 ; abandoned to the Bar- 
barians, by Aurelian, 274 ; is now includ- 
ed in the kingdom of Hungary. 

DACIER, Andrew, philologist, born 
1651, died 1722. 

DACIER, Mad. translator of Ana- 
creon Sappho, Plautus, Terence, Homer, 
&c., and one of the editors of the Del- 
phin classics, born 1651, died August 6, 
1720. 



DiEDALUS, the ancient architect, 
flourished a.c. 987- 

DiEDALUS, British frigate, struck 
on a shoal and was lost, the crew saved, 
July 16, 1813. 

DAGENHAM, Essex, breach made 
by an irruption of the Thames in 1703, 
which overwhelmed 5000 acres ; it was 
repaired by the efforts of captain John 
Perry, in 1715, when the whole was again 
rescued from the waters. 

DAGON, one of the most celebrated 
of the deities of the Phihstines, whose 
image and temple were at Ashdod, about 
A.c. 1141, 1 Sam. v. He is commonly 
represented as a monster, half man and 
half fish ; continued to have a temple 
at Ashdod during all the ages of idola- 
try, to the time of the Maccabees ; for 
the author of the first book of Maccabees 



. DAG 



363 



DAG 



S;iys, " Jonathan, one of the Maccabees 
burnt the temple of Dagon and all those 
who had fled into it." 

DAGUERREOTYPE, or Daguero- 
TYPE, the name of a recent invention 
which M. Arago has announced to the 
French academy of Sciences, as " one of 
the most important discoveries in the fine 
arts, that has distinguished the present 
century; the author being M.Daguerre, 
the celebrated painter of the Diorama." 
The report of its merits was first sub- 
mitted to the French academy, Jan. 7, 
1839. In this invention, advantage is 
taken of the property of chlorate of 
silver changing colour by the mere con- 
tact of light ; by which means M. Da- 
guerre fixes upon prepared metal plates, 
the rays that ai-e directed on the table of 
a camera obscura, and renders the op- 
tical tableau permanent. In this man- 
ner, an exact representation of objects, 
in hght and shade, is obtained with the 
greatest accuracy, and with the beautiful 
soft eflFect of fine aquatint engraving. 
M. Daguerre made his discovery some 
years ago, but did not then succeed in 
making the alterations of colour perma- 
nent on the chemical substances. The 
invention is chiefly applicable to archi- 
tectural subjects, and its advantages to 
travellers are incalculable ; since it will 
enable them under the most perilous 
circumstances of position or temperature 
to obtain a fac- simile of any desired 
scene or monument. 

From a paper read before the Royal 
Society Jan. 31, 1839, it seems that M. 
Daguerre's invention is almost identical 
with a discovery made nearly five years 
ago by Mr. H. F. Talbot, which he 
names " Photogenic drawing." Mr. Tal- 
bot also refers to a prior attempt of this 
kind recorded in the journal of the Royal 
Institution, for 1802, by which the idea 
appears to have been originally suggest- 
ed by Mr. Wedgwood, and afterwards 
experimented on by Sir Humphry 
Davy ; although Mr. Talbot adds that 
his experiments were begun without 
his being aware of these previous at- 
tempts. 

During the year 1839, every scientific 
journal in England teemed with contri- 
butions to the history of "the New 
Art," and to its practical details. M. 
Daguerre's own account of his discovery 
was published in Paris ; and, within a 
few days, a translation of the same in 
England, entitled " History and Practice 



of Photogenic Drawing on the tru® 
Principles of the Daguerreotype." A bill 
passed the chamber of deputies, for re- 
warding the inventors, granting to M. 
Daguerre an annual pension for life of 
6,000 francs, (£250 sterling ;) and to M. 
Niepce, jun. who assisted him, a similar 
pension of 4,000 francs, (£166 13*. id.) 
The commission appointed to examine 
the discovery were the following mem- 
bers of the chamber : M. M.' Arago, 
Etienne, Carl, Vatout, de Beaumont, 
Tournouer, Delessert (Frangois,) Com- 
barel de Leyval, and Vitet, all names dis- 
tinguished in science. 

The following is a brief description of 
this new art. The designs are executed 
upon thin plates of silver, plated on 
copper. The silver must be the purest 
that can be procured. The thickness of 
the two metals united ought not to ex- 
ceed that of a stout card. The process 
is divided into five operations : The first 
consists in polishing and cleaning the 
plate, in order to prepare it for receiving 
the sensitive coating, upon which the 
light traces the design. The second is 
to apply this coating. The third is the 
placing the prepared plate properly in 
the camera obscura to the action of 
light, for the purpose of receiving the 
image of nature. The fourth brings out 
this image, which at first is not visible 
on the plate being withdrawn from the 
camera obscura. The fifth and last 
operation has for its object, to remove 
the sensitive coating on which the de- 
sign is first impressed, because this coat- 
ing would continue to be affected by the 
rays of light, a property which would 
necessarily and quickly destroy the pic- 
ture. 

In M. Daguerre's work the operations 
are minutely described and illustrated by 
six outline diagrams of the requisite ap- 
paratus. Plate I. shows the wire frame 
for supporting the plate while heating ; 
the "plate of plated silver," on which 
the design is made, the board upon 
which the plate is laid, the spirit-lamp, 
and the muslin bag, with the puramice 
powder for polishing. Plate II. shows 
the box for iodine, used in the second 
operation ; and a grooved case for pre- 
serving the plates from injury. Plate 
III. represents four different positions 
of the frame inta which the plate with its 
wooden tablet is put, on removal from the 
iodine process. Plate IV. shows the ca- 
mera obscura, as adapted to photogenic 



DAL 



364 



DAM 



delineation. Plate V. represents three 
views of the apparatus tor submitting 
the plate to the vapour of mercury; a 
kind of case, provided with a spirit-lamp 
and a thermometer on one side to de- 
note the rate of the process. Plate VI. 
shows various apparatus for the last 
operation of washing the plate ; as three 
troughs, with the plate placed therein ; 
the funnel for filtering the saline wash; 
a little hook for shaking the plate while 
in the wash ; and a wide-mouthed ves- 
sel for warming the distilled water. 

The first experiment made in this 
country with the daguerreotype, was ex- 
hibited by M. St. Croix, in London, 
Sept. 13, 1839; and the picture pro- 
duced was a beautifvd minature repre- 
sentation of the houses, pathway, sky, 
&c., representing an exquisite mezzo- 
tint. 

1840. The processes of the art are in 
course of successive improvement. Dr. 
Donne' is stated to have applied, with 
success, the ordinary process of engrav- 
ing directly to the proofs taken with the 
daguerreotype ; a discovery almost as 
important as the invention of the appara- 
tus itself. 

M. Arago has since stated that instead 
of placing the iodine in the box with the 
plate, the latter is first impregnated with 
the vapour, and this is placed in a flat 
box, within half an inch of the plate on 
which the drawing is to be taken. The 
box is then to be shut, and in two mi- 
nutes the silver plate will have acquired 
the proper tint. 

Dr. Schaf hentl of Munich, has exhibit- 
ed a new process of photogenic drawings, 
combining Daguerre's minuteness, with 
the light and shadow of an original draw- 
ing, by means of Indian ink. The prepara- 
tion of these new photogenic plates is, 
however, as yet too complicated for popu- 
lar practice. 

DAHOMEY, a kingdom of Africa, 
founded by Tacoodonou, about the year 
1625, but very little is known of the 
history of this country till it was much 
enlarged by Trudo in 1727. Since that 
period, its kings have been remarkable 
chiefly for their cruelty and love of war. 
DAICLES was the first person 
crowned at the Olympic games, a. c. 752. 

D'ALEMBERT. SeeALEMBERxD'. 

DALLAWAY, James, traveller and 
antiquarian, born 1763. On Jan. 1, 
1797, he was appointed secretary to the 
earl-marshal, an office which he retained 



for some years. His works arc nu- 
merous. He died June 6, 1834, at Lea- 
therhead, Surrey, aged 71. 

DALMATIA, formerly an indepen- 
dent kingdom, was subjected by the 
Romans, in the time of Augustus ; after 
the fall of the western empire, it was 
under the dominion of the Goths, then 
of the eastern emperors ; was conquered 
by the Sclavonians in the seventh cen- 
tury, and erected by them into a king- 
dom, which lasted till 1030, when it was 
in part united with Hungary, and part 
received under the protection of the Ve- 
netians, the enemies of the Turks. By 
the peace of Campo Formio, in l797>the 
Venetian part of Dalmatia, with Venice 
itself, was ceded to Austria ; it was trans- 
ferred to the French in 1805 ; and united 
first with the kingdom of Italy ; next in 

1810, with lUyria, and governed by a 
general proveditor. At the general re- 
storation in 1814 and 1815, it was at- 
tached to Austria. 

DALRYMPLE, Sir David, lawyer 
and historian, born 1726, died 1792. 

DALTON, Richard, an English 
artist, patronised by the Prince of Wales 
(afterwards George IV.,) and by the earl 
of Charlemont, born 1720, died 1791. 

D A M A S, in Barbary, nearly anni- 
hilated by an earthquake, when 60,000 
souls perished, Dec. 3, 1759. 

DAMASCUS, city of Syria, men- 
tioned in scripture as the place where 
Abraham defeated Chederlaomer, king of 
Elam (Persia) and rescued Lot, a.c. 
1917. It subsequently became the capi- 
tal of an independent kingdom. The 
Romans conquered it a.c. 70; at the fall 
of the western empire, it became the 
residence of the grand caliph of the Sa- 
racens, who ceded it to the Turks in 
1515. It has continued to be the capi- 
tal of a Turkish pachalic ever since that 
period. In 1799, Buonaparte was on 
his march to this city, but was foiled in 
his attempt by the siege of Acre. In 

1811, it was menaced by the Wahabees, 
and the inhabitants prepared to leave the 
city with their property, but the pacha 
marched out with 6OOO men, and the 
Wahabees were forced to retire. 

DAMER, Hon. Mrs., celebrated for 
her works insculpture,diedMay28, 1828. 

DAMERHAM, Wilts, sustained 
£3000 worth of damage by a fire, July 
14, 1755. 

D AMI ENS attempted to assassinate 
the king of France, Jan. 5, 1757. 



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365 



DAN 



DAMIETTA, city of Lower Eprypt, 
during the crusades, was frequently the 
sceneof bloody contests; it was besieged 
and taken by the crusaders in 1218, and 
again by St. Louis in 1249. It was 
subsequently burnt by the Arabs, but 
soon revived ; it was surrendered to the 
French in 1798; in 1801, it submitted 
to the British ; at the peace of Amiens, 
it was restored to the Ottomans, but, 
together with the other parts of Egypt, 
may now be considered as under an in- 
dependent prince. 

DAMM, Thomas, of Leighton, near 
Minchnal, Cheshire, a remarkable in- 
stance of longevity, died 1608, aged 154. 

DAMPIER, William, eminent na- 
vigator, born, 1652. In 1673, he served 
in the Dutch war, under Sir Edward 
Sprague, and was in two engagements. 
In 1679, he sailed for the West Indies, and 
joined some pirates of different nations. 
In this predatory course, Dampier con- 
tinued till 1688, when he persuaded his 
captain to leave him at Nicobar, with 
seven others, where they suffered in- 
credible hardships. In 1691, he return- 
ed home, having completed the circum- 
navigation of the globe. In 1699, he 
was appointed to the command of the 
Roebuck, a sloop of 12 guns. He sailed 
first for the Brazils, and thence he made 
to the western coast of New Holland. 
He next sailed to Timor, and thence to 
the coast of New Guinea. This he found 
terminated by an island, which he sailed 
round, and named New Britain. He 
returned to Timor in May, and proceeded 
to the Cape of Good Hope; arrived off 
the isle of Ascension, in February, 1701. 
He afterwards accompanied Captain 
Woodes Rogers in a voyage round the 
world. The time of Dampier's death is 
not known. 

DANBURY, town. North America, 
was taken and burnt by the British, in 
1777. 

DANCE, Captain, commander of 
the China jfleet of merchantmen, whose 
cargoes were worth eight millions ster- 
ling, repulsed the French squadron, con- 
sistmg of an eighty-gun ship and several 
frigates, commanded by Admiral Linois, 
being one of the most brilliant examples 
of courage and skill in nautical tactics 
ever exhibited by the seamen of mer- 
chant vessels in any period of history, 
1804. 

DANCE, George, a British painter 
and architect, born 1741, died 1825. 



DANCHET, Anthony, a French 
poet, born 1671, died 1748. 

DANCOURT, F. E., a French actor 
and comic poet, born 1661, died 1726. 

DANDINI, CESARE.a celebrated Flo- 
rentine painter, born 1595, died 1658. 

DANDINI, ViNCENzio, a Florentine 
painter of history, born 1607. 

DANEGELT, a land tax, first esta- 
bhshed by Ethelred II., 991; abolished 
by Stephen, 1136. 

DANES, their first descent upon 
England, at Portland, 787. 

794. Their second, in Northumber- 
land, when they were repelled, and pe- 
rished by shipwreck. 

832. Landed on Sheppy Island. 

836. Again, in Cornwall, and were de- 
feated by Egbert. 

840. Again, at Charmouth, and de- 
feated Ethelwolf 

851. Landed at the mouth of the 
Thames, from 350 ships, and took Can- 
terbury and London. 

853. Subdued by Ethelwolf, at Okely, 
in Surrey. 

867. Invaded Northumberland, and 
seized York. 

871. Defeated king Ethelred and his 
brother Alfred at Basing and Merton. 

876. Surprised Warham castle, and 
took Exeter. 

877- Took Chippenham. 

878. 1,205 of them killed by Odun, 
ea-rl of Devonshire. 

882. Alfred entered into treaty with 
them. 

894. Their fleet totally destroyed at 
Appledore, by King Alfred. 

895. Under RoUa, made their first de- 
scent on France. 

900. Invaded Anglesea. 
905. Made a settlement in Neustra, 
now Normandy. 

921, Submitted to Edward the elder. 
982. Invaded Dorsetshire. 

991. Landed again in Essex, and were 
bribed to depart the kingdom. 

992. Their fleet defeated. 

1002. Numbers of them massacred by 
order of Ethelred II., November 13. 
1007. Made England tributary to them. 

1010. Continued their ravages, and 
defeated the English at Ipswich. 

1011. Took Canterbury, and put nine 
out of 10 of the inhabitants to death. 

1017- Under Canute, conquered Eng- 
land. 

1020. Settled in Scotland. 
1041. Expelled England. 



DAN 



366 



DAN 



1047DaneslantJe(]aq;ain at Sandwich, 
and carried oft' much plunder to Flanders. 
1069. Joined the Northumbrians, 
burnt York, and slew 3000 Normans. 

1074. Invaded England again, but 
were bribed by William to depart. 

DANGER, Isle of, discovered by 
Byron, 1765. 

DANIEL, the prophet, sent captive to 
Babylon, a c. 606. Interpreted Nebu- 
chadnezzar's dream, a.c. 603. Cast into 
the lions* den, a.c. 538. He predicted 
the fall of the Persian empire, a.c. 534. 
DANIEL, the French historian, born 
1649, died 1723. 

DANIEL, Samuel, poet and histo- 
rian, born 1562, died 1619. 

DANNECHER, J. H. Von, of Stutt- 
gurd, an eminent sculptor, born 1758. 

DANTE, Aligheri, a celebrated 
Italian poet, born at Florence in 1265. 
In 1300 he was one of the chief magis- 
trates of that city, an honour which 
proved the source of many of his mis- 
fortunes. He was afterwards banished, 
and sentence of death passed upon him, 
should he again fall into the power of 
the Florentine state. When Henry, of 
Luxembourg, was elected emperor, 
Dante paid his court to him in hopes of 
being restored to his country ; but the 
death of Henry, in 1313, cut off all his 
hopes. About this period he went to 
Paris, where he engaged in the studies 
of the university. He was afterwards 
employed in some political negotiations, 
and was sent to Venice, in order to 
compromise a quarrel which had arisen 
between him and the republic. The 
Venetians, however, refused to admit 
him to an audience, by which he was so 
much affected, that soon after his return 
to Ravenna he died, on September 
14, 1321. His principal work, " Di- 
vina Commedia," has given him an un- 
fading and immortal reputation. In 
1373 a professorship was established at 
Florence, for the express purpose of ex- 
plaining Dante to the public. The first 
person who filled the chair was Boccacio. 
The best edition of his works is that of 
Venice, in three vols, quarto, published 
in 1737. A sumptuous monument was 
erected to his memory in 1780 by the 
legate, cardinal Gonzaga. 

DANTZIC, a city of Polish Pmssia, 
called by the ancients Godanum, famous 
in history on account of its being for- 
merly at the head of the Hanseatic asso- 
ciation. See Hanse Towns. Dantzic 



was early an object of contest ; the 
Danes, Swedes, Pomeranians, and Teu- 
tonic knights strove for its possession. 
In 1310 it fell into the possession of the 
latter. In 1454 it declared itself inde- 
pendent, and was acknowledged as such 
by the Poles, who conferred upon the 
inhabitants several valuable privileges. 
1772. The city was almost surround- 
ed by the Prussian dominions, and aban- 
doned by the Poles. In 1793 the Prus- 
sians took possession of the outworks. 
At the breaking out of the war between 
France and Prussia, in 1807, it surren- 
dered to the French, and was subject to 
a heavy military contribution. In 180S 
the code Napoleon was introduced,which 
cut off its valuable trade with England. 
It was besieged by, and capitulated to 
the Russians in 1814. During the siege 
309 houses were burnt, 1115 damaged, 
and 90 persons died of hunger. Since 
the calamities of war have been sus- 
pended or removed, its population and 
trade have rapidly increased. The ex- 
ports of wheat from Dantzic are greater 
than from any other port in the world. 
Next to grain, timber is the most im- 
portant article of export from Dantzic. 
In 1833 there were 747 ships entered, 
and 758 cleared at this port. 

DANTZIC, 300 persons at, killed and 
wounded, and 600 houses damaged by 
an explosion of gunpowder, December 
16, 1815. 

DANUBE, anciently supposed to have 
been the northern boundary of the Ro- 
man empire in Europe; towards its 
mouth the ancients called it the Ister. 
In 1805, it overflowed its banks, with a 
violence which had been unparalled since 
the time of Louis XIV., particularly in 
the night that preceded the disgraceful 
capitulation of General Mack. About 
1830, a regular line of steam boats, for 
the transportation of passengers and 
merchandise, was established on the 
Danube from Presburg (Hungary) to 
Galacz, by an Austrian company, en- 
titled " First Company for Navigation 
by Steam on the Danube." Three boats 
were running on this line, viz., the Pan- 
nonia, (36-horse power,) from Presburg 
to Pesth ; the Francis First, (60-horse 
power,) from Pesth to Moldavia; the Argo, 
(50-horse power,) from Orsova to Galacz. 

1835. The government of Bavaria 
began to be occupied with the considera- 
tion of a plan for uniting the Rhine with 
the Danube, near Kelheim. Its course 



DAR 



will follow the valley of the small river 
D'Altmuhl and the Sulz, as far as Neu- 
markt, from thence the canal will pass 
in the direction of Nuremberg, by Furth 
and Bamberg, Its length to be 592,534 
Bavarian feet, or 23 German miles. Its 
breadth will be 54 Bavarian feet, and its 
depth 34. The highest elevation of the 
canal is 273 feet above the surface of the 
Danube, near Kelheim, and 630 feet 
above the surface of the Regnitz, near 
Bamberg. This elevation to be attained 
by means of 94 locks. It appears, from 
an official calculation, that the convey- 
ance of a quintal of goods throughout 
the whole length of the canal will not 
cost above a kreutzer and a half, includ- 
ing the expenses of navigation. 

D'ANVILLE, John Baptiste 
BouRGUiGNON, a celebrated geographer, 
author of " Ancient Geography." was 
born at Paris. July 11, 1697- At the age 
of 22, he obtained a commission as geo- 
grapher, and published, with universal 
approbation, several of those maps which 
have immortalized his name. He died 
January 28, 1782, aged 85. 

D'ARCON I., inventor of the floating 
batteries, born 1733, died 1800. 

D'ARCY, Count, the philosopher, 
born 1725, died 1779. 

DARDANELLES, Strait of, be- 
tween the Archipelago and the sea of 
Marmora, separating Europe and Asia. 
Three leagues from its mouth, were built 
in 1658, by Mahomed IV., the two cas- 
tles called the Dardanelles ; the cannon 
of each of which commanded the op- 
posite shore. These were for a long 
time, the only barrier to secure Con- 
stantinople. Near this are two pro- 
montories 750 yards distant from each 
other, which form the strait, rendered 
famous by Leander's nightly visit to 
Hero, by Xerxes' transit, by Solyman's 
passage upon a bare raft, and by the 
exploit of the poet Byron, who swam 
across. The Turks have always been 
too indolent to keep these fortifications 
in repair; in 1770, the Russian admiral, 
Elphinstone, pursued two Turkish ships 
up the strait, and passed the batteries, 
having received but a single shot; on 
February 19, 1807, Admiral Duckworth, 
an Englishman, effected a passage 
through the Dardanelles. Oct. 1828, 
blockade of the Dardanelles by the Rus- 
sians, officially announced by the secre- 
tary of state for foreign affairs, to the 
committee of Lloyd's. 



367 DAR . 

DARDANUS built the city afterwards 
called Troy, a.c. 1480. 

DARIUS, THE Mede, king of As- 
syria, flourished a.c. 538. 

DARIUS I., King of Persia, was 
the son of Hystaspes. Raised to the 
empire of Persia, a.c. 521. He is cele- 
brated in history for the permission 
which he gave to the Jews to resume 
the rebuilding of their temple; The 
Babylonians revolted, a.c. 517, but he 
took the city. He died A.c. 485. 

DARIUS II , surnamed Ochus, as- 
cended the Persian throne a.c. 423. He 
died in the 20th year of his reign. 

DARIUS III., named Codomannus, 
born about a.c. 380. He died a.c. 330. 

DARKNESS, (an unaccountable,) at 
noon day, in England, so that no person 
could see to read, January 12, 1679. A 
similar darkness at Quebec, in North 
America, September 16, 1785. 

DARLINGTON, Worsted Mills 
at, belonging to Messrs. Peace, burnt 
down, damage estimated at £35,000, 
February 19, 1817- 

DARLINGTON Temple, Devon, 
built 1123. 

DARNLEY Lord, married to Mary, 
queen of Scots, 1561, killed by an ex- 
plosion, February 10, 1567. 

DARNLEY, Late Earl of, died at 
his seat, Cobham Hall, from the effect 
of an accident, Feb. 11, 1835, aged 40. 

DARTFORD Priory, Kent, built 
1372. 

DARTFORD Cotton Mills, da- 
maged by fire to the amount of £10,000,, 
December 21, 1795. Dreadful explosion 
of six powder mills at Dartford, January 
21, 1833; 2,500lbs. of powder exploded,, 
and three men, four women, and a lad 
were killed. The shock was felt a€ 
Greenwich, a distance of 10 miles. 

DARTMOUTH, seaport, Devon. 
Richard Coeur de Lion made this place 
the rendezvous for his expedition to 
Palestine, in 1190, and it furnished 31 
ships and 757 men towards the arma- 
ment against Calais, under Edward III. 
It was burnt by the French, 1337- Ta- 
ken in the civil wars in 1643, by Prince 
Maurice, but re-taken by the parliamen- 
tarians in 1646. 

DARWIN, Erasmus, physician and 
philosopher, born at Elston, in Notting- 
hamshire, December 12, 1731. Removed 
to Edinburgh in 1753, where he studied 
medicine, and obtained his degree of 
bachelor of medicine, in 1755. He died 



DAV 



3G8 



DA V 



April 18, 1802, aged 71. His principal 
works were his " Botanic Garden," a 
poem, 1781 ; his "Zoonomia, or the 
Laws of Organic Life," 1796; " Pliyto- 
logia, or the Philosophy of Agriculture 
and Gardening," 1800. 

D A U B E N T O N, the coadjutor of 
Buffon in the compilation of the " Na- 
tural History," died 1800. 

D'AUBIGNE, a French writer, born 
1550, died 1630. 

DAUPHIN OF FRANCE, the title 
which the eldest sons of the kings of 
France, and heirs presumptive to the 
crown bore for nearly 450 years. It 
took its rise about 1120 in Guigues IV., 
son of Guy, or Guigues, the Fat. The 
title was first borne by the eldest sons 
of the royal family about 1345, by Philip, 
a younger son of Philip de Valois, to 
whom Humbert III., dauphin of the 
Valois, had ceded his dominions, ' con- 
sisting chiefly of the Dauphine. After 
Charles V., surnamed the Wise, the 
kings of France never conferred the ap- 
pellation of dauphin on any one but their 
eldest sons, and presumptive heirs of the 
crown. In 1/91 the national assembly 
decreed its suppression, and substituted 
the appellation of prince royal. 

Charles Louis, the last dauphin, was 
the son of Louis XVI. and Maria An- 
toinette of Austria, born March 27, 
1785, was first named duke of Norman- 
dy, and took the title of dauphin only 
after the death of his eldest brother, Louis 
Joseph Xavier Francis, in 1790. On the 
11th August, 1792, he was imprisoned 
at Paris with his royal parents in the 
Temple. He expired June 9, 1795, at 
the age of 10 years, two months, and 
13 days. 

DAUPHINY, annexed to the crown 
of France 1349- 

DAVENANT, Sir William, a 
poet in the reign of Charles I. and II., 
was the son of a tavern-keeper at 0.\- 
ford, in which city he was born in 1606. 
In 1637 he was elected poet-laureate, 
and his attachment to the king involved 
him in the troubles of that period. On 
account of some services done for the 
king, he was made a knight in 1643, and 
was afterwards committed a close pri- 
soner to Cowes castle, in the Isle of 
Wight. In 1650 he was removed to 
London for trial by a high-commission 
court. He escaped with his life, but 
was kept two years a prisoner in the 
Tower. Upon his release he had re- 



course to a public exhibition of enter- 
tainments, as a mean of extricating him- 
self from the indigence into which he 
had fallen. From this period he con- 
tinued to write plays till his death.which 
happened April 7, 1668. The complete 
works of Sir William were published by 
his widow in 1675. 

DAVENANT, Charles, eldest son 
of Sir William, and also a poet, waa 
born 1656, died, 1714. 

DAVID, king of Israel, born at Beth- 
lehem, A.c. 1085; succeeded Saul in 
Israel, 1055 ; died 1015. 

DAVID, king of Scotland, taken pri- 
soner by the English, 1346; ransomed 
for 100,000 marks, 1357; died at Lon- 
don, February, 22, 1371. 

DAVID, St. a city of Pembroke, in 
South Wales. St. Patrick first founded 
a church here, and was succeeded by St. 
David, the son of a Welsh prince, 'llie 
metropolitan see of Wales was trans- 
ferred to this place in 519, but in the 
year 930, under Edward 1., the arch- 
bishop (the 47th) was compelled to sub- 
mit to the province of Canterbury. 

DAVID, St., cathedral of, built 1180 ; 
palace built, 1335. 

DAVID,James Louis, restorer of the 
French school of painting, born 1750, 
died 1825. 

DAVIES, Sir John, lawyer and poet, 
born 1570, died 1626. 

DAVILA, author of the " History of 
the Civil Wars of France," died 1641. 

DAVINGTON Nunnery, Kent, 
built 1153. 

DAVIS, John, an English navigator, 
who discovered the strait which bears his 
name, died 1605. 

DAVIS'S STRAITS, a narrow sea 
between Baffin's Bay and the Atlantic, 
discovered in 1585, by the navigator 
whose name it bears, in an unsuccessful 
attempt to establish a north west passage. 
DAVY, John, an eminent musical 
composer, died in poverty, February 22, 
1824. 

DAVY, Rev. William, who printed, 
with his own hands, his " Compilation 
of a System of Divinity," 26 vols. 8vo., 
died 1826. 

DAVY, Sir Humphry, the most 
celebrated chemical philosopher of his 
day, was born at Penzance in Corn- 
wall, in 1779. Having received the rudi- 
ments of a classical education under 
Dr. Cardew, of Truro, he was placed 
with a professional gentleman at Pen- 




Sum MurMFHmT mA.inr. 




DAY 



369 



DAV 



zance, that he might acquire a knowledge 
oi the profession of a surgeon and apo- 
thecary. His master, however, soon be- 
came dissatisfied with his new pupil; 
instead of attending to the duties of the 
surgery, Humphry was experimenting 
in the garret, and upon one occasion he 
produced an explosion that put the doc- 
tor and all his phials in jeopardy. He 
continued to direct his mind to the study 
of mineralogy and chemistry. The first 
original experiment performed by him 
at Penzance was for the purpose of as- 
certaining the nature of the air contained 
in the bladders of sea-weed. His instru- 
ments, however, were of the rudest de- 
scription, manufactured by himself. 

A prominent circumstance in Davy's 
life was his introduction to Mr. Gilbert, 
in 1792, the distinguished president of 
the Royal Society, who kindly lent him 
the use of his library, or any other as- 
sistance that he might require for the 
pursuit of his studies. Here he was also 
introduced to Mr. Watt and Dr. Bed- 
does. The latter had just established 
his Pneumatic Institution at Bristol, and 
required an assistant in his laboratory. 
The situation was offered to Davy, who 
eagerly accepted it. He was now en- 
gaged in the prosecution of new experi- 
ments ; in the course of which the re- 
spirability and singularly intoxicating ef- 
fects of nitrous oxide were first discovered, 
which led to a new train of research. 
His inquiries were also extended to the 
different substances connected with ni- 
trous oxide, such as nitrous gas, nitrous 
acid, ammonia, &c- ; and he was enabled 
to present a clear and satisfactory history 
of the combinations of oxygen and nitro- 
gen. These interesting results were 
published in a separate volume, entitled, 
" Researches, Chemical and Philosophi- 
cal, chiefly concerning Nitrous Oxide 
and its Respiration." 

About 1801, Count Romford having 
made enquiry for some rising philoso- 
pher who might fill the chemical chair 
in the newly established institution of 
Great Britain, Davy was proposed, and 
immediately elected. In this new scene 
he still pursued his studies with ardour. 
1802. Having been elected profes- 
sor of chemistry to the board of agri- 
culture, Davy commenced a series of 
lectures before its members ; and which 
he continued to deliver every successive 
session for 10 years. These discourses 
were pubhshed in the year 1813, at the 



request of the president and members of 
the board ; and they form the only 
complete work we possess on the sub- 
ject of agricultural chemistry. In 1803, 
Davy was elected a fellow of the Royal 
Society; he subsequently became its sec- 
retary, and, lastly, its president. Dur- 
ing a period of 25 years, he constantly 
supplied its transactions with papers. 

The first memoir presented by him to 
the Royal Society, was read June 18, 
1801; and is entitled, "An Account of 
some Galvanic combinations, formed by 
the arrangement of Single Metallic 
Plates and Fluids, analogous to the new 
Galvanic Apparatus of Volta." 

After an interval of nearly five years, 
in which he had been engaged in ex- 
periments of the most arduous and com- 
plicated description, he unfolded the 
mysteries of volcanic action, and as far 
as its theory goes, might almost be said 
to have perfected our knowledge of the 
galvanic pile. The memoir in which 
these discoveries were announced consti- 
tuted the first Bakerian lecture ; and was 
read before the Royal Society Nov. 20, 
1806. In 1807, this lecture was crown- 
ed by the Institute of France, with the 
prize of Napoleon. 

The discovery of the composition of 
the fixed alkalies, was announced in 
Davy's second Bakerian lecture, read 
before the Royal Society in I8O7. This 
was followed up by an investigation 
into the nature of the earths ; and the 
results were communicated in a paper 
read before the Royal Society June 30, in 
the same year. 

The third, lecture of 1808 was en- 
titled, "An Account of some new 
Analytical Researches on the Nature of 
certain Bodies, particularly the Alkalies, 
Phosphorus, Sulphur, Carbonaceous 
Matter, and the Acids hitherto unde- 
composed ; with some general Observa- 
tions on Chemical Theory." 

The frequency of accidents, arising 
from the explosion of the fire-damp, oc- 
casioned the formation of a committee 
at Sunderland, in 1815, for the purpose 
of investigating the causes of these 
calamities, and of endeavouring to dis- 
cover and apply a preventive. Sir Hum- 
phry was invited to the north of Eng- 
land, and soon convinced himself that 
no improvement could be made without 
a new method of lighting the min^, 
free from danger, which led to the inven- 
tion of the safety lamp. The coal-owners 

3 B 



DAV 



370 



DEA 



of the Tyne and Wear evinced their 
sense of the benefits resulting from this 
invention, by presenting Sir Hunniphry 
with a handsome service of plate, worth 
nearly £2000, at a public dinner at New- 
castle, Oct. 11, 1817. 

M. Oersted, secretary to the Royal 
Society of Copenhagen, published in 
1819 an account of some experiments 
exhibited in his lecture before the Uni- 
versity, by which it was demonstrated 
that the magnetic needle was moved 
from its positon by the action of the 
galvanic apparatus. No sooner had this 
extraordinary discovery been announced 
in this country, than Sir Humphry Davy 
proceeded to repeat the experiments, and 
with his characteristic talent, to vary 
and extend them. He particularly in- 
vestigated the magnetising powers of the 
conjunctive wires, and the circumstances 
under which they became effective. 

Sir H. Davy's method for preventing 
the corrosion of the copper sheathing of 
ships by sea-water, being founded upon 
voltaic principle, was presented in a 
paper which was read before the Royal 
Society, January 22, 1824, and which 
was continued in another communication 
dated June 17, 1824, and concluded in 
a third, read June 9. 1825. 

Much of the latter period of Sir Hum- 
phry Davy's life was spent in visit- 
ing different parts of Europe for scien- 
tific purposes. In the course of a few 
years, most of the learned bodies in Eu- 
rope enrolled him among their members. 
In 1805, he was elected a member of the 
Royal Irish Academy ; and in 1810, he 
delivered a course of lectures before the 
Dublin Society, and received from Tri- 
nity College, Dublin, the honorary de- 
gree of LL.D. In 1813, he was elected 
a corresponding member of the Institute 
of France, and vice-president of the 
Royal Institution. He was created a 
baronet, Oct. 20, 1818. In 1820, he 
was elected a foreign associate of the 
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, in 
the room of his countryman. Watt. 

Sir Humphry returned to England 
in 1820, and in the same year. Sir 
Joseph Banks, president of the Royal 
Society, dying, he was elected president 
in his room. He retained his seat as 
president till 1827, when, in consequence 
of procrastinated ill health, he was in- 
4(iced, by medical advice, to retire to 
the Continent. He accordingly resigned 
his seat as president of the Royal So- 



ciety. Having spent nearly the whole 
of the summer of 1828 in the neighbour- 
hood of Laybach, in expectation of re- 
turning health, this great philosopher 
closed his mortal career at Geneva, May 
30, 1829. 

The following is a list of the works 
of which Sir Humphry Davy was the 
author : — " Chemical and Philosophical 
Researches, chiefly concerning Nitrous 
Oxide, and its Respiration," 1800, 8vo. ; 
" A Syllabus of a Course of Lectures on 
Chemistry, at the Royal Institution," 
1802, 8vo. ; "A Discourse, introductory 
to a Course of Lectures on Chemistry," 
1802, 8vo. ; "Electro-Chemical Re- 
searches on the Decomposition of the 
Earths, with Observations on the Metals 
obtained from the Alkaline Earths and 
an Amalgam procured from Ammonia;" 
" Lecture ,on a plan for improving the 
Royal Institution, and making it perma- 
nent," 1810, 8vo. ; "Elements of Che- 
mical Philosophy," 1812, 8vo. ; "Ele- 
ments of Agricultural Chemistry, in a 
Course of Lectures before the Board of 
Agriculture,'' 1813, 4to. and 8vo. ; 
" Practical Hints on the Application of 
Wire Gauze to Lamps, for preventing 
Explosions in Coal Mines," 1816, 8vo. ; 
" Six Discourses delivered before the 
Royal Society, at their Anniversary 
Meetings, on the Award of the Royal 
and Copley Medals ; preceded by an 
Address to the Society, delivered in 
1800, on the Progress and Prospects of 
Science," 4to. He also contributed 
many valuable articles to the " Phi- 
losophical Transactions," to "Nichol- 
son's Journal," and to the " Philoso- 
phical Magazine." 

DAY, John, printer, who first intro- 
duced the Greek and Saxon characters 
into England, died 1584. 

DAY, Thomas, the author of 
" Sandford and Merton," &c., died 
1789, aged 41. 

DAY, Edward, a promising British 
painter, who fell by his own hand, 
1804. 

DEAF AND Dumb, the instruction 
of, first attempted by Penro de Ponce, 
a Spanish Benedictine monk, as early 
as the beginning of the l6th century. 
A Spanish priest, named Bonet, was 
also occupied for many years in the 
education of the deaf and dumb, and 
his system was published at Madrid, in 
1620. 

About 30 years afterwards, a work 



DEA 



371 



DEB 



was published in England, by Dr, 
Wallis, the investigation of which di- 
rected his attention to the education of 
the deaf and dumb, and he pursued the 
occupation for many years with great 
success. 

The first person who established an 
academy for the education of the deaf 
and dumb, in Great Britain, was Mr. 
Braidwood, who conducted the seminary 
with distinguished reputation and suc- 
cess for many years. He began his 
labours at Edinburgh, where he was 
visited by Dr. Johnson, in 1773. Soon 
after, the French Abbe de TEpee, having 
turned his attention to this object, insti- 
tuted an academy ; he received about 
60 pupils, and supported them at his 
own expense, besides training several 
persons for teachers. De I'Epee pub- 
lished an account of his system at Paris 
in 1784. The Abbe Sicard, who followed 
him, instructed his pupils in the meaning 
of words, and taught them to compose 
for themselves, but none of the preced- 
ing attempted to teach them the art of 
speaking. 

This has been accomplished, however, 
in the London Asylum, Kent Road, 
which was first established in 1792. It 
originated in the benevolent exer- 
tions of the Rev. J. Townsend, and was 
indebted for much of its prosperity to 
his unwearied exertions in its support. 
Since its commencement, the London 
Asylum has received for instruction 
hundreds of children, who are taught 
the trades of printer, tailor, and shoe- 
maker, in the manufactory belonging to 
the institution. " The majority of those 
who have left the asylum," says Dr. 
Watson, the teacher of the institution, 
" have done so in a state of improve- 
ment, intelligence, and usefulness, that 
rendered them individually happier be- 
yond all comparison, by enabling them 
to participate, through the medium of 
the mother tongue, in the advantages 
which society and Christianity confer on 
men." There was also a similar in- 
stitution at Edinburgh, established in 
1810. 

DEAFNESS. The alleviation of deaf- 
ness has occupied the attention of a por- 
tion of the scientific world during the 
the year 1838. The British Association 
appointed a committee for reporting on the 
instruments best adapted for assisting the 
hearing in cases of deafness, and invited 
eo-operation, by suggestions, or the loan 



of instruments or apparatus in the ex- 
planation of special view.s. 

DEAL Castle, Kent, built 1539. 

DEAN Bridge, Edinburgh, com- 
pleted in 1832. This stupendous bridge, 
which forms one of the most splendid 
ornaments of the nothern capital, was 
erected almost at the sole expense of 
John Learmouth, Esq., (Lord Provost,) 
from a design by Mr. Telford. It con- 
sists of four lower arches, each 90 feet 
span, and 30 feet rise, springing from 
pillars at the height of 70 feet above 
the bed of the water of Leith. The road- 
way is at the enormous height of about 
120 feet above the level of the river be- 
low. 

DEAN, Forest of, affords the prin- 
cipal supply of oak and beach to the 
British navy. There are here very ex- 
tensive coal and iron mines, marble 
quarries, &c., and the miners and col- 
liers claim the right of being supplied 
with timber from the forest for their 
mine works. 

1831. June 8, riot among- the in- 
habitants of the forest and its neigh- 
bourhood, for the purpose of throwing 
down the inclosures therein. Upwards 
of 3000 men assembled, and no suffi- 
cient force being on the spot to oppose 
them, they succeeded in destroying 50 
miles of wall and fence, and throwing 
open 10,000 acres of plantation. 

DEAN, Hugh, a British artist of 
great merit, but greater eccentricity, died 
1784. 

DEARTH, so great a one in England 
and France, that a quarter of wheat was 
sold for 20*., alqaost as much as £6 now, 
followed by a pestilential fever, 1193, 
1194, 1195. Another 1222; another 
with a murrain, when wheat sold for 40*. 
a quarter, as much as £8 now, 1315; 
wheat sold for £3 a bushel, 1316 ; another 
great one, with a murrain, 1335; two 
others, 1348 and 1353 ; again, when 
bread was made in many places of fern 
roots and ivy berries, 1438 ; £2,000,000 
was paid for corn imported in a dearth, 
1565 ; and £1,200,000 in 1748. 

DEBENHAM, Suffolk, 38 houses at, 
destroyed by fire, March 1, 1743-4. 

DEBORAH, the prophetess, and 
third judge of Israel, who with Barak, 
general of the Israelites, defeated the 
Canaanites under Sisera, at the waters 
of Megiddo ; Sisera was killed by Jael, 
the wife of Heber, a.c. 1285; upon this 
battle was composed the beautiful song^ 



DEC 



372 



DEE 



of Victory, in Judges, chapter V. ; the 
land of Israel had rest in the 40th year 
after the rest given by Ehud. 

DEBTORS. The number of debtors 
in confinement on July 1, 1839, in Eng- 
land and Wales, was 1,805; in Scotland, 
77 ; and in Ireland, 924 ; total, 2,806. 
Of these 48 were in confinement pre- 
vious to the year 1830, One has been 
confined since 1811, two since 1812, 
and three since I8I6. 

DECAMERON of Boccaccio, a 
copy of this work, small folio, printed 
in 1471, was knocked down to the 
marquis of Blandford, at the duke of 
Roxburgh's sale, for £2,260, June 17, 
1812. 

DECCAN Territory, Hindoostan, 
in its most ancient acceptation compre- 
hended all the peninsular, or triangular 
region of India, soiUh of Nerbudda 
river, but now only includes the dis- 
tricts Candeish, Poona, Ahmednuggur, 
and Darwar. The Deccan was formerly 
subject to the Hindoo princes, but con- 
quered by the Mahommedans in 1293. 
The Sultan Allah ud Deen Hossein Kan- 
goh Bhamanee threw off the Mahom- 
medan yoke in 1337, and established 
an independent sovereignty, which con- 
tinued until 1518. On the breaking up 
of this kingdom it was divided into 
several states. During the latter half of 
the 17th century, these were again sub- 
dued and annexed to the kingdom of 
Delhi. In 1739, this kingdom was 
weakened by an invasion of the Persians, 
the nizam threw off his allegiance, de- 
clared himself independent, and fixed 
his court at Hyderabad. Deccan con- 
tinued subject to the nizam and Mah- 
rattas until the British ascendancy in 
1803, and the establishment of their 
paramount sovereignty in 1818, at which 
period direct possession was obtained of 
the territory now designated "British 
Deccan." In 1821, the natives volun- 
tarily commenced the removal of fortifi- 
cations from around their villages, de- 
claring that their attachment to the 
British should be permanent. 

DECEMVIRI, an order of annual 
magistrates among the Romans, created 
A.u.c. 302, when the consuls Appius 
Claudius Crassinius, and T. Genucius 
Augurinus were obliged to abdicate, 
A.u.c. 304 ; another set was to have 
been chosen, but the people rose, made 
them lay down their authority, and re- 
sumed that of the consuls. 



DECIMALS were first employed by 
Regiomontanus, about 1460 ; but Ste- 
vinvis was the first who treated expressly 
on the subject, namely, in 1 585. Circu- 
lating decimals were first treated of by 
Dr. Wallis, towai'ds the close of the 
17th century. 

DEC I US, the Roman general, who 
had been sent on an expedition into 
Moesia, having previoiisly usurped the 
imperial title, was defeated by the Goths 
in Moesia, and with his two sons slain 
in battle, in 251. 

DECLARATION of Rights, bill 
passed, 1689- 

DE COURCY, had the privilege of 
standing covered before the kings of 
England, granted by King John, 1203. 

DECRETAL, a rescript, or letter of a 
pope, whereby some point or question 
in the ecclesiastical law is solved. The 
decretals compose the second part of the 
canon law. AH the decretals attributed 
to the popes before Siricius, in 318, are 
evidently suppositious. They are sup- 
posed by some to be the spurious off- 
spring of Isidore, archbishop of Seville, 
because the collection bears the name of 
Isidore Peccator, or Mercator. They 
were first published by Riculph, bishop 
of Mentz, in the ninth century. Pope 
Gregory IX. in the 13th century, pro- 
cured a compilation to be made of all 
the decretals or pontifical constitutions 
of his predecessors, in five books, by 
Friar Raimond. "These decretals," says 
Mr. Hume, " are a collection of forge- 
ries favourable to the court of Rome, 
and consisting of the supposed decrees 
of popes m the first centuries, but the 
forgeries are so gross, and confound so 
palpably all language, history, chrono- 
logy, and antiquities, that even that 
church, has been obliged to abandon 
them to the critics." 

DEE, John, astrologer, who, pre- 
tending to hold converse with spirits 
and angels, which he pretended he saw 
in a black stone, still preserved in the 
British Museum, had great credit with 
Elizabeth, James I. and their contem- 
porary crowned heads ; born 1527, died 
1608. 

DEEG, town and fortress of Hindoo- 
stan, city of Agra,belonging to tbeBhurt- 
poor rajah. It was taken from the Jauts 
in 1776 by Nujuff Khan. Lord Lake 
defeated Holkar here, and took the for- 
tress in 1805. 

DEER, parish, Scotland. Edward 



DEF 



373 



DEL 



Bruce pitched his camp, after the battle 
of Inverary, in 1308, on Bruce hill in 
this parish, and marched hence against 
the Earl of Buchan, at Aiky Brae. Two 
miles north from the church are the 
ruins of Feddart castle, from which the 
soldiers of William III. expelled a party 
of James's followers who had found an 
asylum there, after the battle of Killy- 
crankie. 

DEERING, Sir Cholmley, killed 
in a duel, May 9, 1711. 

DEFENCE, British 74 gun ship, 
stranded on the coast of North Jutland, 
when all the crew except five seamen 
and one marine perished, December 24, 
1811. 

DEFENDER of the Faith, title 
conferred by Leo X, on King Henry 
VIIL for writing against Martin Lu- 
ther ; and the bull for it bears date 
qviinto idus October, 1521. It was after- 
wards confirmed by Clement VII. But 
the pope, on Henry's suppressing the 
houses of religion at the time of the re- 
formation, not only deprived him of his 
title, but deposed him from his crown 
also : though in the 35th year of his 
reign, his title, &c. was confirmed by 
parliament ; and has continued to be used 
by all succeeding kings to this day. 

DEFENDERS, a people who created 
disturbances in Ireland, 1793. . 

DEFOE, Daniel, the well-known 
author of Robinson Crusoe, was born 
about the year 1663. In 1701, he pub- 
lished " the True-Born Englishman," a 
satire which excited a considerable share 
of attention. In 1702, when the high 
church party was inclined to persecute 
the dissenters, De Foe published " The 
Shortest Way with the Dissenters, or 
Proposals for the Establishment of the 
Church." For this he was sentenced to 
fine, imprisonment, and the pillory. 
Soon after his liberation he published, 
by subscription, his " Jure Divino," in 
12 books, the object of which was to 
expose the doctrine of the divine right 
of kings, and to decry tyranny. About 
1715, he commenced a new style of writ- 
ing, and published "The Family Instruc- 
tor," which has been highly regarded for 
its excellent moral tendency. But the 
most distinguished of his works is, "The 
Life and Adventures of Robinson Cru- 
so," which was first published in 1719. 
It has passed through as many editions 
as almost any book in our language of 
the same standing, and must long con- 



tinue to be the favourite book in the 
juvenile library. Defoe died April 26, 
1731. 

DEGREE OF Latitude and Lon- 
gitude. See Latitude and Longi- 
tude. 

DEGREES, academical, first intro- 
duced at Paris, previous to 1213. 

DEISM, the doctrine or belief of the 
deists. The name seems to have been 
first assumed as the denomination of a 
party about the middle the l6th century. 
They are mentioned by Viret, an emi- 
nent reformer, in his Instruction Chre- 
tienne, published in 1563. The first 
destical writer of any note, that appear- 
ed in this country was Herbert, Baron 
of Cherbury, who lived in the I7th cen- 
tury. His book, De Veritate, was first 
published at Paris in 1624. His cele- 
brated work, De Religione Gentilium, 
was published at Amsterdam in 1 663, in 
4to. and in 1700 in 8vo. and an English 
translation of it was published at Lon- 
don in 1705. 

DE LA FOSSE, a French artist, who 
painted the interior of the British Mu- 
seum, born 1640, died 17 16. 

DEL AGO A Bay, on the eastern coast 
of Africa, discovered by Lorenzo Mar- 
ques, a Portuguese. His countrymen 
settled here in 1545, but soon abandoned 
their discovery. The Dutch next 
attempted to locate tliemselves here 
but were cut oflf in 1727- In 1777 the 
Austrian East India company placed a 
few settlers here, who shared a fate simi- 
lar to that of their predecessors. It was 
at last resigned to the primitive inhabi- 
tants. The bay was visited in 1823 by 
Captain Owen, in the Leven, in his sur- 
vey of the African coast, and the native 
tribes in the neighbourhood have recently 
excited an unusual degree of interest. 
See ZooLAS. The rivers which fall into 
Delagoa Bay were surveyed by Captain 
Owen. The principal of these are the 
Mapoota, EngHsh river, and Manice or 
King George's river. The Portuguese 
factory is situated on the northern shore 
of the English river. 

DELAMBRE, the French astronomer 
died 1822. 

DELANY, Dr., a clergyman and 
writer of considerable celebrity in Ire- 
land ; was born about the year 1686, died 
at Bath, May, 1768, aged 83. 

DELAWARE, one of the United States, 
was settled by the Swedes and Finns in 
1627, and named Nova Suecia; Hoar- 



DEL 



374 



DEL 



kill, now Lewistown, was founded in 
1630, but the Dutch obtained possession 
of this country in 1655. The colony on 
the Delaware fell with other parts of 
New Amsterdam into the hands of the 
English in 1664. James, duke of York, 
in 1682 conveyed it as far as Cape Hen- 
lope to William Penn ; and from that 
time until the United States became in- 
dependent, it formed part of the state 
of Pennsylvania. In 1704, a separate 
house of assembly was established. This 
was one of the first states to declare its 
independence which was established in 
1776. In 1792, a constitution was adopt- 
ed similar to that of the other states. 

DELFT, South Holland, city founded 
1072 ; nearly destroyed by a fire in 
1536. The old church here contains the 
monuments of admirals Van Tromp and 
Peter Heyn, and the house in which 
William I. of Orange was murdered in 
1584 is still standing. In the new 
church is a monument to the memory of 
Hugo Grotius,who was born here inl583, 

DELFT earthenware, invented at Ti- 
renza, 1450. 

DELHI, city of Hindoostan, capital 
of the province of Delhi. The ancient 
town was captured in 1193 by the Ma- 
hommedans, under Cuttubad deen Khan, 
who fixed his residence here. It then 
became the capital of Hindoostan. In 
1398 it was taken, pillaged, and reduced 
to a heap of ruins by Tamerlane. To- 
wards the end of the 1 6th century the 
seat of royalty was transferred to Agra. 

1631. Shah Jehan founded the new 
city on the west bank of the Jumna. 
During the reign of his third son, the 
revenue of the city amounted to 
£3,813,594, and its population to 
2,000,000 souls. It continued to pros- 
per until 1739, when Nadir Shah invaded 
it, massacred 100,000 inhabitants, and 
collected £62,000,000 sterling of plunder. 
It was again pillaged and depopulated 
in 1756, 1759, and 1760, by Ahmed 
Abdallah, and in 1788 Gholaum Kaudir 
and Rohilla made themselves masters of 
this city, starved and tortured many of 
the nobles, and put out the eyes of the 
king to compel a disclosure of supposed 
concealed treasures. 

1803. This city came into the pos- 
session of the British by the victories of 
Lord Lake, and since that period has 
been gradually recovering from its cala- 
mities. At that time a portion of the 
territories near Delhi, on the right bank 



of the Jumna, was "assigned" for the 
maintenance of the emperor, or " great 
mogul," who is now dependent on the 
British. 

DELILLE, Abbe', a French poet, and 
author of " Les Jardins," dieil 1813. 

DELISLE, Joseph Nicholas, as- 
tronomer, born 1688, died 1768. 

DELISLE, William, geographer, 
• born 1675, died 1726. 

DELOLME, Lewis, the author of 
"Essays on the Constitution of Eng- 
land," &c., died December 1807. 

DELOS, an island of the ^'Egean Sea, 
known to the ancients by the names of 
Cynethos, or Cynthos, Asteria, Pelasgia, 
&c. The native deities, Apollo and 
Diana, had three very magnificent tem- 
ples erected for them in this island. 
That of Apollo was begun by Erysiap- 
thus, the son of Cecrops, who is said to 
have possessed this island a.c. 1558. 
The oracle of Apollo, in Delos, was one 
of the most famous in the world, not 
only for its antiquity, but for the rich- 
ness of the sacred presents dedicated to 
the god. Delos, the capital of the island, 
was the richest city in the Archipelago, 
but is now called Deli, and is little more 
than a desert rock, covered with ruins, 
and uninhabited. 

DELPHI, or Delphos, now called 
Castri, the capital of Phocis, in Greece. 
The temple of Apollo here, occupied, 
according to Pausanias, a large space, 
and was treated with singular veneration. 
This edifice was destroyed by fire in the 
58tli Olympiad, a.c. 548. The riches 
of this temple e.xposed it to various de- 
predations. At length the Gauls, under 
the conduct of Brennus, came hither for 
the same purpose, about a.c. 278, but 
they were repulsed with great slaughter. 
Last of all, Nero robbed it of 500 of the 
most precious statues. Castri, the pre- 
sent town, does not consist of above 
200 houses, and those very ill built. 

DE LUC, J. A, a French philosopher, 
born 1726, died 1817. 

DELUGE, THE Universal, or 
Noah's flood, makes one of the most 
considerable epochs in chronology. Its 
history is given by Moses, Gen. ch. vi. 
and vii.. Its time is fi.x.ed by the best 
chronologers to the year from the crea- 
tion 1656, answering to a.c. 2348. On 
the 10th day of the second month, which 
was on Sunday, November 30, God 
commanded Noah to enter into the ark 
with his family, &c. ; and on Sunday, 



DEM 



srs 



DEM 



December 7, it began to rain, and rained 
40 days, and the deluge continued 150 
days. On Wednesday, May 6, a.c. 
2348, the ark rested on Mount Ararat. 
The tops of the mountains became visi- 
ble on Sunday, July 19, and on Friday, 
December 18, Noah came forth out of 
the ark with all that were with him. He 
built an altar, and sacrificed to God for 
his deliverance. 

Deluge of Deucalion, called Di- 
luvium Deucalioneum, overflowed Thes- 
saly A.c. 1529, being the third year be- 
fore the Israelites came out of Egypt. 

Deluge of Ogyges happened about 
269 years before that of Deucalion, 1020 
years before the first Olympiad, and 
A.c. 1796. 

The above two deluges have been 
thought to be the same with that of Noah. 
The following are also remarkable. The 
deluge of Syria, which, in 1095, drowned 
a prodigious number of people ; a de- 
luge in Friezland, which, in 1164, co- 
vered the whole environs of the coasts, 
and drowned several thousands of the 
inhabitants ; another inundation in 1218, 
which destroyed 100,000 men ; the in- 
undations in the Netherlands, which, in 
1421, overwhelmed and covered with 
sea all that part between Brabant and 
Holland ; and in 1727, all that now 
called the Gulf of DoUart. 

DELWYDDELAN Castle, Caer- 
narvonshire, built, 500. 

DEM AY END Peak, Persia, first as- 
cended by an European, 1837, or 1838, 
when its height was ascertained, baro- 
metrically, to be 15,000 feet above the 
sea, and 11,000 feet above the plain of 
Tehran. 

DEMERARA, settlement. South 
America. This settlement was originally 
made by the Dutch, in 1745 ; it came 
into the possession of the British in 1796: 
restored to the Dutch at the peace of 
Amiens in 1802 ; re-taken by the British, 
in the following year, and retained until 
1814, when it was formally confirmed to 
them. 

1823. InsuiTection of the slaves took 
place on the east coast of the Demerara 
river, which was finally suppressed, and 
Mr. Smith, a missionary of the London 
Society, condemned to death on the 
charge of inciting the negroes to rebel- 
lion. In 1831, the colonies of Demerara, 
Essequibo, and Berbice, were united 
into one government, and called British 
Guyana. See Guyana. 



DEMETRIUS, Prince of Macedon, 
being treacherously and falsely accused 
by his brother Perseus, was put to death 
by King Phillip, a.c. 180, 

DEMETRIUS Phalereus seized 
Athens a.c. 317, was banished 307. 

DEMETRIUS Poliorcetes changed 
the oligarchy of Athens, a.c. 307 ; de- 
feated the army of Ptolemy, 306 ; took 
Athens, 296 ; assassinated Alexander, 
son of Cassander, 294 ; the Athenians 
revolted from him, 287 ; died in capti- 
vity, 286. 

DEMETRIUS Soter, escaped from 
Rome, and recovered the throne of 
Syria, a.c. 162, was defeated and killed, 
150. 

DEMISE OF THE Crown. A bill 
was brought in, August, 1840, vesting 
the full powers of sovereignty in Prince 
Albert as sole regent, in the event of 
the death of the queen in child-birth, 
except with certain limitations. These 
are the cases of the " succession to the 
throne, and the preservation of the 
church, as estabhshed by law, by the 
act of Uniformity of Charles the Second, 
in England, and afterwards in Ireland, 
by the act of Union, as fully as it was 
in England, and likewise the church of 
Scotland, as established by the law re- 
lating to the church of Scotland." There 
is also a limitation in case of the mar- 
riage of the regent. 

DEMOCRITUS, the laughing philo- 
sopher, died A.c. 361, aged 109. 

DEMOIVRE, celebrated mathemati- 
cian, born 1667, died 1754. 

DEMOSTHENES,'the celebrated ora- 
tor of Athens, was born in that city, a.c 
381. At the age of 17, he gave a proof 
of his eloquence in pleading his own 
cause against his guardians, from whom 
he obtained the retribution of the great- 
est part of his estate. Being convicted 
of having received a bribe from Harpo- 
tus, a discarded bfficer of Alexander, he 
was sentenced by the areopagus to pay 
a fine of £50, and banished. He was re- 
called from banishment, a.c. 322; poi- 
soned himself, a.c. 313. 

Demosthenes has been deservedly 
called the prince of orators. In his 
Olynthiacs and Phihppics, his object is 
to excite the indignation of his country- 
men against Philip of Macedon, the 
enemy of the liberties of Greece ; and he 
boldly accuses them of venality, indo- 
lence, and indifference to the public 
good ; while, at the same time, he re- 



DEN 376 D E N 

minds them of their former glory, and nearly 200 years after this period the 

of their present resources. His orations Danes were a terror to all the northern | 

are animated, and full of the impetuosity nations of Europe, and having often 

of public spirit. His composition is not landed on the coasts of England, at 

distinguished by ornament and splen- length conquered the whole island. See 

dour. It is the energy of thought Danes. 

peculiarly his own, which forms his cha- The three sons of Lodbrog at the 

racter, and raises him above his rivals. death of their father divided the king- 

DEMPSTER, Thomas, historian and doms of Denmark, Sweden, and Nor- 

comraentator, died 1625. way, among them ; and Denmark had 

DENBIGH, called by the Britons, again a separate king. Surm, or Surmo, 
Cledfryn, yn Rhos, was given by Edwd. who reigned in 920, was succeeded in 
I. to David ap GrufFydd, brother to 945, by his son Harold Blaataud, who 
Llewelyn, the last prince of North made war on England and France, and 
Wales. He being afterwards beheaded attacked Germany. The next sovereign I 
for high treason, it was given to Lacy, was Sweine Otho, who invaded England : 
earl of Lincoln, who fortified the town Canute the Great succeeded him in 
with a strong wall, and either built or 1017, and filled the thrones of Den- 
enlarged the castle, 1280. Here Charles mark, England, and Norway. , 
L found an asylum in his retreat from Valdemar L obtained the throne in 
Chester; and the resistance which the 1157, and died in 1182. In 1195, Ca- 
governor made, under William Salisbury, nute VI., Valdemar's successor, caused 
to the parliamentarians, was equal to a muster to be made of all the men fit 
that of the most faithful loyalists in any to bear arms in his dominions. In his 
other part of the kingdom. reign the Danish dominions were en- 

DENBIGH Abbey, built 1330; larged by the entire conquest of Stro- 

castle built, 1280. mar, and the districts of Lubec and 

D'ENGHIEN, Duke, the heir pre- Hamburgh. He died in 1202, and was 

suraptive of the house of Bourbon, who succeeded by Valdemar II., who also 

had been taken at Ettenheim, on the proved a very great and warlike prince, 

territory of the elector of Baden, and In 1218, he undertook an expedition 

carried to Paris, was shot at midnight, against the Esthonians, to convert them 

in the wood of Vincennes, by order of to Christianity. 

Buonaparte, March 9, 1804. From 1252 to 1333, the kingdom of 

DENHAM, Lieutenant-Colonel, Denmark gradually declined. But in 

the African traveller died, 1828. See 1387, Margaret, who was advanced to 

Africa. the throne, raised the kingdom to its 

DENHAM, Sir John, author of highest pitch of glory, and by her ad- 

" Cooper's Hill," &c., born 1615, died dress, succeeded in effecting the election 

1668. of Eric, her adopted son, to be her suc- 

DENHAM, Thomas, M.D., died cessor to the crowns of Sweden, Den- 

Nov. 26, 1815. mark, and Norway in 1412. 

DENINA, Abbe', author of the "His- About 1448, the crown of Denmark 

lories of the Revolutions of Italy and fell to Christian, count of Oldenburg, 

Germany," died 1813. from whom the present royal family of 

DENMARK, one of the most ancient Denmark is descended. John, the son 

monarchies in Europe ; 'the word sup- of Christian, succeeded him in 1481. 

posed to signify the land or country of Christian II. ascended the throne in 

Dan, a king who is believed to have 1513. In his reign Sweden threw off 

lived about A. c. 1038. The inhabitants the yoke in 1521, and Gustavus Vasa 

were called Danes, as early as the sixth was proclaimed king. In 1523, the 

century, a.c, but the chronology of this Danes also revolted, and called Frederic, 

period is doubtful. duke of Holstein, to the throne. The 

The earliest authentic records are the following is a list of the kings from this 

Danish chronicles, which state, that time : 

Schiold, their first king, reigned about Frederick I. began 1523 

A.c. 60. They then mention 18 kings Christian III 1554 

to the time of the famous Ragner Lod- Frederick II 1559 

brog, A. D. 750, who was taken and killed Christian IV 1558 

in an attemjjt to invade England. For Frederick III 1648 



DEN 377 DER 

Christian V.. 1670 chosen by their fellow- subjects, should 

Frederick IV 1699 assemble at stated periods, in order to 

Christian VI 1730 deliberate on the interests of the country, 

Frederick V 1746 preparatory to the framing of royal de- 
Christian VII 1766 crees respecting those interests. 

Frederick VI 1808 DENMARK, Great Festival at, 

1801. Denmark joined the confede- in 1826, to commemorate the introduc- 

racy formed by Russia and S\veden tion of Christianity, which happened a 

against Great Britain. In consequence thousand years previous, 

of this step, the latter sent a formidable DENNIS, John, celebrated , critic, 

fleet into the Baltic. The defeat of the born 1657, died 1733. 

Danes, and the death of the Emperor DENON, Baron Dom. Vivante, a 

Paul, dissolved the confederacy, and French painter, one of the literary com- 

Denmark resolved, in the subsequent panions of Buonaparte in Egypt, and 

war between France and England, to author of the "Travels;" born 1747, 

continue neutral. In 1807, a formidable died 1825. 

expedition was sent out by Great Britain, DEPTFORD was only a village until 

which ended in the taking of Copenha- the erection of docks and of the Trinity 

gen, and the seizure of the Danish fleet. House here by Henry VIII. The docks 

1808. Christian VII. died, and the suflfered from fire in 1652, and from an 

crown prince was proclaimed king, by inundation in 1671. The Trinity House, 

the name of Frederick VI. Hostilities in 1787, was removed to Tower Hill, 

between Denmark and Great Britain London. 

were carried on with great animosity, Charles I., at his own expense, replaced 
and the isles of Heligoland and Anholt the old wooden bridge over the Ravens- 
taken by the EngUsh in 1811. bourne in 1623 with one of stone. Dept- 
1813. A war between Denmark and ford has frequently suflFered from fires. 
Sweden, which, after various success. There was a destructive one which de- 
was at length terminated by Denmark's stroyed the Victualling Office, and two 
acceding to the terms of peace proposed lighters in the river, January 16, 1749; 
by the crown prince of Sweden and the the Store House, September 2, 1758 ; 
British government. The principal terms the Red House, February 26, 1761; and 
of this peace, which was signed at Keil, the King's Mill, December 1775. 
January 14, 1814, were, 1. That Den- DERBEND, a town in Asiatic Russia, 
mark should cede Norway to Sweden, government Circassia, supposed to have 
2. That Sweden should give up Swedish been built by Alexander the Great. It 
Pomerania to Denmark. 3. That Stral- is defended by numerous towers, and 
sund should be a depot for British goods, enclosed by lofty walls. It was taken 
4. That Great Britain should restore all by the Russians in 1722, in defiance of 
she had conquered from Denmark, ex- 230 pieces of cannon that were then 
cept Heligoland. 5. That the Danish mounted on the walls, and retained until 
government should abolish the slave 1735. It subsequently was taken and 
trade. And lastly, That Sweden and retaken by the Russians and Persians up 
Great Britain should use their endea- to 1806, when the former finally esta- 
vours to bring about a peace between biished themselves here. 
Denmark and the rest of the allied powers. DERBY was founded by the Anglo- 
1831. Frederick, king of Denmark, Saxons, and was a royal borough, with 
issued a proclamation promising a new peculiar privileges, in the reign of Ed- 
constitution to his kingdom and the ward the confessor. It obtained its first 
duchies of Sleswick and Holstein, in- charter from Henry I. The Danes set- 
eluding a provision for a system of re- tied here, and were driven out by Etliel- 
presentative local councils. freda, daughter of Alfred the Great. In 
1835. In the course of this year, the December, 1745, Charles Edward Stuart 
king voluntarily created a representative having reached this place, thought it 
body, under the name of the royal coun- advisable here also to commence that 
cil, which assembled for the first time at retreat which terminated in the battle of 
Copenhagen, October 1. The electoral CuUoden. 

system was explained in the opening DEREHAM, East, Norfolk. The 

address of the royal commissioner. His church, made parochial in 798, belonged 

majesty ordained that certain men, freely to a nunnery founded by Withburga, 

3c 



DES 

natural daughter of Anna, king of East 
Anglia, and destroyed by the Danes. 
Bonner, bishop of London, was one of 
the rectors of this parish. Covvper, the 
poet, was interred here in 1800. 

DERG, Lough, Ireland, contains se- 
veral small islands, in one of which 
stands St. Patrick's purgatory, still visit- 
ed annually by Roman catholic pilgrims. 
A religious establishment was founded 
here about 492, and the purgatory was 
constructed in the 11th century by the 
canons regular of St. Augustine. 
Amongst the most eminent of the pil- 
grims to this shrine were Maletsta 
Ungavs, a foreign knight, in 1358 ; 
Nicholas de Beccario, a nobleman of 
Ferrara, in the same year; and in 1397> 
Raymond, Viscount de PeriUeux and 
knight of Rhodes. Pope Alexander VL 
ordered the purgatory to be demolished 
upon St. Patrick's day, 1497, and in 
1630, the Irish government directed that 
the building sliould be razed. It has, 
however, been restored in a rude manner, 
and stations continue to be performed 
here on the patron's day. 

DERHAM, Dr. William, a divine 
of the church of England, born in 1657. 
In 1711 and 1712 he was appointed 
preacher at Mr. Boyle's lectures, and in 
the following year he published the 
sermons he had delivered, under the 
title of " Physico-Theology, or Demon- 
stration of the Being and Attributes of 
God from his works of Creation ;" and 
"Astro-Theology, or a Demonstration 
of the Being and Attributes of God 
from a Survey of the Heavens." He died 
in 1735. 

DERMODY, Thomas, a youthful 
poet, but whose extraordinary attain- 
ments and genius protected him from 
want and poverty no more than those of 
Otway, Chatterton, Boyse, and others. 
He died in 1802. 

DERMOT, king of Leinster, called in 
the assistance of the English against the 
other Irish princes, which led to the 
conquest of Ireland by Henry II., 1171. 

DERRICK, Samuel, master of the 
ceremonies at Bath, died 1769- 

DERWENTWATER, Earl of. and 
Lord Kenmuir, beheaded on Tower-hill, 
February 24, I7l6. 

DESAGULIERS, John Theophi- 
Lus, a divine, and experimental philoso- 
pher, was born at Rochelle, in France, 
1683. On account of the revocation of 
the edict of Nantz in 1685, he was early 



378 DES 

brought to England. In 1712 he was 
elected a fellow of the Royal Society, 
and in I7l6 was made chaplain to the 
duke of Chandos, who presented him to 
the living of Edgware. From this period 
he was indefatigable in his experiments 
in natural philosophy. He took his de- 
gree of doctor of laws at Oxford in 1718 ; 
and in 1734, published, in two volumes, 
quarto, '* A Course of Experimental Phi- 
losophy." After this he edited Dr. Gre- 
gory's " Elements of Catoptrics and Di- 
optrics." In 1742 he published a Dis- 
sertation on Electricity, which contained 
every thing that was known on the sub- 
ject at that time. He died in 1749. 

DESAULT, J. P., a celebrated sur- 
geon, born 1744, died 1795. 

DESBARRES, Bonaventure, a 
French privateer, born 1700, died 1729. 

DESCARTES, Rene', an eminent 
French mathematician and philosopher, 
was born at La Haye, in Touraine, in 
1596. In I6l6 he engaged as a volun- 
teer among the prince of Orange's troops. 
During the encampment of the army at 
Breda, he solved a problem in mathe- 
matics. In 1628 he returned to Paris, 
and at an assembly of men of learning 
explained his sentiments with regard to 
philosophy, Avhich he afterwards pub- 
hshed in a systematic form. He made a 
short tour to England, and not far from 
London made some observations concern- 
ing the declination of the magnet. His 
works excited much attention both in 
France and Holland, and Voetius being 
chosen rector of the university of Utrecht, 
procured his philosophy to be prohibited. 
In 1647 he took a journey to France, where 
the king settled a pension of 3000 livres 
upon him. Christina, queen of Sweden, 
having invited him into that kingdom, 
proposed to allow him a revenue, and to 
form an academy, of which he was to be 
the director. But these designs were 
broken off by his death, in 1650. His 
philosophy, though no better than an 
ingenious romance, prevailed for more 
than a century, but has now given way 
to the more accurate discoveries and de- 
monstrations of the Newtonian system. 

DESEADA, Isle of. West Indies. 
It was the first of the Caribbean islands 
seen by Columbus on his second voyage 
in 1494. 

DESHOULIERES, Anthony, a 
French writer, born 1638, died 1694. 

DESMARES, Anselme Galtans, 
professor of Zoology at the Royal Vete- 



DEV 



379 



DEW 



rinary College of Alfort ; author of seve- 
ral works on Fossil Zoology and Bo- 
tany, died 1839. 

DESMOND, Thomas, Earl of, be- 
headed in Ireland, 1468. 

DESOLATION, Island of, the first 
land south of India, discovered by Ker- 
guelen, 1772, and called by his name. 
Subsequently called Desolation by Cap- 
tain Cook. 

DESPARD, Colonel, and six asso- 
ciates, executed in Southwark, for high 
treason, Feb. 21, 1803. 

DESS ALINES, the negro chief of St. 
Domingo, massacred the white inhabi- 
tants of that island, 1803, was crowned 
king of Hayti, Oct. 8, 1804. His go- 
vernment was marked by arrogance and 
folly, as well as by treachery and cruelty. 
At length, after a miserable reign, his 
officers, convinced of his inability, dis- 
gusted at his follies, and wearied with 
his cruelties, resolved on cutting him off, 
and electing another chief in his stead : 
this was effected in Oct. 1806, 

DETROIT, city. North America. The 
settlement was made by the French, in 
1683. The town was destroyed by fire 
in 1805, but rebuilt and improved im- 
mediately. It was taken by the En- 
glish in 1812, but restored to the Ameri- 
cans,in whose possessionit remains. 

DETTINGEN, town, in the south of 
Germany. George II. of England, in 
person, gained a victory over the French 
at this place, in 1743. 

DEUCALION, reigned at Thermo- 
pylae, A.c. 1548 ; his deluge 1503. 

DEVEREUX, Robert, earl of Essex, 
the favorite of Queen Elizabeth, was born 
at Nethervvood, in Herefordshire in 1567- 
In his l7th year he was introduced at 
court, and in 1588, accompanied the 
queen to Tilbury, to resist the Spanish 
invasion. In 1596, he was appointed 
joint commander with Lord Howard in 
an expedition to the coast of Spain. In 
this expedition, which makes a consi- 
rable figure in English history. Lord 
Essex distinguished himself and acquired 
much popularity. Aconspiracy was form- 
ed against the pei'son of the sovereign, 
which being discovered. Lord Essex and 
others were apprehended under a charge 
of high treason, and he was executed, 
Feb. 25, 1601. 

The memory of Lord Essex has been 
always popular, and his untimely end 
has been the subject of four different 
tragedies. The queen, after the_ unfor- 



tunate death of her favorite, gave her- 
self up to melancholy. She had given 
him a ring during the height of his fa- 
vour, as a pledge, on the return of which 
she promised to pardon any offence he 
might commit. This ring, it is believed, 
the unhappy man entrusted to his rela- 
tion the countess of Nottingham, who 
was not suffered by her husband, the 
capital enemy of Essex, to deliver it. 

DEVEREUX, Robert, son of the 
preceding, born 1592, died 1646. 

D E V I S, Arthur William, an 
English landscape painter (one of the 
Antelope crew, wrecked on the Pelew 
Islands,) born 1762, died 1822. 

DEVIZES. A charter was granted 
to this town by the Empress Maud, con- 
firmed by Henry II. and several of his 
successors, and renewed by Charles I. 
In 1643, the parliamentary army was de- 
feated at Boundway Hill near this town, 
by King Charles's forces. 

DEVIZES Castle, built 1136. 

DEVON, county, England. Before 
the Roman conquest it was inhabited by 
a tribe called the Damonii ; under the 
Romans it was included in the province 
of Britannia Prima. It was frequently 
the scene of bitter contests between the 
ancient Britons and the Saxons. At 
the Norman conquest, Exeter withstood 
a regular siege before it submitted to 
the conqueror. During the war of 
Charles I.'s reign, this county was most 
devoted to the royal cause, and was the 
theatre of several military transactions. 
In 1688, William prince of Orange, 
landed at Torbay in this county. 

D E V O N P O R T, OR Plymouth 
Dock, received its origin from the dock- 
yard, the foundation of which was laid 
by WiHiam III. Devonport is compara- 
tively of recent date, and derived its 
present name from George IV. to whom 
the inhabitants applied, inl824, for anew 
and appropriate appellation for their 
town. Erected into a borough in 1832. 

DEVONSHIRE House, Piccadilly, 
destroyed by fire, 1733. 

DEW, (Gory.) Mr. Burnet, in his 
" Outlines of Botany," says, that during 
1831, and 1832, at Oxford, he frequently 
found this phenomenon (a phenomenon 
of no unfrequent occurrence in many 
other places) in damp situations, form- 
ing on the ground or stones, broad in- 
determinate patches of a deep rich pur- 
ple colour, with a shining surface, as if 
blood or red wine had been poured over 



DIA 



380 



DIA 



the stone or ground. During dry wea- 
ther it contracts, grows dull, and disap- 
pears ; but after rain, it spreads anew, 
and resumes its sanguine colour. It is 
produced by the red snow plant, and its 
history aflfords an easy explanation of a 
phenomenon considered supernatural by 
monkish chronicles. 

DE WITT, John and Cornelius, 
two Dutch statesmen and patriots, who, 
after spending their lives in the service of 
their country, were torn to pieces by an 
Orange mob, in 1672. 

DEWSBURY, a town in York- 
shire. On the top of the parish church 
there is a cross bearing this inscrip- 
tion, "Hie Paulinus praedicavit et cele- 
bravit, a.d. 627." — a memorial of the 
preaching of the missionary Pauli- 
nus, the first archbishop of York, by 
whose means Dewsbury became the 
common centre of Christianity, which 
spread over an extensive district to the 
west, and was the mother church of 
several parishes, which still acknowledge 
their dependence. 

DIAL, Sun. The earliest upon re- 
cord is that of Ahaz, a.c. 740, mention- 
ed in Isaiah xxxviii. 8. Anaximenes 
and Thales made dials; and Vitruvius 
informs us that Berosus the Chaldean 
constructed one on a reclining plane, 
nearly parallel to the equator. The first 
sun-dial in Rome was set up by Papyrius 
Cursor, near the temple of Quirinus, 
A.c. 293 ; this proving inaccurate, ano- 
ther was brought from Sicily, about 
A.c. 263, by M. Valerius Messala, and 
placed on a pillar near the Rostrum ; 
this not being adapted to the latitude, 
was likewise found to be defective ; at 
length, about a.c. 163, Martius Philip- 
pus erected one which pointed out the 
divisions of time with more exactness. 

DIALLING. Although dials were 
constructed during the eighth century 
before Christ, there was no treatise 
written by the ancients on the art. The 
first work of this kind was that by 
Clavius the Jesuit, composed towards 
the end of the l6th century. M. Picard 
gave a new method of making large 
dials, by calculating the hour-lines; and 
M. dela Hire, in 1680, effected the same 
thing geometrically, from certain points 
found by observation. Before this, Eber- 
hardus Welperus had laid down a me- 
thod of drawing the primary dials on an 
easy foundation ; but liis method had 
been anticipated for more than 70 years, 



by Sebastian Munster. A new edition 
of Welperus's Dialling was published by 
Sturmius in 1672, with the addition of 
a second part, on inclining and declin- 
ing dials ; which work, together with 
the improvements of Sturmius, and the 
methods of Picard and Dela Hire, above 
mentioned, was republished in 1709- 
Other writers on the subject, of more 
recent date, are Gauppeu, Leyburn, 
Bion, Wells, Deparceux, Ferguson, Em- 
erson, Jones, &c, 

DIAMOND. From the remotest an- 
tiquity this has been considered as the 
most costly substance in nature. The 
diamond was first found in Asia, where 
it is still collected, although not in such 
quantities as formerly. The art of cut- 
ting and polishing diamonds was pro- 
bably known to the artists of Hindoo- 
stan and China, at a very early period, 
European artists, until the 15th century, 
were of opinion that it was impossible to 
cut the diamond. In 1456, a young 
man named Louis Berghen, a native of 
Bruges, endeavoured to polish two dia- 
monds, by rubbing them against each 
other. He found that, by this means, 
a facet was produced on the surface of 
the diamond; and in consequence of 
this hint, constructed a polishing wheel, 
on which, by means of diamond powder, 
he was enabled to cut and polish this 
substance, in the same way as other 
gems are wrought by emery. 

1730. The Rio Janeiro fleet brought 
to Europe 1146 ounces of diamonds, the 
produce of Brazil ; in consequence of 
which the price of this article immediately 
fell three-fourths. 

The following are some of the most 
remarkable diamonds hitherto discover- 
ed: — one weighing 1680 carats, in the 
possession of the royal family of Portu- 
gal, which was found in Brazil, This 
is now, however, generally believed, to 
be a fine white- coloured topaz. The 
largest of the undoubted diamonds is, 
that mentioned by Tavernier, as in pos- 
session of the great mogul ; its weight is 
279t6 carats : its form and size are equal 
to about half a hen's egg. It was found 
in the mine of Coulour, to the east of Gol- 
conda, about the year 1550. The mag- 
nificent diamond on the top of the scep- 
tre of the emperor of Russia, is perfectly 
pure; weighs 195 carats; and is the 
size of a pigeon's egg. It was one of 
the eyes of a Brahminical idol, and was 
stolen by a French grenadier ; it was pur- 



Die 



381 



DIG 



chased by the Empress Catharine of 
Russia, for about £90,000 ready money, 
and an annuity of about £4000 more. 
The Pit or regent diamond is cut in the 
brilhant form, and is said to be the most 
beautiful diamond hitherto found ; it 
weighs 1361 carats, and was purchased 
for £130,000, although it is now valued 
at double that sum. It was brought 
from India by an English gentleman 
of the name of Pit, and was sold by him 
to the regent, duke of Orleans, by whom 
it was placed among the crown jewels of 
France. 

DIAMOND Mines have been found 
in the East Indies, principally in the 
kingdoms of Golconda, Visapour, Ben- 
gal, and the island of Borneo. That of 
Sumbulpour, a large town in the king- 
dom of Bengal, is the most ancient ; that 
at Golconda was discovered in 1584; 
that at Coulour in 1640. The mines of 
Brazil were discovered in 1730, and let 
to a company at Rio Janeiro in 1740. 

DIAMONDS, Nine of, called the 
curse of Scotland, from a Scotch mem- 
ber of parliament, part of whose family 
aiTns is the nine of diamonds, voting for 
the introduction for the malt tax into 
Scotland. 

DIAZ, Bartholomew, a distinguish- 
ed Portuguese navigator, discoverer of 
the Cape of Good Hope, was employed by 
King John II. of Portugal, in prosecut- 
ing discoveries on the coast of Africa. 
In 1486, after tracing nearly a thou- 
sand miles of new country, he came in 
sight of that cape, which, on account of 
the trouble which he had undergone in 
the voyage, he named Stormy Cape. He 
returned to Lisbon in December, 1487, 
died 1512. 

DIBDIN, Charles, celebrated writer 
of humorous songs, died July 25, 1814. 

DIBDIN, Charles, son of the pre- 
ceding, for many years author and ma- 
nager of several London theatres ; died 
Jan. 12, 1833. The printed works of 
the younger Charles are, " Claudine," 
a burletta, 8vo., 1801; "The Great 
Devil," a spectacle, 8vo. 1801; "The 
Song-smith ; or. Rigmarole Repository," 
18mo. 1802; "Mirth and Metre," poems, 
8vo. 1807; also, without date, "Goody 
Two Shoes," a pantomime, ; " Barbara 
Allan ;" and the " Old Man of the 
Mountains." 

DICE, invented a. c. 1500; 3000 
pair stamped in England a.d. 1775. 

DICKSON, Sir Alexandek, a dis- 



tinguished military officer, and the com- 
panion in arms of the duke of Welling- 
ton. He received his education at the 
Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, 
and obtained his first commission in the 
royal artillery, in the year 1794 ; first 
lieutenant, March 6, 1795 ; captain, 
Oct. 14, 1801 ; brevet major, February 
6, 1812; regimental major, June 26, 
1823 ; brevet heutenant-colonel, April 
27, 1824; regimental lieutenant-colonel, 
April 2, 1825 ; brevet colonel, May 27, 
1825; regimental colonel, July 1, 1836; 
major-general, Jan. 10, 1837 ; deputy 
adjutant-general, April 10, 1837. 

Sir Alexander commenced his active 
services at the capture of Minorca, in 
1798. He was at the blockade of Malta, 
and surrender of LaValetta,1800; capture 
of Montevideo and attack on Buenos 
Ayres, 1807 ; served throughout the 
campaigns of the Peninsula, France, and 
Flanders, including, in 1809, the cap- 
ture of Oporto, and expulsion of Marshal 
SoultfromPortugal: inl801,atthe battle 
of Busaco and lines of Lisbon; in 1811, 
affair at Campo Mayor ; siege and cap- 
ture of Olivenca ; first and second siege 
of Badajoz, and battle of Albuera : in 
1812, siege and capture of Ciudad Rod- 
rigo ; siege and capture of Badajoz ; at- 
tack and capture of the foi-ts of Almarez; 
siege and capture of the forts, and battle 
of Salamanca ; capture of the Retiro, 
Madrid, and siege of Burgos: in 1813, 
battle of Vittoria ; siege and capture of 
St. Sebastian ; passage of the Bidassoa ; 
battles of the Nivelle and Nive : in 1814, 
passage of the Adour, and battle of Tou- 
louse ; served in the last American war, 
including the attack on New Orleans, 
and siege and capture of Fort Bowyer, 
Mobile ; present in the battles of Qua- 
trebras and Waterloo ; commanded the 
battering train in aid of the Prussian 
army, in the siege of Mauberg, Lan- 
drecies, Philippeville, Marienberg, and 
Rocroy : he also received six clasps 
in addition to his hard-earned honours 
for nearly 17 years' constant employ be- 
fore an enemy. He died in April, 1840. 

"Amid the host of heroes distinguish- 
ed in the late wars, few have stood 
more conspicuous for that noble, dar- 
ing, cool and determined courage which 
marks the warrior and the man ; and 
we may venture to affirm, if actions 
bespeak desert. Sir Alexander Dickson 
had nobly won the decorations which 
nearly covered his breast, for having been 



DID 



382 



DIM 



33 times engaged with the enemies of his 
country in various quarters of the globe." 

The funeral took place with unusual 
military honours, April 28, at Plum- 
sted, in Kent. It was attended by an 
immense concourse of visitors, from all 
parts of the metropolis. The burial 
service having been gone through, the 
corpse was carried from the church on 
the shoulders of privates of the artillery 
corps, who had supported the deceased 
in many a hard-fought field, to its last 
resting place. The whole of the troops 
forming the Woolwich garrison, includ- 
ing the horse and foot artillery, the royal 
marines, the royal regiment of sappers 
and miners, and the 29th regiment of 
light infantry, the cadets of the royal 
military college, and all the staff, civil, 
military, and medical, were drawn up in 
line, in front of the Royal Artillery 
Barracks. 

DICTATOR, a Roman magistrate, 
chosen by the senate, invested for the 
term of six, and sometimes twelve months, 
with supreme authority. This officer was 
first chosen during the Roman wars 
against the Latins, but was afterwards 
resorted to on any emergency. The 
dictatorship was originally confined to 
the patricians ; but the plebians were 
afterwards allowed to share it. Titus 
Lartius Flavus was the first patrician dic- 
tator, A.c. 498. The first dictator, cho- 
sen from among the people, was C. 
Marcus Rutihus, a. c. 355. After the 
battle of Thrasymenus, A. c. 217, which 
was the third defeat of the Romans, by 
Hannibal, Q. Fabius Maximus, was 
elected prodictator. He was the only 
one whose greatness of soul correspond- 
ed to the dignity of the office. Sylla was 
appointed perpetual dictator a.c. 84, who 
exercised the office in a most tyrannical 
manner. Caesar was the last dictator ; 
for Antony, in a.c. 44, abolished this 
office, and in doing it, he reserved the 
honour of this action entirely to himself. 

DIDEROT, Denys, an eminent 
French writer and philosopher, was born 
at Langres, in 1713. In 1745, in con- 
junction with D'Alembert, he laid the 
foundation of the "Dictionaire Encyclo- 
pedique." The first edition was com- 
pleted between the years 1751 and 1767- 
During this time he composed several 
other works; "Thoughts on the Inter- 
pretation of Nature," 1754; "The Code 
of Nature," 1755; " Le Fils Naturel," 
1757 ; and " Le Pere de Famille," 1758. 



At the conclusion of the " Dictionary," 
he sold his library to the empress of 
Russia, for 50,000 livres; and he was to 
have the use of it during his life. He 
died suddenly, as he rose from table, on 
July 31, 1784. 

D I E B ITS C H, the Russian general, 
commander of the forces againstthePoles, 
crossed the Balkan, June 19, 1830 ; died 
of the cholera morbus, June 10, 1831. 
He was succeeded in his command by 
General Paskewitch, 

DIEPPE, a town of France, was bom- 
barded by the British in 1694, and in 
1794. 

DIERNSTEIN, a town in the Aus- 
trian empire. Richard I. of England, 
returning from the Holy Land, was dis- 
covered and basely arrested and impri- 
soned at this place in 1194, by Leopold, 
duke of Austria. An engagement took 
place here, in 1805, between the French 
on one side, and the Russians with the 
Austrians on the other, in which victory 
was claimed by both sides. 

DIEU ET MON DROIT, God and 
my right, the motto of the royal arms of 
England, first assumed by King Richard 
I. after a victory over the French in 
1194. It was afterwards taken up by 
Edward III., and was continued without 
interruption to the time of King William 
III., who used the motto "Je main- 
tiendray." After him Queen Anne used 
the motto " Semper eadem," which had 
been used before by Queen Elizabeth ; 
but ever since Queen Anne, " Dieu et 
mon droit" continues to be the royal 
motto. 

DIGBY, Sir Edward, born 1581. 
Hanged with other conspirators in the 
gunpowder plot, January 30, I606. 

DIGEST of Justinian, published, De- 
cember 30, 533. See Civil Law. 

DIGGES, Sir Dudley, statesman, 
born 1583, died 1639. 

DIGNUM, Charles, popular singer, 
was born at Rotherhithe, 1765. In 1784, 
he made his debut in the character of 
Young Meadows. His histrionic talents 
were not great ; yet, from his vocal 
powers, he for many years held a re- 
spectable situation at the theatre. He 
died March 29, 1827. 

DILLENIUS, John James, pro- 
fessor of botany at Oxford, born 1687; 
published his " Hortus Elthamensis," 
1732; died 1747- 

DIMORPHISM. Among the impor- 
tant labours of the British Association 



DIN 



383 



in 1837, find printed in the society's 
volume of reports, is a paper by Pro- 
fessor Johnston, on this new and curious 
subject of chemical inquiry. The dis- 
covery that there exist definite chemical 
substances, which ai'e capable of assum- 
ing more than one crystaline form, not 
deducible from, nor referable to, each 
other, accompanied with different physi- 
cal properties ; and, that there are sub- 
stances which are capable (independently 
of any change of composition,) of under- 
going some internal transmutation suffi- 
cient to vary even their chemical affini- 
ties : these are discoveries which peculi- 
arly deserve to be verified and extended. 
The report on Dimorphism, printed in 
this volume, gives a fuller statement on 
this subject than was before possessed. 

DINARCHUS, the Athenian orator, 
flourished A.c. 313. 

DINDIGUL, town and district, Hin- 
doostan, in the Carnatic, was subdued 
by the Mysore government in 1757; 



DIO 

seized on by the British in 1783, and, 
finally ceded to them byTippoo, in 1792. 

DINOCRATES, the mathematician, 
flourished A.c. 332. 

DIOCESE, OR DiocESS, the circuit, 
or extent, of the jurisdiction of a bishop. 
The first arrangement of the empire into 
dioceses is ordinarily ascribed to Con- 
stantine, who first divided the whole 
Roman state into four ; afterwards into 
13 dioceses, or prefectures. CXn this 
civil constitution the ecclesiastical one 
was regulated. England, with regard to 
its ecclesiastical state, is divided into two 
provinces, viz. — Canterbury and York. 
The former province contained 21 dio- 
ceses, and the latter three. See Bishop- 
ricks. In 1836 some changes were 
effected in the dioceses. 

The following table shows the condi- 
tion of the several dioceses in England 
and Wales, with reference to the number 
of benefices and to the population, be- 
fore the alteration :— 



PROVINCE OF CANTERBURY. 



Dioceses. 



Number 




of 
Benefices. 


Population. 


343 


402,885 


131 


197,392 


124 


153,344 


441 


403,908 


254 


263,328 


267 


236,950 


407 


372,685 


149 


126,316 


611 


773,251 


281 


275,806 


256 


207.451 


606 


983,783 


1,234 


855,039 


192 


183,990 


635 


1,688,899 


1,021 


692,163 


209 


139,581 


290 


186,193 


94 


196,716 


386 


320,547 


416 


780,214 


212 


357,548 


891 


1,463,503 


127 


127,701 


554 


1,902,354 


146 


452,637 



Canterbury 

St. Asaph 

Bangor 

Bath and Wells 

Bristol 

Chichester 

St. David's 

Ely 

Exeter 

Gloucester 

Hereford 

Lichfield and Coventry , 

Lincoln 

Llandaff 

London 

Norwich 

Oxford 

Peterborough 

Rochester 

Salisbury 

Winchester 

Worcester 



PROVINCE OF YORK. 



York... 
Carlisle . 
Chester . 
Durham 



DIO 



384 



The following is the present conaition 
of the several dioceses, with reference to 
the number of benefices, and to popula- 



DIO 

tion, accorumg to the alterations settled 
by parliament, 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 7T, 
August, 1836. See Church. 



PROVINCE OF CANTERBURY. 



Dioceses. 



Canterbury 

St. Asaph and Bangor 

Bath and Wells 

Chichester 

St. David's 

Ely 

Exeter 

Glocester 

Hereford. 

Lichfield 

Lincoln 

LlandaiF and Bristol . . 

London 

iVorwirh 

Oxford 

Peterborough 

Rochester 

Salisbury 

Winchester 

Worcester 



No. of 
Bene- 
fices 



381 
253 
441 
267 
391 
554 
611 
363 
264 
459 
780 
233 
244 
809 
523 
498 
536 
398 
391 
355 



Population. 



PROVINCE OF YORK. 



York 

Carlisle 

Chester 

Durham . . . 
Manchester. 
Ripon 



595 
285 
246 
152 
205 
153 



423,069 
339,450 

493,908 unaltered 
236,950 unaltered 
365,646 
393,347 

773,251 unaltered 
324,198 
218,392 
612,555 
506,745 
303,875 
1,746,504 
568,285 
388,043 
394,567 
471,813 
315,405 
495,846 
573,020 



583,132 
435,432 
462,506 
459,964 
1,208,533 
739,748 



DIOCLETIAN, the Roman emperor, 
born of an obscure family in Dalmatia, 
245. At the death of Numerian in 284, 
he was invested with 'imperial power. 
He was bold and resolute, active and di- 
ligent ; but his cruelty against the fol- 
lowers of Christianity has been deserv- 
edly branded with infamy. After he had 
reigned 22 years, he publicly abdicated 
the crown at Nicomedia in 305, and re- 
tired to a private station at Salona. He 
died in 314, in the 68th year of his age. 
His bloody persecution of the christians 
forms a chronological era called the era 
of Diocletian, or of the martyrs. It 
commenced Aug. 29, 284. 

DIODORUS, the Peripatetic philoso- 
pher, flourished A.C. 141. 



DIODORUS SicuLus, the historian, 
was a native of Agyrium in Sicily, and 
flourished a.c. 44. 

DIOGENES, the Cynic, born at Si- 
nope in Pontus a. c. 414. He is said 
to have lodged in a tub ; and had no 
other moveables besides his staflp, and 
wooden bowl. The time and manner of 
his death are not satisfactorily ascertain- 
ed. It is most probable that he died at 
Corinth, of mere decay, in the 90th 
year of his age, in the first year of the 
114th Olympiad, a.c. 324. 

DIOGENES, surnamed the Baby- 
lonian, from the vicinity of Seleucia, 
his native place, to Babylon, was a stoic 
philosopher, who flourished in the second 
century, a.c. 



DIO 



385 



D I O 



DIOGENES, Laertius, so nimed 
from the place of his birth ; he is sup- 
posed by some to have flourished a. c. 
147, about the time of the Antonines. 
Others have thought that he lived under 
Severus and his successors, and that his 
book of the "Lives of the Philosophers," 
&c., was written about a.c. 210. 

DIOGENES, Apolloniates, a na- 
tive of Crete, and a philosopher of the 
Ionic sect, flourished about the l7th 
Olympiad, or 500 years A.c. 

DION Cassius, author of the 
" History of Rome," flourished a. c. 
229. 

DIONYSIUS I., called the tyrant of 
Syracuse, from a private secretary be- 
came a general, and afterwards assumed 
the title of king of Syracuse, a.c. 404. 
His reign was one continued act of ty- 
ranny. He was likewise a poet ; and 
having, by bribes, gained the tragedy 
prize at Athens, he indulged himself so 
immoderately at table from excess of 
joy, that he died of the debauch, a.c. 
368. 

DIONYSIUS II., son and successor 
of the preceding, was also a great tyrant. 
During his reign he so grievously op- 
pressed his subjects, that they applied 
to the Corinthians for succour; and 
Timoleon, their general, having con- 
quered the tyrant, he retired to Corinth, 
a . c. 357 ; but reascended the throne, 
A.c. 350. He died a.c. 343. 

DIONYSIUS Halicarnassen- 
sis, a celebrated historian, was born 
at Halicarnassus ; and went to Rome 
after the battle of Actiura, a.c. 39, where 
he stayed' 22 years, under the reign of 
Augustus. He there composed, in 
Greek, his " History of the Roman An- 
tiquities," in 20 books, of which the first 
11 only are now extant. The best edi- 
tion of his work is that of Oxford, 1704. 

DIONYSIUS, surnamed Exiguus, or 
the Little, on account of his short sta- 
ture, was a native of Scythia, flourished 
under Justinian towards the beginning 
of the sixth century, and died, according 
to Cave, before the year 556, or, accord- 
ing to Blair's Tables, in the year 540. 
He is said to have been the author of the 
vulgar christian epocha, and to have 
invented the Cycle of Easter, ascribed 
by others, to Victor, or Victorinus. 

DIONYSIUS Priory, Hants, built, 
1124. 

DIOPHANTUS, a celebrated mathe- 
matician of Alexandria, and inventor of 



the Diophantine problem, flourished at 
a period which has not been precisely 
ascertained. According to Abulphara- 
gius, it was under the emperor Julian, 
or towards the year 366. His work 
in six books, was first published 
at Basil, by Xylander, in 1575, in a 
Latin version. The same books were 
afterwards published in Greek and Latin, 
at Paris, in 1621. 

DIOPTRIC Light, at Kirculdy Har- 
bour. This consists of an annular lens, 
on a new principle, recently invented by 
Edward Sang, Esq., engineer. On 
April 25, 1838, was read before the 
Edinburgh Society of Arts, the Report 
of a Committee, on the newly-erected 
light, which states as follows : — " Mr. 
Sang's invention of grinding annular 
surfaces of any form by means of cutters 
attached to a moveable arm, whose end 
is guided by a spring uncoiling itself 
from the evolute of the curve surface 
which the lens requires, is novel and 
ingenious, and if equally applicable to the 
construction of instruments requiring 
great accuracy of form, promises to be 
extensively useful. The mode of giving 
any required direction to the scratches, 
or small indentations made in the process 
of grinding is very simple, and consists 
partly in reversing the motion of the 
cutter, or of the chuck on which the 
lens is placed, and partly in altering the 
ratio of the velocities of the surfaces 
in contact. Any degree of obliquity in 
the direction of the scratches may, in 
this way, be produced, both from right 
to left, and from left to right, and thus 
every possible variety in their direction 
must be the result ; so that the whole 
effect ordinarily produced by crossing 
the motions in the usual grinding pro- 
cess may be obtained." 

DIORAMA. This well-known exhi- 
bition, which is a modification of the pa- 
norama, was first opened in London in 
1822, in a building appropriated to that 
purpose near the Regent's Park, and has 
continued to present a series of the most 
interesting illusions.. The two which 
were first exhibited were, the Valley of 
Samen, and part of Canterbury Cathe- 
dral. Next followed the Cathedral of 
Chartres, and Brest Harbour. Among 
others which followed were, Holyrood 
Chapel by moonhght, Roslyn Chapel, 
the city of Rouen, St. Cloud, and the 
environs of Paris. 

The British diorama, in Oxford Street, 
3 D 



D IS 



386 



D IV 



another exhibition on a similar plan, 
opened about 1830, has presented some 
good views painted by Messrs. Stanfield 
and Roberts. This building was de- 
stroyed by fire. May 27, 1829, which 
broke out in the afternoon while attend- 
ed by company. The damage estimated 
at £50,000. 

DIPLOMATICS, the science of diplo- 
mas, or of ancient literary monuments, 
public documents, &c., is chiefly confined 
to the middle ages, and the first centu- 
ries of modern times. It owes its ori- 
gin to a Jesuit of Antwerp, named Pape- 
broch, who applied himself to the re- 
search and exposition of old diplomas, 
about the year 1675. 

DIPPING Needle, or Inclinatory 
Needle, a magnetical needle invented 
by Robert Norman, a nautical instru- 
ment maker, about 1570. Its peculiar 
property is, that when properly suspend- 
ed, instead of vibrating horizontally, the 
north point dechnes downwards below 
the horizon, and consequently the south 
point is elevated as many degrees aboA^e 
it. In 1576, Mr. Norman found the 
dip at London to be 71° 50 ; but in 
1723, Mr Graham made it between 74° 
and 75° ; however, Mr. Nairne, in 1772, 
found it somewhat above 72" ; and the 
Royal Society, by taking the mean of a 
number of observations made since that 
time, have fixed it at 72g:° 

DIRLETON, a viUage of Scotland. 
The castle, built in the 13th century, be- 
longed to the family De Vallibus ; on the 
invasion of Scotland by Edward I. it 
submitted to Beck, bishop of Durham, 
and in 1650 was taken by Lambert. 

DISAPPOINTMENT Isles, Polyne- 
sia first seen by Commodore Byron, 
1765. 

DISIER, OR DiziER, St. a town of 
France. In 1544, this place was besieg- 
ed by the emperor Charles V. A battle 
was fought here between the French and 
allied armies in 1814. 

DISPENSARY, benevolent insti- 
tutions for the relief of the sick poor, 
which had their origin at the close of 
the last century. They are too nume- 
rous to name in the limits of our work. 

DISPENSATION, first granted by 
the pope 1200. 

DISSOLUTION OF Monasteries, 
by acts passed in the reign of Henry 
VIIL, to the value of £273,000 per 
annum, equal now to nearly £3,000,000. 
See Monasteries. 



DISTAFF Spinning, first introduced 
into England by Bonavera, an Italian, 
1505. 

D I S T I L L A T I O N of spirituous 
liquors first brought into Europe by the 
Moors of Spain, about 1550 : they learn- 
ed it of the African Moors, who had it 
from the Egyptians ; and the Egyptians 
are said to have practised it in the reign 
of the emperor Dioclesian, though it 
was unknown to the ancient Greeks and 
Romans. See Spirits. 

D'ISTRIA See Capo D'IsTRiA. 

DISTURBANCE OF the Soil. 
Feb. 2, 1838, a remarkable phenomenon 
took place near Sassarie, island of Sar- 
dinia, in the valley called Baddi Partusu, 
in a space of about 500 square paces. 
Some hundreds of olive, and other trees 
were torn up by the roots, broken, and 
thrown to a great distance. New rocks 
appeared which had not been before seen, 
and the whole rocks presented wide and 
deep clefts. An enormous piece of rock, 
nearly 100 feet long, and 50 in Avidth 
and thickness, was displaced, and the 
whole of the ground appeared to have 
been lifted up and torn. The inhabi- 
tants say it was accompanied by a great 
noise, but no cause has as yet been 
discovered for this disturbance. 

DITf EAH, a town of Hindoostan. In 
the reign of Aurungzebe, was the capi- 
tal of a Bondelah chief; in 1804, the 
rajah of Ditteah was admitted under 
British protection, and in 1818, the 
Chourassy district was added to his ter- 
ritory by the British. 

DIVING Bell. There have been 
various machines contrived, to render 
diving safe and easy. In the time of 
Aristotle divers used a kind of kettle, 
which enabled them to continue longer 
under water ; but the manner in which 
it was employed is not clearly described. 
The oldest information ol the use of the 
diving-bell in Europe is that of John 
Taisnier, who was born at Hainault in 
1509. He relates that at Toledo, in the 
presence of the emperor Charles V. and 
several thousand spectators, he saw two 
Greeks let themselves down under water 
in a large inverted kettle, with a burning 
light, and rise up again without being 
wet. This art was then new to the em- 
peror and the Spaniards, but after this 
period the use of the diving-bell seems 
to have become better known. 

In the l6th century, the diving-bell 
was sometiipes employed in great under- 



DOB 



387 



DOC 



takings. When the English in 1588, 
dispersed the armada of Spain, some of 
the ships were wrecked on the western 
coast of Scotland, and several attempts 
were made to procure part of of the lost 
treasure. In 1665, a person brought up 
some cannon. In 1683, William Phipps 
a native of America formed a project for 
searching a rich Spanish ship sunk on 
the coast of Hispaniola, but this failed. 
In 1687, he tried his fortune once more 
in a ship of 200 tons burden. After 
many unavailing attempts, he at length 
succeeded in bringing up, from the 
depth of six or seven fathoms, treasure 
amounting to £200,000 sterling. 

In England several companies were 
formed, and obtained exclusive privi- 
leges of fishing up goods on certain 
coasts, by means of divers. The most 
considerable of these was that in 1688, 
at the head of which was the earl of 
Argyle. Many important improvements 
have been since made in this machine by 
Halley, Spalding, &c., about the begin- 
ning of the 18th century. In 1774, an 
ingenious mechanic, named Day, invent- 
ed a machine for continuing under water 
a considerable time, and made his first 
attempt in the Broads, near Yarmouth. 
He fitted a Norwich market boat for this 
purpose, and sunk himself 30 feet under 
water, where he continued during the 
space of 24 hours. Afterwards, on June. 
28, he went down 100 feet in a small 
ship, but not making allowance for the 
increased pressure of the water at that 
depth he perished. 

1840. Several further improvements 
have been recently made in the diving 
machine. The most complete in prin- 
ciple is that now exhibiting at the Poly- 
technic Institution, Regent Street. It 
is constructed of cast-iron, and weighs 
three tons ; is about one-third open at 
the bottom, and has a seat around for 
the divers : it is lit by 12 openings, of 
thick plate glass, secured by brass frames 
screwed to the bell ; six of these lights 
being triangular, and in the crown, and 
six square, in the side. The bell is 
" suspended by a massive chain to a 
large swing crane with a powerful crab, 
the windlass of which is grooved spi- 
rally ; the chain passes over four times 
into a well beneath, and to it are sus- 
pended the compensation weights," which 
by acting upon the spiral shaft, accurately 
counterpoise the bell at all depths. It 
is supplied, by two powerful pumps of 



eight- inch cylinder, with air, conveyed 
by a leather hose to any depth. The 
bell is constructed with all the improve- 
ments which modern science has sug- 
gested : the engineers being Messrs. 
Cottam and Hallan. The bell is put 
into action several times daily : it will 
contain four or five persons seated ; each 
pays one shilling for a descent ; and so 
universal is the public curiosity, that 
ladies and children are frequently occu- 
piers of the seats. 

D O B S O N, William, an eminent 
English portrait painter, born 1610, died 
1646. 

DOCKS, or artificial basins for the 
reception of ships, are of two sorts, wet 
and dry. Wet docks are of modern in- 
vention, generally constructed with gates 
to retain the water. Their construction 
has done much to facilitate and promote 
navigation. 

Liverpool Docks. These were the 
earliest wet docks in the British empire. 
The first was constructed in pursuance 
of an act of parliament obtained in 1708. 
A second was opened there about the 
middle of the last century; and since 
that period many more have been con- 
structed, some of them on a very magni- 
ficent scale, and furnished with aU sorts 
of conveniences. 

Hull Docks. These are considerable, 
occupying, inclusive of their basins, an 
area of 26 acres. The earliest is situated 
on the Humber, and was formed under 
the authority of an act passed in 1774. 
It is about 480 yards long, and 88 yards 
wide, containing nearly 10 acres, and 
will accommodate about 130 vessels at 
a time. In 1832, there belonged to this 
port 557 registered vessels, of the aggre- 
gate burden of 68,892 tons. The port 
of Goole has latterly drawn off some 
portion of the trade of Hull. It has 
two wet docks, and a basin, constructed 
about 1830, 

Docks on the Thames. The West 
India Docks were the first, and continue 
to be the most extensive of the great 
warehousing establishments formed in 
the port of London. The act for esta- 
blishing the West India Dock Company 
was passed July 12, 1799. Their ori- 
ginal capital was £500,000, which they 
were impowered to increase to £600,000. 
The construction of the docks commenced 
in Feb., 1800, and they were partially 
opened in August, 1802. They origi- 
nally consisted of an import and export 



DOC 



38S 



DOC 



dock, each communicating, by means of 
locks, with a basin of five or six acres 
in extent, at the end next Blackwall, 
and with another of more than two acres 
at the end next Limehouse ; both of 
these basins communicate with the 
Thames. To these works the "West 
India Dock Company have recently 
added the South Dock, formerly the 
city canal, which runs parallel to the 
export dock. All West India ships fre- 
quenting the Thames, were obliged to 
use them for a period of 20 years from 
their completion. The dividend on the 
company's stock was limited to 10 per 
cent. ; and, after making dividends to 
the full amount, with the exception of 
the first half year, they had, in 1819, an 
accumulated fund of near £400,000. But 
they then diminished their charges, at 
the suggestion of the committee of the 
House of Commons, on the foreign trade 
of this country, so as to give the trade 
using the docks, the benefit of the sur- 
plus fund, which was to be reduced to 
£100,000 before January 30, 1826. Lat- 
terly the company have been obliged in 
consequence of the competition of the 
other companies, to make further reduc- 
tions of dividend. 

London Docks were established by an 
act passed June 20, 1800. They are 
situated in Wapping, and were prin- 
cipally intended for the reception of 
ships laden with wine, brandy, tobacco 
and rice. These docks were opened in 
1805. All ships bound for the Thames, 
laden with wine, brandy, tobacco, and 
rice, (except ships from the East and 
West Indies,) were obliged to unload in 
them for the space of 21 years ; but this 
monopoly expired in January, 182G, and 
the use of the docks is now optional. 
The capital of the company amounts to 
£3,238,310 5s. lOd. A considerable por- 
tion of this vast sum, and of a further 
sum of £700,000 borrowed, was required 
for the purchase of the houses, about 
1,300 in number, that occupied the site 
of the docks. 

A great improvement has been made 
in these docks, by the erection of a mag- 
nificent jetty, completed in 1839, sup- 
ported on massive piles, extending from 
the south-west quay, 800 feet across the 
large basin, aflFording a quay-frontage on 
both sides, for the loading of outward 
bound ships of 1,600 feet. The jetty is 
62 feet ir width ; and three lofty sheds, 
each 208 feet long, by 48 feet wide, have 



also been erected. The erection of the 
jetty is said to have cost the London 
Dock Company £60,000. One million 
sterling has been expended during the 
last 12 years, in enlarging and improv- 
ing, including the excavation of the 
eastern basin and entrance. 

East India Docks, established by act 
July 27, 1803, are situated at Blackwall, 
and were principally intended for the 
accommodation of the ships employed 
by the East India Company. There are 
two docks ; one for ships unloading in- 
wards, and one for those loading out- 
wards. The wharf was rebuilt in 1833, 
but since the expiration of the charter, 
they have been converted to general pur- 
poses. 

St. Katharine's Docks. The company 
for the construction of these docks was 
incorporated by the act 6 Geo. IV. c. 105, 
(local,) and they were partially opened 
October 25, 1828. They are situated 
immediately below the Tower, and are 
consequently the most contiguous of any 
to the city and the custom-house. The 
capital raised by shares amounts to 
£1,352,800; but an additional sum of 
£800,000 has been borrowed, on the 
security of the rates, for the completion 
of the works. 

Commercial Docks, on the south side 
of the river, opposite to the west end 
of the West India Docks. These docks 
are of large extent, the space included 
within the outer wall being about 49 
acres, of which nearly 38 acres are wa- 
ter. They are principally intended for 
the reception of vessels with timber, 
corn, and other bulky commodities. 

Bristol Docks were formed in pur- 
suance of the act 43 George III. c. 142, 
1803, by changing the course of the 
rivers Avon and Frome, and placing 
gates or locks at each extremity of the 
old channel. The accommodation thus 
obtained is very extensive. The ware- 
houses at Bristol, as at Liverpool, are 
notjin any way connected with the docks ; 
they all belong to private individuals. 
The custova duties collected in Bristol 
amounted, in 1831, to £1,161,976. In 
1832 there belonged to the port 269 re- 
gistered vessels, of the burden of 46, 567 
tons. 

Leith Docks. Leith has two, con- 
structed in the best manner, containing 
more than ten acres of water room, and 
capable of accommodating 150 such 
ships as frequent the port. There are 



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also three dry docks contiguous to the 
wet docks. The total expense of these 
docks seems to have amounted to£285,108 
sterling. The customs duty collected at 
Leith, in 1831, amounted to £431,821. 
The number of registered vessels belong- 
ing to the port is 246, and their burden 
25,(i29 tons. 

BuT» Docks, Cardiff. These 
splendid docks, undertaken and com- 
pleted by the marquis of Bute at the cost 
already of £300,000 were opened on Oc- 
tober 9, 1839. The river Taff, which 
falls into the sea at the port of CardiflF, 
forms a principal outlet for the mining 
districts, with , which Glamorganshire 
abounds. The produce of these mines 
has hitherto found its way to market 
through the Glamorganshire canal ; but 
its sea lock, constructed about 40 years 
ago, has long been found inadequate to 
the demands for increased accommoda- 
tion consequent upon the extraordinary 
increase of trade since the canal was 
opened. Some idea of this may be 
formed from the fact that, according to 
the canal company's report, 123,134 tons 
of iron, and 226,6/1 tons of coal passed 
down in 1837 ; making a total of 349,905 
tons, or about 1,100 tons per day. 

The principal advantages of the under- 
taking are as follow :—astraightopen chan- 
nel N. N. E. and S. S. W. about three- 
quarters of a mile in length from Cardiflt" 
Roads to the new sea-gates, which are 4 5 
feet wide, with a depth of 17 feet water 
at neap, and 32 feet at spring tide. On 
passing the sea-gate, vessels enter a ca- 
pacious basin, having an area of about an 
acre and a half, called the outer basin, 
calculated to accommodate vessels of 
great burden and steamers ; the main 
entrance lock is situated at the north end 
of this outer ])asin, 152 feet long, and 36 
feet wide, sufficient for ships of 600 tons. 
The inner basin, which constitutes the 
grand feature of this work, extends in a 
continuous line from the lock to near the 
town of CardiflP, 1,450 yards long, and 
200 feet wide, an area of nearly 20 acres 
of water, capable of accommodating in 
perfect safety from 300 to 400 ships of 
all classes. Quays are built on each side 
for more than two thirds of its length, 
finished with strong granite coping, com- 
prising nearly 6,000 feet, or more than a 
mile of wharfs, with ample space for 
warehouses, exclusive of the wharfs at 
the outer basin. To keep the channel 
free of deposit, a feeder from the river 



TafF supplies a reservoir 15 acres in ex- 
tent, adjoining the basin. This reservoir 
can be discharged at low water by means 
of powerful sluices with cast-iron pipes 
five feet in diameter, and by ten sluices 
at the sea-gates, so as to deliver at the 
rate of 100,000 tons of water per hour. 
The feeder was commenced in 1834, the 
first stone of the docks laid March l6th, 
1837, and the last coping-stone was 
laid May 25, 1839. 

DOCTOR'S DEGREES. The title 
of doctor was first created towards the 
middle of the twelfth century. Spelman 
states it to have been about the year 
1140, and aflfirms that such as explained 
that work to their scholars were the first 
that had the appellation of doctors. The 
first mention of academical degrees con- 
ferred by the university of Paris, from 
which the other universities are supposed 
to have borrowed most of their customs 
and institutions, occurs in 1215 : and 
they were completely established in 
1231. Some have supposed that regular 
doctors' degrees were not granted in 
England till 1607- 

To pass doctor of divinity at Oxford, it is 
necessary that the candidate shall have 
been four years bachelor of divinity. For 
doctor of laws he mixst have been seven 
years in the university; to commence ba- 
chelor of law five years; after whichhe may 
be admitted doctor of laws. Othervifise,in 
three years after taking the degree of 
master of arts, he may take the degree of 
bachelor in law ; and in four years more 
that of LL.D., which same method and 
time are likewise required to pass the de- 
gree of doctor in physic. At Cambridge, 
to take the degree of doctor in divinitj'-, 
it is required that the candidate shall 
have been seven years bachelorof divinity. 

DODD, REV.DR,,bornMay 29,1729, 
executed for forgery, June 27, 1777- 

DODD, Ralph, a civil engineer, and 
writer on canals, docks, &c., born 1756, 
died April 11, 1822. He was the pro- 
jector of Vauxhall Bridge, the South 
London Water Works, the Tunnel at 
Gravesend, the Surrey Canal, and vari- 
ous other works. 

DODD, George, son of the pi'eced- 
ing, the original designer of Water- 
loo bridge, died September 28, 1827, in 
Giltspur- street Compter, aged 44. 

DODDRIDGE, Dr., was born in 
London, June 26, 1702. He was, in 
1719, placed under the tuition of the 
Rev. John Jennings, who kept an aca- 



DOL 



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demy at Kibworth in Leicestershire. In 
1736, he sent out his "Ten Sermons on 
the Power and Grace of Christ," and 
" Evidences of his glorious Gospel," and 
the same year he received his diploma 
from the college of Aberdeen. In 1739, 
he published the first volun^f of his 
" Family Expositor," and lived to pub- 
lish three volumes, and finish the short- 
hand copy of the whole. In 1745 ap- 
peared his " Rise and Progress of Re- 
ligion in the Soul," and in 1747, his 
" Life of Colonel Gardiner." He died 
while at Lisbon for his health, October 
26, 1751. 

DODSLEY, Robert, author of the 
" Preceptor," the " Economy of Human 
Life," &c., born 1703,. died 1764. 

DOG-DAYS. See Canicular Days. 

DOG-STEALERS' act, passed 1770; 
tax on dogs, 1796 and 1808. 

DOGGER-BANK. On August 5, 
1781, an obstinate engagement took 
place immediately off this bank, between 
the English and Dutch fleets. 

DOGGETT, Thomas, the actor, died 
1721. 

DOLCI, Carlo, an eminent painter 
of history and portrait, was born at Flo- 
rence in 1616, and was a disciple of 
Jacopo VignaU. His first attempt in a 
whole figure of St. John, when he was 
only 1 1 years of age, was much approved ; 
and this was succeeded by the portrait of 
his mother, which placed him in the 
highest rank of merit. He died in I686, 
aged 70. 

DOLGELLY, a town and parish in 
North- Wales. Owen Glendwr assembled 
his parhament here in 1404, and the 
townsmen held out loyally for Charles I. 
TheVia Occidentalis of the Romans may 
be traced towards Bala, and the moimtain 
of Cader Idris rises over the town to an 
elevation of 2900 feet above sea level. 

DOLLARS, bank of England, issued 
at 5s. value, 1804 ; their value raised to 
5s. Gd. 1811. 

DOLLART or Dollort, sea between 
Groningen and East Friseland, formed 
by an inundation, 1277- 

DOLLOND, John, an eminent opti- 
cian, who, from a hint previously given, 
may be termed the inventor of achro- 
matic glasses. He was born in Spital- 
fields, London, June 10, 1706. In his 
attempts at the improvement of the tele- 
scope, he was persevering and indefati- 
gable ; and after a course of well-con- 
ducted experiments, continued from the 



year 1757 to June 1758, he discovered 
" the difference in the dispersion of the 
colours of light, when the mean rays are 
equally refracted by different mediums ;" 
and from this principle he inferred, that 
the object glasses of refracting telescopes 
were capable of being made without the 
images formed by them being affected 
by the different refrangibility of the rays 
of light. See Achromatic Glasses. 
In 1761, Mr. DoUond was elected fellow 
of the Royal Society ; and he was also 
appointed optician to his majesty. He 
died Nov. 30, in the same year. 

DOLLOND, Peter, son of the pre- 
ceding, and also an eminent optician, 
who effected further improvements in the 
telescope, born 1731, died 1820. 

DOLON, the first comic actor, flou- 
rished A. c. 562. 

DOLPHIN convict hulk, with 200 
convicts on board, sunk suddenly in the 
Thames, Oct. 16, 1829, but only three 
lives were lost. 

DOLWYDDELLAN Castle, Caer- 
narvonshire, North Wales, built 500. 

DOMENICHINO, Zampieri, a 
Bolognese painter of history and por- 
traits, born 1581, supposed to have been 
poisoned, 1641. 

DOMESDAY Book, or Dooms-day 
Book, the judicial book, or book of the 
survey of England : a most ancient re- 
cord made in the time of William the 
Conqueror, by his order and with the 
advice of his parliament. Sir H. Spel- 
man calls it, " if not the most ancient, 
yet mthout controversy, the most vene- 
rable monument of Great Britain." It 
was begun in 1081, but not completed 
till 1087. This book is still remaining, 
fair and legible; consisting of two 
volumes. 

DOMINGO, St., Isle of. See 
Hayti. 

DOxMINICA, island. West Indies; 
so named by Columbus, having been dis- 
covered on Sunday, Nov. 3, 1493. Its 
right of occupancy was claimed by Eng- 
land, France, and Spain, and it M'as con- 
sidered a neutral island by the three 
crowns till 1759, when, by conquest, it 
fell under the dominion of Great Britain ; 
was afterwards confirmed to England by 
the treaty of Paris, February, 1763. It 1 
was taken by a large French force from I 
Martinique, under the Marquis de ' 
Bouille, in 1778, after a gallant resist- 
ance on the part of the British colonists ; 
restored to England, at the peace of 



DON 



391 



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1783. During the war of 1805, a de- 
vastating descent was made on the island 
by a formidable French squadron, but 
the colony was preserved by the skill of 
Sir George Prevost, and the gallant be- 
haviour of the colonists. The island 
has ever since remained under the do- 
minion of Great Britain. 

DOMINICANS, an order of religious, 
take their name from their founder, 
Dominic de Guzman, a Spanish gentle- 
man, born in 1170. He laid the foun- 
dation of his order, and it was approved 
of in 1215, by Innocent III., and con- 
firmed in 1216 by a bull of Honorius 
III., under the title of St. Augustine. 
They founded their first monastery in 
England, at Oxford in 1221, and soon 
after, another at London. In 1276 the 
mayor and aldermen of the city of Lon- 
don gave them two whole streets by the 
river Thames, where they erected a con- 
vent, whence that place is still called 
Blackfriars. Their influence began to 
decline towards the beginning of the 
l6th century. 

D OMIT I AN, the Roman emperor, 
the last of the Twelve Caesars, was 
> born at Rome in 51 ; proclaimed em- 
peror in 8 1 . His character was marked 
by lust and cruelty. He was assas- 
sinated September 18, 96, in the 45th 
year of his age, and the l6th of his reign. 
DOMITIAN'S Palace, at Rome, 
built 80. 

DOMUS DEI House, at Dover, 
built 1240. 

DON, a title first adopted by the 
king of Spain, 759- 

DON CARLOS. See Carlos. 
DON PEDRO. See Pedko. 
DON, river, European Russia, for- 
merly considered the southern boundary 
of Europe, a line now removed to the 
river Kuban, and the lake Balschai. The 
river Don overflowed its banks, and 
caused serious injury, August 10, 1750. 
DON, river, Scotland, Aberdeen- 
shire. Its source is five miles from Cur- 
garf, at an elevation of 1650 feet above 
sea level. After a course of 60 miles it 
falls into the sea, a few miles north from 
the town of Old Aberdeen. The new 
bridge over the Don,completed in 1830, is 
about 520 feet in length, and consists of 
five arches, each of 75 feet span, and 25 
feet rise, constructed entirely of cut 
granite, from a design by Mr. Telford. 
This magnificent structure has been ob- 
tained wit hout costing the public a single 



shilling, the expense having been wholly 
defrayed from the accumulated savings 
of an annual sum of only " two pounds 
five shillings and eight pence sterling !" 
in fen duties, left in trust to the magis- 
trates and council of Aberdeen, in the 
year 1605, by Sir Alexander Kay, then 
one of the clerks of Session, for the pur- 
pose of maintaining the old bridge of 
Don, founded by King Robert Bruce. 

D ON ATI ST S, an ancient sect of 
schismatics in Africa, which arose in 
311, so denominated from their leader 
Donatus. They were condemned, in a 
council at Milan, before Constantine the 
Great, in 316, who deprived them of their 
churches, sent their seditious bishops 
into punishment, and even punished 
some of them with death. 

DONCASTER was on the ancient 
Roman line of road, and was occupied 
by the Anglo-Saxons, who founded a 
rehgious house here. It was pillaged 
and nearly razed by the Danes in 794 ; 
in 833 the Danes were totally defeated 
here by King Egbert. Richard I. granted 
the town a charter, under which it pros- 
pered until an accidental fire in 1204, 
which completely impoverished the in- 
habitants. Other charters were after- 
wards granted by Edward IV., Charles 
II., audi James II. Doncaster races, to 
which this place owes all its modern ce- 
lebrity, established in 1703, were en- 
dowed with St. Leger stakes in 1776, 
further enriched by the transfer of a 
king's plate, value 100 guineas, from 
Burford in 1803, and in 1826, a beautiful 
stand-house was erected on the racing 
ground. 

DONNA Maria, proclaimed queen 
of Portugal at Lisbon, July 23, 1833, 
recognized by the British government, 
Aug. 15, through Lord William Russell, 
who, at the same time, presented to the 
Regent his credentials as English minis- 
ter at the court of Lisbon. 

DONNE, John, satirist, born 1573, 
died 1631. 

DONNINGTON Castle, Berks 
built, 1260. 

DORCHESTER, Oxfordshire, 
was a bishop's see under the Anglo- 
Saxon dynasty, removed to Lincoln after 
the Norman conquest. The old cathe- 
dral founded in 1140, is now the parish 
church. 

DORCHESTER, Dorsetshire, 
was anciently a Roman station. King 
Athelstan estabhshed a mint here, and 



DOU 



392 



DOV 



the Danes and Normans erected strong 
castles at this place. At Dorchester 
seven Roman catholic clergymen were 
executed in Elizabeth's reign, and here 
the infamous judge Jefferies employed 
himself in the condemnation of the cap- 
tive insurgents after the duke of Mon- 
mouth's rebellion. In 1595, a plague 
depopulated the town, and in 16 13, pro- 
perty valued at £200,000 was destroyed 
by fire. 

1834. April 17, six agricultural la- 
bourers were sentenced to seven years' 
transportation at the assizes, for a felony 
in being members of an illegal society, 
(trades union,) and administering unlaw- 
ful oaths. 

DORIA Andrew, a gallant Genoese 
officer, born 1466. He subdued the 
African pirates, 1513; died 1560, aged 94. 
DORPT, OR DoRPAT, town of Euro- 
pean Russia, was burned by the Rus- 
sians in 1704, and almost destroyed by 
an accidental conflagration in 1775. 
The university, celebrated for its 
recent astronomical discoveries, was 
founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1632. 
Re-established by the emperor Alexan- 
der, in 1802. 

DORSET, Thomas, Earl of, a poet, 
born 1537, died 1608. 

DORSET, County of, was included 
in the Roman province Britannia Prima 
and contained two Roman stations, seve- 
ral camps, and an amphitheatre ; and 
through it the Via Iceniana, or Icknield 
way, passed. It formed part of the 
kingdom of Wessex, under the Saxons. 
The Danes and other invaders frequently 
landed on its shores ; the latest hostile 
descent was made at Lyme, in 1685, by 
the duke of Monmouth. 

DORSINGTON, in Warwickshire 
greatly injured by fire, August 3rd, 
1759. 

D O R T, town of Holland, formerly 
the residence of the counts of Holland, 
and the birth-place of De Witt and 
other distinguished pesrons. The island 
on which it stands was formed in 1421 
by an inundation, which destroyed 72 
villages, and 100,000 persons. In 1618 
and 1619, an assembly was held here 
called the Synod of Dort. 

DOU AY, a town of France, was taken 
by the duke of Marlborough in 1710, 
and retaken by the French in 1712. A 
number of Roman catholic youths are 
sent here for education from Eng- 
land and Ireland, and the standard 



Roman catholic edition of the scriptures, 
called ^the Douay Bible, was published 
here. 

DOUCE, Francis, antiquary, and 
author of " The Illustrations of Shakes- 
peare and] his Times," died 1834, aged 
73. 

DOUG H NOM ORE, John Hely 
Hutchinson, Earl of. Baron Alex- 
andria, a distinguished British officer, 
born 1757, died 1832. 

DOUGHTY, W., an English portrait 
painter and engraver, flourished 1780. 

DOUGLAS, Bishop Gawin, the 
translator of " Virgil," born 1474, died 
1522. 

DOUGLAS, Dr. John, vindicator of 
Milton against Lander's charge of pla- 
giarism, born 1719, died 1807. 

DOUGLAS Castle, near Edinburgh, 
destroyed by fire, Dec. 11, 1758. 

D O U R O, river of Spain, its banks 
were the scene of various movements of 
the hostile armies in 1812, previous to 
the battle of Salamanca; and in the fol- 
lowing year, previous to the battle of 
Vittoria. 

DOVE OF Castile, order of knight- 
hood, instituted 1379. 

D O V O R, OR Dover, one of the 
Cinque Ports, said to have been the first 
to receive a charter ; was formerly con- 
sidered the key to England ; it was oc- 
cupied by the Romans, who called it 
Dubrse. In the beginning of the 13th cen- 
tury it was successfully defended against 
the Dauphin of France, who came to 
England to oppose King John. In the 
reign of Edward I. the town was burnt 
by the French ; it was captured by the 
Parliamentary army in 1642. The for- 
tifications were for more than a century 
neglected, and suffered to fall to decay, 
but during the last war were again re- 
paired. Since 1803, the Heights on the 
western side of Dovor have been de- 
fended by strong works. There are 
also immense excavavations, in which a 
large army may lodge in security. 

1838. Lieut. Worthington, R. N., 
published a plan for the improvement 
of Dovor harbour, in which he pro- 
posed to run out the south head as 
a breakwater to 250 feet into the sea, 
in a S.S.E. direction ; to take down part 
of the north head, and make a large ad- 
dition to the harbour in front of Am- 
herst battery. This plan has been sub- 
mitted to the commissioners of Dovor 
harbour. 



DOW 



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DOVOR Castle, said to have been 
built by Julius Caesar ; the tower built 
47. This castle is now an assemblage of 
all the kinds of fortification which the 
art of war has invented to render a for- 
tress- impregnable. It occupies about 
35 acres of ground ; being nearly the 
whole summit of the hill on which it 
stands. The lower court is surrounded 
by an irregular wall, excepting on the 
side next the sea, where a considerable 
part of the cliff, with the remainder of 
the wall, was thrown down by an earth- 
quake on April 6, I68O. Near the edge 
of the cliff stands a piece of brass ord- 
nance, 24 feet long, cast at Utrecht in 
1544, and called "Queen ElizabetMlp; 
pocket-pistol," it having been a preseat. 
from the states of Holland to that queen. 

DOVOR-CLIFF, part of, fell down, 
near Guildford battery, by which Mrs. 
Poole and her five young children and 
her niece were killed, Dec. 14, 1810. 

DOVOR, Lord, G. J. W. A. Ellis, 
an accomplished and learned British 
statesman and writer, was born Jan. 14, 
1797. In 1818, he was returned for the 
borough of Heytesbury ; and, at the 
age of 21, took his seat in the imperial 
parliament. In 1831, he was created a 
British peer. His principal works are, 
"The True History of the State Prisoner, 
commonly called the Iron Mask ;" " His- 
torical Inquiries respecting the Character 
of Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, 
lord chancellor of England ;" " The 
Ellis Correspondence," in two octavo 
volumes ; " Life of Frederick the Great, 
king of Prussia ;" and the " Corre- 
spondence of Horace Walpole with Sir 
Horace Mann." He died July 10, 1833, 
aged 36. 

DOWLATABAD, a town and fort of 
Hindoostan. In the 1 4th century Maho- 
med III., king of Delhi, made an attempt 
to transfer the seat of his government to 
this town, then called Deogher. It is 
still an important place, subject to the 
nizam of the Deccan. In 1595, it sur- 
rendered to Ahmed Nizam Shah, of Ah- 
mednuggur, and afterwards fell into the 
possession of Mallik Amber, an Abyssi- 
nian slave ; his descendants retained it 
until 1634, when it was seized by the 
Moguls ; it came with the rest of the 
Mogul Deccan in I7l7, into the hands of 
Nizam ul Mulk, whose successors, the 
nizams of Hyderabad, still retain it. 

DOWNPATRICK, race-course, riot 
at, in quelling which, several persons 



were killed by the military, and many 
wounded, July 16, 1814. 

DOYLE, Dr., a celebrated Irish 
Roman Catholic bishop, was educated 
in the university of Coimbra, in Portu- 
gal. In 1819 he was appointed bishop of 
the Catholic diocese of Kildareand Leigh- 
lin. He died at his house near Carlow, 
June 15, 1834. His funeral was at- 
tended by about 20,000 persons. 

DRACO, a celebrated legislator of 
Athens, lived about a.c. 624. 

DRAKE, Sir Francis, an eminent 
English navigator, was born near Tavis- 
tock in Devonshire, in 1545. In 1570, 
he made his first expedition against the 
^aniards, with two ships ; and the next 
jyear with one only, in which he returned 
safely, but not with the advantages he 
expected. He made another expedition 
in 1572, in which he gained considerable 
booty, and returned to England, where 
he arrived in August, 1573. 

He undertook a voyage into the South 
Sea through the straits of Magellan ; 
which was what no Englishman had ever 
attempted. He sailed on Dec. 13, 1577- 
On Sept. 25, 1578, he passed the straits, 
andon Sept. 29, 1579,sailed for the Moluc- 
cas. After touching at Ternate, he return- 
ed to England, and entered the harbour of 
Plymouth, on Nov. 3, 1580, having per- 
formed his voyage round the world in 
two years and ten months. Shortly after 
his arrival, the queen going to Deptford, 
went on board his ship ; where, after 
dinner, she conferred on him the order 
of knighthood. 

1585. He was sent with a fleet to the 
West Indies, where he took the cities of 
St. Jago, St. Domingo, Carthagena, and 
St. Augustine. In 1587, he went to 
Lisbon with a fleet of 30 sail ; but re- 
ceiving intelligence of a great fleet as- 
sembled in the bay of Cadiz, which was 
to have made part of the Armada, he 
with great courage entered that port, and 
burnt upwards of 10,000 tons of shipping. 
He died on board his own ship, near the 
town of Nombre de Dios in the West 
Indies, on Jan. 28, 1595-6. A modern 
biographer says of him, " He was emi- 
nently skilled in all the branches of his 
profession ; and with so much courage 
and ability did he conduct his enter- 
prises, that scarcely any name among 
naval adventurers stood so high, not only 
in his own country, but throughout 
Europe, as that of Sir Francis Drake." 

DRAKE, Dr. Nathan, author of 

3 E 



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394 



DRE 



" Literary Hours," &c. ; born at York, 
Jan. 15, 1766, died at Hadleigh, Suffolk, 
June 7, 1836, aged 70. 

DRAKENBORCH, Arnold, profes- 
sor of rhetoric and history in the uni- 
versity of Utrecht, was born in that city, 
Jan. 1, 1684. In 1706, took his degree 
of doctor of laws at Utrecht. In 1716, 
he succeeded Burmann, one of his own 
tutors, as professor in that university. 
He published many original works, and 
undertook the duties of an editor in 
others. Among these was an edition of 
*' C. Silii Italici Punicorum," libri xvii. 
4to., which he laboured to render as 
perfect as possible. He also gave an 
edition of Livy in seven vols. 4to., togf 
ther with a life of the historian. He er 
riched his edition by reference to more 
than 30 MSS. which had never before 
been employed for the purpose. He 
died at Utrecht in 1748. 

DRAMA. The earliest specimens of 
dramatic composition are those of the 
Greeks. They took their rise from the 
songs which were composed by the poets 
for the festivals of Bacchus. It was pro- 
bably about 400 years after the time of 
Homer that Thespis first introduced a 
new person, who relieved the chorus, by 
repeating some well known fables, or 
some wonderful adventures, called the 
episode. Nothing more is known of 
this species of poetry till the days of 
jEschylus, who flourished in Athens at 
the time of the battles of Marathon and 
Platea, about a.c. 490. The period when 
comedy flourished at Rome was during 
the Punic wars, when Licinus, Plautus, 
and Turpilius flourished. 

A blank of several ages occurs, from 
the time of the Roman writers to the 
revival of learning among the moderns. 
Mr. Warton supposes modern drama to 
have originated in the rude attempts of 
the minstrels and buffoons, who were 
employed at the fairs established in all 
the chief towns of France and England, 
by Charlemagne and Wilham the Con- 
queror. The priests perceiving that 
they drew away the people from the 
churches, became actors themselves, and 
presented stories from the bible, or their 
legends. Little else was heard of in the 
11th century, and it is difficult to ascer- 
tain how the transition was first made 
from these to the regular drama. Vol- 
taire affirms that the Sophonisba of 
Trissino, which was acted at Rome in 
1515, was the first regular tragedy Eu- 



rope witnessed after many ages of bar- 
barism. After this period the Italian 
drama flourished, till the 17th century, 
when it sunk to its former state. In the 
18th century, it was again revived by the 
genius of Goldoni, Metastasio, and Al- 
fieri. 

In England the earliest dramatic en- 
tertainments were of a religious kind, 
and were called mysteries ; they were 
succeeded by the moralities, which con- 
tained some attempts at plot, as well as 
the delineation ofcharacters and manners. 
As early as the reign of Henry VIII., 
some dramatic pieces were published, 
der the names of comedy and tragedy, 
the reign of Elizabeth, the drama 
r^sisumed a more distinct form. 

1591. Shakspeare, the brightest orna- 
ment of dramatic poetry, appeared, who 
in a few years enriched the theatre of 
his country, by his numerous and un- 
rivalled productions. The reigns of 
Elizabeth and James, were the periods 
in which the drama flourished in Eng- 
land. Though its honour was princi- 
pally supported by Shakspeare, there 
were several minor writers, such as Ford, 
Shirley, and Chapman, and the name 
of Otway distinguished the reign of 
Charles II. British drama was culti- 
vated with success from the close of the 
I7th to thatofthe 18th century, by Cibber, 
Congreve, &c., and during the 19th, by 
the Colmans, Sheridan, &c. The per- 
formance of the dramatic exhibitions of 
this period has been sustained by the 
unrivalled powers of Kemble, Siddons, 
Cooke, Young, Kean, Macready, &c. 

DRAMATIC Authors' Bill, pass- 
ed June 10, 1833. This act, 3 Will. IV. 
c. 15, was designed to amend the laws 
relative to dramatic literary property, 
and to secure to the authors sole liberty 
of publishing, or of having their works 
reprinted, for their own benefit. 

DRANCE, river in Switzerland. In 
1818, the current having been stopped 
by an avalanche, the water accumulated 
for several days ; at length the ice bar- 
rier gave way, and the current swept 
away houses, human beings, and cattle, 
down the whole valley, as far as the river 
Rhone. 

DRAPERS' Company, London, in- 
corporated 1469. 

DRAWING. See Painting. 

DRAYTON, Michael, English 
poet, born about 1573, died 1631. 

DRELINCOURT, Charles, a 



DRE 



395 



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French protestant divine, born at Sedan, 
in 1593; best known in England by a 
translation of his work entitled, " A 
Defence against the Fear of Death." He 
died in 1660. 

DRESDEN obtained its town privi- 
leges in 1216. In 1429, 1491, andl6l4, 
it suffered greatly by fire ; it also en- 
dured many hardships in the 30 years' 
war. From 1631 to 1635, the plague 
raged with the greatest fury, destroying 
14 out of 15 persons, and causing, in the 
year 1632, the death of 6892 individuals. 

Dresden is strongly fortified ; it was 
taken by the king of Prussia in 1745, 
and again in 1756; but recovered in 
1759; the same monarch besieged it in 
1760, and bombarded it for nine days, 
but was obliged ultimately to abandon 
his purpose. It was the centre of mili- 
tary operations during the contest in 
1813, when almost all Europe was ar- 
rayed against France ; from this, as 
from a fortified camp. Napoleon poured 
out his columns upon Prague, Breslau, 
and Berlin. In August it was attacked 
by the allied aimy, under Prince Schvvart- 
zenberg 120,000 strong, but relieved by 
Napoleon. In October following, again 
attacked, and taken soon after. Nov. 11, 
articles of capitulation were agreed to, and 
the garrison were made prisoners of war. 

DRESS restrained by act of parlia- 
ment, 1455, 1574, and 1580. 

DREUX,town of France, was burnt by 
Henry II. 1186,taken by HenryV.of Eng- 
land, 1421. In 1562, a celebrated battle 
was fought in this neighbourhood, be- 
tween Charles IX. king of France, com- 
manding an army of Roman catholics, and 
the French protestants, under the prince 
of Conde, in which the latter were defeated 
and their general taken prisoner. In 
1593, it surrendered to Henry IV. of 
France. 

DREW, Samuel, a metaphysical wri- 
ter, was the son of a common labourer, 
at St. Austell, in Cornwall, and born, 
1765, In 1784-5, he was first intro- 
duced to the late Dr. Adam Clarke, who 
was appointed to the East Cornwall me- 
thodist circuit. In 1798, he first laid 
the foundation of his " Essay on the Hu- 
man Soul," and it was while this essay 
was in its infant state, that a young 
gentleman put into his hands, the first 
part of Paine's " Age of Reason," think- 
ing to bring him over lo the principles 
of infidelity. The sophistry of Paine's 
book, Mr. Drew readily detected ; and 



committing his thoughts to writing, he 
published them in his " Remarks on 
Paine," in 1799. He pubhshed the 
" Essay on the Immateriality and Im- 
mortality of the Soul," in 1802, which 
brought him into honourable notice be- 
yond his native country. In 1805, ap- 
peared, "The Evidences of a General 
Resurrection;" and in 1820, in 2 vols., 
8vo., his "Treatise on the Being and 
Attributes of God." About the same 
time he was engaged as editor to the 
" Imperial Magazine." This led to his 
removal from St. Austell to London ; 
where he continued to discharge the 
duties of that situation until his death, 
which took place, March 29, 1833. 

DRILL Husbandry, introduced by 
Jethro TuU, in his theory which appear- 
ed in 1733, and attracted universal ad- 
miration ^ especiallyhis "Essay on Horse- 
Hoeing Husbandry," which was trans- 
lated into the French language by M. 
Duhamel. 

DROITWICH, England, long famous 
for its salt springs. The ancient Britons 
appear to have made salt here. In 816, 
Kenulph, king of Mercia, bestowed Ha- 
milton and 10 houses in Wick, (Droit- 
wich,) and salt furnaces on the church of 
Worcester. King John bestowed great 
privileges on the inhabitants of this 
town, which were confirmed by Henry 
III., and finally a charter was granted 
by James I. The depth of the salt pits, 
before 1725, was 35 feet ;_ since that 
period they have been sunk to 100 and 
150 feet. 

DROWNING. The first society for 
the recovery of di-owning persons was 
instituted in Holland, in 1767, where, 
from the great abundance of water con- 
veyances, the inhabitants are exposed to 
accidents. The example of the Dutch 
was followed, in 1768, by the magistrates 
of health in Milan and Venice ; after- 
wards by those of Hamburgh, in 1771 ; 
by those of Paris in 1772; and by the 
institution of the Humane Society of 
London in 1774. See Humane So- 
ciety. 

DRUIDS, the priests and philosophers 
of the ancient Britons, and other Celtic 
nations. Mr. Pinkerton says, " they 
were not known beyond present North 
Wales on the north, and the river Ga- 
ronne, the bounds of the Celtae in Gaul, 
on the south. A line drawn by the Se- 
vern in Britain, and the Seine in Gaul, 
forms the eastern bound, while the ocean 



DRU 



396 



DUB 



forms the western." They were divided, 
according to Caesar, into several ranks, 
over all which there was one chief, or 
arch-druid. The Romans used every 
means in their power to effect their de- 
struction ; decrees were issued against 
them by several of the Roman emperors, 
and they were finally attacked in the Isle 
of Anglesea, and extirpated by Suetonius 
Paulinas, in 61. 

DRUMMOND, William, the poet, 
born 1586, died 1649. 

DRUMMOND, Sir William, of 
Logie Almond, North Britain, knight of 
the crescent, a privy councillor, and fel- 
low of the Royal Societies of London 
and Edinburgh ; formerly his Britannic 
majesty's envoy extraordinary and mi- 
nister plenipotentiary to the king of the 
two Sicihes. Sir William was well 
known as an author, and a profound 
and elegant scholar. In 1798, he pub- 
lished his most important work, in 8vo., 
" The Satires of Persius," translated. 
He died March 29, 1828. 

DRUNKENNESS in the clergy re- 
strained by canon law, 741 ; in the laity 
restrained by law, 975. 

DRURY-LANE Theatre, built 
1662; destroyed by fire 1672; rebuilt 
1674 ; pulled down 1791 ; rebuilt 1794; 
burnt 1809 ; rebuilt and opened to the 
public November 10, 1812. The receipts 
of the first year of the new theatre were 
£79,925 14s.; of the second, £68,389 
35.; of the third, £61,585 8s. 5d. ; of 
the fourth, £49,586 l7s. 

DRURY-LANE and St. Giles's 
first paved according to act of parlia- 
ment, 1605. 

DRURY-LANE theatrical fund, in- 
stituted 1777. 

DRUSES, a people in Syria, who 
inhabit the Castravan, Lebanon, and 
Anti-Lebanon mountains, and derive 
their origin from a sect of Mahomme- 
dans, about the commencement of the 
11th century. Being persecuted by the 
existing government, they fled to the 
mountains, and formed an independent 
community, and at different times oppos- 
ed the crusaders, the sultans of Aleppo, 
the Mamelukes, and the Ottomans. At 
length, in 1588, they were subdued and 
made tributary, by Amurath III., who 
set one emir, or chief, over them, and 
made him responsible for the payment 
of the tribute. This arrangement con- 
centrated the strength of the Druses, 
who became more formidable, and fre- 



quently attacked the Turks with success. 
4bout the middle of the I7th century, 
they attained the height of their power, 
under their celebrated emir, Fakr-El-din, 
or Fakardin, but after a series of suc- 
cesses, he was finally betrayed into the 
hands of his enemies, in 1631, and 
strangled at Constantinople. Since his 
death the emirs have held this country 
as vassals to the Turks, maintaining but 
a nominal independence. 

The Druses still exist, however, as a 
separate people, and are considered 
throughout the Levant as restless, en- 
terprising, hardy, and brave, even to 
temerity. But they have been recently 
subdued by Mahommed Ali, viceroy of 
Egypt. In 1838, the Druses of Harbeja 
and Racheja submitted themselves to 
Ibrahim Pacha, and delivered up their 
arms, July 16. In 1840, a partial in- 
surrection of the Druses, in Syria, took 
place against Mahommed Ali, which waa 
suppressed in June. 

DRUSIUS, John, a learned Flemish 
protestant divine, born at Oudenarde, 
in 1550; took refuge in England, 1567, 
died 1616. 

DRYDEN, JoifN, the poet, was bom 
at Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire, in 
1631, and educated at Westminster 
school under Dr. Busby. From thence 
he was removed to Cambridge, in 1650, 
being elected scholar of Trinity college. 
In 1676, he obtained the ofl5ces of royal 
historiographer and poet laureate, with a 
salary of £200 per annum. In 1682 
came out his " Religio Laici," designed 
as a defence of revealed religion, against 
deists, papists, &c. Soon after the ac- 
cession of James II., he embraced the 
religion of the church of Rome, and 
wrote two pieces in vindication of the 
Romish tenets. By this step, being dis- 
qualified from bearing any oflSce under 
the government, he became dependent 
on his pen for support. In 1693 came 
out a translation of " Juvenal and Per- 
sius ;" and, in 1697, he published his 
translation of Virgil's works. His last 
work called his " Fables," consists of 
many of the most interesting stories in 
Homer, Ovid, Boccacio, and Chaucer, 
translated or modernised in the most 
elegant and poetical manner. He died 
May 1, 1701, and his remains were in- 
terred in Westminster abbey. 

DUBITZA, a town of Turkey in 
Europe ; remarkable for the obstinate 
defence made against the Austrians, to 



DUB 



397 



DUD 



whom it surrendered by capitulation in 
1788. 

DUBLIN was known to the Danes, 
and was visited by St. Patrick about the 
year 450. It was fortified in the ninth 
century by the Danes or Ostmen. In 
1000, the walls were strengthened, and 
resisted a powerful army under King 
Melaghlin, but the original ramparts did 
not exceed one mile in length ; some re- 
mains of them are still visible. Henry 
II., of England, visited Dubhn in 1 172-3, 
and received the homage of a few Irish 
princes and chieftains ; he granted it to 
a company of Bristol merchants, with 
privileges and free customs similar to 
those enjoyed by the city of Bristol. 
This was the foundation of the liberties 
of Dublin, which were augmented by 
King John. Henry III. extended the 
benefit of magna charta to Dublin, and 
granted the city to the citizens in fee for 
200 marks per annum. The title of the 
chief magistrate was changed from that 
of mayor to lord mayor, by Charles II. 

The city of Dublin is one of the most 
elegant in Europe ; its streets are regu- 
larly built, well lighted, and paved. The 
public buildings are of the first class, 
both as to design, material, and execu- 
tion; they include the castle, the resi- 
dence of the lord-lieutenant, and officers 
of his court, built in 1220, besides nu- 
merous elegant structures of later date. 
The custom-house was begun in 1730, 
the royal exchange, situated on Cork- 
hill in 1769, and opened for business in 
1779- There are several hospitals ; the 
principal of which is that for lying-in 
women, opened in 1757. 

There are also many other public in- 
stitutions ; the Roj'^al College of Physi- 
cians, established in 1679, for promot- 
ing medical knowledge ; the Royal Col- 
lege of Surgeons, instituted in 1785 ; 
the Royal Irish Academy, for the ad- 
vancement of science, polite literature, 
and antiquities, incorporated Jan. 28, 
1786. The Royal Hibernian Academy 
for the encouragement of arts incorpo- 
rated 1823, &c. 

DUBLIN University, the only 
one in Ireland, consists of one college ; 
but the charter provides for the erection 
of a second. It was founded by Queen 
Ehzabeth in 1591, and is governed by a 
provost, fellows, and scholars. The num- 
ber of students is generally about 2000. 
Usher, Swift, Burke, Berkeley, Grattan, 
Young, Cur ran. Lord Plunkett, and other 



eminent men were educated here. Tlie 
school of anatomy, belonging to the uni- 
versity, is much frequented by students 
from England and Wales. The college, 
situated on the east side of College-green, 
built in 1591, is a most beautiful struc- 
ture, consisting of two spacious squares, 
the first of which, called Parliament- 
square, contains the refectory, the old 
hall and chapel, and the new theatres for 
lectures and examinations. 

DUBLIN Society, established in 
1731, for some years supported only by 
voluntary subscriptions, and at length 
incorporated riiM74.9, by the title of the 
Dublin Society, fol* promoting husbandry 
and other useful arts in Ireland. 

DUBLIN, Archbishopric of, one 
of the four provinces into which Ireland 
is divided, first mentioned in the seventh 
century. In the year 1 1 52, it was erected 
into an archbishopric. In 1214, the 
bishopric of Glandelough, which had 
been founded in the sixth century, was 
incorporated with it. There are two ca- 
thedrals, Christ-church, or the church 
of the blessed trinity, first built by the 
Ostmen of Dublin about 1038, was con- 
verted into a collegiate for a dean and 
chapter by Henry VIII. in 1514. The 
other cathedral, that of St. Patrick, was 
erected about 1 190 by John Comyn, then 
archbishop of Dublin. In 1370, Arch- 
bishop Minot added to it a high steeple 
of squared stone; and in 1750 Dr. Sterne, 
bishop of Clogher, on this steeple erected 
a lofty and beautiful spire, little inferior 
to that of Sahsbury, and which is seen at 
a considerable distance, 

DUBOIS, Edward, a Dutch land- 
scape and portrait painter, born 1622, 
died 1699. 

DUBOIS, Simon, a Dutch painter 
of battle pieces and portraits, died 1708. 

DUCAREL, Dr. Andrew Coltee, 
the antiquarian, born in Normandy, 1713, 
came to England in infancy, died aged 
72, May 29, 1785. 

DUCHESNE, "Father of French 
history," born 1534, died 1640. 

DUCKWORTH, an EngUsh admiral, 
born 1748, died 1817. 

D ' U D I N E, reviver of stucco work, 
born 1494, died 1564. 

DUDLEY Castle, Staffordshire, 
founded in 760 by Dudo, a Saxon chief; 
it was the scene of an awful strife between 
King Stephen and the Empress Maud. 
It was also besieged during the civil wars 
in 1644, and again in 1646. Here are 



DUE 



39s 



DUL 



the remains of a priory formerly occupied 
by Cluniac monks, built in II60. 

DUDLEY, Edmund, an eminent 
lawyer and statesman in the reign of 
Henry VII., beheaded, August, 1510, 
aged 48. 

DUDLEY, Duke of Northum- 
berland (whose son married Lady Jane 
Grey), beheaded on Tower- hill, August 
22, 1553. 

DUDLEY, Robert, Earl of Lei- 
cester, the favourite of Queen Ehza- 
beth, born 1532, died 1588. 

DUDLEY, Late Earl of, an high- 
ly-gifted but eccentric •obleman, Ijorn 
Aug. 9, 1781, the only»>child of William, 
the third viscount Dudley and Ward. 
He was, at the general election of 1802, 
elected M.P. for Downton ; and soon 
distinguished himself in the house of 
commons. On the formation of Mr. Can- 
ning's administration, Lord Dudley and 
Ward was appointed secretary of state for 
foreign aflFairs, and sworn a member of 
the privy council, April 30, 1827. Sept. 
24, in the same year, he was raised to 
the rank of earl, by the titles of earl of 
Dudley and Viscount Ednam. In May, 
1828, he resigned the secretaryship. 

The earl of Dudley was a man of 
powerful talents, varied accomplish- 
ments, and a most generous disposition; 
but his manners had always been mark- 
ed by eccentricities. Of his extraordi- 
nary absence of mind, and his unfortu- 
nate habit of " thinking aloud," many 
amusing anecdotes have been in circula- 
tion. It is said that when he was in the 
foreign office, he directed a letter in- 
tended for the French, to the Russian 
ambassador, shortly before the affair of 
Navarino : Prince Lieven set this down 
as one of the cleverest ruses ever at- 
tempted to be played off, and gave him- 
self immense credit for not falling into 
the trap laid for him by the sinister in- 
genuity of the English secretary. He 
returned the letter with a most polite 
note, in which he vowed, of course, that 
he had not read a line of it, after he had 
ascertained that it was for Prince Pohg- 
nac. The earl of Dudley died at Nor- 
wood, Surrey, March 6, 1833, aged 52. 

DUELLING, the first public one 1096 ; 
in civil matters, forbidden in France, 
1305 ; with small swords introduced 
into England, 1587. Latterly deliberate 
duelling is by the law of England con- 
sidered a species of murder, and accor- 
dingly, it charges both the crime and 



punishment of murder on the principals 
and on their seconds also, (Blackst. Com. 
vol. iv. p. 199.) 

D U G D A L E, Sir William, anti- 
quary, born 1605, died 1685. 

DUKE, originally a Roman dignity, 
was, under the late emperors given to the 
governors of provinces, in war time. In 
England, during the Saxons' time, the 
officers and commanders of armies were 
called dukes or duces, after the ancient 
Roman manner. After the conqueror 
came in, the title lay dormant, till the 
reign of Edward III. who created his 
son Edward, first called the Black Prince, 
duke of Cornwall, March 17, 1337. 
The title was first created in Scotland, 
1393. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 
in 1572, the whole order became ex- 
tinct; but it was revived about 50 3'ears 
afterwards, by her successor, in the per- 
son of George Villiers, duke of Buck- 
ingham. The dukes of the present day 
are created by patent, cincture of the 
sword, mantle of state, imposition of a 
cap, and coronet of gold on the head, 
and a verge of gold in their hand. 

DUKE OF Clarence, ship, lost in 
the gulf of St. Lawrence, 1803. 

DUKE, Grand, the title first given 
to the dukes of Tuscany, by Pius V. 
1570. 

DUKE OF York, Frederick, 
charges preferred against him, in the house 
of commons by colonel Wardle, mem- 
ber for Oakhampton, Jan. 28, 1809 ; re- 
signed his situation as commander-in- 
chief, March 18, 1809; re-appointed 
May 25, 1811, Died Jan. 5, 1827. 

DUKE OF York's Island, dis- 
covered by Byron, 1765. 

DULONG, Pierre Louis, one of 
the most profound chemical philosophers 
of the present age, and almost equally 
distinguished for his knowledge of che- 
mistry and of physical philosophy. His 
" Researches on the mutual decomposi- 
tion of the soluble and insoluble salts," 
form a most important contribution to 
our knowledge of chemical statistics. He 
was the discoverer of the hypophos- 
phorous acid, and also of the chloruret of 
azote, the most dangerous of chemical 
compounds, and his experiments upon 
it were prosecuted with a courage nearly 
allied to rashness which twice exposed 
his life to serious danger. But, it is on 
hiy researches on the " Law of the con- 
duction of heat," " on the specific heat 
of the gases," and " on the elastic force 



D UM 



399 



DUN 



of steam at high temperatures," that his 
permanent fame as a philosopher will 
rest more securely : the first of these 
inquiries, which were undertaken in con- 
junction with the late M. Petit, was pub- 
lished in 1817. 

His recent experiments on the elastic 
force of steam at high temperatures, and 
which were full of danger and difficulty, 
were vmdertaken at the request of the 
French Institute. Scarcely had they 
been published, when his death was an- 
nounced in 1838, with the inteUigence 
that he was cut off in the midst of re- 
searches upon this very subject. He left 
no instructions as to their progress, but 
among the cinders in the fire-place of 
his library was found a piece of paper 
containing figures, expressive of the two 
following : " 1, Compound gases, formed 
of the simple gases, which do not con- 
dense in the act of union, have the same 
specific heat as the simple gases. 2, 
Compound gases, in the formation of 
which there has been the same condensa- 
tion of the constituent gases, have the 
specific heats equal, although very diffe- 
rent from that of the simple gases." 

DULWICH College, called "The 
College of God's Gift," founded in 1640, 
by Edward AUeyn, a dramatic performer. 
It was richly endowed for a master, war- 
den, four fellows, six poor brethren, six 
poor sisters, 12 scholars, six assistants, 
and 30 out-members. There is here also 
a noble collection of paintings, the gift of 
Sir Francis Bourgeois, open to the 
public. 

DUMBARTON, royal burgh and sea- 
port, Scotland. The Roman fleet was 
stationed here under the command of 
Agricola, and the coast resisted all his 
attempts. In 756, it fell by famine into 
the hands of Egbert, king of Northum- 
bria; and in 1571, was taken by a 
coup de main from Lord Fleming, who 
held it for Mary, queen of Scots. 

DUMFRIES, royal burgh, Scotland, 
is of great antiquity, and gives the title 
of earl to the Crichtons. It was for- 
merly a place of considerable strength, 
but much exposed to the inroads of the 
Enghsh borderers. The ruins of a cas- 
tle built by Edward I., in 1300, still re- 
main, and near are some druidical re- 
mains. Red John Gumming, lord of 
Badenoch, was slain in this town, be- 
fore the old collegiate church, in 1305, 
by Bruce and his associates, for reveal- 
ing some of their designs to Edward I. 



DUNBAR, town and fortress, of Scot- 
land. The fort, built before 858, was 
long considered one of the keys of Scot- 
land; it afforded refuge to Edward II.,. 
after the battle of Bannockburn, and to 
Marj--, after the death of Rizzio ; and 
again to her and Both well, when driven 
from the capital : it was demolished in 
1567- 

DUNBLANE, battle of, fought on 
Sheriff Muir, north-east from this town, 
in 1715, between the insurgents under 
the earl of Marr, and the royal army 
under the duke of Argyll. 

DUNCAN, king of Scotland, mur- 
dered by Macbeth, 1054. 

DUNCAN, Admiral Lord, born 
July 1, 1731, died May 4, 1804. 

DUNDAS, Henry, Viscount Mel- 
ville, born 1740, died 1811. 

DUNDEE, a town of Scotland, an- 
ciently called Alectum, but named Dun- 
dee (Donum Dei) in commemoration of 
the miraculous escape of the earl of 
Huntingdon from shipwreck on his re- 
turn from the crusades in 1189. It was 
twice taken by Edwand I. of England, 
but recovered by Bruce and Wallace, 
who demolished the old castle. Richard 
II. burnt the town; it was also con- 
sumed during the reign of Edward VI. 
It suffered also from Cromwell but in 
1651, was taken by storm, and pillaged 
by General Monk. 

DUNFERMLINE, market town,Scot- 
land, early a royal residence ; traces of 
the castle of Malcolm Canmore are still 
visible, as well as a palace rebuilt by 
Anne of Denmark, and in which it is 
said Charles I. was born. The church 
occupies the site of a Benedictine abbey, 
founded by Malcolm Canmore, and de- 
stroyed by Edward I. of England. It 
was the burying-place of the founder, his 
queen, and of succeeding monarchs, in- 
cluding Robert Bruce, whose tomb and 
remains were discovered here in 1818. 

DUNHAM Bridge, over the Trent; 
act of parliament obtained 1830; bridge 
completed, 1832. This was formerly a 
tedious and difficult and oftentimes im- 
passable ferry. Dunham Bridge unite?, 
for the first time,, the countries of Lin- 
coln and Nottingham ; and a straight 
line drawn from Sheffield to Lincoln 
would almost pass directly over it. Its 
distance from the city of Lincoln is al- 
most ] 1 miles and a half west, and from 
Gunford about five miles and a half east. 
The bridge was designed by Mr. George 



DUN 



400 



DUN 



Leather, and was executed under his di- 
rection. It is of cast iron, of four arches. 
The span of each arch, including six feet 
on the two piers, is 118 feet; and the 
total length of the bridge is 536 feet. 
The total cost was £14,945. 

DUNKELD, a town of Perth, in 
Scotland, the capital of ancient Caledo- 
nia. About the dawn of Christianity, a 
Pictish king made it the seat of religion, 
by erecting a monastery of Culdees 
there ; which King David I. in 1130, con- 
verted into a cathedral, and it ranked as 
the first in Scotland. 

DUNKIRK, maritime town of France, 
originally a mean hamlet, consisting only 
of a few fishermen's huts ; but a church 
being built there by St. Eloi, the town 
increased, and took its name from the 
situation of its church upon a hill. In 
1332, Robert of Flanders built a castle 
for its defence ; which was afterwards 
demolished by the revolters of Flanders. 
The emperor Charles V. who held it as 
part of Flanders, built another castle 
to defend the harbour ; but this was also 
demohshed. In 1558, the French, under 
Marshal de Thermes, took it by storm. 
The Spaniards recovered it again in 
about a fortnight, and put all the French 
to the sword. In 1652, it was besieged 
and taken by the Archduke Leopold, 
then governor of the Netherlands. 
France entering into a treaty with Eng- 
land in 1655, the inhabitants fitted out 
privateers against both these powers : 
the consequence of which was, that the 
French, assisted by Cromwell, attacked 
and took it, and it was put into the 
hands of the English. In 1662, Charles 
II. sold it to France for the sum of 
£500,000. In consequence of this the 
town was taken possession of for the 
French king Louis XIV., Nov. 29, 1662, 
who spared no pains or expense to render 
it an impregnable fortress. 

In all the wars between England and 
France, freebooters from this port have 
done great damage to the English and 
Dutch traders. These losses induced 
the British cabinet, at the peace of 
Utrecht in 1713, to stipulate that the 
fortifications should be demolished and 
the basin filled up ; conditions, however, 
never fully complied with. The condi- 
tions were repeated in 1763, but again 
evaded. In 1783, Great Britain having 
lost the power of dictating to France, the 
works were restored, and the next year 
the port declared free. In 1793, Fre- 



derick, duke of York, son of George III . 
of England, made an attempt to take 
this town by siege, but the approach of 
General Houchard with a superior force, 
compelled his royal highness to abandon 
the enterprise. 

D U N M O W, LiTTLK, a parish in 
Essex, remarkable for the ancient custom 
of bestowing a flitch of bacon on any 
married couple that could swear solemnly 
they had not repented wedlock for a year 
and a day. The first grant of this de- 
scription took place in the reign of 
Henry VI., and the last in 1751. 

D U N M O W Priory, Essex, built 
1110. 

DUNNBERG taken by storm by the 
French, July 30, 1812. 

DUNOON Castle, Scotland, built 
before 1334. 

DUNS, John, commonly called Duns 
Scotus, a Franciscan friar, who flourished 
towards the beginning of the 14th century, 
according to Leland, Bale, and others, 
born at Dunstone, near Alnwick, in Nor- 
thumberland. He was sent by his su- 
periors to Paris in 1304, where he was 
honoured first with the degree of bache- 
lor, then of doctor of divinity, and in 
1307, was appointed regent of the divi- 
nity school. In this situation he acquired 
singular reputation by his skill in dis- 
putation. He was denominated "the 
most subtle doctor," He died in 1308, 
in the 34th year of his age. 

DUNSTABLE Priory, Bedfordshire, 
founded 1132, by Henry I. 

DUNSTAFFNAGE Castle, Scot- 
land, built 1307. 

DUNSTAN, St. was descended from 
a noble family in Wessex, and educated 
in the abbey of Glastonbury. King 
Athelstan, charmed with his person and 
accomplishments, retained him in his 
court, and employed him in his affairs. 
Some envious courtiers having persuaded 
the king that he was a magician, Dun- 
stan retired from court. He was recalled 
by King Edmund in 941, who bestowed 
upon him the rich abbey of Glastonbury. 
But Edwi, in 955, deprived him of all his 
preferments, and drove him into exile. 
Edgar having raised a rebellion against 
his brother, and usurped his dominions, 
recalled Dunstan, and gave him the bi- 
shopric of Worcester in 957- From this 
moment he was the chief confidant and 
prime minister of King Edgar, who be- 
came sole monarch of England in 959. 
In the following year Dunstan was raised 



DUP 



401 



DUR 



to he archbishop of Canterbury. Being 
thus possessed of the primacy, he put 
into execution the design which he had 
long meditated of compelling the secular 
canons to put away their wives and be- 
come monks. He died 988, aged 64. 

DUN STAN'S, St., church of, Fleet- 
street, demolished 1830, to widen the 
street. New church completed 1833. 

DUNSTANBURGH Priory, Nor- 
thumberland, built 1280. 

DUOMO, or cathedral at Pisa, built 
1061. 

DUOMO, or cathedral at Florence, 
began 1296, finished 1444. 

DUPIN, Louis Ellis, ecclesiastical 
historian, born at Paris in 1657. In 1680 
he was licensed to officiate as a priest, 
and in 1684 he received the bonnet of 
doctor of the Sarbonne, and then em- 
ployed his time and talents on his great 
work, entitled " History of Ecclesiastical 
Writers, containing an Account of the 
Authors of the several Books of the Old 
and New Testament, and the Lives and 
Writings of the primitive Fathers," &c. 
He next published " An Account of the 
Writers of the first Three Centuries." 
This work appeared in 1686, and was 
followed by a succession of volumes, 
published at different periods, from that 
time till his death, which took place in 
17'19, at Paris, aged 62. 

DUPONT, a French general, surren- 
dered, with his army, to the Spanish pa- 
triots, July 19, 1808. 

D U PPA, Richard, author of the 
" Lives of Michael Angelo and Raffaelle," 
died 1831. 

DUPRE, M. His villa, near Beacons- 
field, the residence of Edmund Burke, 
destroyed by fire, Aprir21, 1813. 

DUPUYTREN, Guillaume, a cele- 
brated French surgeon, and professor of 
surgery at the Hotel Dieu, born at Pierre 
Buffere, in the department of La Haute 
Vienne, October 5, 1778. In 1790 he 
commenced his career, and was admitted 
a surgeon of the second class on the 
26th Fructidor of the year 10; doctor in 
1803 ; assistant surgeon-in-chief in 1808; 
and in 1812 he obtained, in a contest 
with a host of talented competitors, the 
chair of the professor of surgery. In 
1815 he was appointed surgeon- in- chief 
of the Hotel Dieu, and in 1818 a mem- 
ber of the Institute. M. Dupuytren's 
works are numerous on anatomy, physi- 
ology, and pathology. He was first at- 
tacked in November 1833, by a slight 



fit of apoplexy, for which he quitted 
France for Rome and Naples. In March, 
1834, he returned to Paris, apparently 
recovered, when he immediately renewed 
his lectures at the Hotel Dieu; but he 
was shortly after attacked with pleurisy. 
In Jul)'-, he resolved to try sea bathing ; 
but at the end of a month he returned 
to Paris worse than he set out. He 
died at Paris, February 8, 1835. He 
left his daughter. Madam de Beaumont, 
a fortune of nearly 7,000,000 francs, 
200,000 francs to found a professorship 
of medico-chirurgical pathology, and 
300,000 francs for a house of retirement 
for 12 superannuated medical men. 

DUREL, John, an English divine, 
born 1626, died 1683, aged 58. 

DURER, Albert, an eminent painter 
and engraver, born at Nuremberg, 1471. 
His engravings of "The Passion of 
Christ," bear the dates of 1507, 1508, 
and 1512. The last date found on any 
of his works is that of 1 526, on the por- 
trait of Melancthon. His works are at 
present very numerous throughout Italy 
and Germany; and in fame he ranks 
with the highest artists of his time. He 
died in 1528. 

D'URFEY, Thomas, English satirist 
and ballad writer, born about 1630, died 
Feb. 1724. 

DURHAM, city and county, of England. 
The county constituted part of the terri- 
tories of the Brigantes ; under the Ro- 
mans it belonged to the province of 
Maxima Csesariensis ; under the Anglo- 
Saxons it was included first in the king- 
dom of Berenecia, and subsequently in 
that of Northumbria ; and under Alfred 
and his successors it was called Doorham 
i. e. Forest Land, whence its modern 
appellation. Christianity was introduced 
into Durham previous to the seventh 
century. 

The city derives its origin from the 
monks of Lindisfarne, who flying from 
the Danes with the bones of their foun- 
der St. Cuthbert, in 995, fixed their re- 
sidence on the hill then called Dunholme, 
where they erected a monastery and ca- 
thedral, around which the city grew up. 
After the Norman conquest, the northern 
counties seized Durham in opposition to 
the king, but the leaders were compelled 
to retreat into Scotland ; WilHam I. then 
founded the castle. 

Durham has been the scene of many 
contests. It was repeatedly besieged by 
the Scots ; near the city stands Neville's- 

3 F 



DUR 



402 



DUR 



cross, erected by Lord Neville, to com- 
memorate a signal defeat of the Scots in 
1 346, when David Bruce, their king was 
taken prisoner. "When the Scots invad- 
ed England, in 1640, they seized Dur- 
ham, and retained it until the following 
year. The first charter is said to have 
been granted to the city by Bishop Hugh 
Pudsey, in the reign of Richard 1. 

The bishopric of Durham, situated in 
the province of York, esteemed one of 
the richest in the kingdom, includes the 
counties of Durham, and Northumber- 
land. The cathedral, a magnificent 
building, was erected towards the close 
of the 11th century; it occupies an emi- 
nence 80 feet above the level of the river 
which runs at its base. The extreme 
length of the building, exclusive of the 
great western porch or chapel called the 
Gallilee,is 411 feet, the length of the nave 
200 feet ; its breadth, including the isles, 
is 74 feet. On the same eminence \vith 
the cathedral, stands the castle, the resi- 
dence of the bishop, built 1069. 

DURHAM University. During 
the time of the commonwealth, an at- 
tempt was made to estabhsh a university 
at Durham : the plan was strenuously 
promoted by Cromwell, and advanced so 
far as to excite the jealousy and opposi- 
tion of the universities of Oxford and 
Cambridge ; when the changes which 
took place at the restoration caused the 
plan to be abandoned. Recently a plan of 
this nature has been revived. An act of 
parliament for the establishment of a 
university at Durham passed in 1S32, 
incorporating the university by the title 
of " The Warden, Masters, and Scholars 
of the University of Durham," and au- 
thorising it to enjoy all the property, 
rights, and privileges which are assured 
by the said act, or are incident to a uni- 
versity established by royal charter. This 
charter, which received the Great Seal 
June 1, 1837, fully recognises and con- 
firms the constitution of the university, 
as established by the Dean and Chapter. 
At a convocation holden on Thursday, 
June 8, the Royal Charter granted to the 
university was formally received, and a 
grace passed for the adoption of a uni- 
versity seal. 

DURHAM, John George Lamb- 
ton, Earl of. Viscount Lambton, and 
Baron Durham, of the city of Durham, 
in the peerage of the United Kingdom, 
was born April 12, 1792, and married, first, 
Jan. 1, 1812, Miss Harriet Cholmondeley, 



Nvho died in May, 1815 ; and, secondly. 
Lady Louisa Elizabeth Grey, eldest daugh- 
ter of the Earl and Countess Grey. He 
was the son of the late William Henry 
Lambton, Esq. and Lady Ann Villiers, 
daughter of the fourth earl of Jersey. 
He entered parliament in 1814. His 
most prominent services to the cause of 
good government were — his opposition 
to Lord Rippon's corn bill in 1815, and 
to the bill of indemnity in 1818, his de- 
nunciation of ministers in the county of 
Durham meeting subsequent to the 
Manchester massacre in 1819, and his 
parliamentary services at the same pe- 
riod; the introduction of his Reform 
Bill in 1821, his share in the formation 
of Earl Grey's Reform Bill, and his bold 
and strenuous advocacy of the metro- 
politan boroughs in the house of lords. 
He was lord privy seal from 1830 to 
1833 ; a privy councillor, a G. C. B. 
and knight of the foreign orders of St. 
Andrew, St. Alexander Newsky, St. 
Anne, and the White Eagle, of Russia ; 
Leopold, of Belgium ; and the Saviour, 
of Greece. In addition to the above, he 
was high steward of Hull. He set out as 
ambassador extraordinary on a special 
mission to St. Petersburgh, July 5, 1832. 

1838. The earl of Durham was ap- 
pointed governor-general, &c., of her 
majesty's provinces within and adjacent 
to the continent of North America, and 
also " high com.missioner for the adjust- 
ment of certain important affairs affect- 
ing the provinces of Lower and Upper 
Canada," Jan. 16. He issued a document 
on the occasion of proclaiming the in- 
demnity act passed during the previous 
session, in which he justified the policy 
pursued by him since his arrival in Ca- 
nada, and announced his determination 
to resign his government, Oct. 8. His 
lordship arrived in England, Nov. 26, 
the same year. After suffering some 
time from indisposition he died at Cowes, 
July 28, 1840. 

" Lord Durham had long been acting 
among the reformers of England. The 
introduction of his Reform Bill, and his 
active participation in the framing and 
carrying of Lord Grey's, show that he 
was not a mere repeater of party catch- 
words, nor a mere indulger in a vague 
liberality of sentiment. The deep interest 
which he took in the progress of the 
various commercial missions instituted 
of late years, and in the establishment 
of the new principles of colonization, 



D Y I 403 

show him to have had wide and clear in- 
sight into what constitutes the physical 
health and power of a nation. And, 
lastly, his too brief trial as preparatory 
legislator in Canada, shows that he pos- 
sessed the essentials of high adminis- 
trative talent, contempt for mere routine, 
with a due appreciation of necessary 
forms, and the tact for discovering men 
possessed of official aptitude, for alkvting 
them their appropriate spheres, and en- 
couraging them in their labours." 

DURLACH, town, Germany, an- 
ciently the capital of the margraviate of 
Baden-Durlach, but was burned down in 
1689, and not rebuilt until the court had 
been transferred to Carlsruhe. 

D URN FORD, Great. In this pa- 
rish church. Bishop Jewell's book, ir 
defence of his " Apology for the Church 
of England," still remains ; it was or- 
dered by Queen Elizabeth, King James I., 
and Charles I., to be read and chained 
in all churches throughout England. 

DUSSELDORP surrendered to the 
French, Sept. 6, 1795. Was ceded to 
Prussia in 1815, and is now the capital 
of a circle. 

DYER, John, poet, author of "The 
Fleece," &c., born 1700 ; educated at 
Westminster-school. He died in 1758, 
and, in I76l, his works were collected 
and published in one volume octavo, 

DYERS' Company, London, incor- 
porated 1469- 

DYING. The Hebrew patriarchs, or 
some of their neighbours, must have been 
acquainted with the art of dying as early 
as A.c. 1930; but whether they were 
the inventors, and possessed the art ex- 
clusively, or borrowed it from the inha- 
bitants of other countries, it is now 
impossible to determine. 

In the time of Moses, A.c. 1491, the 
artificial preparation of colours, and the 
art of dying, must have made consider- 
able progress ; for in Exodus xxv. 4, 5, 
where the Hebrews are commanded to 
bring oflFerings for the formation of the 
sanctuary, are specified blue, and purple, 
and scarlet, and rams' skins dyed red. 

When Alexander visited India, in the 
fourth century before Christ, it was found 
that the art of dying had risen to great 
perfection in that country ; hence some 
have concluded that the Indians were 
the inventors. The Greeks were ac- 
quainted with the art of dying purple as 
early as Homer's time, A.c. 910; but 
their practice itseemswas confined to wool. 



DYI 

No commodity could be more cele- 
brated among the ancients than theTyrian 
purple. This was extracted from two 
kinds of shell- fish, of which the larger 
was named purpura, and the other kind 
was a species of the whelk. When the 
Greeks, under Alexander, plundered the 
treasury of the king of Persia, a.c. 331, 
they found in it a considerable quantity 
of purple, which was 190 years old, and 
yet had lost none of its beauty or bril- 
liancy. The ancients set so high a value 
on this colour, that in the reign of Au- 
gustus, that is, about the commencement 
of the christian era, a pound of wool of 
the Tyrian dye could not be obtained for 
a sum equivalent to £36 sterhng. Shell- 
fish of similar kinds have been found 
also in modem times, and in various 
jiarts of the world; indeed it is supposed 
that they are now as plentiful as for- 
merly. The shell-fish which yields the 
purple colour was found on the coast of 
England in 1683, by Mr. Cole. 

During the time of the crusades, the 
arts were transmitted from Greece into 
Italy, and were consequently soon esta- 
blished. A merchant of Florence, in 
1300, accidentally discovered the colour- 
ing matter called archil or argol, and in 
1338, that city contained 200 manufac- 
turers who fabricated 80,000lbs. of cloth. 

The art of dying was cultivated with 
great success at Venice, where, in 1429, 
an account of all the necessary processes 
was published, under the title of " Ma- 
riegola del' Arte de i Tentori." Giovanni 
Ventura Rosetti, succeeded in collecting 
a considerable stock of useful informa- 
tion, relating to the practices adopted by 
different dyers. The result of his inqui- 
ries was published in ]548, under the 
title of "Phctho." Cochineal and indigo 
were probably not known in Italy till 
after this period, for neither of them is 
mentioned in Rosetti's works. 

Soon after the conquest of Mexico by 
Cortez in 1518, the properties of the co- 
chineal insect became known to the Spa- 
niards, who brought the discovery into 
Europe. Kuster, a German chemist, 
discovered the process for dying a scarlet 
by means of a solution of tin, and in 
1643, carried the secret to London, 
About this time the use of indigo was 
also introduced ; and, by degrees, the 
improvements thus made in the art of 
dying, gradually became kno\vn through- 
out Europe. 

On the revival of the arts in France 



EAG 



404 



EAR 



under the celebrated Colbert, that of dy- 
ing received a proper share of encourage- 
ment : by the order of this patriotic 
minister, a table of instructions for dying 
was published in 1672. The art conti- 
nued to receive liberal encouragement 
in France, where Dufay, Hellot, Mac- 
quer, and Berthollet, have been succes- 
sively charged with the care of this de- 
partment. Under the direction of Du- 
fay, a new table of instructions, which 
superseded thatof Colbert, was published 
in 1737. Hellot, who succeeded him, 
published, in 1740, a methodical descrip- 
tion of the processes for dying wool. 
Macquer, in 1763, published a treatise 
on dying silk. 

The astonishing improvements which, 
within the last 60 or 70 years, have been 
made in chemistry, have developed the 
theory of dying, and given a new and 
advantageous turn to the art. Its prin- 
ciples are now scientifically deduced from 
experiments and facts by means of ac- 
curate philosophical investigations, and 
new substances are continuciUy being 
discovered. The following are some of 
the most recent. 



1839. A method of extracting the 
colouring matter from wood was em- 
ployed by a M. Besseyre with much 
success. He first reduced the woods to 
very small divisions, and then immedi- 
ately placed them in a closed vessel ex- 
posed to a current of steam. When the 
whole had attained 80 degrees of heat, 
it was uncovered, and watered with seve- 
ral pints of cold water. By means of a 
tap below, the condensed liquid was 
drawn off, and thrown back upon the 
chips, and this operation was repeated 
until the dye had acquired sufficient 
strength ; it was then subjected to evapo- 
ration over an open fire, and subsequently 
in a sand bath, till the extract became a 
mass, which was soluble in warm water. 

June 1, Mr. Solly read to the Royal 
Asiatic Society a report on some lichens 
received from India, with a view to as- 
certain their importance as dye substan- 
ces. The specimens from Ceylon con- 
tained good colouring matter, and some 
of them, by comparative experiments 
with the lichens of commerce, yielded 
as good a dye as kinds worth more than 
£250 a ton. 



E 



E AC HARD, Dr. John, an acute 
writer, and vice-chancellor of the uni- 
versity of Cambridge, born 1636, died 
1697. 

EACHARD, Rev. Laurence, au- 
author of the " History of England," born 
1671, died 1730. 

EAGLE has been borne, by way of 
ensign, or standard, by several nations. 
The first who assumed it were the Per- 
sians, according to the testimony of 
Xenophon. Afterwards, it was taken 
by the Romans ; who, after a great va- 
riety of standards, at length fixed on the 
eagle, in the second year of the consulate 
of C. Marius. The eagle was introduced 
as a standard in the French army under 
Napoleon. Eagles and colours taken at 
Ciudad Rodrigo, and Badajos, were 
placed in the chapel royal, Whitehall, 
with great ceremony, Sept. 30, 1812. 
Those taken at the battle of Waterloo, 
were deposited Jan. 18, 1816. 



EAR-OF-CORN, order, began in Brit- 
tany, 1050. 

Earl, a British title of nobility, next 
below a marquis, was a considerable 
title among the Saxons. Alfred the 
Great was invested with the dignity and 
title in 886, by Ethelred I., grandson of 
Egbert. WiUiam the Conqueror first 
made it hereditary ; giving it in fee to 
his nobles, and annexing it to shires and 
counties. But earls are now created by 
patent, without any authority over, or 
particular relation to counties. 

EARL-MARSHAL, thefirst appointed 
in England, 1383. 

EARTHENWARE Vessels, first 
made by the Romans, a.c, 715; the 
first made in modern Italy, 1710 ; the 
present improved kind began to be made 
in 1763, by Wedgwood, in England. 
See Pottery. 

EARTHQUAKE, a sudden concus- 
sion of the earth, productive of various 



EAR 



405 



EAR 



effects, such as the emission of flames, 
water, &c.; the overthrow of buildings, 
towns, and sometimes of rocks or moun- 
tains. Several ancient authors, as Se- 
neca, Strabo, Callisthenes, Pausanias, 
Pliny, Thucydides, &c., mention a va- 
riety of stupendous effects produced by 
earthquakes, as the separation of moun- 
tains, the appearance and disappearance 
of islands, the destruction of cities, some 
of which were swallowed up, together 
with their inhabitants, so effectually as 
not to leave even a vestige of their former 
existence. There are, comparatively, 
few authentic or particular accounts of 
these phenomena, before the christian 
era. The following is a chronological 
list of the most remarkable earthquakes. 

A.c. 466. Earthquake at Sparta de- 
stroyed 20,000 persons. 

A.c. 461. At Rome, attended by pro- 
digies. 

A.c. ^84. In the Hellespont and Cher- 
sonese. 

A.c. 31. In Judea. 

A. D. 17- Under the reign of the em- 
peror Tiberius, twelve cities of Asia 
Minor were destroyed in one night, the 
memory of which is attested by a medal, 
still extant. 

79. Herculaneum buried. See Her- 

CULANEUM. 

107. Four cities in Asia Minor, two 
in Greece, and three in Galatia, over- 
turned. 

115. Antioch destroyed. 

120. One that swallowed up Nicome- 
dia and several cities. 

357. One in^ Macedonia, swallowed 
up 150 cities. 

370. Nice destroyed. 

394. One from September to Novem- 
ber, swallowed up several cities in 
Europe. 

458. One that destroyed Antioch, 
Sept. 14. 

480. One at Constantinople, that lasted 
40 days. 

526. One at Antioch, that destroyed 
that and other cities. 

528. Another at Antioch, that swal- 
lowed up 4,800 inhabitants. 

541. Pompeiopolis, in Mysia, swal- 
lowed up. 

543. One felt over the whole world, 
Sept. 6. 

550. In Palestine, Syria, &e. 

552. At Constantinople. 

557. At Rome and Constantinople. 

580. Antioch destroyed. 



740. At Constantinople. 

749. Many cities of Syria destroyed. 

790. At Constantinople. 

801. In France, Germany, and Italy, 
that threw down St. Paul's at Rome, 

867. At Mecca, where 1,500 houses 
and 90 towers were thrown down. 

986. Constantinople overthrown, and 
Greece shaken. 

1076. One in England, April 8. 

1081 and 1089. Again in England. 

1090. One throughout England, fol- 
lowed by a scarcity. 

1110. One in Shropshire. 

1112. One which overwhelmed Liege 
and Rottenburg. 

1114. One in December at Antiochia, 
which destroyed several cities and towns, 
and overturned the cities of Trialeth, and 
the cities of Mariseum and Mamistria. 

1117- In Lombardy for 40 days. 

1134. In England, just as Henry I. 
was about to embark for Normandy, 
flames of fire bursting out of certain rifts 
of the earth, August 2. 

1137. One that swallowed up Catania 
and 15,000 souls. 

1150. Antioch, Tripoli, and Damas- 
cus destroyed. 

1178. At Oxenhall, near Darlington, 
in Durham. 

1179. In Hungary and England. 

1185. One that overthrew the church 
of Lincoln, and others. 

1186. At Calabria, in Sicily, a city, 
with its inhabitants, lost in the Adriatic 
Sea. 

1222. At Brisa, in Lombardy, where 
2,000 lives were lost. 

1247. In England, general one, that 
threw down St. Michael's on the Hill, 
without Glastonbuiy, 

1318. The greatest ever known in 
England, Nov. 14. 

1456. One in Naples, when 40,000 
persons perished. 

1531. At Lisbon, for eight days, which 
destroyed several churches, upwards of 
1500 houses, and buried 30,000 persons 
in their ruins ; several of the neighbour- 
ing towns were suddenly ingulfed with 
their inhabitants, and the river Tagiis 
overflowed and ruined half Portugal, 
Feb. 

1556. In China, a whole province 
swallowed up, with its towns, inhabi- 
tants, cattle, &c., and an immense lake 
of water filled its former site, which stiU 
remains. 

1580. In London and Westminster, 



EAR 



406 



EAR 



when part of St. Paul's and the Temple 
churches fell ; it was felt at Sandwich 
and Dovor, in Kent, April 6. 

1586. In the vicinity of Lima, which 
ran 170 leagues along the coast, and .50 
leagues across the mountains, July 9. 

1638. In Naples and Sicily, that swal- 
lowed up many towns, and upwards of 
30,000 persons, March 27- 

1682. In Catania, attended with an 
eruption of ^Etna, which destroyed that 
city, and 60,000 inhabitants. 

1683. In several parts of England. 

1687. Lima destroyed, not more than 
20 houses left standing, Oct, 20. 

1688. At Naples, when a third part 
of that city and much shipping were de- 
stroyed, June 6, and 7. Smyrna destroy- 
ed, June 10. 

1689. Lyme in Dorsetshire, nearly de- 
stroyed. 

1692. Fort Royal in Jamaica destroy- 
ed, and 3,000 people lost. 

1704. A dreadful one in the Isle of 
TenerifFe, Dec. 24. 

1726. Palermo, in Sicily, nearly swal- 
lowed up, Sept. 

1727. At Boston, in New England, 
Oct. 29. 

1730. The whole kingdom of Chili 
swallowed up, with St. Jago. 

1731. At Aynho, in Northamptonshire 
Oct. 10. 

1731. At Foggia, in Naples, when 
more than half the houses were over- 
thrown, and above 2,000 persons buried 
in the ruins, April 20. 

1732. In the city of Avelino, which 
it destroyed, and Oriana in great part, 
Nov. 29. 

1733. In Calabria, where the territory 
of Nova Casa sunk 29 feet without de- 
stroying a building, April 18. 

1734. At Arundel and Shoreham, Oct. 
25. 

1734. In Ireland, which destroyed five 
churches and above 100 houses, August. 

1736. In Hungary, which turned 
round a mountain, Oct. 23. 

1739-40. At Salemi, near Palermo, 
which swallowed up a convent, but the 
monks escaped, Feb. 4. 

1744. In Merionethshire, in Wales, 
several shocks, Feb. 5. 

1746. A terrible one at Lima, which 
destroyed that city, and 5,000 persons 
lost their lives ; there were 74 churches 
14 monasteries, and 15 hospitals thrown 
down, and the loss in eflFects reckoned 
immense ; it extended itself to Callao, 



which was destroyed, with about 5,000 
of its inhabitants, Oct. 27, to Nov. 20. 

1750. In London, February 8, and^ 
March 8. 

1750. At London, Chester, and Man- 
chester, April 2, and in the same year, 
the city of Conception, in Chili, over- 
thrown. 

1751. At Fiume, in the gulph of 
Venice, Feb. 5. 

1752. The greatest part of the city 
of Adrianople destroj'ed, Aug. 22. 

1754. Grand Cairo had two-thirds of 
the houses and 40,000 inhabitants swal- 
lowed up, Sept. 2. 

1755. ITie city of Quito in Peru de- 
stroyed, April 24. 

1755. In the island of Mitylene, in 
the Archipelago, when 2,000 houses were 
overthrown; considerable damage was 
done at Oporto, in Portugal, and at 
Seville, in Spain ; but more particularly 
at Lisbon, where, in about eight minutes 
most of the houses and 50,000 inhabi- 
tants were destroyed, and whole streets 
swallowed up. The cities of Coimbra 
and Bruga also suffered, and St. Ubes 
was swallowed up ; at Faro, 3,000 in- 
habitants were buried ; great part of Ma- 
laga was destroj'ed ; one half of Fez, in 
Morocco, and 12,000 Arabs were swal- 
lowed up, and above half of the island 
of Madeira destroyed : it extended 5,000 
miles. 

1757. At the Azore isles, where 10,000 
persons were buried in the ruins, and the 
island divided in two, July 9. 

1758. At Bordeaux, in France Aug. 11. 

1759. At Tripoli, in Syria, which ex- 
tended nearly 10,000 miles, when Damas 
lost 6,000 inhabitants, and several other 
cities, with the remains of Balbeck, were 
destroyed, Oct. and Dec. 

1759. Truxillo, in Peru, was swallow- 
ed up, Nov. 

1761. Shocks of earthquakes were 
felt all over Europe. 

1766. One at Constantinople, that 
buried 880 persons. 

1767. At Martinico, where 1,600 per- 
sons lost their lives, Aug. A tremendous 
one also experienced at Cephalonia, Oct. 
14. 

1770. In the Archipelago; 700 houses 
and 100 inhabitants were lost, Dec. 

1773. Guatimala, in New Spain, en- 
tirely swallowed up, and many thousand 
inhabitants lost, Dec. 15. 

1778. At Smyrna, which destroyed 
great part of that city, June 25. 



EAR 



407 



EAR 



1780. At Tauris, in Persia, where 
15,000 houses were thrown down, and 
great part of the inhabitants perished, 
March 3. 

1784. At Archindschan, when it de- 
stroyed the town, and 12,000 inhabi- 
tants, July 18. 

1784. At Iceland, and some parts of 
Germany, Nov. 

1785. Arequipo destroyed. 

1786. In Scotland, and different 
parts of the north of England, August 
11. 

1787. In Mexico, and other parts of 
New Spain, April 18. 

1789. The town of Castello, in Italy, 
and Borgo, had 150 houses destroyed, 
and 30 houses, &c., swallowed up by an 
opening of the earth, Sept. 30. 

1792. In the counties of Bedford, 
Leicester, Lincoln, and Nottingham, &c., 
March 2. 

1794. In Turkey, when towns, con- 
taining 10,000 inhabitants were lost, 
July 3. 

1794. Near Naples, when the city of 
Torre del Greco was nearly destroyed, 
June 13. 

1795. In different parts of the north 
of England, Nov. 18. 

1797. At Sumatra, in the East Indies; 
great damage was done, and above 300 
persons perished, Feb. 20. 

1797. The whole of the country be- 
tween Santa Fe and Panama, destroyed 
by an earthquake, including the cities of 
Cuzco and Quito, with 40,000 inhabi- 
tants, Feb. 7. There were several vio- 
lent shocks in the West India islands in 
the same month. 

1800. At Constantinople, which de- 
stroyed the royal palace, and a great 
number of buildings : it extended into 
Romania and Wallachia, to Buchorest 
and Adrianople, Oct. 26. 

1 802. Minguin was entirely swallowed 
up in a lake ; Brescia had three churches 
and 12 houses destroyed, June 12. 

1804. So violent a shock in Holland 
as to cause the chandeliers in Maasling 
church to vibrate two or three feet, 
January. 

1808. The church of La Tour, and 
most of the houses in Lucerne, partly de- 
stroyed by an earthquake, April. 

1809. In several parts of Italy, sup- 
posed to have caused some very extra- 
ordinary tides in the gulph of Spezzia, 
the same having continued irregular for 
eight days after. 



1810. In the province of Vellore, in 
the East Indies, when 6000 persons 
perished. 

1812. Caraccas, in Columbia, when 
12,000 persons perished. 

1813. In Norway, when 5000 persons 
perished. 

1819. Kutch, near Bombay, the whole 
district and territory destroyed, includ- 
ing several towns and villages, and the 
entire cityof Bhorg,the capital, which be- 
came a heap of ruins, under which were 
buried 2000 of the inhabitants, June 16. 
1819. The following were also felt at 
different periods of the year, in various 
parts of the world. At Palermo, Jan. 
8 ; and Feb. 24, when many houses were 
overthrown. On the 28th, at Tefflis, in 
Georgia ; March 28, at Craw and Maz- 
zera. April 3, 4, and 11, at Capiago, 
in Chili, three severe shocks occurred, 
which totally destroyed that city, only 
3000 persons escaping. On the 8th, at 
Temeswar, in Hungary, three shocks 
took place ; and at Landshut, in Ger- 
many, on the 10th. On May 26, at Cor- 
neto, in Italy, when many houses and 
persons were destroyed. The 27th, at 
Sicily, accompanied by violent shocks 
and eruptions of Etna. 
1822. Aleppo destroyed. 

1824. At Murcia, in Spain, when four 
towns and several villages were de- 
stroyed, March 21. 

1825. Belida, near Algiers, destroyed 
and 600 persons buried beneath the 
ruins, Aug. 2. 

1826. Nearly one-half of St. Jago de 
Cuba, destroyed. 

1829. At Murcia, Spain, where there 
was not one of the churches, nor a single 
edifice which had not been considerably 
damaged. 

1832. In Calabria ami Central Italy. 
See Calabria. 

1833. At Portsmouth, Chichester, 
and other places along the channel, 
July 6, Sept. 18, Nov. 14; and 1834, 
Jan. 22, 23. 

1834. At Pasto, Columbia, January 
20 ; February 27. 

1834. An earthquake felt nearly 
throughout the entire duchy of Parma. 
No less than 40 shocks were experienced 
at Borgotaro ; and at Pontremoli, many 
houses were thrown down, and not a 
chimney was left standing, February 
14. 

1834. At Katmandoo, (the capital of 
Nepaul) and its vicinity, 10,000 houses 



EAR 408 

overthrown by an earthquake, and from 
600 to 800 persons destroyed in the 
several towns of the valle)', March 30. 

1834. Several partial shocks in Eng- 
land, July 24, and Sep. 22. 

1835. Castiglione destroyed; earth- 
quake at Amboyna ; at Cape Town ; in 
Andalusia; and in Chili, when the island 
of Santa Maria, which is situated south- 
ward of the bay of Conception, was raised 
at least 10 feet above its former elevation. 
See Conception. 

1837. Earthquake in Palestine, Sun- 
day Jan. 1, destroyed the whole of Saf- 
fet, Tiberias, and many of the surround- 
ing villages. It was five days after the 
earthquake, before a few survivors of 
SafFet recovered from their stupor ; the 
whole number of victims was about 
3000. Nov. 7, an earthquake occurred 
at Valdivia, said to have been more 
severe than any hitherto felt in that 
town. The first shock took place at five 
minutes past eight in the morning, and 
lasted till a quarter past eight. Repeated 
shocks continued at intervals till three- 
quarters past twelve. The only two 
churches that existed in the town, as 
well as all the public buildings, were com- 
pletely destroyed. 

1839. A violent earthquake at Mar- 
tinique, Jan. 11, consisting of two 
shocks of unexampled violence, lasting 
thirty seconds ; including a short inter- 
val between. Fort Royal was entirely 
destroyed, and it was believed that the 
earthquake proceeded from the long ex- 
tinct volcanoes of the island. Jan 27, 
the shock of an earthquake was felt in 
St. Mary's, one of the Scilly islands. 

1839. A tremendous earthquake oc- 
curred at Amerapoora, Ava, between two 
and three o'clock, on the morning of 
March 23, and extended with equal vio- 
lence northward as far as Toungnor, and 
south to Prome. Pagodas, monasteries, 
brick dwelling-houses, all within the city, 
and on the neighbouring hills, were de- 
stroyed, and from 200 to 300 lives lost. 
The towns and villages near the capital 
were in ruins, and the old city of Ava 
was stated to be destroyed. 

1839. A series of earthquakes shook 
the city of Messina during the 27th, 
28th, and 31st of August. 

1839. September 8, about half-past one 
o'clock the shock of an earthquake was 
felt generally throughoutMonmouthshire 
and the rest of England. Several shocks 
were also felt at Edinburgh, in Perth- 
shire, and in the Highlands of Scotland. 



E AS 



1839. On October 1, at two, a.m., a 
strong shock was felt at San Salvador ; 
and at three, a. m., a concussion nearly 
destroyed the town. 

EAST ANGLIA, Saxon kingdom of, 
founded 575, ended 792. 

EAST GREENLAND discovered by 
Sir Hugh Willoughby, 1553. 

EAST GRINSTEAD Tower fell 
down, November 12, 1785. 

EAST INDIA COMPANY derived 
its origin from the attempts of the En- 
glish to rival the commerce of the Por- 
tuguese. An association was formed at 
London, in 1599, for prosecuting the 
trade to India. The adventurers ap- 
plied to Queen Elizabeth for a charter of 
incorporation, and also for power to ex- 
clude all other English subjects, who had 
not obtained a license from them, from 
carrying on any species of traffic beyond 
the Cape of Good Hope or the Straits of 
Magellan. They obtained the charter, 
which was dated December 31, 1600. 
The corporation was entitled, "The Go- 
vernor and Company of Merchants of 
London trading into the East Indies." 
The first governor (Thomas Smythe, 
Esq.), and 24 directors, were nominated 
in the charter, but power was given to 
the company to elect a deputy governor, 
and, in future, to elect their governors 
and directors, and such other office bear- 
ers as they might think fit to appoint. 

The first expedition to India, entrusted 
to Captain James Lancaster, set sail on 
the 13th February, 1601. Lancaster 
entered into commercial treaty with the 
kings of Acheen aad Bantam, and having 
taken on board a valuable cargo of pep- 
per and other produce, returned to the 
Downs on the 11th of September, 1603. 

I6l2. Captain Best obtained from 
the court of Delhi several considerable 
privileges ; and, among others, that of 
establishing a factory at Surat ; which 
city was henceforth looked upon as the 
principal British station in the west of 
India, till the acquisition of Bombay. 

1621. The quantity of Indian com- 
modities imported into Europe amounted 
to £511,548 5s. 8d.; being £954,542 
13^. 4:d. less than if bought at Aleppo 
and Alexandria. 

1640. Permission to build Fort 
George was obtained from the native 
authorities. In 1658 Madras was raised 
to the station of a presidency. In 1645 
the company began to establish factories 
in Bengal, the principal of which was at 
Hooghly. 



EAS 409 

The charter being merely a grant from 
the crown, and not ratified by any act 
of parliament, was understood to be at 
an end when Charles I. was deposed. 
The company succeeded in obtaining a 
renewal of their charter from Cromwell, 
in 1657. Charles II. confirmed this char- 
ter in 1661 ; and, at the same time, con- 
ferred on them the power of making 
peace or war with any power or people 
not of the christian religion ; of esta- 
blishing fortifications, garrisons, and 
colonies ; of exporting ammunition and 
stores to their settlements duty free ; of 
seizing and sending to England such 
British subjects as should be found 
trading to India without their leave ; and 
of exercising civil and criminal jurisdic- 
tion in their settlements according to the 
laws of England. 

1668. The company obtained a very 
valuable acquisition in the island of 
Bombay. Charles II. acquired this 
island as a part of the marriage portion 
of his wife, Catherine of Portugal. The 
same reign is memorable also in the com- 
pany's annals from its being the era of 
the commencement of the tea trade. 

1677. The company obtained a re- 
newal of their charter, receiving at the 
same time an indemnity for all past mis- 
use of their privileges, and authority to 
establish a mint at Bombay. 

During the latter part of the reign of 
Charles II., and that of his successor, 
the number of private adventurers, or 
interlopers, in the Indian trade, increased 
in an unusual degree. The company 
vigorously exerted themselves in defence 
of what they considered to be their rights, 
by a prosecution carried on against Mr. 
Thomas Sandys, for trading to the East 
Indies without their license. Judgment 
was given in favour of the company in 
1685. 

The company obtained a fresh chaiter 
from the crown in 1693, but in the fol- 
lowing year the trade was virtually laid 
open by a vote of the house of com- 
mons, " that all the subjects of England 
had an equal right to trade to the East 
Indies, unless prohibited by act of 
parliament." 

1698. A proposal was made by a num- 
ber of merchants to parliament for ad- 
vancing the sum of £2,000,000 to go- 
vernment, on condition of erecting the 
subscribers into a new East India Com- 
pany with exclusive privileges. The old 
company endeavoured to prevent the 



EAS 



appearance of such a formidable rival ; 
notwithstanding which, there were two 
companies. In 1702 the two were united 
by an indenture tripartite, to which 
the queen was the third party; and 
in 1708 they were perfectly consoli- 
dated into one company by their pre- 
sent name of " The United Company of 
Merchants trading to the East Indies." 
The authority of parliament was- soon 
after interposed, and government agreed 
to ratify the terms of their agreement, 
and to extend the charter to the 25th of 
March, 1726, with three years' notice. 

For some years the company conti- 
nued to consolidate and extend its com- 
merce. But the unsettled state of the 
Mogul empire exposed their aflTairs to 
perpetual vicissitudes, and they fell into 
disorder; insomuch that in 1772, their 
debts were augmented to the amount of 
more than £1,200,000, and they were 
obliged to apply to government for as- 
sistance. In this crisis government in- 
terposed, and a considerable change was 
made in the constitution of the company. 
1781. The exclusive privileges of the 
company were extended to 1791, with 
three years' notice ; the dividend on the 
company's stock was fixed at eight per 
cent. ; three-fourths of their surplus re- 
venues, after paying the dividend, and 
the sum of £400,000 payable to govern- 
ment, was to be applied to the public 
service, and the remaining fourth to the 
company's own use. 

1793. The company's charter was 
prolonged till March 1, 1814. In the 
act for the purpose, a species of provi- 
sion was made for opening the trade to 
India to private individuals. All his 
majesty's subjects, residing in any part 
of his European dominions, were allowed 
to export to India any article of the pro- 
duce or manufacture of the British do- 
minions, except military stores, ammu- 
nition, masts, spars, cordage, &c. 

For some years previous to the termi- 
nation of the company's charter, the 
conviction had been gaining ground, 
that the trade to the East was capable 
of being very greatly extended. Very 
great efforts were consequently made by 
the manufacturing and commercial in- 
terests to have the monopoly set aside, 
and the trade to the East thrown open. 
The company vigorously resisted these 
pretensions ; and had interest enough 
to procure a prolongation of the privi- 
lege of carrying on an extensive trade to 
3 o 



EAS 



410 



EAS 



China, to April 10, 1831, with three 
years' notice ; the government of India 
being continued in their hands for the 
same period ; but the same year the 
trade of India was opened, under cer- 
tain conditions, to the public. The prin- 
cipal of these conditions were, that pri- 
vate individuals should trade, directly 
only, with the presidencies of Calcutta, 
Madras, and Bombay, and the port of 
Penang ; that the vessels fitted out by 
them should not be under 350 tons bur- 
den, &c. 

The question as to the renewal of the 
charter was again discussed in 1832 and 

1833, and the company having no rea- 
sonable objection to urge against their 
being deprived of the privilege of trad- 
ing, the act 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 85, 1833, 
for continuing the charter till 1854, ter- 
minated the company's commercial cha- 
racter ; by enacting that the company's 
trade to China should cease April 22, 

1834, and that the company should, as 
soon as possible after that date, dispose 
of their stock on hand, and close their 
commercial business. Under this act, 
the functions of the East India Company 
are wholly political. Thatbody is to con- 
tinue to govern India, with the concur- 
rence and under the supervision of the 
board of control, till April 30, 1854. 
All the real and personal property be- 
longing to the company April 22, 1834, 
was vested in the crown, and is to be 
held or managed by the company in 
trust for the same, subject, of course, to 
all claims, debts, contracts, &c., already 
in existence, or that may hereafter be 
brought into existence by competent 
authority. 

EAST India Company at Embden, 
established 1750. 

EAST India Company of France, 
formed in 1664, laid the foundation of 
their settlements at Pondecherry, 1674; 
abolished by the national assembly, and 
the trade laid open, January 26, 1791. 

EAST India Company of Holland, 
incorporated l604. 

EAST India Company of Sweden, 
founded March, 1731. 

EAST India Docks. See Docks, 

EAST India House, Leadenhall- 
street, London, built 1726 ; enlarged 
1799. 

EAST Indies, a general term sig- 
nifying the continent? and islands to the 
east and south of the river Indus, as far 
as the borders of China, including Timor 



and the Moluccas, Hindoostan, Birman 
Empire, &c. See India. 

EAST Saxons, kingdom of, began 
527, ended 746. 

EASTBURY Priory, Sussex, built 
1270. 

EASTBY Abbey, Yorkshire, built 
1152. 

EASTER, a feast of the church, held 
in memory of our Saviour's resurrec- 
tion. The christians of the second cen- 
tury celebrated anniversary festivals in 
commemoration of that event. The day 
was called the paschal day, because it 
was considered as the same with that 
on which the Jews celebrated their pass- 
over. Towards the close of the second 
century, a dispute commenced about the 
particular time in which this feast was 
to be kept. The Asiatic churches kept 
it on the 14th day of the first Jewish 
month, and three days after commemo- 
rated the resurrection of the Redeemer. 
The western churches celebrated their 
paschal feast on the night that preceded 
the anniversary of Christ's resurrection, 
and thus connected the commemoration 
of his death with that of his resurrec- 
tion. The disputants retained their own 
customs till the fourth century, when 
the council of Nice abolished that of the 
Asiatics, and rendered the time of the 
celebration of Easter the same through 
all the christian churches. Easter is one 
of the most considerable festivals in the 
christian calendar ; being that which re- 
gulates and determines the time of all 
the other movable feasts. The rule for 
the celebration of Easter, fixed by the 
council of Nice, in the year 325, is that 
it be held on the Sunday which falls 
next after the full moon following March 
21, i. e. the Sunday which falls next 
after the first full moon after the vernal 
equinox. 

EASTER Island, island in the south 
Pacific Ocean, discovered by Davis, in 
1686, visited by Roggewien on Easter- 
day 1722, and by Cook in 1774. Also 
by Captain Beechey, in the Blossom in 
1825, in his voyage to co-operate with 
the polar expedition. It is 2,000 miles 
from the coast of Chili, and 1 500 from the 
nearest inhabited land, Pitcairn's Island 
excepted, which has been peopled by 
Europeans. The population. Captain 
Beechy estimated at about 1,200. 

EASTERN Empire began, under 
Arcadius, 395 ; usurped by Bardas for 
10 years, 976 ; by John Cautacuzenes, for 



ECC 



411 



ECC 



17 years, 1341 ; ended, by the Turks 
taking Constantinople, May 29> 1453. 

EASTLAND Company, incorpo- 
rated 1579. 

EASLEY Abbey, Yorkshire, built 
1152. 

EBER, the grandson of Shem, born 
A.c. 2281. 

ECBATANA, a celebrated city of 
Asia, the capital of Media, and the resi- 
dence of the Median and Persian kings, 
was built A.c. 708, by Dejoces I. who 
reigned in Media, after the inhabitants 
had shaken off the Assyrian yoke. 

ECCALEOBION. An exhibition has 
been recently opened in Pall Mall, bear- 
ing tliis classical denomination, the ob- 
ject of which, is, the hatching of chickens 
by heat. This art has long been prac- 
tised in China, Egypt, &c. In the latter 
country the process is carried on chiefly 
by the inhabitants of a single village, 
named Berme, and those that live at a 
small distance from it. The ovens are 
contained in large rectangular build- 
ings of brick or clay, called mamals, each 
of which are said to contain about 40 or 
50 ovens. It has been supposed that 
the ovens of Egypt annually give life to 
about 92,640,000 chickens. 

By some such means, in this exhibition- 
room. Pall Mall, it is possible to bring 
into existence, through winter as well as 
summer, a hundred birds a-day, or 
nearly 40,000 in a year. The exhibition 
is, however, chiefly to be prized as the 
means of investigating the process of 
nature in advancing an organic substance 
to vitaUty. Eggs may be broken daily, 
as they proceed in their developement. 
and examined by the aid of the micro- 
scope ; thus exposing to view the actual 
commencement of hfe, and the gradual 
formation of those members which life 
is to animate. Day after day, similar 
microscopic inspection will show how 
the work advances — fibres, brain, intes- 
tines, muscles, bones, beak, feathers, are 
all formed in this wonderful sphere — the 
yolk, the white, and the shell, contribut- 
ing their various functions till about the 
14th or 15th day, when the birds are so 
far matured in the shell as to be hatched 
by keeping them moderately warm ; the 
warmth of the human body, or 98° of 
Fahrenheit, being the standard. Th« 
machine is capable of containing above 
2,000 eggs at a time. Year Book of 
Facts, 1840. 

ECCLESIASTICAL Courts, These 



courts are held by the king's authority, 
as supreme head of the church, for 
matters which, chiefly regard religion. 
In the time of our Saxon ancestors there 
was no distinction between the lay and 
ecclesiastical jurisdiction, but William I. 
under the influence of the monasteries 
and foreign clergy was induced to sepa- 
rate the ecclesiastical court from the 
civil. King Henry I. among other re- 
storations of the laws of King Edward 
the Confessor, revived the union of the 
civil and ecclesiastical courts, but Ste- 
phen proposed an oath, that ecclesiasti- 
cal persons and ecclesiastical causes 
should be subject only to the bishop's 
jurisdiction. The laws and constitutions 
by which the church of England is go- 
verned, are immennorial customs ; our 
own provincial constitutions ; the statutes 
concerning religion ; and the canon law, 
where all others fail. The proceedings in 
the ecclesiastical courts are according to 
the civil and canon law. These courts 
having contributed to the exercise of grie- 
vous oppression on persons charged with 
trivial otFences within their spiritual ju- 
risdiction, the statute 27 Geo. III. c. 44. 
limits the time of commencing suits for 
defamatory words to six months ; and 
for incontinence and beating in the 
churchyard to eight months. 

1840. A bill was brought in by Lord 
John Russell, in August, for remedying 
some of the defects in the ecclesiastical 
courts. This bill arose out of the case 
of John Thorogood, who having been 
proceeded against in these courts for the 
recovery of certain church rates, and 
committed to prison for contempt, it was 
held that the court had no power to dis- 
charge the prisoner. The bill provided 
that, after a person who had been com- 
mitted for contempt, had been in pri- 
son a considerable time, if it should ap- 
pear to the judge that there were sufficient 
grounds for his discharge, and the other 
party should consent to it, he should be 
discharged at once. 

The hill was read a third time, Aug. 
5, when an amendment was moved to 
prevent the possibility of the defend- 
ant's being detained in prison by the 
plaintiff's refusal to consent to his release. 
Before the bill passed. Lord John Rus- 
sell proposed, in order to meet the ob- 
jections, that thefollowing proviso should 
be added, — " Provided always, that in 
cases of subtraction of church-rates, in 
amount not exceeding £5, where the 



ECL 



412 



EDI 



party in contempt has suflfered imprison- 
ment for twelve months or upwards, the 
consent of the other party to the suit 
shall not be necessary to enable the judge 
to discharge the said party." 

ECLIPSE. An eclipse of the sun is 
an occultation of the sun's body, occa- 
sioned by the moon's passing in 
the right line between the earth and 
sun. An echpse of the moon is occa- 
sioned by the interposition of the earth 
directly between the sun and moon. 
Catalogues of eclipses have been calcu- 
lated by astronomers for many thou- 
sand years, by a reference to which any 
chronological point connected with these 
phenomena may be at once determined. 
The following are some of the most re- 
markable eclipses. 

A.c. 585. One of the sun observed at 
Sardis, predicted by Thales. 

424. At Athens. 

A.D. 291. One at Rome, caused a 
total darkness at noon-day. 

968. At Constantinople. 

1033. In France, dark at noon-day, 
June 29. 

1140. In England, 5 Stephen, occa- 
sioned a total darkness, March 21. 

1191. Another, June 22 ; entire dark- 
ness, and the stars very visible at ten in 
the morning : in the same year, the true 
sun, and the appearance of another, so 
that astronomers alone could distinguish 
the difference by glasses. 

1715. A total eclipse of the sun in 
England, when the darkness was so 
great that the stars faintly appeared, 
and the birds went to roost in the morn- 
ing about ten, April 22. 

] 748. A remarkable one July 14 ; the 
quantity eclipsed was ten digits, and, 
during the time of the eclipse, Venus 
made a beautifully brilliant appearance. 

1836. Great annular eclipse, visible 
in England. The darkness, probably, 
owing to the extraordinary clearness of 
the atmosphere, was not so great as had 
been anticipated, and consequently, to 
ordinary telescopes, the stars, that had 
been marked out in the diagrams as 
visible, were not to be seen. 

1838. Eclipse of the sun, September 
18, visible in America, observed by the 
professor of Yale College, accompanied 
by Messrs. H. L. Smith, and E. P. Ma- 
son, the former having a Gregorian of 
three feet focus, and the latter a New- 
tonian of seven feet. The average of 
the three observers' notes gave the fol- 



lowing results, expressed in mean time. 
Beginning of the eclipse 3h. 21min. 
14.47s. End 5h. 52m. I7s. 

The following are the principal eclipses 
to be visible in Europe the remainder of 
the present century. 

1841. Of the sun, Feb. 21, at 11 in the 
morning, visible in Greenland, Europe, 
small at south. Of the sun, July 18, at 
two in the afternoon, visible in Europe, 
and west of Asia, small at south. 

1843. Of the moon, Dec. 6, at mid- 
night, 2i dig., visible, London. 

1844. Of the moon. May 31, at 11, 
in the afternoon, 15^ dig., Germany. 
Moon, Nov. 24, at midnight, total, 18i 
dig., London. 

1845. Of the sun, May 6, 10^ in the 
morning, visible in Canada, all Europe, 
except S. E. 

1863. Of the moon, June 1, at mid- 
night, 14^ dig., London. 

1866. Of the sun, Oct. 8, at five in the 
afternoon, visible north of America, 
N. W. of Europe. 

1877. Of the moon, Aug. 23, 11^ in 
the afternoon, total, central France. 

1878. Of the moon, Aug. 12, at mid- 
night, 64 dig., London. 

1884. Of the sun, March 27, six in 
the morning, visible, N. E. of Europe, 
north of Asia, small at east. 

1891. Of the moon, Nov. 16, half- 
past 12, morning, I7i dig., Ireland. 

1895. Of the sun, March 26, 10 morn- 
ing, visible, in the Atlantic, Europe, 
north of Asia. 

1898. Of the moon, Jan. 7, midnight, 
ij dig., London. Of the moon, Dec 
27, midnight, total, 16 dig., London. 

EDDYSTONE Lighthouse. See 
Lighthouse. 

EDGAR, Anglo-Saxon king of Eng- 
land, was crowned at Kingston-upon- 
Thames, 959, died July 1, 975, and was 
buried at Glastonbury. 

EDGAR'S Tower, Worcester, built 
975. 

EDGECOTT, Northamptonshire. In 
1499, a battle was fought here between 
the adherents of Edward IV., and a body 
of insurgents, in which the former were 

EDGEWORTH, James Richard 
LovELL, author of "Practical and Pro- 
fessional Education," and father of the 
celebrated Maria Edgeworth, died Nov. 
1817. 

EDICT, an order or instrument, 
signed and sealed by a prince, to serve 



EDI 



as a law to his subjects, as the follow- 
ing : Perpetual edict, compiled by Sal- 
vius Julianus, under Adrian, 132. Edict 
of pacification in France, which gave rise 
to the league, 1576. Edict of Nantes, 
published by Henry IV., 1598. 

EDINBURGH, probably, owes its 
name to Edwin, the Anglo-Saxon king 
of Northumberland, who, in the seventh 
century, built the castle called from him 
Edwyne's burgh or Edinburgh. The 
name occurs in a charter granted by Da- 
vid I., to the abbey of Holyrood in 
1128. 

The Scots obtained permanent posses- 
sion of it about 960. A parliament was 
heldhere inl215,underAlexanderII.,and 
regular assemblies after 1456, when the 
Scottish sovereigns removed from Scone, 
and made this the residence of the court 
and seat of government. In 1544, the 
city was taken and burnt by an English 
army Tinder the earl of Hertford. It 
suffered also frequently during the sub- 
sequent religious contests, which termi- 
nated in the establishment of Presbyte- 
rianism in Scotland in 1592. Under 
Charles I. the peace of the city was dis- 
turbed by the attempts of Archbishop 
Laud to restore episcopacy. Sept. 1650, 
the castle of Edinburgh surrendered to 
the English, and remained in their pos- 
session until the restoration of Charles II. 

At the revolution, this fortress was 
garrisoned by the partisans of James 
II. ; but in June, 1689, was surrendered 
to the forces of William III. In 1736, 
Edinburgh was the scene of an insurrec- 
tion which terminated in the lawless 
execution of Captain Porteus. In 1745, 
this city was the head- quarters of Charles 
Edward Stuart, commonly called the 
Pretender. The castle was, however, 
held by the troops of George II. After 
the final defeat of Charles Edward at the 
battle of CuUoden, the provost was tried 
on a charge of not having properly de- 
fended the city, but was acquitted. It 
has now for nearly a century, enjoyed 
tranquillity, and has, in consequence, 
greatly increased in size, wealth, civiliza- 
tion, and importance. 

The foundation of a new college was 
laid, 1789; new Bridewell built 1791; 
bank of, foundation laid, June 3, 1801, 

A fire at Edinburgh, 1544 ; great fire 
also in the Lawn market, 1771 ; another 
1795 ; 100 houses destroyed by fire, the 
Tron church greatly damaged, and the 
lead on the roof, melting with the heat. 



413 EDW 

poured down in a stream, and injured 
many, November, 1824. 

EDMONSBURY, St., monastery, 
SuflFolk, built, 663 ; enlarged, 1031 ; the 
arches, near the east gate, built 1148. 

EDMUND I., Anglo-Saxon king, 
fifth son of Edward the elder, crowned 
at Kingston-upon-Thames, 940. He 
received a wound, of which he bled to 
death. May 26, 947. 

EDMUND Ironside, was crowned 
at Kingston-upon-Thames, April, 1016. 
Murdered at Oxford, Nov. 30, 1016. 

ED RED, brother of Edmund I., 
crowned at Kingston - upon - Thames, 
Aug. 17, 947. He died in 955. 

EDSON, Calvin, the living skeleton, 
died of " tabes mesenterica," or tape- 
worm, 14 feet long, 1833. 

EDUCATION, general, in England. 
In 1818, a select committee of the house 
of commons was appointed to inquire 
into the education of the poor, and a 
circular letter was addressed to the mi- 
nisters of the respective parishes of Great 
Britain, requiring returns of the number 
of schools, endowed and unendowed, 
and of scholars, both in day and Sunday- 
schools. Of the children, chiefly of the 
working-classes in England, that year, 
644,282 received daily instruction. 

Since the date of these returns, the most 
extraordinary exertions have been used 
to promote the education of the people. 
In the great work of teaching the chil- 
dren of the poor the principles of reli- 
gion, and the elements of useful know- 
ledge, all parties and persuasions have 
united with the most charitable zeal. 
See Schools. 

EDWARD THE Confessor, 
crowned at Winchester, 1042 ; died, 
Jan. 5, 1066, aged 65. 

EDWARD THE Elder, was crown- 
ed at Kingston-upon-Thames, in 901 ; 
died at Farringdon, in Berkshire, in 
924. 

EDWARD THE Martyr, was 
crowned by Dunstan, at Kingston-upon- 
Thames, in 975. Was stabbed, by the 
instructions of his mother-in-law, as he 
was drinking in Corfe-castle, in the isle 
of Pur beck, in Dorsetshire, March 18, 
979. 

EDWARD I. of England, born June 
16, 1239 ; succeeded to the crown, Nov. 
16, 1272; died at Burgh-upon-the- 
Sands, in Cumberland, July 7, 1307- 

EDWARD II. born at Caernarvon. 
in Wales, April 25, 1284; was the first 



EDW 



414 



EGI 



king of England's eldest son that had 
the title of prince of Wales, with which 
he was invested the same year. He as- 
cended the throne, July 7, 1307; was 
crowned with his queen, at Westminster, 
Feb. 26, 1308 ; murdered at Berkeley- 
castle, Sept. 21. 

EDWARD III., born at Windsor, 
Nov. 15, 1312 ; succeeded to the crown, 
Jan. 13, 1327; crowned at Westminster, 
Feb. 1, following ; died at Richmond, 
June 21, 1377. 

EDWARD IV., born at Rouen, Apl. 
29, 1443; was crowned at Westminster, 
June 28, 1461 ; died of an ague, at 
Westminster, April 9, 1483. 

EDWARD v., born Nov. 4, 1470; 
proclaimed king, at London, April 9, 
1483 ; deposed, June 20, following, and 
with the duke of York, his brother, 
smothered soon after, by their uncle, 
who succeeded him. 

EDWARD VI., born Oct. 12, 1537; 
crowned Sunday, Feb. 20, 1547; died 
of a consumption, at Greenwich, July 6, 
1553. 

EDWARDS, Bryan, author of the 
" History of the West Indies," died 
1800. 

EDWARDS, George, the father of 
ornithologists, died 1773, aged 81. 

EDWARDS, Jonathan, a celebrat- 
ed American divine, born at Windsor, 
in Connecticut, in 1703, and educated at 
Yale College, where he took his degree 
of bachelor of arts, before he was 17. In 
1723, he was admitted to the degree of 
master of arts ; and in the following 
year, was chosen tutor of the college. In 
1726, he resigned his situation, and was 
ordained pastor of a congregation at 
Northampton, which he continued to 
serve with much success, till 1744. His 
endeavours to check the dissemination 
of licentious publications, excited such 
violent disputes and dislikes, as termi- 
nated his usefulness at Northampton. 
In 1751, he became Indian missionary, 
at the town of Stockbridge, in Massa- 
chusetts, and in 1757, was elected to the 
presidency of the college of New Jersey. 
He died of the small-pox, March 23, 
1758, in the 55th year of his age. The 
most important of his works, and that 
by which he is most known, is his 
" Careful Inquiry into the modern pre- 
vailing Notion of that Freedom of Will 
which is supposed to be essential to 
Moral Agency," published in 1754. 
EDWARDS, William, the self- 



taught architect,, who erected the bridge 
called Pont-y-Prydd, over the Tave, and 
which, for the time, with few exceptions, 
was the largest arch in Europe, died 
1789. 

EDWARDS, WiLLiAM,a remarkable 
instance of longevity, died at Caereu, 
near Cardiff, Glamorganshire, in 1668, 
aged 168. 

EDWIN THE Great, king of Nor- 
thumberland, succeeded as eighth mo- 
narch of England, in 624. He lost his 
life in a battle, at Hatfield, October 3, 
633. 

EDWY, son of Edward I., was crown- 
ed at Kingston-upon-Thames, in 955. 
He died of grief, 959. 

EEL, Living Electric, (gymnotus 
electricus,) brought to this country from 
the Amazon river, 1838; and exhibited 
at the Gallery of Practical Science, Ade- 
laide-street, Strand. On Oct. 22, Pro- 
fessor Faraday, in the presence q( Pro- 
fessors Daniell, Owen, WheatstoTO, and 
others, succeeded in obtaining from it 
the electric spark. The electricity ap- 
peared to be of the most intense charac- 
ter, being communicated by simply im- 
mersing the hands in the vessel of water 
containing the eel. By oneshock.notonly 
was the needle of a galvanometer deflected, 
but chemical action and magnetic induc- 
tion obtained. Dr. Faraday has sincere- 
ported to the Royal Society his examina- 
tion of this gymnotus, and has come to 
the opinion that its electric power is 
indentical with common electricity, 
though more readily developed. 

EGA LITE', Philip, duke of Orleans, 
guillotined, 1793. 

EGBERT. 17th king of the West 
Saxons, and first sole monarch of the 
English ; was crowned at Winchester, 
when, by his edict, he ordered all the 
south of the island to be called England, 
827 ; he died Feb. 4, 837, and was 
buried at Winchester. See England. 

EGFRYD, 12th king of the Mercians, 
became I7th Saxon monarch, July 13, 
794; died Dec. 17, following. 

EGGS. The trade in eggs forms a 
considerable branch of our commerce 
with France. The number imported in 
in 1832 was, 55,651,243. The total 
number in 1838, from different countries 
was, 83,745,723. 

EGGS, hatching by heat. See Ec- 
caleobion. 

EGINHART, the most ancient Ger- 
man historian, flourished in the ninth 



EGY 



415 



EGY 



century; became secretary and son-in- 
law to Charlemagne, who sent him to 
Rome in 806, as his agent with Pope 
Leo III. ; he died in 839, leaving behind 
him a life of Charlemagne, written in the 
Latin language, and Annals of France, 
from the year 741 to 829 : these were 
inserted by Bouquet, in his collection of 
French historians. 

EGINTON, Francis, a British ar- 
tist, the restorer of painting on glass ; 
born 1737, died 1805. 

EGREMONT Castle, Cumberland, 
built 1070. 

EGYPT, an ancient kingdom of 
Africa, said to have commenced about A. c. 
2018, under Misraim, the son of Ham. 
For nearly four centuries, it was govern- 
ed by petty sovereigns termed hycsos, 
or shepherd kings, of whom Amases el 
Thetmoses first gained an ascendency, 
about A.c. 1600. It first attained pre- 
eminence under Sesostris, about a. c. 
1720. His descendants were ruling in 
Egypt at the time Jacob and his family 
settled in the valley of Gessen or Go- 
shen, east of the Nile. To these the 
Pharaohs (or kings,) succeeded, 'who 
ruled for 12 centuries, until Carabyses, 
king of Persia, subdued the country, 
A.c. 525. Egypt continued under the 
Persian yoke until the time of Alexan- 
der of Macedon, who having conquer- 
ed Persia, A.c. 322, built the city of 
of Alexandria. He was succeeded by 
Ptolemy, the son of Lagos ; 10 kings of 
that name succeeded each other, till 
Cleopatra, the sister of the last Ptole- 
my, ascended the throne about A.c. 51. 
See Cleopatra. 

Egypt then became a Roman province, 
and continued so until the reign of 
Omar, the second caliph of the suc- 
cessors of Mahomet, who drove out the 
Romans, a. d. 640, after it had been 
700 years a province : the power of the 
cahphs declined in the 13th century, 
and in 1250, the Mamelukes became 
masters of the government ; and under 
these despots, the last shadow of great- 
ness and civilization disappeared. Se- 
lim, sultan of the Turks, eventually in 
the years 1516 and 1517, conquered the 
last Mameluke sultan, Tumanbai, and 
Egypt became a Turkish province, go- 
verned by a pacha ; since that time it 
has been the theatre of frequent wars 
between the Mamelukes and Turks. 

1798. A French expedition under Na- 
poleon, landed in Egypt, July 2 ; on the 



5th, Alexandria was taken, and Rosetta 
surrendered on the same day. The 
French, then 30,000 strong, marched 
towards Cairo ; a decisive engagement 
was fought on the 23rd, between the 
French and the Mamelukes, in which 
the former were victorious ; and Buona- 
parte entered Cairo, on the 24th. But the 
battle of Aboukir, in which the French 
fleet was defeated by the British) under 
Admiral Nelson, having threatened to cut 
off the communication with France, and 
the Porte having declared war against 
France, the inhabitants of Cairo re- 
belled, and Napoleon's supplies were 
cut off. The insurrection, however, was 
subdued, and Napoleon marched into 
Syria, took El Arish, Jaffa, and under- 
took the siege of St. Jean d'Acre, which 
Sir Sidney Smith, a British officer, com- 
pelled him to raise. 

Napoleon sailed from Egypt, Aug. 23, 
1799, leaving the army under Gen.Kleber, 
who was afterwards murdered at Cairo. 
The French, then under Gen. Belliard, 
sustained many disasters, but were at 
last compelled to capitulate, on condition 
of being transported to France at the ex- 
pense of England, and reached their na- 
tive country just three years and six 
months from the time they had left Tou- 
lon. 

From this period perpetual jealousies 
arose between the Porte and the beys, or 
Mamelukes ; and the power of the for- 
mer was not sufficiently strong to subdue 
the more turbulent of them. Buonaparte 
found means to influence the grand 
seignior's councillors, who finally pre- 
vailed on him to declare his hostility to 
the British. In consequence of this, an 
expedition was sent out by the British 
government ; and in an attack upon 
Rosetta, a large portion of the British 
were surrounded and cut off, with the 
loss of 1000 men, killed, wounded, and 
prisoners. 

Mohammed or Mehemet Ali, the cele- 
brated pacha or viceroy of Egypt, soon af- 
terwards rose from the obscurity in which 
he had hitherto been concealed, and under 
his vigorous, but despotic government, 
the affairs of Egypt began again to resume 
a degree of political importance. In 
1811, he invited the Mamelukes to Cai- 
ro, receiving them with great ceremony, 
and apparent friendship, in the citadel, 
and at the same moment making dis- 
positions for intercepting and basely 
assassinating them on leaving his pre- 



EGY 



416 



ELB 



sence. The same treacherous measures 
v/ere pursued in the provinces, by order 
of the pacha, where most of the Mame- 
lukes were put to death. 

1824. Mehemet Ali completed his long 
projected army, trained after European 
fashion. These troops composed that 
formidable expedition to the Morea, in 
1825, which was destined for a con- 
siderable time, to give a new feature to 
the affairs of Greece. 

1832. A quarrel took place between 
the viceroy of Egypt and the grand seig- 
nior, which caused an attack on Syria ; 
the former directed his son, Ibrahim, to 
press the siege of Acre, which capi- 
tulated to him. Ibrahim marched 
against Damascus, defeated the army sent 
against him, obtained another signal vic- 
tory over the Turks, and established 
himself in Caramania. 

1833. Terms of peace were proposed 
on the part of Turkey, which were re- 
jected by the pacha, Mehemet Ali having 
in 1834, consolidated his authority in 
Syria. His Egyptian dominions suffer- 
ed greatly in 1835, from the ravages of 
the plague. By the end of February, 
the deaths in Ale.xandria amounted to 
180 or 200 daily. The disease then 
extended to Cairo, and stretched up the 
valley of the Nile, sweeping off a great 
part of the population. In the month 
of March, the daily deaths in Cairo 
amounted to between 300 and 400 ; in 
May, they had increased to nearly 2C00. 
The town of Fua, situated on the banks 
of the Nile, and containing a population 
of 2500 inhabitants, was stated to have 
lost 1800 of them. The distemper dis- 
appeared as the year advanced, but its 
ravages, joined to the long-continued 
military exertions of the pacha, had 
left Egypt almost depopulated. 

1838. Early in the summer, Mehemet 
Ali intimated his resolution to pay no 
more tribute to the Porte, an announce- 
ment which, as it amounted to an ex- 
press renunciation of his allegiance, was 
followed by great military and naval 
preparations on both sides. The diplo- 
matic agents of the European powers 
were, in the meantime, using all their 
endeavours to prevail upon Mehemet 
Ali to withdraw his refusal of tribute. 

1839. Hostilities were renewed in 
June, Hafiz Pacha, the Turkish vizier, 
having, on the night of the 23rd and 
24th, fired on the camp of the Egyptians, 
Ibrahim, on the 25tb, attacked the 



Turkish army commanded by Hafiz, near 
Nesby, between Aintab and El-Bir, and 
totally defeated it, making 10,000 pri- 
soners, and taking 15,000 guns and 120 
cannon. He pursued them on the fol- 
lowing day beyond the Euphrates. July 
16, Mehemet Ali sent a letter to the 
grand vizier, acknowledging the receipt 
of a communication informing him of 
the sultan's death, and of the new 
sultan's grant of pardon, and stating, 
that in consequence of the withdrawing 
of the Turkish army he had recalled his 
son Ibrahim from the Euphrates ; but, 
announcing, in reply to the offer of the 
hereditary possession of Egypt made by 
the sultan, that he would not be content 
with anything short of the grant of all 
the provinces under his government, for 
himself and heirs, in perpetuity. 

1840. The representatives of the four 
powers, England, Austria, Russia, and 
Prussia, signed with the Turkish envoy 
a convention, of which the following are 
the principal dispositions; — The sultan 
shall offer to the pacha of Egypt the he- 
reditary possession of Egypt and the 
pachalick of St. Jean d'Acre for life. If 
Mehemet Ali does not consent in ten 
days, the sultan shall offer him Egypt 
alone. If he still refuses, the four 
powers engage to force Mehemet into 
submission. 

EHRENBREITSTEIN, a fortress in 
Germany, was taken by the French in 
1632, and again in 1688. It was block- 
aded by the same enemy in 1799, and 
surrendered after a siege of 20 months. 

EHRET, George Dion., of Baden- 
Durlach, a celebrated botanical painter, 
born 1710, died 1770. 

EHUD, the Benjamite, judge of Israel, 
killed Eglon, and so relieved the Israel- 
ites from their second bondage, in the 
80th year of their rest under Othniel, 
A.c. 1325. 

EICHORN, Gottfried, author of 
"A Course of General History," died 
1827. 

ELBA, Isle of, near Leghorn, taken 
possession of by the English, July 6, 
1796. Conferred on Buonaparte as his 
place of retreat on his relinquishing the 
throne of France, April 5, 1814. After 
having been quitted by Buonaparte, 
taken possession of by the grand duke of 
Florence, July 30, 1815. 

ELBURGH, town of Holland, taken 
possession of by the French, April 1812 ; 
by the Russians, January 12, 1813. 



ELD 



417 



ELE 



ELD ON, John Scott, Earl of, 
was born June 4, 1751. In 1766 he was 
matriculated and admitted a commoner 
of University College, Oxford, under the 
tuition of his brother, the late Lord 
Stowell, then an eminent scholar in that 
society. He was elected fellow of the 
University, July 11, 1767 ; proceeded to 
the degree of bachelor of arts February 
20, 1770; and gained the chancellor's 
prize, " On the Advantages and Disad- 
vantages of Foreign Travel," in 1771- 
He proceeded to the degree of M. A., 
February 1773. 

1776. He was called to the bar, and 
quitted Oxford for the metropolis ; and, 
in 1781, in the case of the Clithero elec- 
tion petition, for which he was retained, 
he laid the foundation of that reputation 
as a sound lawyer which he maintained 
to the latest period of his life. In 1783 
he was introduced into parliament, upon 
Lord Weymouth's interest, for the bo- 
rough of Weobly, for which he continued 
to sit until 1796. In June 1788 he was 
appointed solicitor- general, and was 
knighted — an honour which it appears 
he was desirous of declining ; but it was 
insisted upon by his majesty. On the 
13th of February, 1793, he was appointed 
attorney-general, which office he held 
for six years. During that period his 
labours were unremitting. Among the 
most painful duties of his high office 
may be mentioned the prosecution, in 
the year 1794, of Thomas Hardy and 
Mr. Home Tooke, and other defendants, 
for high treason. 

1796. Sir John Scott was returned 
for Boroughbridge, as the colleague of 
Sir Francis Burdett. On the death of 
Sir James Eyre he succeeded him as lord 
chief justice of the Common Pleas, and 
on the 18th of July, 1799, was raised to 
the peerage as Baron Eldon, of Eldon, in 
the county of Durham. In 1801 he be- 
came lord high chancellor of England. 
In the same year he was nominated high 
steward of the university of Oxford by 
the duke of Portland, then chancellor of 
the university. In the year 1830 a law 
scholarship was founded at Oxford by 
subscription of many distinguished per- 
sons, in honour of the earl of Eldon. 
Lord Eldon resigned the great seal on 
the 7th of February, I8O6. He was re- 
appointed April 1, 1807, from which pe- 
riod he continued in office until 1827, 
being altogether a period of nearly 25 
years. 



At the coronation of King George IV. 
the lord chancellor was promoted to the 
dignities of Viscount Encombe and earl 
of Eldon, by patent dated July 7, 1821," 
in which it was expressly stated, by his 
majesty's special desire, that the said 
titles were conferred " in consideration 
of his profound knowledge of the laws of 
his country, and the distinguished ability 
and integrity which he had invariably 
evinced in administering them " in his 
said office of chancellor, during a period 
of nineteen years." His lordship finally 
resigned the seal April 30, 1827, having 
then kept it for a longer period than any 
of his predecessors. He died January 
13, 1838, in his 87th year. His remains 
were removed on Monday, January 22, 
for interment to Kingston, county of 
Dorset, the parish in which his estates 
of Encombe is situated, and attended out 
of town by a train of more than 80 car- 
riages, including those of two members 
of the royal family, and other distin- 
guished personages. 

ELECTION, the first, of burgesses 
to sit in parliament, 1265, in the reign 
of Henry III. 

ELECTION PETITIONS, an act 
to amend the jurisdiction for the trial of, 
2 and 3 Victoria, c. 38, l7th August, 
1839. This act also remodels the system 
of trial of petitions, and minutely details 
the proceedings to be adopted in such 
cases. 

ELECTIONS, Bribery at. See 
Bribery. 

ELECTORS OF Germany, first 
began 1298. 

ELECTRICITY, like other branches 
of science, has arisen from very small 
beginnings. Thales of ^(Uletus, who 
flourished a.c. 600, was acquainted with 
the property which amber possesses of 
attracting light substances. Theophras- 
tus, A.c. 300, notices the electrical power 
of the lincurium or tourmalin. Pliny, 
who was suffocated in an eruption of 
Mount Vesuvius, A . d .79. also occasionally 
mentions the attractive property of am- 
ber ; but all seem to have confined this 
property to amber, jet, and, perhaps, 
agate, till the year I6OO, when Dr. Wil- 
liam Gilbert, a physician of London, 
pubhshed his treatise " De Magnete," 
in which a considerable accession was 
made to the list of electrics. 

Otto Guericke, the inventor of the 
air-pump, who died in I666, was the 
first who constructed any thing like an 
3h 



ELE 



418 



ELE 



electrical machine. He poured melted 
sulphur into a hollow glass globe, and 
thus, having formed a globe of sulphur, 
he broke the glass away from it as use- 
less or detrimental ; little suspecting that 
the glass itself would have answered his 
purpose much better than the sulphur. 
Mr. Hawksbee, in 1709, observed that 
light is emitted by glass ; he likewise 
noticed the noise it occasions ; besides a 
variety of phenomena connected with 
electrical attraction and repulsion. The 
discovery that silk and paper are elec- 
trics, was made in 1729. 

Mr. Grey, in 1734, suspended pieces 
of metal on silken lines, and on electri- 
fying them found that they yielded lu- 
minous sparks ; this furnished the first 
hint which afterwards led to the con- 
struction of metallic conductors. He 
also discovered on this occasion the cone 
or pencil of light, such as is now 
known to issue from an electrified point. 
Dr. Desaguliers made a number of ex- 
periments between the years 1738 and 
1743; by means of these he discovered, 
that pure air is an electric. In 1744, 
the possibility of setting fire to inflam- 
mable substances by electricity, was 
evinced by the experiments of Dr. Ludolf. 
The invention of the Leyden phial took 
place towards the close of 1745, and the 
discovery is ascribed by some to M. Cu- 
r8eus,of Leyden, and by others to M.Von 
Kleist, dean of the cathedral at Cammin. 
Lastly, the electrical star and bells were 
invented in Germany, but by whom we 
are not informed. 

Electrical experiments were made by 
I'Abbe Nollet to determine the effects of 
electricity on the evaporation of fluids, 
on solids, and on organised bodies in 
general. Dr. Franklin prosecuted the 
same subject in America ; he verified the 
similarity or rather the identity of elec- 
tricity and lightning, which had long 
before been suspected by electricians ; 
for this purpose, in 1752, he raised a 
kite, which he had prepared for the pur- 
pose, and succeeded by means of it in 
extracting the electrical fire from a thun- 
der cloud. 

To Dr. Priestly we are indebted for 
many original experiments and disco- 
veries, about 1800. He ascertained the 
conducting power of charcoal, and of hot 
glass ; the electricity of fixed and in- 
flammable air, and of oil ; the diflference 
between new and old glass, with respect 
to the diflfusion of electricity over its 



surface ; the lateral explosion in electrical 
discharges ; a new method of fixing cir- 
cular coloured spots on the surfaces of 
metals; and the most probable diflference 
between electrics and conductors, &c. 

During the present century the exten- 
sive relations which connect electricity 
with other branches of physical science 
were discovered, and their importance 
appreciated. Already have we seen the 
rise of a new science founded on that 
peculiar modification of electricity known 
by the name of galvanism or electro- 
chemistry, which has arisen as one of the 
connecting branches between remote 
divisions of the philosophy of nature. 
See Galvanism. Still more recently 
there has been opened to us, in the sub- 
ject of electro-magnetism, another new 
province of science, which establishes a 
natural connexion between two powers 
hitherto regarded as distinct. See Elec- 
tro-Ma gnetism. 

The transactions of the Royal Society, 
and of the Electrical Society recently 
established, are full of new and valuable 
communications. In 1837-1838, Profes- 
sor Faraday continued his valuable re- 
searches in electricity. During the Royal 
Society's season for 1838, on January 
11, the reading of the 11th series was 
concluded. The object of this paper is 
to establish two general principles relating 
to the theory of electricity, which appear 
to be of great importance, first, — that 
induction is, in all cases, the result of the 
action of contiguous particles ; and, se- 
condly, that different insulators have 
diflferent inductive capacities. 

The council of the Royal Society 
awarded the Copley medal of 1837 to 
M. Becquerel, for his various memoirs 
on electricity, published in the " Me- 
moires de I'Academie Royal des Sciences 
de rinstitute de France;" and particu- 
larly for those on the production of crys- 
tals of metallic sulphurets, and of sulphur 
by the long- continued action of electri- 
city of very low tension. 

June 19, 1838, was read before the 
Electrical Society, by Mr. Crosse, " An 
account of a series of daily observa- 
tions made by him, with a sustaining 
battery, to ascertain the increase or di- 
minution of the temperature of the at- 
mosphere, during a part of last winter, 
and commenced previously to a very 
severe frost which afterwards took place; 
also, remarks on the agency of heat in 
electro-crystallization. The most singu- 



i 



ELE 



419 



ELE 



lar fact connected with this enquiry is 
the increase of the power of the battery 
unrier a diminution of temperature. 

Mr. Harris, in 1839, communicated to 
the " Pliilosophical Magazine" a memoir 
on Lightning Conductors, in which he 
states his confirmed opinion, after a long 
and severe examination of the laws of 
electrical action, and of cases of ships 
and buildings struck by lightning, 
that a lightning rod is purely passive ; 
that it operates simply in carrying off 
the lightning which falls on it, without 
any lateral explosion whatever : this 
opinion Mr. Harris is prepared to sub- 
stantiate by numerous cases in which 
ships have been struck by lightning. 

ELECTKO-MAGNETISM. This 
new science, sometimes called thermo- 
electricity, has arisen out of recent che- 
mical experiments, which establish the 
intimate connexion subsisting between 
chemistry and electricity, as developed in 
the science of galvanism; and also opens 
to us another new province of science 
which establishes a natural connexion 
between electricity and magnetism. The 
first experiments by Professor Oersted, 
of Copenhagen, to determine some ana- 
logies between*magnetism and electri- 
city, which relations had previously been 
imperfectly detected by Ritter, were 
made 1807. The principle was moie 
completely established by Oersted in 

1820. The discovery was followed by 
subsequent experiments in England, 
France, and Germany. 

It 'was afterwards ascertained, both by 
Sir H. Davy, and M. Arago, that mag- 
netism may be developed, in steel not 
previously possessing it, by being placed 
in the electric current, and may even be 
excited in the uniting wire itself. Both 
philosophers ascertained, independently 
of each other, that the uniting wire, be- 
coming a magnet, attracts iron filings, 
and collects sufficient to acquire the di- 
ameter of a common quill. Various 
other important facts respecting the com- 
munication of magnetism are described 
in the paper of Sir H. Davy, published 
in the Philosophical Transactions for 

1821, all tending to establish the con- 
clusion that magnetism is produced 
whenever concentrated electricity is 
passed through space. The electricity 
of a common machine, it was afterwards 
ascertained by the Chev. Yelin, when 
passed along a helix, either in simple 
electrical sparks, or discharged from a 



battery, has the effect of rendering an 
inclined needle magnetic. 

1822. Professor Seebeck, of Berlin, 
discovered that electric currents may be 
produced by the partial application of 
heat to a circuit formed of two solid con- 
ductors. For example, when a semi- 
circle of bismuth, joined to a semi- 
circle of antimony, so as to form a ring, 
is heated at one of the junctions by a 
lamp, a current of electricity flows 
through the circuit from the antimony to 
the bismuth, and such thermo-electric 
currents produce all the electro-magnetic 
effects. 

1823 to 1833. The science of electro- 
magnetism relates to the reciprocal ac- 
tion of electrical and magnetic currents ; 
but there are other branches of science 
arising out of this. M. Ampfere, by dis- 
covering the mutual action of electrical 
currents on one another, added, a new 
branch to the subject, to which he gave 
the name of Electro-dynamics. He es- 
tablished a theory of electro-magnetism, 
suggested by the analogy between elec- 
tro-dynamic cylinders and magnets, 
founded upon the reciprocal attraction 
of electric currents, to which all the phe- 
nomena of magnetism and electro-mag- 
netism may be reduced, by assuming 
that the magnetic properties which 
bodies possess, derive these properties 
from currents of electricity circulating 
about every part in one uniform direction. 
From the law of action and reaction, 
being equal and contrary, it might be 
expected that, as electricity powerfully 
affects magnets so, conversely, magnet- 
ism ought to produce electrical pheno- 
mena. By proving this very important 
fact, from a series of highly interesting 
and ingenious experiments. Dr. Faraday 
has added another branch to the science, 
which he has named Magneto-electricity. 
The emperor of Russia lately appoint- 
ed a commission to inquire into the ap- 
plicability of electro-magnetism as a 
moving power ; and from an official re- 
port by this commission, the substance 
of which is given in the " United Service 
Journal," 1839, it appeared that Profes- 
sor Jacobi had succeeded in impelling a 
vessel by electro-magnetic power. The 
vessel was of that species of galley which 
is well known in the Russian navy ; its 
measurement, 26 feet in length, and 8i 
in width. On smooth water, it was im- 
pelled at the rate of more than three feet 
per second of time, or somewhat above 



ELL 



420 



ELL 



two miles per hour; and the average of 
a number of experiments was from two 
to three feet per second. It performed 
a distance of rather less than five miles 
along the Neva and the town canals in 
about two hours and a half. The expe- 
riments developed much that was un- 
known on the subject, both of electricity 
and magnetism, with regard to their 
practical bearings, and suggested the in- 
troduction of very considerable improve- 
ments in the construction of machinery 
upon a larger scale. An American 
gentleman, ('Capt. Taylor,) states that he 
had been equally successful in applying 
electro-magnetism, as a driving power to 
machinery on shore. 

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. See 
Galvanism. 

ELEPHANT, order of knighthood, 
began in Denmark, 1478. 

ELEUSINIAN, Mysterioes, insti- 
tuted by Triptolemus, a. c. 1383; brought 
to Athens by Eumolpus, 1356. 

ELEVATION of the Host intro- 
duced, 1222. 

ELGIN Marbles, purchased by go- 
vernment at £35,000, and added to the 
British Museum, 1815. 

ELI, the 11th judge of Israel, died at 
Shiloh, A.c. 1116, aged 98. 

ELIJAH, prophesied, a.c. 911 ; sup- 
ported by the widow of Sarepta, 910; 
taken up into heaven, 896. 

ELISHA, died a.c. 830, having pro- 
phesied 60 years. 

ELIZABETH Castle, Jersey, built 
1586. 

ELIZABETH, queen of England, 
born Sept. 7, 1533 ; sent prisoner to the 
Tower, 1554; began to reign, Nov. 17, 
1558 ; crowned at Westminster, Jan. 15, 
1559; relieved the protestants in the 
Netherlands with about 200,000 crowns, 
besides stores, 1569 ; a marriage pro- 
posed to the queen by the duke of 
Alen^on, 1571 ; but finally rejected, 
1581 ; the Spanish armada destroyed, 
1588 ; Essex, the queen's favourite, be- 
headed, Feb. 25, 1602 ; the queen died at 
Richmond, March 24, 1603; was buried 
at Westminster, and was succeeded by 
the son of Mary, queen of Scots, then, 
James VI. of Scotland, 

ELLA, second Saxon monarch, land- 
ed at Shoreham, in Sussex, in 477. As- 
sumed the title of king of the south 
Saxons, in 491, died 499. 

ELLENBOROUGH, Lord, a distin- 
guished lawyer, was the son of Dr. Ed- 



1 

) of T 



mund Law, archdeacon and bishop of 
Carlisle, and was born at Great S;ilkeld, 
in Cumberland, Nov. 16, 1750. At the 
age of 12, he had already begun to ex- 
hibit the promise of early talents, and 
was removed to the Charter-house, where 
his father had obtained him a place on 
the foundation. In 1768, he removed 
to Peter-house, Cambridge, of which 
college his father had been appointed 
master in 1754. At college he distin- 
guished himself more by his talents than 
his assiduity. Upon being called to the 
bar, his success was not brilliant. He, 
however, obtained some business on the 
northern circuit, where it is said he ex- 
ercised an unbounded influence over the 
juries. In Westminster Hall, be made 
no very conspicuous figure at the onset 
of his career, but his advancement was 
afterwards considerably promoted by 
Mr. Justice Buller. The most impor- 
tant business in which Mr. Law was en- 
gaged, was the trial of Warren Hastings, 
and in this instance he acquitted himself, 
as is well known, with great skill, firm- 
ness, and talent. After the trial his 
business increased rapidly, and he ob- 
tained a great access of reputation. At 
the commencement of tHte French revo- 
lution, state prosecutions were instituted, 
and he was in general retained for the 
crown. In February, 1801, he was ap- 
pointed to the office of attorney-genersJ ; 
the late Mr. Perceval being made solici- 
tor-general at the same time. On March 
1, following, he took his seat for the first 
time in the house of commons ; and in 
April, 1802, under the influence of the 
Addington administration, he was raised 
to the chief-justiceship of the king's 
bench and to the peerage. 

1805. When Lord Grenville present- 
ed a petition from the Irish catholics, he 
strenuously opposed the concession of 
any fresh privileges. Lord Ellenljorough 
was nominated one of the commissioners 
to enquire into the conduct of the Prin- 
cess of Wales, in 1813, and March 22, 
rose in his place in the house of lords, 
and complained of slanderous publica- 
tions lately circulated against the con- 
duct of individuals employed in situa- 
tions of the highest trust. In the trials 
for libel which so particularly distin- 
guished this period of the administration, 
a degree of unpopularity attached to the 
character of his lordship, which when 
we consider the turbulent spirit of the 
times, and the arduous duties connected 




IL(D)]BB IElLILIEMB@m(DU^M, 




(xn/rr2.6mj/i_ 



I,oii.don,Tublish.ed byiiioTiiasK-ell/.l/'.'Pacem-or.LpjIiow 




(&IEIfF.mAIL lEILKSTT. 




London ^i^JJhshed by Thomas KeHy. 17. Eiternoster B.ow 



ELL 



421 



ELY 



with his office, was almost inevitable. 
He was at all times subject to those 
hasty ebullitions of feeling which de- 
clared the sincerity of his professions, 
but frequently exposed him to the shafts 
of calumny or the malevolence of dema- 
gogues. The advancement of Lord El- 
lenborough, on the score of rapidity, 
was unexampled ; and in this particular 
he proved far more fortunate than either 
Mansfield, Kenyon, Thurlow, or Eldon. 
The attorney-generalship, the chief-jus- 
ticeship, and patent of nobility, were all 
granted to him in the course of a single 
year, and by means of his profession he 
realised an ample fortune. Lord Ellen- 
borough died in 1818, and was interred 
Dec. 22, in the Charter-house, by the 
remains of the founder, Mr. Sutton, who 
was interred in the reign of Queen Eliza- 
beth. 

ELLICHPOOR, city of Hindoostan, 
was conquered by the Mohamedans, 
under Allah-ud-Deen, in 1294, after va- 
rious fortunes, and continued to decay 
for a lapse of years ; it was at last ad- 
mitted to the benefit of British protec- 
tion. In 1820, Futteh Jung Khan, 
usurped the government, but was obliged 
ultimately, by the interposition of the 
British authority, to retire into Aurun- 
gabad, where he soon after died. 

ELLIOT, George Augustus, Lord 
Heathfield, the gallant defender of 
Gibraltar, was born about 1718. About 
1759, he was appointed to the command 
of the cavalry in the expedition on the 
coasts of France, with the rank of bri- 
gadier-general. In 1775, he was ap- 
pointed to succeed General A'Court as 
commander-in-chief of the forces in Ire- 
land. He was appointed to the com- 
mand of Gibraltar, which was invested 
in 1779- By a cool and temperate de- 
meanour, he maintained his situation in 
the garrison for three years, in which all 
the powers of Spain were employed 
against it in vain. [SeeGiBRALTAR.] On 
his return to England on June 14, 1787, 
his majesty advanced him to the peer- 
age, by the title of Lord Heathfield, 
Baron Gibraltar. His lordship died on 
July 6, 1790, aged 73. 

ELLIS, George, author of " Speci- 
mens of Early English Poetry," died 
April 10, 1815, 

ELLISTON, Robert William, 
the eminent actor, was born April 7, 
1774, in Orange Street, Bloomsbury. 
First appeared at Bath, in the humble 



part of Tressel, in Richard III., April 
21, 1791. In 1793, he appeared a 
second time at Bath, in the character of 
Romeo. In 1796, he carried off from 
that city Miss Rundall, a teacher of dan- 
cing, and soon after their marriage in 
London, made his first appearance to a 
London audience at the Haymarket, 
June 24. In 1804, when John Kenible 
quitted Drury Lane, Mr. EUiston was 
engaged to supply his place ; after the 
theatre was burnt, when the company 
performed at the Lyceum, he left it in 
consequence of some quarrel with Thomas 
Sheridan. He then took the Circus, and 
having given it the name of the Surry 
Theatre, commenced performing some of 
the best plays of Shakspeare, and some 
operas. In 1805, he pubhshed "The 
Venetian Outlaw," a drama in three 
acts," which he had himself adapted 
from the French "Abelino, le grand ban- 
dit." When Drury Lane Theatre was 
let out on a lease in 1819, he became the 
lessee, at a yearly rent of £10,200. and 
so continued until declared a bankrupt 
in 1826. He died June 7, 1831. 

ELMINA, or St. George del Mina, 
town, west Africa, Gold Coast, founded 
by the Portuguese in 1481. In 1637 it 
was taken by the Dutch, to whom it was 
formally ceded by treaty, in 1641. In 
1781, the English were repulsed from 
before the fortress. In 1808, an insur- 
rection of the inhabitants took place, 
which did not subsidebeforethe governoi" 
and many others were slain. During 
the memorable invasion of the Ashan- 
tees, the people of Elmina took part 
with that savage horde. 

ELMO, St. Malta, surrendered to 
the royal troops of Naples, July 12, 
1799. 

E L S T R E E, Cambridgeshire, 
almost entirely destroyed by fire April 3, 
1774. 

ELTHAM, Kent. A royal palace 
was erected here before 1270, for at this 
period Henry III. kept his Christmas 
festivals at Eltham. John of Eltham, 
younger son of Edward II. was born 
here. Henry VII. made some improve- 
ments and James I. paid it the last royal 
visit in 1612. 

ELWES, John, the notorious miser, 
died Nov. 26, 1789. 

ELY, city, England. A nunnery was 
founded here by Etheldreda, daughter of 
Anna, king of the East Angles ; she died 
abbess,679. In870, the town and nunnery 



EMI 



422 



EMP 



were pillaged by the Danes ; in 970, a 
benedictine monastery was erected upon 
the site of the nunnery by Ethelwold, 
bishop of Winchester, to which Canute 
the Great became a benefactor. Edward 
the Confessor was educated here, and 
Hereward the Saxon found an asylum 
here from the vengeance of William I. 

1109. Ely was erected into a bishop's 
see, and in 1541, endowed with the fee 
of the dissolved monastery and other 
possessions. The cathedral is a venera- 
ble edifice, the choir was built in 1234. 
In 1322, the great tower suddenly fell, 
and to it succeeded the present beautiful 
octagonal building, completed in 1342. 

EMANCIPATION of the Catho- 
lics. See Catholics. 

EMANUEL College, Cambridge, 
founded 1584 ; sustained damage by fire 
estimated at £20,000, Oct. 1811. . 

EMANUEL Hosi'iTAL, Westmins- 
ter, instituted 1534. 

EMBANKMENT of considerable ex- 
tent, (motion of) at a short distance from 
Crewkerne, on the road leading to Ilches- 
ter, carrying vnlh it a number of bushes 
and several trees of ordinary dimensions, 
in an erect position, the whole mass 
moving from the summit of Fairhill to 
its base, and passing over the hedge 
which divides the road from the hill, 
to a distance of about 50 yards, Jan. 4, 
1828 

E M B D E N, subdued by Hamburg, 
1438, made a free port in 1751, and an 
East India trade with this port was first 
established, 1769. 

EMBROIDERERS' Company, Lon- 
don, incorporated 1591. 

EMERSON, William, a celebrated 
mathematician, was born June, 1701, at 
Hurworth, Durham. His works are 
very numerous, but are now chiefly su- 
perseded by other and more popular 
writers. He died May 20, 1782. 

EMIGRANTS, French, resident in 
<3reat Britain, during the troubles occa- 
sioned by the French revolution, by a 
list so made from the registers of the 
Alien Office, February 28, 1800 ; laity 
4,153 ; clergy 5,621 : total, 9,774. Law 
passed for restoring to them such por- 
tions of their confiscated property as 
remained in the hands of the govern- 
ment, or were unsold, September, 1814. 

EMIGRATION. In 1823, parliament 
voted £50,000 for the purpose of ena- 
bling a certain number of men, women, 
and children, to emigrate to our North 



American colonies. The number of per- 
sons who availed themselves, on that 
occasion, of the encouragement held out 
by government, amounted in all to 268, 
and the expense incurred by the country 
for each person was £22. These per- 
sons, from being in a state of extreme 
misery, are now comfortably and pros- 
perously settled. This first experiment 
having been successful, it was followed 
up, in 1825, by the emigration of 2,024 
persons, men, women, and children. 
The general misery which prevailed 
during the year 1826, increased the 
claims of emigration upon public notice 
as a means of relief. March 14, Mr.Wil- 
mot Horton moved for the appointment 
of a select committee to inquire into the 
expediency of encouraging emigration. 

1827. This year the committee en- 
tered on their lal)ours, which have been 
the means of laying much important in- 
formation before the public. Full infor- 
mation has been afforded respect- 
ing the demand for labour, and the ad- 
vantages which are offered to the emi- 
grants in the provinces of Upper and 
Lower Canada, in New Brunswick, Nova 
Scotia, at Prince Edward's Island, at 
the Cape of Good Hope, in New South 
Wales, and in Van Diemen's Land. 
Government invited settlers to the new 
colony at the Swan River, on the wes- 
tern coast of New Holland, under cer- 
tain regulations, as issued from the colo- 
nial office during 1829. It appears from 
parliamentary papers that, during 1833, 
1834, and 1835, 183,237 voluntary emi- 
grants left the United Kingdom ; 173.344 
being destined for America, and 9,893 
for the Australian colonies and the Cape 
of Good Hope. 

EMMA, mother of Edward the Con- 
fessor, accused of incontinency, 1034. 
Stripped of her possessions, 1043. Sent 
to Whervvell nunnery, 1051. 

EMPEDOCLES, a celebrated philo- 
soj)her, flourished about A.c. 440. His 
principal work is a poem on the " Na- 
ture, and Principles of Things." The 
time and manner of his death was never 
certainly known. 

EMPEROR, among the ancient Ro- 
mans, in its complete sense, was first 
borne by Julius Csesar ; the title de- 
scended with the dignity to Octavius 
Augustus, Tiberius, and Caligula ; and 
afterwards it became elective. After the 
fall of the Roman empire, the first that 
bore it was Charlemagne, who had the 



ENF 



423 



ENG 



title of emperor conferred upon him by 
Pope Leo III. in 800. In 1723, the czar 
of Muscovy assumed the title of em- 
peror of all the Russians, and procured 
himself to be recognized as such by 
most of the princes and states of Eu- 
rope, During the imperial dynasty of 
France, the power of the emperor of 
Germany was very much reduced ; at 
one period it was nearly ej(tinct. Since 
the peace it has been somewhat restored, 
under the title of emperor of Austria, 
but is still so limited as to be httle more 
than the name. 

ENAMELLING was practised by the 
Egyptians. From them it passed to the 
Greeks, and afterwards to the Romans. 
The Britons received the art from their 
conquerors. That the Saxons practised 
it is certain, from the jewel found at 
Athelney, in Somersetshire, and now 
preserved at Oxford. The tomb of Ed- 
ward the Confessor, in Westminster 
abbey, constructed in the reign of Henry 
III., was also ornamented with enamels. 
During the present century an imitative 
enamel has been used, and, through the 
scarcity of real enamel, is now in much 
demand for clock plates. 

ENCAUSTIC Painting, was known 
to the ancients, and is mentioned par- 
ticularly by Pliny. After having been 
long lost, it was revived in 1753, by 
Count Caylus, a member of the Academy 
of Inscriptions in France. 

ENCKES' Comet. See Comet. 

ENCYCLOPEDIA, a term nearly 
synonymous with Cyclopedia, deno- 
ting the circle or compass of the arts and 
sciences. The earliest was published by 
Mr. Chambers. The first edition of his 
Cyclopaedia appeared in 1728. See 
Chambers. About 30 years after, ap- 
peared the celebrated French Encyclo- 
paedia, (Dictionnaire Encyclopedique,) 
by D'Alembert, Diderot, and others. 
The Encyclopsedia Britannica, and Dr. 
Rees's Cyclopsedia were commenced in 
the last century. The Edinburgh En- 
cyclopaedia, the Encyclopaedia Metro- 
politana, and various others have been 
commenced during the present century. 
The most useful and recent publication 
of this kind is the " Penny Cyclopsedia," 
now in the course of publication by the 
Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
Knowledge. 

ENEAS, the Trojan general, died 
a.c. 1177. 

ENFIELD. Edward VI. held his 



court at Enfield manor-house, and Eliza- 
beth resided there before her accession 
to the throne. 

ENFIELD, Rev. William, L.L.D., 
the author of "Institutes of Natural 
Philosophy," born 1741, died 1797. 

ENGLAND. The early part of the 
history of England is attended by some 
obscurity. For a chronological account 
of it in the time of the Britons, see 
Britain, Ancient. From the date of 
the Saxon heptarchy, when the. seven 
kingdoms were united by Egbert, prince 
of Wessex, in the beginning of the ninth 
centuiy, the chronology is more to be 
depended on. 

455. The first of the seven kingdoms 
erected by the Saxons, was Kent, of 
which Hengist was the first monarch, 
and contained the county of Kent. This 
kingdom began 455, ended 823, having 
continued 368 years. Its first christian 
king was Ethelbert. 

491. The second kingdom they erected 
was that of the South Saxons, of which 
Ella was the first king, and contained 
the counties of Sussex and Surrey. This 
kingdom began 491, ended 754, having 
continued 263 years. Its first christian 
king was Ethelwolf. 

519. The third was that of the West 
Saxons, of which Cerdic was the first 
king ; he reigned 23 years. It contained 
the counties of Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, 
Somerset, Wilts, Hants, and Berks. 
This kingdom began 519, ended 800, 
having continued 281 years. Its first 
christian king was Cinigisil. 

527. The fourth was that of the East 
Saxons, of whom Erchewin was the first 
king. It contained Middlesex, Essex, 
and part of Hertfordshire. This king- 
dom began 527, ended 746, having con- 
tinued 219 years. Its first christian king 
was Sebert. 

547. The fifth was that of Northum- 
berland. It contained Yorkshire, Dur- 
ham, Lancashire, Westmoreland, Cum- 
berland, and Northumberland. This 
kingdom began 547, ended 810, having 
continued 263 years. Its first christian 
king was Edwin. 

571. The sixth was that of the East 
Angles. It contained the counties of 
Suffolk, Norfolk, part of Cambridge, and 
the Isle of Ely. This kingdom began 
571, ended 792, having continued 221 
years. Its first christian king was Red- 
wald. 

584. The seventh was the kingdom of 



ENG 



424 



ENG 



Mercia. It contained the counties of Hun- 
tingdon, Rutland, Lincoln, Northamp- 
ton, Leicester, Derby, Nottingham, Ox- 
ford, Chester, Salop, Gloucester, Wor- 
cester, Stafford, Warwick, Buckingham, 
Bedford, and Hertford. This kingdom 
began 584, ended 828, having continued 
244 years. Its first christian king was 
Peada. 

The Saxons, though they were divided 
into seven kingdoms, were for the most 
part subject to one only, who, by way of 
distinction, was styled the king of the 
English nation ; those who were more 
powerful than the rest, giving law to the 
others, in their several turns. 

Hengist, first Saxon monarch, landed 
in the Isle of Thanet, 449 ; and after 
having surprised Vortigern, and put to 
death a great number of the Britons, 
took possession of the best part of his 
dominions, and laid the foundation of 
the monarchy. He was born at Augria, 
in Westphalia, and left behind him two 
sons and a daughter, having reigned 33 
years, died in 488, and was succeeded 
by Ella. 

Ella, the second monarch, landed at 
Shoreham, in Sussex, in 477. He con- 
tinued five years harassing the natives, 
before he assumed the title of king of 
the South Saxons, in 491 ; he governed 
for six years before the death of Hen- 
gist, after whom he succeeded as second 
monarch. He died, 499. 

Cerdic, the third monarch, overcame 
the British sovereign, Arthur, near the 
spot now called Chard, in Hampshire, 
in the seventh year of the reign of Ella's 
monarchy, and in 519, began the king- 
dom of the West Saxons, where he 
reigned 13 years, when he assumed the 
monarchy, which he continued the space 
of 21 years, and dying in 534, left two 
eons. See Arthur. 

Kenric, second king of the West 
Saxons, fourth monarch,"* thel eldest 
son of Cerdic, immediately after the 
death of his father, succeeded in his 
whole dominions. He twice defeated 
the Britons in the 32nd year of his 
age. He reigned 26 years, and died, 
560. 

Ceaulin, or Cheveline, the third 
king of the West Saxons, and fifth mo- 
narch, succeeded his father in both his 
dignities, and enlarged his kingdom of 
the West Saxons ; but treating his sub- 
jects with contempt, he was by them 
compelled to abdicate his throne in the 



33rd year of his reign, and died in ba- 
nishment, in 593. 

Eth ELBERT, fifth king of Kent, and 
sixth monarch of Britain, began to reign 
593. St. Augustin first arrived in his 
dominions, in 596 ; with his followers 
were entertained by the king at Canter- 
bury. This king was the first that 
caused the laws of the land to be col- 
lected and tj-anslated into Saxon. He 
died February 24, 617, the 21st of his 
Christianity, the 23rd of his monarchy, 
and the 56th of his reign over Kent, 
and was buried at Canterbury. 

Redwald, third king of the East 
Angles, became the seventh monarch of 
Britain, 6l6, and in the 24th year of his 
reign over the East Angles ; who in the 
second year of his reign had established 
Edwin on the throne of Northumberland. 
He died in 624, in the eighth year of his 
monarchy, and the 31st of his reign over 
the East Angles. 

Edwin the GREAT,kingof Northum- 
berland, succeeded Redwald his father, 
as eighth monarch of Britain, 624; he 
was the first christian, and the ninth 
king of Northumberland. He received 
baptism April 12, 627, in the 11th year 
of his reign. He lost his life in a battle, 
October 4, 633, the sixth of his Chris- 
tianity, the ninth of his monarchy, and 
the 47th year of his age. His body was 
buried at Whitby, in Yorkshire. 

Oswald, the 10th king of Northum- 
berland, and the ninth monarch of Bri- 
tain, succeeded in 634. He was slain at 
Maserfield, in Shropshire, Aug. 1, 642, 
in the ninth year of his monarchy, and 
the 38th of his age. 

OswY, the 11th king of Northumber- 
land, became the 10th monarch of Bri- 
tain, October 13, 643. He totally de- 
feated Peada, the Mercian, and Ethelred, 
king of the East Angles, November 6, 
655, and reigned in great glory for 33 
years. He it was that decided the long 
controversy for the celebration of Easter. 
He died February 15, 670. 

WoLFHERE, sixth king of the Mer- 
cians, became 11th monarch of Britain 
in 671; he began to reign in Mercia 
In 659, and reigned over them 17 years, 
and was monarch of England four years. 
He died in 675, and was buried at Peter- 
borough. 

Ethelred, the seventh king of 
Mercia, and the 12th monarch of Bri- 
tain, succeeded his brother Wolfhere in 
both dignities in 673. In the beginning 



ENG 



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ENG 



of his reign, he desolated great part of 
Kent, and in 677, destroyed Rochester, 
and many religious foundations; to 
atone for which he became a monk in 
706, and died abbot of Bradney, in the 
30th year of his reign, in 7l6. 

Kenred, or Cenred, his nephew, 
the eighth king of Mercia, and 13th 
monarch, succeeded his uncle in his do- 
minions in 705, and reigned in peace for 
four years, and then, following his 
uncle's example, became a monk. In 
his reign. Pope Constantine ordained the 
adoration of images to commeinorate 
saints. 

Ceolreo, son of Athelred, ninth 
king of the Mercians, and the 14th mo- 
narch, succeeded in 709. He was killed 
in battle with Ina, king of the West 
Saxons, in 7l6. 

Ethelbald I., 10th king of the 
Mercians, became 15th monarch of Bri- 
tain in 7 16. 'riie beginning of his reign 
was debauched, but he reformed on being 
admonished by Cuthbert, archbishop of 
Canterbury ; and by way of an atone- 
ment, built Croyland Abbey, in Lincoln- 
shire. In the 30th year of his reign, it 
was enacted that the scriptures should be 
read in monasteries, and the Lord's 
prayer and creed taught in the Saxon 
tongue. In the 40th year of his reign, 
he was slain by his own subjects, when 
he was leading his troops against Cuth- 
red, the West Saxon, at Secondine, three 
miles from Tamworth, in Warwickshire, 
and was buried at Repton, in Derbyshire, 
in 757. 

Offa, the 11th king of the Mercians, 
and l6th monarch. He was born lame, 
deaf, and blind, which continued till he 
arrived at manhood, when the Mercian 
nobles received him for their king. He 
took up arms against Kent, slew their 
king at Otteford, and conquered that 
kingdom. He made great havock be- 
yond the Humber, whence returning 
triumphant, he went against the West 
Saxons. He caused a great trench to 
be dug, from Bristol to Basingwerk in 
Flintshire, as the boundary of the Bri- 
tons who harboured in Wales in 774 ; 
which they endeavoured to destroy, but 
were repulsed with great loss. He re- 
pulsed the Danes, and procured the 
canonization of St. Alban. He died at 
Offley, June 29, 794. 

Egfryd, the 12th king of the Mer- 
cians, and 17th monarch of Britain, suc- 
ceeded his father, in both dignities. 



July 13, 794; died Dec. 17, following, 
and was buried in the abbey church of 
St. Alban's. 

Cenole, or Renwolfb, 13th king of 
of the Mercians, and 18th monarch, suc- 
ceeded Egfryd in 795. He was an ex- 
ample of piety, and impartially adminis- 
tered justice. He conquered Kent, 
gave that kingdom to Cuthred, and kept 
their king, Pren, captive in Mercia. He 
built Winchcomb monastery in Glou- 
cestershire. He died in 819, in the 22nd 
year of his reign, and was buried at 
Winchcomb. 

Egbert, the I7th king of the West 
Saxons, and 19th, but first sole monarch 
of the English, began his reign over the 
West Saxons in 800. The Cornish and 
Welsh associated against him, which 
provoked him to enact a law, command- 
ing no Briton to presume to pass Otfa's 
ditch, and immediate death to his ene- 
mies that durst set foot upon English 
ground. He took Chester, and caused 
their -broken image of Cadwallo to be 
thrown down from the western gate of 
London. He conquered Mercia, and laid 
the foundation of the sole monarchy. 
His success was so great, in a war under- 
taken in 809, that in one campaign he 
reduced all Cornwall to his obedience. 
He changed the name of Britain to that 
of England. 

The Danes landed several times during 
the early part of the history of England, 
for an account of which see Danes. 

827. About this year, Egbert brought 
most of the other Saxon princes under 
his government, and became the first 
sole monarch of this kingdom. In 833, 
the Danes landed Avith great force, at 
Charmouth, in Dorset, about this year, 
and maintained their ground against king 
Egbert. In 835, Egbert engaged themin 
a second battle, and forced them to quit 
the island. 

838. Egbert having reigned kingof the 
West Saxons 36 years and upwards, 10 
of which he was sole monarch of Eng- 
land, died, and was buried at Winches- 
ter, February 4. He left two sons and 
a daughter. 

Elthelwolf, the eldest son of Eg- 
bert, succeeded his father. He is said 
to have been a monk and bishop of Win* 
Chester, and absolved from his vows by 
Pope Gregory IV. 

840. This year is remarkable for the 
entire destruction of the Picts, by the 
Scots, their neighbours ; and it was 

3 I 



ENG 



426 



ENG 



chiefly owing to this event that the Scots 
look upon Keneth II. as one of the 
founders of that kingdom. 

841. Ethelwolf resigned to his natural 
son, Atlielstan, the kingdom of Kent, 
Essex, Sussex, and Surry, with the 
title of king of Kent ; reserving to him- 
self the sovereignty of all England, with 
the kingdom of Wessex. Ethelred, who 
ruled in Northumberland , was expelled, 
but three years afterwards was rein- 
stated. 

853. Ethelwolf, with the consent of 
the tributary kings and his great council, 
granted the tithes of all England to the 
church ; and carried his son, Alfred, 
along with him to Rome (854) where he 
rebuilt the Enghsh college, extending the 
gift of Peterpence over all his dominions, 
for the better support of the students 
there. He obliged himself also to send 
to Rome annually 300 marks, 200 
of which were to purchase wax tapers for 
the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul, 
and the remaining hundred to be at the 
pope's disposal. 

857. Ethelwolf died Jan. 13, and was 
buried at Steining in Sussex, having 
reigned 20 years. 

Eth ELBALD succccded his father. He 
reigned about two years and a half, and 
left his whole kingdom to his brother 
Ethelbert. He died Dec. 20, 860, and 
was buried first at Sherborne in Dorset- 
shire, but removed to Salisbury. 

Ethelbert succeeded his brother in 
860, both by his father's and his bro- 
ther's appointment. He was crowned 
Jan. 861. In this reign the Danes re- 
newed their invasions, and as they had 
so long kept from hence, there were no 
preparations to repulse their attacks. 
Ethelbert died in 866, having reigned 
six years ; he was buried at Sherborne. 

Elhej.red I., third son of Ethelwolf, 
succeeded to the crown, in whose reign 
the Danes committed great ravages 
through the whole kingdom. He had 
nine set battles with the Danes in one 
year, and was wounded between Abing- 
don and Wallingford, in Berkshire, which 
occasioned his death, April 27,872. 

Alfred, fourth son of Ethelwolf, 
succeeded his brother in the 22nd year 
of his age, 872, was crowned at Win- 
chester, and is distinguished by the title 
of Alfred the Great. He died at Far- 
ringdon, in Berkshire, Oct. 28, 900, in 
the 24th year of his reign, and was 
buried at Winchester. See Alfred. 



Edv^tard the Elder, eldest son of 
King Alfred, succeeded his father, 900, 
and was crowned at Kingston upon 
Thames. In the beginning of his reign 
Ethelwold, the son of Ethelred, his 
father's eldest brother, laid claim to the 
crown ; but being overpowered he fled 
to the Danes, who acknowledged him 
for king of England, and fought several 
battles with Edward on his behalf. 

925. Edward died in the 24th year of 
his reign, at Farringdon, in Berkshire, 
and was buried near his father. He 
built and repaired several castles and 
towns, viz. in 918 he built two castles 
at Buckingham, one on each side the 
Ouse ; in 919 he built one at Bedford on 
the south of the river ; in 920, he re- 
paired and fortified Maiden in Essex ; 
in 921, he did the same to Towcester, in 
Northamptonshire, Wigmore, in Here- 
fordshire, Colchester, in Essex, and Hun- 
tingdon; in 922, he built a castle at 
Stamford in Lincolnshire ; in 923, he re- 
paired Thelwall, in Cheshire, and Man- 
chester ; in 924, he built the town of 
Nottingham, on the north side of the 
Trent, and also a castle near Bakewell 
in Derbyshire. 

Athelstan succeeded, being Ed- 
ward's eldest son, and was crowned 
at Kingston upon Thames, in 925, 
by Athelm, archbishop of Canterbury. 
He defeated the united forces of Danes 
and Scots, and made the princes of Wales 
tributary to him. Soon after, on their 
making submission, he restored them to 
their estates. He died at Gloucester, 
without issue, Oct. 17, 941, and was 
buried at Malmsbury. See Athel- 
stan. 

Edmund I. the fifth son of Edward, 
and brother and heir to Athelstan, suc- 
ceeded to the crown, 941, being about 
18 years of age, and was crowned at' 
Kingston. In 945, he gave Cumberland 
and Westmoreland to Malcolm, king of 
the Scots, for his assistance against the 
Danes. In 946, Edmund made the first 
law, that whoever robbed or stole any- 
thing, should be put to death. He was 
killed in 948, in the seventh year of his 
reign, by one Leolf,agreat robber,May 26, 
whom he had banished. He was buried at 
Glastonbury, where Dunstan was abbot. 

Edred, the sixth son of Edward, 
succeeded his brother Edmund, and was 
crowned at Kingston, 948, although Ed- 
mund left two sons, Edwin and Edgar, 
infants. In 949, he founded the bishop's 



ENG 

see at St. Germain's, afterwards removed 
to Crediton, and from thence to Exeter. 
In 951, Dunstan, abbot of Glastonbury, 
gained high credit with the king, who 
submitted even to receive discipline from 
his hands. Edred rebuilt Glastonbury 
abbey, on which he laid out vast sums. 
He permitted Dunstan to introduce the 
monks into the benefices, and they 
proclaimed Dunstan's sanctity. He was 
the first who was styled king of Great 
Britain: he died of a quinsy, Nov. 23. 
955, in the seventh year of his reign, 
and was buried in the old monastery at 
Winchester, He had issue two sons 
named Edfrid and Bedfrid. 

Edwy, the eldest son of King Ed- 
mund, succeeded his uncle in 955, being 
about 14 years of age. He banished 
Dunstan, and was very severe with the 
monks. He was excommunicated by 
Archbishop Odo, and his queen used in 
a most barbarous manner by the clergy. 
In 956, the monks excited a rebellion, 
and the king's brother Edgar headed 
the malecontents. In 955 Prince Edgar 
seized on Northumberland and Mercia, 
which Edwy resigned to him, and he 
was crowned king. He reigned about 
four years, died with grief, and was 
buried in the new monastery at Winches- 
ter. 

Edgar, surnamed the Peaceable, bro- 
ther and heir of Edwy, succeeded to the 
crown, 959, being about 16 years of age ; 
he was crowned at Kingston, and again 
at Bath, in 973. He increased the royal 
navy to 360 ships, maintained the domi- 
nion of the narrow seas, and reigned in 
greater splendour than any of his prede- 
cessors : he Huilt Ramsey abbey, and 47 
other monasteries in different parts of 
the kingdom. In 960 he made severe 
laws to punish corrupt magistrates, but 
his attachment to the monks contributed 
to his great fame. Soon after he came 
to the crown, he recalled Dunstan, whom 
he made archbishop of Canterbury, and 
bishop of Worcester. In 969 Edgar or- 
dered the isle of Thanet to be laid waste 
for insulting his laws. In 975 he died in 
the 32nd year of his age, and the I7th 
of his reign, and was buried in the 
abbey of Glastonbury. 

Edward, surnamed the Martyr, 
eldest son of King Edgar, succeeded his 
fatlTer, 975, being but 12 years of age; 
he was crowned by Dunstan at Kingston 
upon Thames. In this reign the con- 
troversies between the regular and the 



427 ENG 

secular clergy ran high ; the laity took 
part with the seculars (976), dispossess- 
ed the monks, and brought in the secu- 
lar priests and their wives, by force of 
arms. In 979 King Edward was murder- 
ed (May 18,) near Corfe Castle, by his 
step-mother, Queen Elfrida, to make 
room for her son. Tliis prince had little 
more than the name of king for about 
three years and a half. For his inno- 
cence and supposed miracles, after his 
death, he obtained the surname of Mar- 
tyr. He was buried first at Warham, 
and afterwards removed to Shaftsbuiy. 

Ethelbed II., half l)rother to Ed- 
ward, succeeded, and was crowned at 
Kingston, April 14th, 979, by thefamous. 
Dunstan, then archbishop of Canterbury. 
In 993 the Danes invaded the kingdom, 
but were restrained from further mischief 
by Ethelred paying them £10,000 to 
desist and depart ; notwithstanding 
they then departed, so great an emolu- 
ment excited them to commence hostili- 
ties soon after, and they made frequent 
invasions in 993, 995, 996, 998, and 999, 
receiving at one payment, about £30,000, 
raised by a land-tax called Danegelt, es- 
tablished in 991. The Danes grew so 
imperious as to acquire the title of Lord 
Danes, which induced Ethelred to order 
a general massacre of them, Nov. 13, 
1002, which began at Welwin in Hert- 
fordshire. 

This act exasperated the Danes, and 
excited them to revenge ; for which pur- 
pose Sweyn landed on the coast of De- 
von, in 1003, and on the coast of Nor- 
folk the year following, whenhe destroyed 
the cityof Norwich, and the town of Thet- 
ford; nor did he quit the kingdom till 
Ethelred had paid him £36,000, which he, 
the year following, demanded as an an- 
nual tribute. In the spring of 1008, they 
subdued great part of the kingdom, 
pillaging wherever they went. To stop 
their progress, it was agreed, in 1012, 
to pay them £48,000 to quit the kingdom. 
Soon after, under Sweyn, they entered 
the Humber, threatening desolation to the 
whole kingdom, which so intimidated- 
the unhappy Ethelred, that he retired 
to the. isle of Wight, and sent his sons, 
with their mother, Emma, into Norman- 
dy, to her brother, and Sweyn took pos- 
session, in 1013, of the whole kingdom. 
Sweyn was proclaimed king of Eng- 
land, and no person disputed his title. 
The first act of sovereignty he exercised 
was laying on the people an insupport- 



ENG 



428 



ENG 



able tax; whicJ^ however, he did not 
see enforced, as he died a few weeks 
after. Sweyn was killed at Thetford in 
Norfolk, in 1014, and was buried at 
York. Canute, son of Sweyn, was pro- 
claimed in March, and endeavovxred by 
several acts of munificence, to gain the 
affections of his English subjects, but 
without success. 

103 4. Ethelred II., returned at the 
invitation of his subjects, and Canute 
left England. Ethelred's avarice and 
cruelty soon began to show itself, by his 
exacting large sums from his subjects, 
and two Danish lords were sacrificed for 
their estates. Canute returned with a 
fleet of 200 sail, and landed at Sandwich, 
which occasioned Ethelred to retire to 
the north ; but by evading a battle with 
the Danes, he lost the affections of his 
subjects, and retiring to London, expired, 
after a troublesome reign of 37 years, 
and was buried at St. Paul's, April 24, 
1016. 

Edmund II., surnamed Ironside, the 
third, but eldest son living, of Ethel- 
red, was, upon the death of his father, 
recognised as king, 1016, by the city of 
London, and one part of the nation, 
while the other part acknowledged Ca- 
nute for their king. Edmund was crown- 
ed at Kingston. Several battles were 
fought between Edmund and Canute, 
with various success ; at last they agreed 
to divide the kingdom between them ; 
and after reigning nine months, Edmund 
was barbarously murdered by Duke 
Edrick, and buried at Glastonbury. 
"With him fell the glory of the English 
Saxons. 

Canute, upon the death of Edmund, 
was recognised as king of all England, 
and crowned at London, 1017. See Ca- 
nute. 

After his death, Nov. 12, 1036, a con- 
tention arose about the succession, be- 
tween his three sons. At length Sweyn 
succeeded his father in Norway, Harold 
ascended the throne of England, and 
Hardicanute reigned in Denmark. 

Harold I , surnamed Barefoot, was 
proclaimed king of Mercia, 1036, by one 
party, and his brother, Hardicanute, 
who was then in Denmark, was by his 
friends, elected and proclaimed king of 
Wessex ; but his absence gave Harold 
an opportunity to have that part deliver- 
ed up to him, and he was afterwards 
crowned at Oxford as king of England. 
Parold died at Oxford, May 18, 1039, 



and was buried at AVinchester, having no 
wife or child. 

Hardicanute, the third son of Ca- 
nute, and king of Denmark, succeeded 
his brother, Harold, 1039, being invited 
by the English to take possession of the 
throne. He arrived at Sandwich, June 
13, and was crowned at London. 

1 040. An insurrection and open rebel- 
lion in Wales, but suppressed, and a law 
enacted, by which every Welshman who 
passed Offa's dyke, without permission, 
was to lose his right hand. Hardicanute 
died suddenly at Lambeth, June 8, 
1041, at the nuptial feast of a Danish 
lord, which he honoured with his pre- 
sence, having reigned but two years, 
and was buried at Winchester. 

Edward the Confessor, seventh 
son of Ethelred, succeeded to the crown, 
by the donation of Hardicanute, and the 
interest of Earl Godwin and others. In 
1051, William the Bastard, duke of 
Normandy, visited Edward, who showed 
him every mark of esteem, in grateful 
return for the favours he had received 
from him and the duke, his father, in 
Normandy, during his residence there, 
and at the same time Edward gave him 
a promise, that the crown of England 
should descend to him. An invasion of 
the Irish and Welsh, who defeated the 
troops sent against them. 

Edward caused the Saxon laws and 
customs to be written in Latin, and 
collected them into a body, which, from 
thence, were called the laws of Edward 
the Confessor, and caused the original 
Doomsday Book to be made. Having 
been educated in Normandy, he prefer- 
red the Normans to the highest posts in 
church and state, introducing the French 
language and customs. The king, a 
little before his death, declared the duke 
of Normandy, his cousin by the mother's 
side, his successor ; and this was said to 
have been done with the consent of the 
English nobility. King Edward died 
Jan. 5, 1066, and was buried at West- 
minster. 

Harold II., second son of Godwin, 
earl of Kent, a powerful and popular 
nobleman, by the assistance of the clergy 
his friends, seized the crown, and was 
crowned at Oxford, 1066. September 
25, an invasion of England in different 
pajts; by Tosti, Harold's brother, in* the 
southern parts ; and by Harfager, of Nor- 
way, in Yorkshire. Harold met them 
near Stanford-bridge, since called Bat- 



ENG 



429 



ENG 



tie-bridge, where the forces of Harold 
were victorious, which is one of the 
greatest victories recorded in history. 

William, duke of Normandy, made a 
descent upon the coast of Sussex, Sep- 
tember 29, with a very fine army, in 
order to make good his claim to the 
crown. He came to an engagement with 
Harold, October 14, who was killed upon 
the spot, and his army entirely defeated 
at Hastings. He was buried at Wal- 
tham abbey, Essex. 

William I., usually termed the Con- 
queror, seventh duke of Normandy, na- 
tural son of Robert, the sixth duke of 
Normandy, claimed the crown of Eng- 
land, as tixe gift of the late king Edward, 
surnamed the Confessor, 1066. After 
the battle of Hastings, William retired 
to Romney, October 15, and then to 
Dover, which he besieged and took, and 
strengthened the fortifications ; after 
which he marched to London, and in 
his way was met by the deputies from 
Kent, who came to make their submis- 
sion and demand the preservation of 
their ancient privileges. He arrived near 
London, but found the inhabitants in- 
clined to resist him, which obliged him 
to post himself at Wallingford, and from 
thence he sent out detachments to cut 
off all supplies of provisions from the 
country to London, and his forces wasted 
the counties of Sussex, Kent, Surrey, 
Hapipshire, Middlesex, and Hertford- 
shire, quite to Berkhamstead, which 
obliged the Londoners to submit to him. 

1067. William committed the care of 
England to his half-brother Odo, bishop 
of Bayeux, and William Fitz Osborne, 
lately created earl of Hereford, and re- 
turned to Normandy. In the mean time 
England was oppressed by his lieutenants, 
which occasioned several rebellions. De- 
cember 6, William returned to England 
and prevented a revolt. He re-esta- 
blished the tax of Danegelt, September 
3, 1068. 

1069. King William distributed the 
lands of England among the Normans ; 
several insurrections occasioned by it in 
the north of England this year, when 
7,000 of William's forces were slain. 
The Scots, in behalf of Edgar Athehng, 
advanced as far as York, where they 
slew 3,000 Normans, but were defeated 
by King William. 

1072. King William marched against 
Scotland; Malcolm king of Scotland, 
came to a treaty with him, and consented 



to take an oath of fealty, and do homage 
to King William; and all offenders on 
both sides were pardoned. 

1075. From this time the English 
enjoyed scarcely any lands or houses, 
but what they held of the Norman lords 
upon their own terms. 

1080. The king began his general 
survey of England, called Doomsday- 
book, in imitation of the Roll of Winton, 
made by order of King Alfred. He died 
Sept 9, 1087, in the 6 1st year of his age, 
and the 21st year of his reign, at Her- 
mentrude, near Rouen, and was buried 
at Caen, in Normandy, in a monastery 
of which he was the founder. 

William H., surnamed Rufus, the 
second surviving son of William L, suc- 
ceeded to the crown of England, by the 
appointment of his father, 1087. In 
1088, Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and earl 
of Kent, and several of the nobility, rose 
in arms against him, in favour of his 
eldest brother Robert, but they were 
subdued. 

1092. Malcolm, king of Scotland, 
repaired to William, in person, to require 
a redress of grievances, and was treated 
by William with contempt, which made 
him return to Scotland in indignation, 
and induced him to raise an army. He 
was killed at the siege of Alnwick, by a 
spear being thrust into his eye by the 
earl of Northumberland, who acquired 
the surname of Percy. At the same 
time fell Malcolm's sons, and, three days 
after, his queen Margaret died of grief. 

1093. William passed over to Nor- 
mandy with a powerful army ; he soon 
after sent to England for a reinforcement, 
and was furnished with £10,000, a con- 
siderable sum in those days, with which 
he bribed the king of France to his 
interest, and soon after returned to 
England to suppress an insurrection in 
Wales. 

1100. The king, hunting in New 
Forest, was killed by an arrow shot at a 
stfig by his bow-bearer. Sir Walter Tyr- 
rel, a Norman knight, in the 44th year 
of his age, and the 13th of his reign. 
He was buried in St. Swithin's at Win- 
chester, and left neither wife or issue. 

Henry L, surnamed Beauclerk, 
youngest son of William L, upon the 
death of his brother Rufus, repaired to 
Winchester, seized the royal treasure, 
and procured himself to be recognised 
king of England, in 1100. August 5, 
he was crowned at Westminster, by 



E N G 430 

Maurice, bishop of London. November 
11, he married Matilda, the daughter of 
Malcolm, king of Scots, by Margaret 
his wife, sister to Edgar Atheling, and 
daughter of Edward, son of Edward 
Ironside. 

1101. Rol)ert, duke of Normandy, 
landed at Portsmouth, and hid claim to 
the crown. It was afterwards agreed by 
treaty that Henry should hold the crown 
for life, paying Robert 3,000 marks an- 
nually; that Robert should reign in Nor- 
mandy, and that the survivor should 
succeed to both kingdom and duchy. In 
1103, Robert visited England, and gave 
up his pension, of which he soon re- 
pented, and retired to Normandy in dis- 
gust. In 1105, King Henry made war 
upon his brother Robert, and went in 
person against him. In 1106, he took 
him prisoner, and reduced all Normandy 
to his obedience. In 1114, Henry sup- 
pressed a disturbance on the borders of 
Wales, and soon after went again into 
Normandy, and got his son William re- 
cognised as his successor in his Norman 
dominions. 

1134. Duke Robert, the king's eldest 
brother, died at Cardiff castle, in Wales, 
having being a prisoner 28 years, and 
was buried at Gloucester. In 1135, the 
Welsh made incursions and committed 
ravages. December 2, the king having 
nominated his only daughter Matilda or 
Maude, his successor, died in Normandy, 
of a surfeit with lampreys, in the 68th 
year of his age, and 36th of his reign. 
He was buried at Reading. His rightful 
heir was Matilda, above mentioned, first 
married to the emperor, Henry IV. 

Stephen, earl of Bologne and Mor- 
taign, the third son of Stephen, earl of 
Blois, by Adela, the fourth daughter 
of William I., taking advantage of the 
Empress Matilda's absence, usurped the 
crown, by the assistance of his brother 
Henry, then bishop of Winchester. He 
was crowned at Westminster, Dec. 26, 
by the archbishop of Canterbury, and 
and received the homage and oaths of 
the nobiUty. In 1138, a conspiracy was 
formed against the king in behalf of the 
Empress Matilda. The king of Scotland 
invaded England, obliged Stephen to re- 
turn to England, and the battle of the 
Standard was fought at Northallerton, 
where the Scots were defeated, August 
22 ; soon after which Stephen was at- 
tacked with a lethargy, which threatened 
his life. The Empress Matilda arrived 



ENG 



in England in 1139; she landed at 
Arundel, in September. A general revolt 
in favour of Matilda; the earl of Glou- 
cester headed the revolters. 

1141. February 1, a battle was fought 
between the forces of Stephen and Ma- 
tilda, when Stephen's were worsted at 
Lincoln, and himself taken prisoner, de- 
livered to Matilda, who committed him 
to Gloucester gaol. April 7, Matilda 
was declared queen, in a national synod, 
and they took oaths of allegiance to her. 
In 1142, the empress was besieged in 
Oxford, and made her escape from thence 
in disguise to Abingdon. In 1149, 
Henry, son of the empress, arrived in 
England, and endeavoured to reco^'er 
his right. In 1153, a peace was con- 
cluded between Stephen and Henry, 
wherein it was agreed, that Stephen 
should enjoy the crown during his life, 
and Henry should succeed him ; and 
that the castles built by Stephen's per- 
mission, should be all demolished, to the 
amount of 1100. Stephen died at Dover, 
October 25, 1154, in the 50th year of 
his age, and the 19th of his reign, and 
was buried at Feversham abbey, in Kent. 
Henry II., surnamed Plantagenet, 
eldest son and heir of Matilda, the em- 
press, the only surviving legitimate issue 
of Henry I., succeeded to the crown 
without opposition, 1154. December 17, 
King Henry was crowned at Westmin- 
ster, by Theobald, archbishop of Canter- 
bury. He resumed the grants of the 
crown lands and rents made by King 
Stephen. He made resumptions likewise 
in Normandy. He demolished the cas- 
tles built by the nobles. In 1156, the 
king called an assembly (or parliament) 
of the great men at Wallingford, and 
made them swear to the succession of 
his sons WiUiam and Henr}^ and con- 
firmed the great charter. Thomas k 
Becket, archdeacon of Canterbury, was 
made lord chancellor, and governor to 
the prince. 

1164. Several statutes made at Cla- 
rendon, to retrench the power of the 
church, which were subscribed by the 
archbishops and bishops. The pope re- 
fused to confirm the laws made at Cla- 
rendon by his bull ; Becket took part 
with the pope against the king, was im- 
peached, tried, convicted, and fined. See 
Becket. 

1 170. The king caused his son Henry 
to be crowned, and William, king of 
Scots, and his nobility to swear allegiance 



ENG 



431 



ENG 



and fealty to him. The young king's 
coronation, without his princess, who 
was daughter of the French kinfg, gave 
disgust to the French court, and occa- 
sioned a short war. In 1181, Henry 
debauched his son Richard's intended 
princess, which gave great umbrage to 
his son ; to avoid whose resentment, he 
endeavoured to embroil him in a quarrel 
with his brother Henry, but it proved 
ineffectual, and cemented them the 
stronger ; they formed a design of re- 
venge, but were prevented by young 
Henry's death, 1183. 

1185. The king's son Richard re- 
belled against him again, and was en- 
couraged by the king of France. In 
1186, Henry threatened to disinherit his 
his son Richard for his turbulent con- 
duct, which occasioned his submission. 
In 1187, Richard and John, the king's 
sons, in conjunction with the king of 
France, harassed Henry. In 1189, 
Henry, deserted by his French subjects, 
was every where defeated, and obliged 
to submit to hard terms. July 6, King 
Henry died in Normandj"-, with grief, 
uttering imprecations against his sons, 
which the bishops present could not 
persuade him to revoke, in the 56th 
year of his age, and the 35th of his 
reign, and was Ijuried at Fonteverard, in 
France. 

Richard I., sumamed CoeurdeLion, 
the third, but eldest surviving son of 
Henry II., ascended the throne, 1 ISO- 
He did homage to the king of France, 
and was crowned duke of Normandy at 
Rouen, July 20. Richard returned to 
England, and landed at Portsmouth, 
August 12, and from thence went to 
Winchester, August 15, where he took 
account of his father's treasures, from 
whence he returned to Westminster. 
Sept. 3, he was crowned at Westmins- 
ter. The same year. King Richard and 
Philip the French king, engaged in the 
holy war ; to defray the expenses of 
which, Richard sold almost all the crown 
lands. He appointed Archbishop Long- 
champ, and the bishop of Durham, 
regents of the kingdom, and made an 
alliance with the king of Scotland. 

1190. December 11, Richard era- 
harked from Dover for Calais with all 
his troops, and joined Philip of France 
at Vezelai; they marched to Lyons, 
their army consisting of above 100,000 
men, and there separated. Richard went 
to Marseilles. August 7, he sailed from 



thence with a large fleet to Messina, 
but was dispersed by a storm. Richard 
seized a castle near Messina, but was 
repulsed. 

1191. The regents in England disa- 
greed, and Longchamp assumed the 
whole management, which occasioned 
his being tried, condemned, and impri- 
soned by Prince John, who also ejected 
him out of his regency. The pppe es- 
pousing Longchamp's cause, as he was 
archbishop of Canterbury, ordered John 
to be excommunicated, but the English 
clergy refused to obey the orders. Sept. 
3. Richard obtained a great victory over 
Saladin, and repaired the cities that had 
been dismantled, viz. Ascalon, Joppa, 
and Csesarea. The kings of England 
and France look the city of Acre. 

1192. June, — the two kings fell out, 
on which the French king returned 
home. Sept. 25. King Richard made a 
truce with Saladin, and left the holy 
land. On Oct. 8, he embarked for 
England, and was shipwrecked near 
Aquiieia, but taking the road to Vienna, 
he was seized by the duke of Austria ; 
who sent him prisoner to the emperor. 

1 1 94 Richardwas released Feb . 4.her'e 
turned to England March 29, and landed 
at Sandwich, after an absence of four 
years. Soon after his arrival, he reduc- 
ed his brother's party, and was crowned 
again at Westminster ; the king of Scot- 
land assisted at the ceremony, and car- 
ried the sword of state before, the king. 
Richard embarked for France in com- 
pany with the queen's mother. May 12, 
with a fleet of 100 ships, 

1197. King Richard obtained a great 
victory over the French. In 1198 he was 
wounded with a poisoned arrow, at the 
siege of Chalons, of which wound he 
died, April 6, 1199, in the 41st year of 
his age, and 10th year of his reign. 

John, the sixth and youngest son 
of Henry II. succeeded to the crown, 
April 6, 1199, by the appointment of his 
brother Richard, (though Arthur, the 
son of Jeff'ery, King Henry's fourth son 
was then living) and was crowned at 
Westminster in great state. May 2/. 
In 1200, the French king set up Prince 
Arthur, against King John, but a treaty 
of peace was concluded between them. 
Oct. 8 King John was crowned a second 
time, with his Queen Isabella, at West- 
minster. In 1201, March 25, the kingwas 
crowned a third time at Canterbury. 
The barons refused to attend the king 



ENG 



432 



ENG 



in the wars abroad. A war commenced 
against France. 

1202. April 14. King John was crown- 
ed a four til time at Canterbury. Aug. 1, 
King John obtained a great victory, and 
took his nephew. Prince Arthur, prisoner 
and his sister Eleanor. Prince Arthur 
soon after died in prison, said to have 
been stabbed by the king's own hand. 

1205. King John levied a heavy tax 
upon the English barons, for deserting 
his service in Normandy. Upon the 
death of Archbishop Hubert, the monks 
of Canterbury elected without the king's 
leave, Reginald, their sub-prior, for their 
bishop, bat afterwards at the instance 
of the king, chose John Gray, bishop of 
Norwich, for their archbishop. In 1207, 
the pope rejected both archbishops and 
obliged the monks to choose Cardinal 
Stephen Langton ; whereupon King John 
drove the monks of Canterbury out of 
England, and confiscated their goods. 

1208. The pope placed the kingdom 
under an interdict. The king confiscat- 
ed the lands and goods of all the clergy 
that obeyed the interdict, and banished 
the bishops. In 1209, the pope excom- 
municated the king. In 1211, absolved 
the king's subjects from their allegiance 
to him. In 1212, the pope proceeded to 
depose King John, and gave his king- 
dom to the French king. In 1213, the 
French king preparing to invade Eng- 
land, King John was compelled to sub- 
mit to the pope's terms. The king re- 
signed his dominions to the pope, and 
submitted to hold his kingdom as tribu- 
tary to him, at the yearly rent of 1000 
marks, with absolution. The bishops 
and barons entered into a confederacy 
against the king. In 1214, July 2, the 
interdict released, after it had continued 
above six years. 

1215. The barons made war upon the 
king. He marched against the barons, 
and laid siege to Rochester, which he 
subdued. The city of London, and all 
concerned against the king, were excom- 
municated by the pope's second bull. 
The barons became masters of London, 
and besieged the king in the Tower, who 
was obliged to yield to them, and con- 
firm their charter of privileges called 
Magna Charta, and the charter of forests, 
in Runnemede, between Staines and 
Windsor. See Magna Charta. 

The king procured the pope to make 
the great charter void, aud to join with 
him in his wars against the barons ; when 



the pope interdicted the barons and their 
adherents. John, in dusgust, retired to 
the Isle of Wight, and his troops ravag- 
ed the kingdom. In 1216, the barons in- 
vited over Louis, the Dauphin of France, 
to their assistance who had great suc- 
cess against the king's troops. The ba- 
rons did homage, and swore fealty to 
Louis, as king of England. Oct. 19, 
King John died (some say poisoned by 
a monk) at the abbey of Swineshead, in 
Lincolnshire, in the 51st year of his age, 
and the 18th year of his reign, and was 
buried at Worcester. 

Henry III. the eldest son of King 
John and Queen Isabel, at nine years of 
age, succeeded his father on the throne, 
in 1216. He did homage to the pope for 
the kingdoms of England and Ireland, 
and swore to pay the annual tribute of 
1000 marks to the Roman see. WiUiam 
Marshal, earl of Pembroke, summoned the 
nobility to attend him at Gloucester, and 
presented the young king to them, who 
was crowned there, Oct. 28. In 1217, 
Henry made his pubhc entry into Lon 
don, where he swore to maintain the peo- 
ple in their ancient privileges. In 1227, 
King Henry declared himself of age, and 
cancelled the great charter, and the 
charter of the forest, which he had for- 
merly confirmed ; which occasioned a 
conspiracy against him. 

1242. An unsuccessful war carried on 
in France. In 1243, a five years' truce 
agreed on between England and France. 
The king returned to England. In 
1253, the king departed for France with 
a fine army, and appointed the queen 
and his brother Richard co-regents. 
The charges of his expedition amounted 
to £2,700,000. In the war he recovered 
what he had previously lost. Dec. 29, 
Henry arrived in England at Dover, and 
the next day made his entry into Lon- 
don, and extorted a large sum of money 
from the city. In May, 1254, he mar- 
ried his son. Prince Edward, to Eleanor, 
the king of Castile's sister, and settled 
Ireland, Gascony, and Wales upon 
them. 

1258. The barons conspired against 
the king, and compelled him at a parlia- 
ment at Oxford, to delegate his royal 
power to 24 persons, 12 to be chosen by 
himself, and the rest by the peers, re- 
serving only to the king the chief place 
in all public assemblies, and to swear 
the expulsion of foreigners from the 
kingdom. This was the first meeting 



ENG 



433 



ENG 



where representatives of the commons 
were present. In 1259, the king resigned 
his right in Normandy and Anjouto the 
French king for £3000. 

1262. The war hegan between the 
king and his barons. The cinque ports 
declared in favour of the barons, which 
caused the king to promise compliance. 
Aug. 5, Henry, during this calm, went 
to Bourdeaux, where he fell ill of a 
quartan ague. The barons again imited, 
and the king returned to England, to 
whom they j)resented an address, re- 
quiring him to conform to his agreement, 
which he resented, and returned a 
haughty answer. Sept. 7, the earl of Lei- 
cester, was chosen general of the barons' 
forces, who determined to force the king 
to a compliance. The barons became 
possessed of Gloucester, Hereford, 
Bridgenorth, Worcester, &c., and the 
Londoners declared against the king. A 
truce was agreed upon, and peace con- 
cluded between the king and the barons, 
but it did not restore tranquillity to the 
nation ; for, as the king was forced to 
it, he soon broke it, by endeavouring to 
surprise Dover castle. 

1264. Jan. 23. The case between the 
king and his barons was referred to the 
French king, who determined in favour 
of the king, Feb. 3, but the barons re- 
fused to obey his award, upon which the 
war was renewed. April 3, the king 
seized Northampton. Henry, attended 
by Prince Edward, having left England, 
to meet Louis, king of France, at 
Amiens, returned to England, and called 
a parliament at Oxford ; but the barons 
recommenced hostilities the same day, 
when the king gained several advantages, 
and marched to London, but was re- 
fused any assistance. Hence he went to 
Lewes in Sussex, where Montford, earl 
of Leicester, presented him a respectful 
petition, which he rejected with con- 
tempt, and the barons renounced their 
fealty, May 12. May 14, the earl of 
Leicester, and the barons, defeated the 
king's forces, and took Henry, the king 
of the Romans, and Prince Edward, af- 
terwards Edward L, prisoners; 5000 
men were slain. 

1264. Earl Montford called a parlia- 
ment at Winchester, in the king's name, 
which was the first, wherein two knights 
for each county, and two burgesses for 
each borough, were summoned, and was 
the origin of the house of commons. In 
1265, Jan. 28, a parliament was summoned 



to consider of the releasing of Prince 
Edward, when the })rince was ordered to 
be delivered to the king, who continued 
still a prisoner. The earl of Gloucester 
declared openly against Montford, earl 
of Leicester. Prince Edward made his 
escape, and joined the earl of Glouces- 
ter's party, which defeated Montford at 
Evesham, in Worcestershire, August 4, 
who was killed with his eldest son upon 
the spot, and King Henry was released. 
The confederate barons were greatly per- 
secuted, and their estates confiscated; 
and London was severely chastised, and 
obliged to pay 20,000 marks. 

1266. The barons rose again, but were 
reduced. In 1267', Jan. 25, the discon- 
tented barons seized the isle of Ely, and 
Henry besieged Kenilworth Castle, 
during which time he held a parliament 
there, Aug. 24, and the decrees there 
made were published in the camp, Oct. 
31. Dec. 10, Kenilworth Castle sur- 
rendered ; Henry went from Kenilworth 
to Windsor, where he kept his Christ- 
mas, and from thence to London, Feb. 
10, 1268, where he held a parliament, 
which granted him a subsidy, but refused 
the demands of the pope's legate 

1270. May, Prince Edward embarked 
at Portsmouth, on a crusade to the Holy 
Land. King Henry died Nov. 26, 1272, 
in the 26th year of his age, and the 
57th of his reign, and was buried at 
Westminster Abbey. 

Edward L, surnamed Longshanks, 
eldest son of Henry III., by Eleanor, his 
queen, was proclaimed king, on the death 
of his father, 1272. Walter GifFard, 
archbishop of York, Edmund Planta- 
genet, son of Richard Plantagenet, bro- 
ther of Henry III., earl of Cornwall, and 
Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, by 
the consent of the nobility, took upon 
them the administration of the govern- 
ment, the king being absent in the Holy 
Land. July 12, Edward came to France, 
and did homage to the French king, for 
the lands which he held under him. In 
1274, July 25, he arrived in England, 
and was crowned, with his queen, Elea- 
nor, at Westminster. In 1277, Edward 
relinquished his right to Normandy. 

1282, Dec. 11., Llewellen, prince of 
Wales, was killed, the country reduced, 
and after preserving its liberty 800 
years against the efforts of the English 
monarchy, was made subject to the laws 
of England. In 1284, April 25, his 
son, afterwards Edward II., was born at 

3^ 



ENG 



434 



ENG 



Caernarvon, and styled prince of Wales, 
being the first that had that title. 

1286. The king visited his dominions 
in France, where he resided three years, 
and appointed Edmund, earl of Pem- 
broke, guardian of the realm during his 
absence. In 1295, the Scots entered 
into a war with the French, which was 
carriedonwithvarioussuccesses. In 1296, 
Baliol revolted, and a war was com- 
menced against Scotland, wherein King 
Edward obtained a signal victory, took 
possession of Edinburgh, and made the 
king of Scots prisoner. The king of 
Scotland made a resignation of his crown 
to King Edward, who called a parliament 
at Berwick, and received the homage of 
the nobility, and at that time brought 
the chair out of Scotland which is now 
in Westminster Aljbey (in which our 
kings are crowned), with the crown, 
sceptre, &c. 

1297. From the 22nd year of this 
reign, there has been an uninterrupted 
series of parliaments down to the present 
time ; and by a law made (August 1) as 
an addition to Magna Charta, it was en- 
acted that no tax should be levied with- 
out consent of the knights, citizens, 
and burgesses, assembled in parliament. 
November 11. Edward formed a league 
against France, and embarked with an 
army of J ,500 horse, and 50,000 foot, 
among whom were many Scots and 
Welch. In 1298, there being a new in- 
surrection in Scotland (March 14) under 
Wallace, the king returned, having made 
a two years' iruce with the French. July 
22, the king obtained another victory 
over the Scots at Falkirk, killing 40,000 
of them upon the spot, among whom was 
John Stuart, the third seneschal, or high 
steward of Scotland, of that name. A 
confirmed peace between England and 
France. 

1300. King Edward marched against 
Scotland a third time ; they put them- 
selves under the protection of the pope. 
1301. The parliament declared that Scot- 
land was subject to the crown of Eng- 
land, and that the pope had nothing to 
do with it. 1305. Sir Wilham Wallace, 
the principal promoter of the insurrec- 
tion in Scotland (August 15), tried by 
the laws of England, and executed as 
a traitor, August 23. In 1306, the Scots 
rebelled again, and crowned Robert 
Bruce king of Scotland. King Edward 
sent an army into Scotland, defeated 
the Scots near St. John's Town, and took 



several of their great men prisoners ; 
among them the brothers of RobertBruce, 
who were condemned and executed in En- 
gland as traitors. In 1307, Robert Bruce 
defeated the king's general, the earl of 
Pembroke. Edward, .surprised at Brace's 
success, summoned his vassals to meet 
him at Carlisle, and intended to destroy 
the Scotch kingdom from sea to sea, as 
he had drawn together the finest army 
ever seen in England, but he was taken 
ill at Carlisle. July 7- King Edward 
died of a dysentery, at Burgh upon the 
Sands, on his inarch to Scotland, in the 
6Sth year of his age, and the 35th of his 
reign, and was buried in Westminster 
Abl)ey, October 8. 

Edward II., surnamed of Caernar- 
von, the fourth, but only surviving son 
of Edward I., by Queen Eleanor, suc- 
ceeded his father, 1307. January 23, 
1 308, the king married the lady Isabel, 
daughter of Philip, king of France, at 
Bologne, and left in his absence Piers 
Gaveston, an unworthy favourite of the 
king, guardian of the realm, with unli- 
mited power. On the 24th of February, 
the king and queen were crowned at 
Westminster. In 1310, Piers Gaveston 
being banished by one of the constitu- 
tions, the king recalled him, and the 
lords entered into a confederacy against 
the king. In 1312, June 19, they took 
Piers Gaveston in Scarborough Castle, 
and beheaded him at Blacklow in War- 
wickshire. 

1313. The war was renewed against 
the Scots. Edward marched against 
them, but returned without doing any 
thing. In 13 14, the king sustained a great 
defeat by the Scots, commanded byRobert 
Bruce, at Bannockburn. June 25, Ed- 
ward levied an army of 100,000 men, to 
raise which he borrowed money from all 
the bishops and monasteries in England. 
In 1320, the two Spencers, father and son, 
engrossed the king's favour. The no- 
bility compelled the king to banish them. 
In 1321, the queen was insulted by one 
of the confederate barons at LeedsCastle, 
in her journey on a pilgrimage to Can- 
terbury, and she stirred up the king to a 
revenge, who levied troops and took the 
castle. A war commenced between the 
king and the lords, and the king reversed 
the banishment of the Spencers. In 1324, 
the queen being disobliged by the Spen- 
cers, took part with the lords against 
the king, and went into France with her 
son, prince Edward, In 1325, the queen. 



ENG 



435 



ENG 



^nd all her adherents, were declared 
enemies to the kingdom. The queen 
removed into Hainault with her son, 13 
years of age, whom she married to Phi- 
lippa, the earl of Hainault's daughter, 
and raised an army of 2,000 men against 
the king. September 22, she landed in 
Essex, and drove the king into Wales. 
The elder Spencer was taken by her at 
Bristol, and hanged. 

King Edward concealing himself with 
the younger Spencer in Wales, Prince 
Edward was declared custos, or guardian 
of the kingdom. The king and the 
younger Spencer were taken at Caer- 
philly, in Glamorganshire. The king was 
imprisoned at Kenihvorth. In 1327 Spen- 
cer was hanged and quartered. In Janu- 
ary, the queen and prince called a par- 
liament in the king's name, where six 
articles were drawn up against him for 
maladministration. The nobility sent 
these articles to the king, and by their 
deputies renounced all homage and fealty 
to him. They judged him unfit to rule, 
and deposed him ; but the prince refused 
to accept the crown unless his father 
would resign it, upon which a formal re- 
signation was extorted from him in the 
19th year of his reign, and the 43rd of 
his age ; and Edwanl, his son, was de- 
clared king, January 20. 

Edward III., surnaraed Windsor, 
eldest son of Edward II. and Queen 
Isabel, succeeded to the crown, Jan. 20, 
1327, in his father's lifetime. Januai*y 
26, the king was crowned at Westmin- 
ster, and February 2, received the order 
of knighthood from the earl of Lancaster. 
The archbishop and 11 others of the 
nobility, were appointed guardians to 
the young king ; but the queen and Ro- 
ger Mortimer took upon them the admi- 
nistration of the government. April 14, 
the deposed king, who had for some 
time been confined at Kenihvorth Castle, 
was removed to Berkeley Castle, to be 
treated with greater severity than his 
late keeper chose to exercise towards 
him. On his removal he was carried first 
to Corfe Castle, and thence to Bristol, 
under the conduct of Sir John Maltravers 
and Sir Thomas Gurney. September 
22, Edward's keepers laid a pillow on 
his face, and thrust a horn pipe up his 
body, through which they ran a red-hot 
iron, and burnt his bowels. His body 
was privately buried in the cathedral of 
Gloucester, where soon after his son 
caused a stately tomb to be erected. 



1328. Edward III. restored to Scot- 
land all that Edward I. had taken 
from them, and renoimced all pre- 
tensions of superiority over that king- 
dom. The lady Joan, sister to King Ed- 
ward, was married to David Bruce, the 
son of Robert, king of Scotland, being 
but seven years of age. The earl of 
Lancaster was attacked by the queen- 
mother, who stirred up the young king 
against him, which induced prepara- 
tions for his defence against the court. In 
1329, June 6, Edward sailed from Dover 
for France, (having appointed his bro- 
ther, John of Eltham, regent in his ab- 
sence) with a retinue of 1000 horse, and 
arrived at Amiens, where he did homage 
to Philip in the presence of the kings of 
Navarre, Majorca, and Bohemia, and 
promised to ratify the homage under 
the great seal on his return to England, 
which he did not comply with. 

1331. Edward formed the project of 
conquering Scotland, and made use of 
Baliol to accomplish his end. In 1333, 
July 29, Edward defeated the Scots at 
Halidonhill in Berwickshire; seven Scotch 
earls were slain on the spot, with 900 
knights, 4000 gentlemen, besides 1 5,000 
common soldiers ; which defeat was fol- 
lowed by the surrender of Berwick which 
King Edward annexed for ever to the 
crown of England. In 1335, Edward in 
the spring attacked Scotland by sea and 
land, and advanced as far as the north- 
ern ocean, and in the mean time, his 
brother the earl of Cornwall ravaged 
the western counties of the kingdom. 
TheearlofMurray.regent of Scotland, was 
taken prisoner by the English. In 1336, 
the English troops left in Scotland were 
defeated, and their leader, the earl of 
Athol, slain, which revived the courage 
of the Scots. In 1337, Jan. Edward re- 
turned to Scotland, and ravaged the 
country v/ith great fury ; he burnt the 
town of Aberdeen, and some other places 
of less note, and leaving a small army 
with Baliol, returned to England. 

The king's success in Scotland made 
him form a design on France, pretending 
the salic law, in excluding females from 
the succession to that crown, did not 
exclude their male issue. Edward formed 
several alliances with foreign princes, viz., 
the emperor Louis of Bavaria, the duke of 
Brabant, the earls of Gueldre, and Hai- 
nault, the archbishop of Cologne, &c. 
Edward wrote to the pope and cardi- 
nals to justify his claim on France, and 



ENG 



436 



ENG 



demanded the crown of Philip, by the 
duke of Brabant, whom he made lieu- 
tenant-genei-al for that kingdom, with 
orders to the French, whom he called 
his subjects to pay him obedience. 

1338. Edward set sail from Orwell 
in Suffolk, with a fleet of 500 ships, 
for Antwerp, where he arrived July 22. 
He was made vicar of the empire, and 
had an interview with the emperor at 
Cologne, where two thrones were erect- 
ed in the public market place for their 
reception. In 1339,Sept. 21, Edward put 
himself at the head of 40,000 men, and 
(Oct. 22.) offered battle to Philip king 
of France, who retired. 

1340. Edward took on him the title 
of king of France, and quartered with 
his own arms the Fleur de lis of France; 
he at the same time used the motto, 
" Dieu et mon droit." Edward in person 
obtained a victory over the French at 
sea. He took and sunk all their ships, 
being 400 sail, and killed 30,000 men. 
The king entered France with an army 
of 150,000 men, but a truce for a year 
was agreed on. As soon as the truce 
was signed, Edward, with his queen, 
Philippa, who had lived three years in 
the Low Countries, returned to England. 
She had been delivered there of two 
princes, the last of whom was John of 
Gaunt. She landed at the Tower, Nov. 
30. In 1344, King Edward ordered tour- 
naments to be pubhshed, and gave ho- 
nourable invitation and reception to all 
persons of distinction, whether natives 
or foreigners. Philip of France pub- 
lished a like tournament, and by that 
means got into his power several of the 
noblemen of Bretagne, who had sided 
with Edward, and beheaded some of 
them, who provoked Edward to send 
Pliilij) a defiance, and made great pre- 
paration for renewing the war with 
France. 

1346. Edward embarked for France, 
July 4, but was driven back to Cornwall 
by a storm. He re-embarked with his 
army, which consisted of 1600 ships, 
great and small, containing 4000 men at 
arms, 10,000 archers, 12,000 Welsh foot- 
men, and 6,000 Irish, besides a great 
number of the chief nobility, and the 
young prince of Wales, then 15 years 
and one month old, all of whom landed 
in Normandy. With his army he ravag- 
ed the country, burning and plundering 
whatever came in his way. Edward ad- 
vanced to Poissi, where Philip endea- 



voured to enclose him between the Seine 
and Oyse, but he took shelter in Pon- 
theiu. Edward encamped at Cressy when 
the celebrated battle took place, Aug. 24. 
See Cressy. 

1347. Calais surrendered to Edward 
on the terms of life to the inhabitants 
and soldiers, e.\cept six of the burghers, 
who were to be the victims of Edward's 
revenge, Aug. 4. A few days afterwards 
Edward made his entry into Calais ; he 
turned out all the native inhabitants and 
peopled it with English, then returned in 
triumph to England, where he arrived 
Oct. 2. In 1355, July, the Prince of 
Wales, called the Black Prince, made 
great ravages in Languedoc, Perigord 
and Limousin, with an army of 12,000 
men and besieged Bourges, but the 
French king approaching at the head of 
40,000 men, he withdrew from thence 
and intrenched himself. Sept. 29, Ed- 
ward the Black Prince obtained a great 
victory over the French at Poictiers, 
where John the French king, and his 
son Philip were taken prisoners. See 
Poictiers. 

1357. April. A truce concluded for 
two years with France. InMay, the prince 
made his triumphant entry into London, 
with King John his prisoner, and was 
met by the lord mayor and aldermen in 
all their formalities. In 1359, Edward re- 
solved to carry the war into France, and 
confined John in the Tower. March. 
King Edward marched to the walls of 
Paris, which holding out against him, 
he ravaged the whole kingdom, till 6,000 
of his men and horses, if we may credit 
our historians, were killed by a storm of 
thunder and lightning, which induced 
him, it is said, to hearken to terms of 
peace ; and the treaty was concluded. 
May 8, 1360, when the king returned to 
England. In 1377, June21,KingEdward 
die(l at his manor house at Sheen, (now 
Richm.ond) in the 65th year of his age, 
and the 5 1st of his reign, and was buried 
in Westminster abbbey. 

Richard II., the only surviving child 
of Edward, prince of Wales, (called the 
Black Prince, eldest son of Edward III., 
by Joan his wife, daughter of Edmund, 
earl of Kent,) succeeded to the crown, 
1377, on the death of his grandfather, 
being about 11 years old. July 16, the 
young king was crowned at W^estminster, 
The king's uncles governed the state. 
November 2, 1381, a parliament met at 
Northampton, when the king having a 




Deaih of Wat Tyler 
WatlT^er kiUs the CoHeaor. John Ball preaches to The Rebels. 

'ebeTs seize the Town ATjehead the Arclihisliop Conference of the King & Tyler 



lONDOK. THOMAS KL'LLT, 18 W. 



ENG 



437 



ENG 



pressing occasion for money, and the 
treasuries of the rich having supphed 
the last grant, this was levied by way of 
poll tax, from which no person was ex- 
empted ; all above 15 years old were to 
pay 12 pence each. 

1381. This imposition produced serious 
consequences. One John Ball, a seditious 
preacher, who affected low popularity, 
went about the country, and inculcated 
on his audience the principles of the first 
origin of mankind from one common 
stock, their equal right to liberty, and 
to all the goods of nature, the tyranny 
of artificial distinctions, &c. These doc- 
trines were greedily received by the mul- 
titude, and connected with the severity 
with which the tax gatherers collected 
the money, occasioned a rebellion. One 
of the collectors having demanded of a 
tyler at Deptford, whose name was Wal- 
ter, (from thence called Wat Tyler,) 12 
pence for one of his daughters, the father 
refused to pay it, alleging that she was 
under the age mentioned in the act. The 
insolent collector refused to depart, and 
Wat took up a hammer and knocked out 
his brains. The people took his part, 
and promised to stand by him. This 
was the signal for insurrection, for the 
people immediately rose in Kent, and 
chose Wat Tyler for their leader; and 
this example was soon followed by those 
of Essex. The rebels soon cleared 
the gaols of all the prisoners, and then 
proceeded to London, where at first 
they met with resistance ; but forcing 
their passage over the bridge, they plun- 
dered the city and seized on the Tower, 
wherein were 600 warlike men, and 
6,000 archers. They there found the 
archbishop of Canterbury, and the lord 
treasurer, with many other noblemen, 
who were immediately beheaded by the 
rebels; then they proceeded to the pa- 
lace of the duke of Lancaster, at the 
Savoy, which they burnt, with the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury's palace, and the 
magnificent priory of St. John's, Cler- 
kenwell. May 24. This done, they di- 
vided themselves into three bodies: Wat 
Tyler remained about the Tower with 
30,000 men; Jack Straw, another of 
their leaders, advanced into the city with 
the rebels of Essex, to the number of 
60,000 ; the rest, under tthe conduct of 
another leader, lodged themselves upon 
Mile-end Green. 'The king published a 
general pardon, which the Essex men 
embraced, and returned home. Wat 



Tyler rejected the offer, and the king 
proposed a conference with him in Smith- 
field, where Wat behaved with great in- 
solence. He took hold of the bridle of 
the king's horse, and threatened the king 
with his sword, which so exasperated 
William Walworth, lord mayor of Lon- 
don, who attended the king, that he 
struck him dead with his mace. The 
rebels were preparing to revenge his 
death, which the king prevented by cry- 
ing out in a resolute and courageous 
voice, "Will you kill your king; who 
will then redress your wrongs ?" This 
staggered their resolution, they threw 
down their arms, and the rebellion was 
suppressed. 

1386. The parliament obliged the king 
to discharge his favourites, Michael de la 
Pole, earl of Suffolk, and Robert de 
Vere, duke of Ireland ; but they were 
restored to favour on the close of the 
session. In 1387, the king's favourites 
endeavoured to make him absolute, and 
the king communicated his design to the 
sheriffs, who refused to engage in the 
plot ; this brought on disputes between 
the king and his nobles. The duke of 
Gloucester, the king's uncle, and the 
lords of his party, defeated the king's 
forces commanded by the duke of Ire- 
land ; whereupon, the duke went to 
Flanders. 

1388. The king took refuge in the 
Tower ; when it was discovered, he in- 
tended to sell Calais and Cherburg to 
Charles of France. The confederate 
lords took possession of London, seized 
upon the judges, and compelled the king 
to discard his ministers, and call a par- 
liament, where they attainted the arch- 
bishop of York, the duke of Ireland, the- 
earl of Suffolk, Chief Justice Tressilian, 
and others; and afterwards hung Tres- 
silian, and several other persons of qua- 
lity, and banished the other judges. The 
confederate lords at a conference with 
the king, reproached him with his con- 
duct, which Richard answered with tears. 
They made him consent to the banish- 
ment of his favourites ; and the judges, 
who had favoured his designs, were 
taken off the benches in Westminster- 
hall, and sent to the Tower. They also 
compelled the king to renew his corona- 
tion oath, and pass an act of general 
pardon. 

1392. As the king's revenues were not 
suflicient to support his expenses, he at- 
tempted to borrow £1,000 of the citizens 



ENG 



438 



ENG 



of London, but was refused ; which he 
resented, and under colour of punishing 
a tumult, of little consequence, he strip- 
ped the city of her privileges, May 25, 
took away the charter, and removed the 
courts of justice to York; nor would he 
restore them till the Londoners had pre- 
sented him with £10,000 and two gold 
crowns. By this he entirely forfeited 
the affections of the citizens, who made 
him sensible afterwards, how dangerous 
it was for a king of England to have 
London for his enemy. 

1399. Large sums were extorted from 
the subjects, by way of loan, and their 
provisions seized for the use of the army 
without paying for them. The earl of 
Northumberland was declared a traitor 
by the king, who also banished him, and 
confiscated his estates. The duke of 
York, being appointed guardian of the 
kingdom, the king embarked for Ireland, 
where he arrived. May 31, at Waterford, 
whence he marched to Dublin. He was 
attended by the sons of the duke of 
Lancaster, by his third wife, and by 
those of the late duke of Gloucester, 
whom he carried like hostages, and took 
with him the best part of his jewels, as 
if he had foreseen he should never more 
return to his palace. July 4, in his 
absence, Henry, late duke of Hereford, 
now duke of Lancaster, landed in York- 
shire, and was joined by the nobility and 
gentry. The duke marched to London, 
and was received with joy. From thence 
he went to Bristol, which surrendered 
to him immediately. The earl of Wilt- 
shire and his companions he beheaded. 
When Richard heard of these trans- 
actions, he imprisoned the duke's bro- 
thers, with the duke of Gloucester's 
sons, but was detained by contrary 
winds, which occasioned the dispersion 
of some troops raised in Cheshire and 
Wales for his assistance. Richard landed 
at Milford Haven, and in the midst of 
his distress retired to Conway Castle, 
and proposed an accommodation with 
the duke of Lancaster, when he offered 
to the duke of Northumberland to resign 
his crown, provided that life was pro- 
mised him and eight others, and desired 
an interview with the duke of Lan- 
caster. 

September 29. Richard made a public 
resignation of his crown, by delivering 
it up, with the sceptre, and other ensigns 
of royalty, and by an instrument signed 
with his own hand, confessed himself un- 



worthy and unfit any longer to govern. 
This was the next day laid before the 
parliament, who ordered articles of ac- 
cusation, and reasons for the deposition 
to be exhibited, when the duke of Lan- 
caster claimed the crown. 

Henry IV., surnamed of Boling- 
broke, only son of John of Gaunt, 
duke of Lancaster, and fourth son of 
Edward III. by Blanch, his wife, ascend- 
ed the throne in 1399- He was crowned 
October 13, with all the usual formali- 
ties, being then 33 years old. Prince 
Henry, son of Henry IV., 13 years old, 
was created prince of Wales, and the 
succession of the crown limited to him 
and his issue. 

1400. King Richard was murdered in 
Pontefract Castle, being attacked by eight 
persons, of whom he slew four. He was 
buried at Langley, and, 14 years after, re- 
moved by King Henry V., and honourably 
interred inWestminster Abbey. He lived 
32 years, and reigned 22 years and three 
months. He died without issue. 

1401 Owen Glendower taking advan- 
tage of Henry's negligence, revolted; on 
which Henry published a pardon for the 
Welsh, provided they submitted by a cer- 
tain time, which they neglected. Octo- 
ber 2, Henry marched against them, but 
they retiring to the mountains, Henry 
could only ravage the country, and re- 
turn to London. The earl of Northum- 
berland, at the battle of Halidon, took 
many prisoners of great quality, which 
Henry demanded of him, and oljhgedhim 
to resign. This gave the earl great dis- 
gust, and he determined to resent it by 
forming a conspiracy in favour of Mor- 
timer, earl of March, then a prisoner in 
Wales, whom Henry refused to release. 
The conspiracy was formed by the duke 
of Surrey, the earls of Northumberland 
and Salisbury, Owen Glendower, and 
others. July 22. They were defeated by 
King Henry at Shrewsbury, and young 
Percy, surnamed Hotspur, killed. 

1405. August 7. The French landed 
in Wales, with 140 sail and 12,000 men, 
but Lord Berkley took 14, and destroyed 
15 of their ships in Milford Haven. The 
king marched against them, but being 
retarded by severe weather, the French 
re-embarked. In 1408, February 19, the 
earl of Northumberland raised another 
insurrection in the north, at York, but 
was killed before he could assemble hia 
forces. 2U, 

1413. King Henry died March 



ENG 



439 



ENG 



in the 47th year of his age, and the 
14th of his reign, and was buried at 
Canterbury. 

Henry V., surnamed of Monmouth, 
eldest son of Henry IV. and Mary de 
Bohun (eldest daughter of the earl of 
Hereford, Sec), succeeded his father, in 
1413. April 9, he was crowned at West- 
minster, and the same day granted a 
general pardon for all crimes, except 
murder and rape. He chose for his 
council persons of the greatest gravity, 
ability, and repute among his subjects. 
He removed some of the judges, and ad- 
vanced others in their room, which, to 
the knowledge of the law, added a per- 
fect integrity. H« did the same with 
regard to inferior magistrates, and took 
particular care to fill the vacant benefices 
with persons of sound principles and 
known merit. July 14, Disputes with 
France ; Henry sent an embassy to 
Paris to adjust all diflferences. 

1414. March, Henry demanded the 
re-establishment of the treaty of Bre- 
tagne; the ambassadors offered Cathe- 
rine, the youngest daughter of Charles 
IV., in marriage. This Henry did not 
reject, but prolonged the truce to Febru- 
ary in next year. The French king sent 
ambassadors to England to treat with 
Henry upon a truce and the marriage. 
King Henry renewed the claim of the 
kings of England to the crown of France. 
The commons approved of the king's 
claim, and granted him a subsidy of 
300,000 marks. 

1414. September, the king assembled 
bis troops at Southampton. In 1415, he 
embarked with 50,000 men for France, 
having appointed his brother, the 
duke of Bedford, regent. August 21, 
landed with his troops at Havre-de- 
Grace. September 22, he took Har- 
fleur, and made it an English colony, 
appointing his uncle, Thomas Beaufort, 
earl of Dorset, governor. The constable 
of France besieged Harfleur, and a fleet 
of French ships blocked up Portsmouth 
and Southampton, and made an attempt 
upon, the Isle of Wight, but were re- 
pulsed. Henry was much harassed in 
his retreat to Calais. He passed the 
Somme October 19. He met the French 
army, who offered him battle by a herald 
October 22, which he accepted, and 
he presented the herald with a robe of 
200 crowns value. This was followed 
by the famous battle of Agincourt, fought 
October 24. See Agincourt. 



Nov. 16, Henry returned to England, 
taking with him the principal prisoners; 
he »met in his passage a great storm, 
which destroyed several of his ships. 
Nov. 23, the king made his entry into 
London, and was met by the mayor and 
aldermen, who presented him with a 
£1000 in gold, in two gold basons, each 
valued at £500. 

1417. March and April, Henry-made 
himself master of St. Loo, Carentum, St. 
Sauver le Vicomte, and many other 
places in Normandy, and laid siege to 
Cherbourg, which lasted three months. 
July 2S, King Henry's second expedi- 
tion to France, with an army of 26,000 
men, on board a fleet of 1500 sail: he 
took Caen, Calais, and several other 
places. In 1418, the English took Cher- 
bourg, and several other towns in 
France, and laid siege to Rouen, the ca- 
pital of Normandy, which surrendered, 
Jan. 19, following. 

1419. Feb. 12, a conference was held 
with the Dauphin at Louviers, and 
Henry granted him a truce till Easter, for 
all the country between the Loire and 
and the Seine, Normandy excepted. 
Dec. 24, a second treaty of peace be- 
tween the French king and the king of 
England, wherein it was stipulated, that 
King Henry should marry the Princess 
Catherine, the French king's daughter, 
that he should have the regency of 
France during the French king's life, 
and succeed him in his throne after his 
death. The French nobility swore fealty 
to him. 

1420. April 18, Henry took the title 
of king of France, on a new coin. May 
21, the agreement between the kings of 
England and France was ratified by the 
French parliament, at Paris, and sent to 
England to be recorded in the court of 
Exchequer at Westminster. June 2, 
Henry married Catherine, the daughter 
of Charles VI. of France, at Troyes. In 
1421, Feb. 9, King Henry having arrived 
in England with his queen, she was 
crowned at Westminster. June 10, 
King Henry went to France again, and 
took several towns from the Dauphin. 
The king carried over a newly raised 
army with him of 28,000 men, for the 
payment of which, he borrowed money 
of the most noted men of property. 

1422. April, Queen Catherine arrived 
in France, attended by the duke of Bed- 
ford, who had left the regency to his 
brother, the duke of Gloucester. The 



ENG 



440 



ENG 



two courts of England and France were 
held at Paris, and on Whitsunday, the 
two kings *and queens dined togeth* in 
public. Aug. 31, the king died in 
France, in the 34th year of his age, and 
the 10th of his reign, and was buried at 
Westminster, leaving the duke of Bedford 
regent in France, and the duke of Glouces- 
ter regent of England, during his son's 
minority. The queen, in honour of the 
king's memory, caused a statue of silver, 
gilt, to be laid on his tomb, as large as 
life, which, in the latter end of the reign 
of Henry VIII., was conveyed away. 
He was buried at the feet of Edward the 
Confessor. 

Henry VI., the only child of Henry 
v., by his queen, Catherine, of Valois, 
succeeded his father in the throne, in 
1422, being but nine months old. He 
was proclaimed heir to the crown of 
France. 

Oct. 21, Charles, king of France, sur- 
vived King Henry but 53 days. The 
dauphin took upon him the title of 
king of France, by the name of Charles 
VII. and fomred several alliances with 
foreign princes, to support his preten- 
sions to his father's throne. November, 
the parliament nominated the members 
of the council, filled the offices of the 
crown, and gave the great seal to the bi- 
shop of Durham ; the duke of Glouces- 
ter was appointed chamberlain and high- 
constable of England, and protector of 
the kingdom, in the absence of the duke 
of Bedford, who was nominated protec- 
tor of England, defender of the church, 
and first councillor to the king, with a 
salary of 8000 marks a year. 

1423, 1424. The war still carried on 
in France. In 1428, the earl of Salis- 
bury raised 6000 men, and went to 
France. Oct., the English took Jan- 
ville, Mehun, Bangenci, Gergeau. Clery, 
Sully, and some other towns. The En- 
glish besieged Orleans, and raised l)at- 
teries round the town to prevent suc- 
cours going in. In 1429, the siege was 
continued by the earl of Suffolk and Lord 
Talbot. Feb. 12, the siege having been 
carried on four months, the regent sent a 
convoy of artillery, ammunition, and pro- 
visions, being salt-fish from Paris, under 
General Fastolfe ; the earl of Clermont 
intercepted him ; the English routed 
him, and slew between 500 and 600 of 
the French ; this was called the battle of 
" Herrings." May 12, the famous Joan 
of Arc pretended to be sent from God to 



save the kingdom of France ; she re- 
lieved Orleans, and obliged the English 
to raise the siege. See Joan of Arc. 
Nov. 6, King Henry was crowned at 
Westminster, and the protectorship sup- 
pressed, 

1430. The king embarked for France, 
the duke of York being appointed regent; 
for want of money, the king was obliged 
to pawn his crown and jewels. In 
1433, France was perpetually ravaged 
and harassed by the contending parties, 
and England extremely impoverished by 
taxes to support the war. In 1434, May 
13, many skirmishes happened with the 
enemy, and the earl of Arundel was 
killed in a battle near Beauvais. In 
1435, Aug. 6, a congress was held at 
Arras, to treat of peace, from which the 
English withdrew with indignation. 

1437- All this year the war was carried 
on with vigour on both sides ; Charles 
headed his own army. In 1444, May 28, 
a truce was concluded for 18 months, be- 
tween the English and French. In 1445, 
April 18, King Henry married Margaret 
of Valois, the daughter of Reyner, 
duke of Anjou, titular king of Sicily, 
Naples, and Jerusalem. May 30, the 
queen arrived in England and was 
crowned. The truce with France was 
prolonged till Nov. 1, 1446 j again pro- 
longed to April, 1, 1447. 

1448. Richard, duke of York, lineally 
descended from Edward III., first began 
to assert his title to the crown of Eng- 
land. In May, the duke of York clan- 
destinely fomented the insurrection of 
Jack Cade, in Kent, who assumed the 
name of Mortimer. The king assem- 
bled 15,000 men, and marched against 
the rebels near Sevenoaks. Cade de- 
feated the king's forces ; upon which 
the king retired to Warwick, and Cade 
entered London. Cade caused the Lord 
Say, high treasurer, to be taken and be- 
headed ; they hanged his body up and 
quartered it in Southwark. Cade's sol- 
diers committing great riots, were refused 
entrance into London; and a pardon 
being proclaimed by the king. Cade was 
abandoned by many of his followers. 
In June, Cade was killed, and his fol- 
lowers dispersed. In August, the French 
became masters of all Normandy, upon 
which the duke of Somerset returned to 
England, and was blamed by the people 
for the loss of Normandy, and sent to 
the Tower, when the people plundered 
his palace. 




Joaa of Arc takex! rrisoner. 
Joano£/\rc's interview with the Governor of Vaiicouleurs . Joan marches mlh a convoy" to Qrlea . 

Chacles enters Beims. Joan -wounded in the attack of S : 



J-OXDON: THOM/iS ltELLV.1841. 



ENG 441 

1451. The duke of York came over 
from his government of Ireland, and had 
recourse to arms, upon pretence of mal- 
administration. He retired into Wales, 
and wrote to the king to reform the 
government, and displace some of the 
ministers ; when the king returned him 
a mild answer. The whole province of 
Guienne fell under the dominion of 
Charles, after its being united 300 years 
to the crown of England, which was dis- 
possessed of every town but Calais and 
its dependencies. In 1452, the duke of 
York marched towards London, but 
afterwards came to a treaty with the 
king, and dismissed his army. In 
October, 1453, Henry was seized with 
a dangerous illness at Clarendon, in 
Wiltshire, and was removed to London. 
1454. February 14, the parliament 
met and granted the king a subsidy, 
and tonnage and poundage during life. 
The duke of York was made protector 
of the realm by the parliament, and go- 
vernor of Calais. In 1455, the king 
recoi'ered from his illness, and resumed 
his authority. The duke retired to 
Wales in disgust with the court. March 
4, he raised an army in Wales, and 
marched towards London. March 23, 
he gave battle to the king's forces near 
St. Alban's, and routed them, killing the 
duke of Somerset, the earls of Northum- 
berland and Stafford, and Lord Clifford, 
upon the spot, and made the king his 
prisoner, who lost 5000 men, and the 
duke of York only 600. July 9, the 
parliament met, and the king having 
relapsed, the duke of York held the 
government in the king's name. The 
parliament petitioned the king to name 
a protector, who appointed the duke of 
York, with a salary of 4000 marks per 
annum, 

1460. July 9, the Yorkists followed 
the king to Northampton, where a bat- 
tle was fought ; the king's army was 
routed, the duke of Buckingham and 
the earl of Salisbury killed, and the king 
made prisoner. August 16, the king 
was carried to London, and the queen, 
with the prince, her son, fled to Scotland. 
In October, the earls of March and 
Salisbury advanced to London, and call- 
ed a parliament, and the duke of York 
arriving from Ireland, claimed the crown. 
The duke of York was proclaimed, by 
the sound of trumpet, heir-apparent to 
the crown, and protector of the realm. 
November 8, it was agreed in parliament 



ENG 



that King Henry shoulrl enjoy the crown 
during his life, and that the duke of 
York should succeed him. Henry's let- 
ters patent passed, appointing the duke 
of York protector of the realm and heir- 
apparent to the crown. December 2, 
the duke of York marched against the 
queen with 5000 men only, leaving the 
king to the care of the duke of Norfolk 
and Lord Clifford. The duke shut him- 
self up in his castle of Sandall, where 
the queen provoked him to come out and 
give battle, when 2800 of his men were 
slain, and himself killed in the engage- 
ment, December 31. 

1461. February 2, Edward, earl of 
March, son and successor of the duke of 
York, engaged the king's forces, under 
the earl of Pembroke, and. routed them 
at Mortimer's cross, near Ludlow. Feb- 
ruary 17, the queen defeated the duke 
of Norfolk and the earl of Warwick at 
Bernard's-heath, near St. Alban's, and 
set the king at liberty ; but the earl of 
March, now duke of York, advancing 
towards London, with a superior force, 
she retired northwards. March 2, the 
duke of York was proclaimed king in 
the camp. This was reckoned the last 
day of King Henry's reign. 

Edw^ard IV., eldest son of Richard, 
duke of York, (son of Richard earl of 
Cambridge, and Anne his wife, who was 
daughter of Roger, earl of March, the 
son of Edmund Mortimer, and Phillippa 
his wife, who was daughter of Lionel, 
duke of Clarence, the third son of Ed- 
ward III.) succeeded to the crown. He 
was elected by the chief men, March 3, 
1461. Henry's arrriy consisted of 60,000 
men, and Edward's of 48,000. March 
29, King Edward obtained a great vic- 
tory over King Henry's forces at Tow- 
ton, in Yorkshire, where were slain 
36,000 men ; upon which King Henry, 
with his queen and son, retired into 
Scotland, and delivered up Berwick to 
the Scots. The king was crowned at 
Westminster, June 28. 

1463. Queen Margaret landed in the 
north of England, and went to Berwick. 
Richard Nevill, earl of Warwick, was 
sent upon an embassy to propose a mar- 
riage between Edward and the lady 
Bona, daughter to the duke of Savoy. 
In February, 1465, King Edward mar- 
ried the Lady Elizabeth Grey, the widow 
of Sir John Grey, while the earl of War- 
wick was upon his embassy, which pro- 
voked the earl to desert the king's in» 
3fc 



ENG 



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terest. May 26, the queen was crowned 
at Westminster. 

1466. February 11, King Edward's 
queen was delivered of a daughter, named 
Ehzabeth, afterwards married to King 
Henry VII., whereby the famihes of 
York and Lancaster were united. Sept, 
13, the earl of Warwick arrived at Dart- 
mouth with 60,000 men, caused Henry 
VI. to be proclaimed, and published 
an order in his name for his subjects to 
take arms and expel Edward. Edward 
retired into Lincolnshire and was pur- 
sued, where he embarked and went to 
Holland, to the duke of Burgundy, his 
brother-in-law, by whom he was well 
received. November 6, a parliament was 
called, by which King Henry, after three 
years' imprisonment, was released from 
the Tower, reinstated in the government, 
the succession settled in his family, and 
King Edward was attainted as a traitor 
and usurper. 

1471. March 12, King Edward, being 
assisted by the duke of Burgundj', with 
2000 Dutch troops, landed in Yorkshire, 
seized York, and marched to Nottingham; 
and the duke of Clarence came over to 
him on the 29th. April 11, King Edward 
took possession of London again, being 
about six months after his leaving it, 
and imprisoned King Henry. June 20, 
King Henry was murdered in the Tower, 
by the duke of Gloucester, as it is said, 
in the 50th year of his age. He was 
buried first at Chertsey Abbey, thence 
removed, and solemnly interred at Wmd- 
sor. He was reckoned to have reigned 
38 years; he left no issue behind him, 
his only son, Edward, being killed. 

1473. The King Edward IV. entered 
into a treaty with the duke of Burgundy 
to invade France ; the duke was to as- 
sist him with an army of 20,000 men. 
In 1475, Edward ordered his troops to 
assemble. May 26, at Portsmouth, to the 
number of 30,000, all Englishmen. But 
the king gave himself up to pleasures, 
and raised money by illegal methods. A 
treaty was concluded between Edward 
and Louis, wherein the latter was to pay 
England 50,000 crowns yearly. 

1483, April 6, King Edward died of a 
surfeit at Westminster, in the 23d year 
of his reign, and the 42d of his age, and 
was nobly interred at Windsor, in the 
new chapel, the foundation of which he 
himself had laid. 

Edward V., eldest son of King Ed- 
ward IV., succeeded his father, 14S3, 



at the age of 1 1 years, but was never 
crowned. At Edward's accession to 
the crown, there were two parties formed 
at court, the old and new nobility ; the 
king protected the latter. Richard, duke 
of Gloucester, seized upon Earl Rivers, 
the queen's brother, and got the young 
king into his power, upon which the 
queen, with her other son, Richard, 
duke of York, and five daughters, took 
sanctuary at Westminster. April, a 
tumult arose in London which was ap- 
peased by Lord Hastings. May 4, the 
king was brought to London, and lodged 
in the bishop's palace. The duke of 
Gloucester caused a grand council to be 
called, and moved them to take the duke 
of York from the queen. The archbishop 
of Canterbury was sent to the queen, 
but he was against violating the sanctu- 
ary. May 27, the duke prevailed upon 
the council to appoint him protector of 
the king and kingdom ; and upon the 
queen to deliver up her son, Richard, 
duke of York ; upon which lie secured 
him, with the king, his brother, in the 
Tower. In June, the protector held a covm- 
cil in the Tower, and caused Lord Hast- 
ings to be arrested. June 13, he cutoff 
the heads of Lord Hastings, Anthony 
Woodville, Earl Rivers, the queen's bro- 
ther, and of her son, Lord Richard Grey. 
June 17, he declared his brothers. King 
Edward, and the duke of Clarence, as 
well as the issue of Edward IV., bastards ; 
and by the assistance of the duke of 
Buckingham, usurped the throne, when 
his nephew, Edward V., had reigned but 
two months and 18 da5's. 

Richard III., the eighth and young- 
est son of Richard duke of York, and 
last of the line of Plantagenet, usurped 
the throne, 1483. June 19, he married 
Lady Anne, youngest daughter of Rich- 
ard Nevill, the great earl of Warwick, 
and relict of Prince Edward, son of Ed- 
ward IV. 

The king caused his two nephews, 
Edward V., and Richard, to be murder- 
ed. The two children were in the Tower, 
the government of which he had given 
to Sir Robert Brackenburj% one of his 
creatures, to whom he sent express 
orderu to put the two young princes to 
death. Brackenbury, being more consci- 
entious than Richard imagined, humbly 
desired to be excused ; upon which he 
sent him a written order, by Sir James 
Tyrrel, requiring him to deliver up to 
the said Tyrrel the keys and government 




ill, uf :_dvrarfl 5? and the Dute of York 



s>aecu takes 3a;nctn arr in Wrsiinmsi 



rTT.tnent of the Towci- for ' 



ENG 



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ENG 



of the Tower for one night only. Brack- 
enbuiy obeyed, and Tyrrel brought in 
two ruffians. Miles Forest and John 
Dighton, whom he had hired to perpe- 
trate the horrid act. In the dead of the 
night, when the princes were asleep, they 
entered their chamber, and rushing upon 
them, stifled them both in their bed, and 
then buried them under a little staircase. 
In 1674, some bones were found there, 
supposed to be theirs, which Charles II. 
caused to be put in a marble urn, and 
removed to Westminster Abbey. 

July 6, Richard was crowned at 
Westminster, with Anne, his queen. 
In August, he was crowned a second time 
at York. The duke of Buckingham, and 
bishop of Ely, with the countess of 
Richmond, consulted in what manner 
they might dethrone Richard. The 
marquis of Dorset, Sir Richard Wood- 
ville, the bishop of Exeter, and Sir 
Richard Courtney, joined in the plot, 
and raised forces for the earl of Rich- 
mond. September, the earl was informed 
by express, of the proceedings in his fa- 
vour. The duke of Buckingham took 
up arms, and was joined by numbers in 
Wales ; but his army was dispersed, and 
he obliged to conceal himself in the 
house of Bannister, one of his domestics, 
who betrayed him for a reward that had 
been published by Richard. 

Oct. 12, the earl of Richmond, with 40 
ships, and 5000 men, furnished by the 
duke of Bretagne, sailed from St. Maloes, 
but was dispersed by a storm ; the earl 
arrived at Pool, and had like to have 
been surprised by a stratagem of Rich- 
ard's, but he escaped, and sailed back to 
Bretagne. Richard put several of the 
conspirators to death, and appointed Sir 
Ralph Ashton, vice-constable, to try, 
condemn, and execute such as he should 
think suspicious. 

1485. France resolved to aid the earl 
of Richmond, and the earl repaired to 
Rouen, to assemble his troops. Aug. 6, 
he landed, at Milford Haven, with 2000 
men. Aug. 8, marched to Shrewsbury, 
where he was received and joined by 
great numbers. 

Aug.22. Theearlof Richmond engaged 
King Richard in Bosworth field, near 
Leicester, where Richard was killed and 
his army routed. The king's army con- 
sisted of 12,000 men, and Richmond's of 
not above 5000. Almost at the decision 
of the battle. Lord Stanley declared for 
Richmond, and placed the crown on his 



head after the battle. Richard reigned 
two years and two months. He was 
buried in the Grey Friars church, Leices- 
ter, and left no issue. 

Henry VII., son of Edmund of Had- 
ham, earl of Richmond (eldest son of 
Owen Tudor and Queen Catherine, relict 
of Henry V.) by Margaret his wife, sole 
daughter of John duke of Somerset, the 
son of John earl of Somerset, who was 
son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancas- 
ter, by Katharine Swinford, his third 
wife, was, the same day he obtained the 
victory over King Richard at Bosworth, 
proclaimed king by his army, 1485. 
Oct. 30, King Henry was crowned a(i 
Westminster, on which day he first in- 
stituted the yeomen of the guard. Jan. 
18, 1486, King Henry married the prin- 
cess Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Ed- 
ward IV., by which marriage he united 
the houses of York and Lancaster. 

1491. The king entered into a war 
with France. In October, he assembled 
his troops, to the number of 27,000 men, 
embarked and went to Calais, appoint- 
ing his son Arthur guardian of the realm. 
Nov. 3, a peace was concluded with 
France, and a truce with Scotland. In 
1493, the duchess of Burgundy, Edward 
IV.'s sister, set up Perkin Warbeck, to 
counterfeit Richard duke of York, second 
son of King Edward. In 1495, Perkin 
appeared upon the coast of Kent, where 
several of his followers were taken and 
hanged. 

1497. An insurrection happened in 
Cornwall, on account of the taxes. In 
September, the Cornish men invited 
Perkin to join them. He marched at the 
head of them, and besieged Exeter; but 
not being able to take the town, he took 
sanctuary, and his followers submitted 
themselves. In 1499, Perkin made his 
escape, but was taken again and sent 
to the Tower ; but attempting with the 
earl of Warwick to make their escape, 
he was hanged at Tyburn (Nov. 16,J and 
the earl (the last of the male line of the 
Plantagenets) was beheaded on Tower- 
hill, on the 28th. In 1507, Henry raised 
money by extortion, from his subjects, 
and is said to have amassed £1,800,000, 
chiefly by his instruments Empson and 
Dudley. 

1509. The king being ill, published 
a general pardon to all his subjects, re- 
leased all debtors out of prison, who did 
not owe more than forty shillings to any 
one man, paying their creditors out of 



ENG 



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ENG 



his own purse ; and by his will com- 
manded his successor to make resti- 
tution to all men he had wronged by his 
extortions. April 22, King Henry died 
at Richmond, in the 53d year of his age 
and the 24th of his reign ; and was mag- 
nificently buried in the chapel built by 
him at Westminster. 

Henry VHI., the second but only sur- 
viving son of Henry VH. by Lady Eliza- 
beth, eldest daughter of Edward IV., 
succeeded to the crown, 1509. April 
22, he confirmed the general pardon his 
father had granted, and published a pro- 
clamation, declaring, that if any of his 
subjects had been wrongfully deprived of 
their goods, under colour of commis- 
sions for levying forfeitures in the last 
reign, they should receive satisfaction. 
The inferior agents Empson and Dudley 
being set in the pillory, were killed by 
the rabble. June 3, The king solem- 
nized his n)arriage with the Princess Ca- 
therine, his brother Arthur's widow, and 
they were crowned at Westminster on 
the 24th. 

1513. Wolsey, bishop of Winchester 
was introduced at court, and became a 
privy councillor ; in 1515, he became 
prime minister of state. He held at once 
the bishoprics of York, Winchester, and 
Durham, and the abbeys of St. Alban 
and Lincoln. See Wolsey. 

1519. Henry, to show an extraordi- 
nary zeal against the doctrines of Lu- 
ther, on the reformation, caused six men 
and one woman to be burnt at Coventry, 
for teaching their children the Lord's 
prayer, the ten commandments, and the 
apostles' creed in the vulgar tongue. 

1528. The king entertained scruples 
as to the lawfulness of his marriage with 
the infanta Catherine, his brother Ar- 
thur's widow, and endeavoured to obtain 
a divorce by a dispensation from the pope. 
In 1529, the proceedings before Wolsey 
and Cardinal Campeius, the pope's legate, 
concerning the divorce. Queen Cathe- 
rine appealed to Rome. In 1531, July 14, 
the king separated himself from Queen 
Catherine, and never saw her more. She 
retired to East Hampstead, and after- 
wards to Ampthill. 

1532. Sept. 1, Anne Bullen, or Boleyn, 
second daughter of Sir Thomas Bullen, 
earl of Wiltshire and Ormond, was made 
marchioness of Pembroke, with a pension 
of £1000 a year. Nov. 14, the king mar- 
ried her. In 1536, all monasteries under 
£200 per annum were given to the king 



by act of parliament, whereby S^S were 
suppressed. Jan. 8. King Henry was 
jealous of Queen Anne, whom he caused 
to be condemned by her peers, for high 
treason. May 19, Queen Anne was ex- 
ecuted in the Tower. May 20, the king 
married Jane Seymour. June 8, the 
new parliament met, and passed an act 
of attainder against Anne Bullen, and 
enacted that both her divorce and that of 
Queen Catharine were legal, and the is- 
sues of both marriages illegitimate, and 
incapable of inheriting the crown. 

1539. Six articles of religion were es- 
tablished by act of parliament, called the 
bloody statute. July 29, a statute was 
made confirming the seizures and sur- 
renders of the abbeys ; they amounted 
to the number of 645. See Articles. 

1540. January 6, the king married 
Anne, sister to the duke of Cleves, by 
proxy ; but being disgusted with her 
person, on her arrival, never consum- 
mated the marriage. July 24, Arch- 
bishop Cranmer and the convocation 
divorced the king from Anne of Cleves ; 
the parliament passed an act confirming 
the judgment of the convocation. She 
was allotted an estate of £3000 per an- 
num. August 8, the king married the 
Lady Catherine Howard, who was de- 
clared queen of England. In 1542, 
Queen Catherine Howard was accused 
by Archbishop Cranmer of incontinence, 
by the information of one Lascelles. 
She was attainted of high treason by act 
of parliament, without being brought 
to a trial, and beheaded on Tower-hill, 
Feb. 13. 

Henry revived his pretensions to the 
sovereignty of Scotland, and gave the 
command of his forces against Scotland 
to the duke of Norfolk, who routed the 
Scotch army and took many prisoners, 
also 24 pieces of ordnance. December 
14, the king entered Scotland, and de- 
feated the Scots at Solway Moss. Henry 
was proclaimed king of Ireland. 

1543. July 12, the king married Lady 
Catherine Parr, widow of Lord Latimer. 
In 1544, an act was made, limiting the 
succession (on failure of issue of Prince 
Edward) to the princesses Mary and 
Elizabeth, and, in default of issue of 
either of them, to such persons as the 
king should appoint by his letters pa- 
tent, or last will. The king's title was 
settled by parliament, as king of Eng- 
land, France, and Ireland, defender of 
the faith, and supreme head of the 



ENG 



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churches of England and Ireland. Sep- 
tember 8, Henry invaded Scotland by 
sea ; he entered into a war with France, 
and took Boulogne in person. 

1545. France attempted an invasion, 
and fitted 210 sail of ships j they met 
the English fleet of 100 sail, in the chan- 
nel, and engaged ; the French lost many 
of their ships. In 1546, June 7, Arch- 
bishop Cranmer and the queen were ac- 
cused of heresy, but the king protected 
them. In 1547, in a convocation this 
year, all canons, laws, and usages against 
the marriage of priests were annulled, 
and likewise all a'^ows of celibacy ; and it 
was resolved to administer the commu- 
nion in both kinds, which the parliament 
confirmed. January 28, King Henry 
died in the 56th year of his age, and the 
38th of his reign, and was buried at 
Windsor. The king being empowered 
to limit the succession of the crown by 
act of parliament, settled it on the issue 
of his sister Mary, by Charles Brandon, 
duke of Suffolk, in case his two daugh- 
ters, Mary and Elizabeth, died without 
issue, to the exclusion of Margaret his 
eldest sister, who had married James V, 
of Scots. 

Edvs^ard VI., the only son of Henry 
VIII., by Jane Seymour, his third wife, 
succeeded his father, January 31, 1547, 
being about nine years of age. Henry 
had nominated a council to govern till 
the king should attain the age of 18 
years. February 6, Edward Seymour, 
earl of Hertford, afterwards duke of 
Somerset, was made protector. Feb- 
ruary '20, King Edward was crowned 
at Westminster ; at the coronation 40 
knights of the bath were made, and a 
general pardon issued at the same time, 
out of which the duke of Norfolk, Cardi- 
nal Pole, and the Lord Courtney were 
excepted. The king greatly promoted 
the reformation ; orders were issued for 
keeping a Bible in every church, with 
Erasmus's jiaraphrase on the New Tes- 
tament. The chief opposers of the 
reformation were the Princess Mary, 
Wriothesle)'', earl of Soiithampton, the 
bishop of Durham, Bonner, bishop of 
London, Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, 
with other bishops and inferior clergy. 
In September, the protector marched 
with an army of 18,000 men into Scot- 
land, and defeated the Scots at Pinkney- 
field, near Musselborough, December 10; 
13,000 of the Scots were slain. He re- 
turned to London, and was met by the 



mayor and aldermen. This war with 
Scotland cost England near £1,433,000. 
1549. Several rebellions happened 
about inclosures, but were suppressed ; 
the greatest in Norfolk, headed by Kett, 
a tanner, against whom Dudley earl of 
Warwick went with an army, August 
27, slew about 2000 of his followers, 
and hanged him in chains on the top of 
Norwich castle, November 20. October 
24, the privy council and the city of 
London entered into measures to depose 
the protector; upon which he carried the 
king with him to Windsor, and stood 
upon his defence, but was obliged to 
submit ; upon which they charged him 
with usurping sovereign power, and sent 
him to the Tower, and six lords were ap- 
pointed to be the king's governors, but 
the administration was lodged chiefly in 
Dudley earl of Warwick. 

1550. 4 Edward VI., an act was passed 
against the late protector, whereby he 
was deprived of all his places, his goods 
confiscated, and his lands to the value 
of £2,000 per annum, forfeited to the 
crown ; but he was released from the 
Tower, on giving £10,000 security for his 
good behaviour, and, February 16, he 
received his pardon, and was admitted 
to the council board again. April 25, a 
peace was concluded with France, and 
Boulogne delivered up. The French 
king stipulated to pay the king of Eng- 
land, in consideration thereof, and of the 
tribute in arrear from France, 400,000 
crowns : and it was agreed that this 
treaty should not prejudice the claim of 
England either to France or Scotland. 

1552. The duke of Somerset having^ 
opposed the ambitious views of Dudley, 
now duke of Northumberland, his ruin 
was resolved. He was sent to the Tower, 
under pretence of consulting and inciting 
others to imprison Northumberland, and 
two other lords of the council, and con- 
victed of felony for this offence by his 
peers, for which he was beheaded, Jan. 
22, two months afterwards. The duke of 
Northumberland now made himself abso- 
lute, and charged Lord Paget with several 
misdemeanors, had him fined £6000, and 
the order of the garter taken from him, 
which he procured for his eldest son. 
Sir Arthur Dudley, earl of Warwick. 

1553. The duke of Northumberland 
married his son Guilford Dudley, to 
Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter to Mary, 
queen of France, sister to Henry VIII., 
and prevailed on the young king to settle 



ENG 



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the crown on her, to the exclusion of 
the Princesses Mary and Elizabeth. June 
15, when the judges were called in to 
draw an assignment of the crown to Jane 
Grey, they refused, until threatened by 
the duke, who had a pardon passed the 
great seal, exempting them from punish- 
ment. July 6, King Edward died at 
Greenwich, in the l6th year of his age, 
and the seventh of his reign, and was 
buried at Westminster, near the body of 
King Henry VII. his grandfather, with 
great funeral pomp, and the unfeigned 
mournings of an affectionate people. 

At the death of Edward, the duke of 
Northumberland endeavoured to get the 
princesses Mary and Elizabeth into his 
possession, but they retired into Nor- 
folk. Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed 
queen by Northumberland ; but Queen 
Mary finally prevailing, lady Jane re- 
signed those ensigns of royalty they had 
loaded her with, and which she had pos- 
sessed only ten days. 

Mary, only daughter of King Henry 
Vni., by Catherine of Arragon, succeed- 
ed her brother Edward, 1553. The duke 
of Northumberland marched against 
Queen Mary, but his forces deserted to 
her. Tiie duke was sent to the Tower, 
with three of his sons, and Dr. Ridley, 
bishop of London. The popish bishops 
were restored, and protestant bishops 
(particularly Coverdale, bishop of Exeter, 
and Hooper, bishop of Gloucester) com- 
mitted to prison for exercising their 
functions. Archbishop Cranmer, bishop 
Latimer, and several more of the pro- 
testant clergy were committed to prison 
for treason, in opposing the queen's 
accession, and several fled beyond sea. 
October 1, the queen was crowned at 
"Westminster, and was obliged to borrow 
£20,000 of the city of London. 

1554. A treaty of marriage being set 
on foot between Queen Mary and Prince 
Philip, the emperor's son, heir to the 
crown of Spain, the parliament addressed 
the queen requesting her not to marry a 
foreigner; uponwhich they were dissolved. 
Articles were agreed on withtheemperor's 
ministers January 12, 1553-4, whereby 
Philip was to have the title of King of 
England. April 23, the Princess Eliza- 
beth was imprisoned in the Tower. 
12,000 protestant clergy were deprived 
of their preferments, and the popish ser- 
vice restored. July 19, Prince Phihp 
arrived in England, and was married to 
the queen at Winchester on the 25th. - 



^1556. Archbishop Cranmer was burnt 
at Oxford, March 24, (See Ckanmer), 
and the same day Cardinal Pole was 
made archbishop of Canterbury. A very 
severe persecution followed, in which 
about 300 protestants were burnt, and 
great numbers perished in prison, and 
by other hardships. Among those who 
suffered by fire were five bishops, 21 
clergymen, eight laymen, 84 husband- 
men, servants, and labourers, 45 women, 
and four children. 

1558. January 7, Calais suiTendered 
to the French, after it had been in the 
possession of the English 210 years. 
November 17, the queen died without 
issue, in the 43d year of her age, and 
the sixth of her reign, and was buried 
December 13, in Henry VH.'s chapel, 
with great pomp. 

Elizabeth, the only daughter of 
Henry VIII. by Anne Bullen, succeeded 
her half-sister, Queen Mary, as well by 
the appointment of htr father's will as 
!)y the right of inheritance, and accord- 
ing to the act of succession of the 35th 
of that king; and November 19, 1558, 
v/as proclaimed at Hatfield. Dr. Mat- 
thew Parker was entrusted with the 
care of revising the Liturgy of Edward 
VI. Elizabeth was rigid with the papists ; 
many were fined, others m office replaced, 
and one Maine, a priest, was executed 
for importing popish trinkets. 

1559. Jan. 15, the queen was crowned 
at Westminster, by the bishop of Carlisle, 
who was the only bishop that could be 
persuaded to do that oflSce. The queen 
erected a high commission court, who 
exercised the same power which had 
been formerly lodged by Henry VIII. in 
a single person. Out of 9400 beneficed 
clergymen in the kingdom, only 14 
bishops, 12 archdeacons, 15 heads of 
colleges, 50 canons, and 80 parochial 
priests, quitted their preferments rather 
than their religion. Mary queen of 
Scots, having been married to the dau- 
phin of France, April 24, 1558 (after- 
wards king, by the name of Francis II.), 
they were this year crowned king and 
queen of France and Scotland. 

1560. Aug. 21. Mary, queen of Scots, 
arrived in Scotland from France, and pro- 
posed to Queen Elizabeth the declaring 
her presumptive heir to the crown ; but 
Queen Elizabeth insisted on her renounc- 
ing all pretensions to England. In 
1565, July 27, Francis II. of France 
being dead, the queen of Scots married 



ENG 



447 



ENG 



Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, and the 
next day he was publicly proclaimed 
king. This marriage occasioned an in- 
surrection in Scotland, and several lords 
took up arms, but were obliged to fly 
into England. February 9, the king 
of Scots was murdered by the contri- 
vance of Murray, Bothwell, &e. ; and 
Murray, to throw the odium of it upon 
the queen, persuaded her to marry Both- 
well. August and September, Queen 
Ehzabeth went to Oxford, was present 
at their public disputations, and held her 
court at Woodstock. November 1, the 
parliament met and addressed the queen 
to marry, and to settle the succession. 
In a message to the house, by Sir Fran- 
cis Knolles, she expressly commanded 
them to meddle no further in the matter 
of succession, but be contented with her 
promise to marry. 

The earl of Murray, brother to the 
queen of Scots, raised a party of no- 
bility against her. The rebel lords took 
the queen prisoner, and compelled her 
to resign her crown to her son. In 1568, 
the queen of Scots made her escape, 
and raised an army, but was defeated by 
Murray (May 17), upon which she fled 
into England, upon large promises of 
favour and assistance from Queen Eliza- 
beth, but was detained prisoner by her. 
In 1577, Queen Elizabeth assisted the 
Dutch against the king of Spain with 
the loan of £100,000 for eight months, 
and entered into an alliance of mutual 
assistance. 

1585. Queen Elizabeth at the inter- 
cession of the Dutch, sent the earl of 
Leicester, and 6000 men, to their assist- 
ance, and had the Brill and Flushing 
delivered into her hands, as security for 
her charges. They agreed that the En- 
glish general, and two more of her ma- 
jesty's subjects, were to be admitted into 
the council of the states general, and 
no treaty to be entered into but by mutual 
consent, in consideration of the assist- 
ance she gave the Dutch against Spain. 

1586. In July, a new treaty was made 
between England and Scotland. It was 
agreed that if England was attacked, 
James should assist, with 17,000 forces, 
and if James was invaded, Elizabeth 
should aid with 9000, the auxiliaries to 
be maintained by the prince so aided. 
Sept. 20, Anthony Babington, and others 
were convicted of conspiring against 
Queen Elizabeth, and executed with very 
great barbarity, in St. Giles's Fields. 



October 11, the queen of Scots was 
charged with being the promoter of 
the conspiracy, and commissioners 
were ordered to try her at Fotheringay 
castle, in Northamptonshire; but not 
acknowledging their jurisdiction, they 
proceeded to pass sentence of death 
upon her. After the sentence was pass- 
ed upon Mary, the judges declared it 
did nothing derogate from the king of 
Scotland, his title to the crown of Eng- 
land still remained entire. In 1587, a 
new plot was discovered against Queen 
Elizabeth, upon which she signed a war- 
rant for the execution of the queen of 
Scots, and she was beheaded accordingly 
at Fotheringay castle, aged 46, and in the 
18th year of her imprisonment. 

1588. The king of Spain this year 
finished his grand naval armament for 
the conquest of England, called the Ar- 
mada, which was almost annihilated by 
the English fleet. See Armada. The 
queen sung Te Deum at St. Paul's for 
the defeat of the Spaniards, created her 
admiral. Lord Charles Howard, earl of 
Nottingham, and settled a considerable 
annual pension upon him. In 1593, many 
conspiracies were formed, by the influ- 
ence of the Spaniards over the popish 
subjects, to assassinate the queen, which 
were all defeated, and the persons con- 
cerned therein executed. 

1594. In 36 Eliz. Patrick Cullen, an 
Irish fencing-master, was engaged by the 
Spaniards to kill the queen, for which 
he was executed. Edmund York and 
others, about the same time, were 
employed to kill the queen, and fire the 
royal navy. Upon which the queen ex- 
postulated with the king of Spain, re- 
proaching him with the baseness of em- 
ploying assassins every day to take away 
her life, and insisted upon his delivering 
up Throgmorton, Holt, and the rest of 
the Jesuits and priests who managed 
these conspiracies, but to no purpose. 

1595. Sir Francis Drake and Sir 
John Hawkins, with a fleet of men of 
war, and land forces, made an attempt 
to surprise the Spanish settlements on 
the Isthmus of Darien, and landed a 
body of forces under the command of 
Sir Thomas Baskerville, with a design 
to attack the city of Panama, where 
the treasures of Peru were lodged, but 
their design was discovered, as the Spa- 
niards were all well fortified and their 
towns garrisoned. The English also 
were so sickly when they came to lie on 



ENG 



448 



Ex\G 



shore, that they performed nothing of 
consequence, and those two brave offi- 
cers, Drake and Hawkins, both died in 
this expedition. 

1598. The French king, Henry IV., 
made a separate peace with Spain, 
without the queen's knowledge ; upon 
which she reproached him with ingrati- 
tude and breach of faith. A formidable 
insurrection happened in Ireland, headed 
by the earl of Tyrone. This year died 
the lord treasurer Cecil, (Baron Bur- 
leigh) in the 78th year of his age. He 
had a large share in the administration, 
and his councils contributed greatly to 
the prosperity of this reign. See Bur- 
leigh. 

1599. Tyrone, the Irish rebel, de- 
feated the English forces, coqimanded by 
Sir Henry Bagnal, who was killed in the 
battle, upon which the whole province of 
Munster revolted to him, and he invited 
the Spaniards to make a descent in that 
kingdom, and join him. The earl of 
Essex, lord lieutenant of that kingdom, 
made a truce with Tyrone, but in 1600 
Tyrone broke the truce, overran all 
the country, and acted as sovereign of 
Ireland ; upon which Lord Mountjoy 



was made deputy of Ireland, and, with 
the assistance of Sir Edward Blaney, re- 
stored the English affairs in the north. 
1601. Sept. The rebels in Ireland re- 
ceived an aid from Spain. The Spa- 
niards landed 4000 men near Kinsale in 
Ireland, Sept. 23, and took possession of 
that town, and, were followed by a rein- 
forcement of 2000 more. They joined 
Tyrone, the general of the Irish rebels, 
but the lord-deputy Mountjoy surprised 
their army in the night-time, and en- 
tirely defeated them ; he afterwards com- 
pelled the garrison of Kinsale to sur- 
render. 

1603. The queen being taken ill the 
beginning of January, intimated her de- 
sire that the king of Scots should suc- 
ceed her, in which the whole nation 
seemed to concur. She expired March 
24, 1603, and was buried in Westmins- 
ter abbey, April 28, with great magnifi- 
cence. 

James VI. of Scotland, succeeded to 
the throne by the title of James I. Under 
him the two kingdoms were united by 
the title of Great Britain. For a con- 
tinuation of the history of the kingdom 
since the union, see Britain. 



The following table shows the year of the reign of the sovereigns of England, 
corresponding with the year of Christ, from 1066 : — 



Will. Conq. 

Oct. 14. 

1 1066 
22 1087 

Richard I. 

Aug. 13. 

1 1189 
11 1199 

Edward III. 

Jan. 20. 

1 1327 

51 1377 

Edward IV. 

March 3. 

1 1461 

24 1483 

Edward VI. 

Jan. 28. 
1 1547 

8 1553 



Wm. Rufus. 

Sept. 9. 

1 1087 

14 1100 

John. 

April 6. 

1 1199 
18 1216 

Richard II. 

June 21. 

1 1377 
23 1399 

Edward V. 

Aprils. 
1 1483 



Queen Mary 

Julys. 
1 1553 

6 1558 



Henry I. 

Aug. 1. 

1 1100 

36 1135 

Henry III. 

Oct. 19. 

1 1216 

57 1272 

Henry IV. 

Sept. 29. 

1 1399 

14 1413 

Richard III. 

June 22. 
1 1483 

3 1485 

Elizabeth. 

Nov. 17. 

1 1558 

45 1603 



Stephen. 

Dec. 2. 

1 1135 

20 1154 

Edward I. 

Nov. 26. 

1 1272 

36 1307 

Henry V. 

March 29. 

1 1413 

10 1422 

Henry VII. 

Aug. 22. 

1 1485 

25 1509 

James I. 

March 24. 

1 1603 

23 1625 



Henry II. 

Oct. 25. 

1 1154 

36 1189 

Edward II. 

July 7. 

1 1307 

20 1327 

Henry VI. 

Aug. 31. 

1 1422 

39 1461 

Henry VIII. 

April 22. 

1 1509 

38 1547 

Charles I, 

March 27. 

1 1625 

24 1648 



ENG 



449 



E NG 



Charles II. 


James II, 


Wm. & Mary. 


Anne. 


George I. 


Jan. 30. 


Feb. 6. 


Feb. 13. 


March 8. 


Aug. 1. 


1 1648 


1 1685 


1 1688 


1 1702 


1 1714 


38 1685 


4 1688 


15 1702 


13 1714 


14 1727 


George II. 


George III. 


George IV. 


William IV. 


Victoria I. 


June 10. 


Oct. 25. 


Jan. 29. 


June 26. 


June- 20. 


1 1727 


1 1760 


1 1820 


1 1830 


1 1837 


34 1760 


61 1820 


11 1830 


7 1837 


4 1840 



N.B. Every sovereign's reign begins 
at the death of his or her predecessor. 
For example, Victoria I. began to reign 
June 20, 1837. The first year of her 
reign is complete June 19, 1838. 

Progressive population of England 
and Wales from the year 1700. 



Year. 


Pop. 


1700 


5,134,516 


1710 


5,066,337 


1720 


5,345,351 


1730 


5,687,993 


1740 


5,829,705 


17.50 


6,039,684 


1760 


6,479,730 


1770 


7,227,586 


1780 


7,814,827 


1790 


8,540,738 


1800 


9,187,176 


1810 


10,407,556 


1820 


11,957,565 


1830 


13,840,750 



For an account of the principles on 
which the population is taken. See 
Census. 

ENGLAND, New, a district of the 
United States of America, which com- 
prehends the northern and eastern states ; 
so called, because the inhabitants are 
chiefly of English descent. It was settled 
at the beginning of the I7th century, 
and comprehends the states of Vermont, 
New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode 
Island, and Connecticut. See these 
several Articles. 

ENGLISH residing in France. 
From an official return dated August 25, 
1836, the number was as follows : — Paris, 
Versailles, St. Cloud, &c., about 20,C00 ; 
Boulogne and Calais, from|l 5000 to 20000 ; 
other parts of France from 10,000 to 
] 2,000. The entire number of residents 
(which does not include continental tou- 
rists who pass annually through France) 
was estimated at upwards of 50,000. 

ENGLISH College at Rome, built 
854. 



ENGLISH Copper-office, incor- 
porated, 1691. 

ENGRAVERS' BenevolentFund, 

established, 1826. 

ENGRAVING. This art had its origin 
about the same time with the art of paint- 
ing, in the 15th century. The first en- 
gravings worthy of notice, printed with 
the rolling press, were those which ac- 
companied an edition of Vesalius's Ana- 
tomy, printed in England in the year 
1545. Archbishop Parker, in the reign 
of Elizabeth, was the most conspicuous 
patron of the art. He employed, in his 
palace at Lambeth, a painter and two or 
three engravers. English copperplate 
engraving retained, for more than a cen- 
tury, much of its original coarseness and 
imperfection. The style of Reginald Els- 
bracke, who lived at the close of the l6th 
and beginning of the 17th centuries, is 
occasionally neater than that of his pre- 
decessors, but still destitute of taste. 
The earliest English engravings on 
wood are those of Christopher Switzer, 
who lived at the close of the l6th cen- 
tury. 

Charlesl. wasthe firstEnglishmonarch 
who was sufficiently sensible of the 
beauty of engraving on copper, to ap- 
point an engraver royal, and Voerst was 
the first on whom that honour was con- 
ferred. Etching was introduced into 
England about the 1 7th century. Wen- 
ceslaus Hollar, a native of Prague in 
Bohemia, was the first who particularly 
distinguished himself in etching land- 
scape, shipping, antiquities, and natural 
history. In 1641, which was the year 
of Vandyke's decease. Hollar engraved 
some portraits, including those of King 
Charles I. and his queen, from the pic- 
tures of that celebrated painter. 

The invention of mezzotinto is gene- 
rally attributed to Prince Rupert, in the 
l7th century, who engraved in this way 
a print of an executioner, holding in one 
hand a sword, and in the other a head, 
3 m 



E N G 450 

after Spagnoletto, dated 1658. From 
this period the English school abounds 
with artists inevery department. Hogarth 
was born in 1697. His Marriage a la 
Mode was finished in 1745. The series 
of six plates comprehends master-pieces 
of art in their kind, and places Hogarth's 
fame on the broadest and most durable 
basis. Since the time of Hogarth we 
have not to notice a genius of a like 
order, but the art has continued to make 
considerable progress. Till within the 
last few years all works of art were en- 
graved on plates of copper, but about 
1820, steel was substituted with great 
effect, for all subjects which require a 
great number of impressions. Some of 
the finest and most delicate subjects en- 
graven on steel will produce 10,000 im- 
pressions, while the same on copper 
would not exceed 1,500, or 2000. 

Lithography is of comparatively recent 
invention. This art consists in taking 
impressions from a drawing e.xecuted on 
stone and not bit in or engraved like the 
former. It was first discovered in 1 800. 
See Lithography. 

Medallic Engraving. This in- 
vention was first practised in 1817; a 
die-sinker of the name of Christian Go- 
brecht, then living at Philadelphia, pro- 
duced by a machine, an engraving upon 
copper of a medallic head of the Empe- 
ror Alexander of Russia, several impres- 
sions of which were distributed in that 
city. In 1819, it was first introduced 
into London by a Mr. Spencer. In 1829, 
Mr. Joseph Saxton, an American, born 
at Huntingdon, in Pennsylvania, who 
had known Gobrecht, and seen the en- 
graving from the Russian medal, con- 
trived a machine somewhat similar in 
principle to the one brought to England 
by Mr. Spencer. 

1830. Mons. A. Collas, an able me- 
chanician at Paris, having been com- 
missioned by an engraver at Ghent, to 
make a ruling machine for him, also con- 
structed one for himself on a similar 
principle. It was not till six months' 
labour and thought had been bestowed 
upon it that M. Collas brought his in- 
vention to a certain degree of perfection ; 
he produced his first engravings in the 
spring of 1831. Of the attempts of a 
similar instrument, made in the United 
States, he had seen nor heard nothing. 

Mr. Lacy, connected with the esta- 
blishment of Messrs. Perkins, Bacon, 
and Petch, bank-note engravers in Fleet- 



ENT 



street, was employed, in 1832, to execute 
the engraving from a medal representing 
the bust of WilHam IV., in the frontis- 
piece of the " Keepsake" for 1833. To- 
wards the close of the year 1832, M. Col- 
las sold his patent to a few gentlemen, 
who, with the aid and under the direction 
of some of the first French painters, scidp- 
tors, and engravers, united themselves 
into a company, under the firm of La- 
chevardiere and Co. It is to the enterpris- 
ing spirit of these gentlemen that we are 
indebted for the "Tresor Numismatique 
et de Glyptique," which has now reached 
the extent of 600 plates of medals, bas- 
reliefs, &c., representing upwards of 
5,000 subjects. The work has been 
widely circulated in France and through- 
out the continent : most of its plates, 
for beauty of effect and artist-Uke exe- 
cution, leave the eye nothing to de- 
sire. 

1839. M. le Page, of Pimlico, has 
discovered an improved means of en- 
graving on marble, by covering the sur- 
face with a coat of cement before the 
chisel is used. The cement effectually 
prevents the marble from chipping, and 
when the coating is removed the letters 
remain as perfect as if cut in copper. 

ENNIUS, QuiNTUs, an eminent Ro- 
man poet, born a.c. 239, flourished 
during the first Punic war, died aged 70. 

ENOCH, translated into heaven, a.c. 
987, aged 365. 

ENTERTAINMENT, Places of, 
about London, first licensed, 1752. 

ENTOMOLOGY, that part of zoology 
which treats of the construction and 
properties of insects. Hippocrates, who 
flourished in the fifth century before the 
christian era, seems to have been the 
first who wrote on insects. Aristotle in 
his history of animals, under insects 
comprehended all small animals whose 
bodies were divided into segments. This 
definition of insects was followed by all 
natural historians to the time of Lin- 
naeus, ^lian, in his work on animals, 
appropriates several chapters to particu- 
lar kinds of insects, without entering in 
a methodical manner into the history of 
the tribe. 

Among the Greek writers who imme- 
diately, or within a few centuries, fol- 
lowed Aristotle in treating upon insects, 
were Democritus, Neoptolemus, Aristo- 
machus, Nicander, Empedocles, Calli- 
machus, Euphronius of Athens, and 
Theophrastus. The Latin writers, during 



ENT 



551 



EPH 



the same period, were M. Varro, Celsus 
Cornelius, Virgil, Columella, Fabianus, 
and Miinilius. The cultivation of bees 
was much attended to in those times, 
and their history detailed by many emi- 
nent writers. The culture of silkworms 
was another favourite object with the 
ancients, as we are assured by Pliny, 
who has given us an account of all that 
was known in natural history down to 
his own times. 

From the time of Pliny, till the over- 
throw of the Roman empire, a period of 
several centuries, the science of insects 
seems to have made some progress, 
though to what extent it is impossible 
to ascertain. Albertus Magnus who 
wrote a work entitled "De Animalibus," 
&c., part of which relates to insects, died 
in 1280, but his work, which was printed 
at Venice, did not appear till 1519. A- 
gricola, in a work entitled " De Animali- 
bus Subterraneis," published in 1549, 
has given a methodical arrangement of 
insects; he divided them into, 1. creep- 
ing insects ; 2. flying insects ; and 3. 
swimming insects; and gives an account 
of numerous species. 

The discovery of the microscope in the 
I7th century, tended greatly to the ad- 
vancement of entomology, as by means 
of it the most minute parts of insects 
could be viewed, and the organization 
examined. Naturalists were much en- 
gaged in making microscopic discoveries, 
particularly Borel, Rhadi, Swammerdam, 
Bonanni, Bonomo, Leeuwenhoeck, and 
Joblot. John Swammerdam, in his 
" Bibha Naturae," published in 1669, 
has divided insects into four classes. 
His work added something important to 
the knowledge of entomology. No ma- 
terial work on the subject appeared after 
the first edition of that of Swammerdam, 
till 1678 and 1679, in which Lister pub- 
lished his valuable history of English 
Spiders, and Madam Merian her exten- 
sive work on the Metamorphoses of 
Lepidopterous Insects. Ray pubhshed 
his " Historia Insectorum," in 1710. 
Albin published a Natural History of 
English Insects in 1720, and a Natural 
History of Spiders in 1736. Reaumur 
published the first volume of his " Me- 
moires pour servir a 1' Histoire des In- 
sectes," at Paris, in the year 1734. 

Linnaeus, in his first edition of the 
"Systema Naturae," published in 1735, 
divided insects into four orders, from 
the number and different appearances of 



their wings; 1. Coleoptsra ; 2. Angiop- 
tera ; 3. Hemiptera ; and, 4. Aptera. In 
the subsequent editions of the " System 
of Nature," which he published, he com- 
pleted the arrangement of insects into 
seven orders. This is still followed in 
part, though it must be allowed that 
great improvements have been made by 
more recent entomologists. M.^Geoft'roy, 
a celebrated entomologist, in his " His- 
toire Abrege des Insectes," published 
at Paris, in 1762, divided insects into 
six orders. J. C. SchoefFer made great 
improvements in the science, and pub- 
lished in 1766, " Elementa Entomolo- 
gica, 135 tabliae aera excussae ;" he fol- 
lows in many points the method of Lin- 
naeus. During the remainder of last 
century, the writers on the science chiefly 
employed themselves in illustrating the 
Linnean system. 

The most important modern work on 
the science is an " Introduction to En- 
tomology," which appeared in England, 
the joint labour of Messrs. Kirby and 
Spence, 2 vols. ; the first in 1815, and 
the second in 1817. This work pro- 
fesses to bestow particular attention to 
the more popular and engaging parts of 
the science, and must be considered as 
a philosophical and physiological treatise 
upon insects, rather than as a guide to 
their different orders, genera, and species. 

By the great modern improvements 
of the microscope, particularly the oxy- 
hydrogen microscope, exhibited at the 
Adelaide Gallery, many of the vital func- 
tions, as well as the organs of motion, 
habits, &c., of insects, may be accurately 
observed. By this means a nearer ap- 
proximation to a correct classical ar- 
rangement has been obtained. In 1838, 
the Rev. Mr. Hope read to the British 
Association a communication on this 
subject. In the class insecta, great pro- 
gress had been made, and by the labours 
of Miiller, Ehrenberg, Grant, and Neu- 
port, they were making rapid strides 
towards establishing a classification of 
insects, on a knowledge of their nervous 

c fr V 1 1 /> f 1 1 |*p 

EPAMINONDAS, the celebrated 
Theban general, slain a.c. 363. 

EPHESUS, an ancient city, formerly 
the capital of Ionia, in Asia Minor, built 
according to Strabo, by Androchus, the 
son of Codrus. Though repeatedly de- 
stroyed by war and by earthquakes, it 
was uniformly rebuilt, and with little 
delay. Its chief reputation was derived 



EPI 



452 



EPI 



from its temple dedicated to Diana. The 
nations of all Asia Minor were employed 
on this edifice for 220 years. Before the 
time of Pliny it had been injured or 
destroyed seven or eight times, particu- 
larly by the notorious Erostratus, a.c. 
365, whose only object in the destruction 
of the temple was, the perpetuating of 
His name by insuring himself a place in 
history. It was rebuilt by the Ephesians 
with greater splendour than before, the 
Ephesian women contributing their jewels 
to the fund raised for its restoration. Its 
ruins now afford shelter to a few shep- 
herds and their flocks, and the little vil- 
lage ofyEiasoluh has been built from the 
scattered fragments of its walls and friezes. 

In the time of the apostle Paul, the city 
retained most of its ancient grandeur, 
and became the seat of the most flourish- 
ing of the christian churches. Under 
the emperor Alexis, it fell under the 
power of the Saracens ; was retaken by 
the Greeks in 1206; again lost in 1283, 
and from the commencement of the 14th 
century has belonged to Turkey. 

EPHORI, a class of magistrates in 
ancient Sparta, as a check to the regal 
power and authority. According to 
the generality of authors, the ephori 
Avere first established by Lycurgus, 
though this is denied by others, who 
date their origin 130 years after the 
time of that legislator. Plutarch as- 
cribes their institution to Theopompus, 
king of Sparta, a.c. 760. 

EPHORUS, of Cumae, the historian, 
flourished a.c. 352. 

EPHRAIM, one of the tril)es of Pales- 
tine, so denominated from Ephraira, the 
son of Joseph by Aseneth, the daughter 
of Potiphera, priest of On, who was born 
in Egypt about a.m. 2294. 

EP'ICTETUS, a distinguished Stoic 
philosopher, born at Hierapolis, in Phry- 
gia, in the first century, and was very 
early in life sold as a slave to Epa- 
phroditus, a freedman of Nero's guard. 
Arrian, his disciple, wrote an account of 
his life and death, which is lost ; and 
preserved four books of his discourses, 
and his Enchiridion. In 1758, a trans- 
lation of them into English was pub- 
lished by the learned and ingenious Miss 
Carter. 

EPICURUS, author of the philosophy 
which bears his name, was born at Gar- 
gettium, in Attica, a.c. 342. Having 
acquired great reputation for natural 
genius and e.xtensive learning, when 



about 30 years of age he instituted a 
new philosophical school at Athens. He 
died A.c. 270, aged 72. 

EPI MEN IDES, the first builder 
of temples in Greece, flourished A. c. 
596. 

E P I M E T H I U S, the inventor of 
earthen vessels, lied a.c. 171. 

EPIPHANIUS, an ancient father of 
the church, was born at a small village 
in Palestine, about 332. He went into 
Egypt, where he inclined to the sect of 
the Gnostics. In his 20th year he re- 
turned to his own country, where he 
founded a monastery near the place of 
his birth, and presided over it. He was 
afterwards elected bishop of Salamis, 
where his piety and scanctity were held 
in high estimation. He was engaged in 
inveterate opposition to the opinions of 
Origen. He died at sea on his way to 
Cyprus, in 403. 

EPIRUS, district of ancient Greece. 
Here was the oracle of Dodona, the 
oldest in Greece, in a temple of Jupiter, 
but no traces of the ancient city remain. 
Pyrrhus II., the great enemy of the Ro- 
mans, was king of this country, and 
landed in Italy about a.c. 280. Paulus 
^milius afterwards subdued the Epirots, 
and gave up the country to pillage ; 70 
towns were destroyed-, and 150,000 men 
sold into slavery. In a.d. 1432, the 
Turks, under Amurath II., conquered 
Epirus ; Castriot, the last of the royal 
family of Epirus, rejected the Turkish 
yoke, but after his death Mahomet II., 
in 1466, established his authority in the 
fullest manner. See Albania. 

EPISCOPACY abolished in Scotland, 
1689. 

EPISCOPAL Floating Church 
Society, incorporated 1828. 

EPISCOPIUS, Simon, a learned di- 
vine, born at Amsterdam, in 1583. In. 
16C0, he entered on his academical 
studies at Leyden ; and, in 1612, he was 
chosen divinity professor at that uni- 
versity. On account of the Arminian 
controversy, Episcopius and his friends 
were objects of enmity and persecution 
to the deluded populace. They retired 
to Antwerp; but the times growing more 
favourable, he returned to Holland in 
1626, and was made minister of the 
church of the Remonstrants at Rotter- 
dam. In 1634, he was chosen rector of 
the college founded by the sect at Ams- 
terdam, where he spent the remainder of 
his days, in the discharge of the duties 



ERA 



453 



ERA 



of this office till his death, which hap- 
pened in 1643. 

EPOCH, in chronology. The terms 
epoch and era are often confounded ; by 
epoch is understood, a fixed point in 
time; and by era, the continual increas- 
ing space of time which begins with an 
epoch, and is reckoned from it. The 
christian epoch is the year of the incar- 
nation of Jesus Christ ; the epoch of the 
Jews was either the year of the creation, 
or of the general deluge, or of the build- 
ing of the temple, &c.; that of the Greeks 
was the first of the Olympiads ; that of 
the Romans, when their city was founded; 
the ancient Persian and Assyrian epoch 
was that of Nabonassar ; and the Ma- 
hometan epoch was fixed to the year of 
the Hegira, or flight of Mahomet from 



Mecca to Medina, which happened on 
Friday, July IG, a.d. 622. The epoch 
adopted throughout Christendom is that 
of Christ, commencing at the supposed 
time of his nativity, December 25, or 
rather, according to the usual account, 
from his circumcision, or January 1. 
This epoch began to be used in the year 
507, or, according to some, 527; and the 
author of it was Dionysius Exiguus, a 
native of Scythia, and at that time an 
abbot of the church of Rome. He be- 
gan his account from the annunciation, 
or lady-day, and this method prevailed 
in Britain till 1752, when the Gregorian 
calendar was adopted, which fixed the 
commencement of the date to January 1. 
See Era. The following are the most 
remarkable epochs. 



Julian 


Year of 


Years 


period. 


the world. 


before Christ. 


706 





4004 


2362 


1656 


2351 


2537 


1813 


2176 


3157 


2451 


1556 


3529 


2823 


1184 


3701 


2995 


1012 


3776 


3070 


937 


3938 


3232 


77Q 


3961 


3255 


753 


3967 


3261 


747 


4282 


3576 


431 


4390 


3684 


323 


4713 


4007 


A.D. 


4783 


4077 


70 


4997 


4291 


284 


5038 


4332 


325 


5335 


4629 


622 


5344 


4638 


631 


6295 


5589 


1582 



The creation of the world 

The general deluge 

Assyrian monarchy founded by Nimrod. . . . 
Kingdom of Athens founded by Cecrops . . 

Destruction of Troy 

Solomon's temple founded 

The expedition of the Argonauts 

Olympiads began (Grecian epoch) 

Building of Rome (Roman epoch) 

Epoch of Nabonassar (Chaldean or Egyptian "1 

epoch) J 

Peloponnesian war began 

Alexander's death 

Christian epoch (birth of Christ) 

Jerusalem destroyed 

Dioclesian epoch (epoch of the martyrs) .... 

Council of Nice ' 

The Hegira (Mahometan epoch) . . . , , 

The Yesdegird (Persian epoch) 

Correction of the calendar by Pope Gregory. 



EPPING Hunt. The Easter hunt at 
Epping commenced in 1226, when Henry 
HI. confirmed to the citizens of London 
free warren, or liberty to hunt a circuit 
about this city, in the warren of Staines, 
Hainault Forest, &c. 

EPSOM, a town in Surrey, seated 
near to Banstead Downs, and having in 
the vicinity a celebrated medicinal spring, 
discovered in 1618. 

EQUATOR, OR Uruguay, one of 
the three republics into which Columbia 
is divided. See Uruguay. 

ERA, in chronology. See Epoch. As 
the eras of the nations of antiquity have 



become obsolete, and as the principal 
events in their histories have been re- 
duced to the respective years of the 
christian era, either before or after the 
birth of our Saviour, those eras are now 
seldom used except by those who read 
the writings of antiquity. The following 
are the principal eras, now occasionally 
in use. 

Creation of the World. There 
have been as many as 140 opinions on 
the distance of time between this event 
and the birth of our Saviour. Some 
make it as small as 3616 years, and some 
as great as 6484. The chronology which 



ERA 



454 



ERA 



is usually given with the authorised ver- 
sion of the Bible, places the event in the 
4004th year before the commencement 
of the common era. 

The Olympiads. The first year of 
the first olympiad begins in the summer 
of the 776lh year before the common 
era; the first year of the second Olym- 
piad, in the summer of the 772nd year, 
and so on. See Olympiad. 

The Foundation of Rome. The 
753rd year before the commencement of 
the common era, according to the calcu- 
lation usually adopted. 

The Christian Era, used by almost 
all christian nations, dates from January 
1, in the middle of the fourth year of 
the 194th Olympiad, in the 753rd of the 
building of Rome, and 4714th of the 
Julian period. It was first introduced in 
the sixth century, but was not very gene- 
rally employed for some centuries after. 

The Abyssinian Era. TheAbyssi- 
nians reckon their years from the crea- 
tion, which they place in the 5493rd year 
before our era, August 29, old style ; 
and their dates will consequently exceed 
ours by 5492 years and 125 days. They 
have 12 months of 30 days each, and 
five days added at the end. 

The Jewish Era. The Jews usually 
employed the era of the Seleucides, until 
the 15th century, when a new mode of 
computing was adopted by them. Some 
insist strongly on the antiquity of their 
present era ; but it is generally believed 
not to be more ancient than the century 
above named. They date from the crea- 
tion, which they consider to have been 
3760 years and three months before the 
commencement of our era. 

The Era of Nabonassar received 
its name from that of a prince of Baby- 
lon, under whose reign astronomical 
studies were much advanced in Chaldaea. 
The years are vague, containing 365 
days each, without intercalation. The 
first day of the era was Wednesday, 
February 26, a.c. 747. 

The Egyptian Era. The old Egyp- 
tian year was /identical with the era of 
Nabonassar, beginning Feb. 26, a.c. 
747, and consisting of 365 days only. 
It was reformed 30 years before Christ, 
at which period the commencement of 
theyear had arrived, by continually reced- 
ing, to August 29, which was determined 
to be in future the first day of the year. 
Their years and months coincide exactly 
with those of the era of Dioclesian. 



The Julian Period is a term of 
years produced by the multiplication of 
the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle, 28, and 
Roman indiction 15. It consists of 7980 
years, and began 4713 years before our 
era. It has been employed in computing 
time to avoid the puzzling ambiguity 
attendant on reckoning any period ante- 
cedent to our era, an advantage which it 
has in common with the mundane eras 
used at different times. 

The Grecian Era, or Era of the 
Seleucides, dates from the reign of Seleu- 
cus Nicator, 311 years and four months 
before Christ. It was used in Syria for 
many years, and frequently by the Jews, 
until the 15th century, and by some 
Arabians to this day. It is used in the 
book of Maccabees, and appears to have 
begun with Nisan. 

The Hegira, commencing on July 
16, in the 622nd year after the common 
era. See Hegira. 

ERASMUS or Desiderius, a cele- 
brated writer, was born at Rotterdam, in 
1467. His father and mother died when 
he was about 13 years of age; and his 
guardians forced him into the church, 
with a view of embezzling his property. 
He entered among the regular canons 
in the monastery of Stein, near Tergou. 
He afterwards went to Paris, and studied 
in the college of Montaigne, supporting 
himself by giving private lectures. Some 
of his pupils were the sons of English- 
men, at whose request he visited this 
countr)', in the year 1497, and contracted 
many valuable fiiendships. 

He removed to Flanders, in 1514, and 
was soon afterwards made councillor to 
prince Charles of Austria. He after- 
wards paid a visit to Basil, where he 
published his New Testament in Greek 
and Latin. In 1516, his edition of St. 
Jerome made its appearance ; and in the 
following year a work entitled " Querela 
Pacis," occasioned by the failure of a 
plan for a congress of princes at Cam- 
bray, who should enter into mutual en- 
gagements for the preservation of peace. 
The celebrated Colloquies of Erasmus, 
published in 1522, were so evidently of 
a reforming tendency, that they were 
denominated by the Faculty of Theology 
at Paris, as "a wicked book," the 
perusal of which should be forbidden to 
all. In the first year of the reformation, 
he was highly regarded by Luther ; but 
owing to some unadvised attacks made 
upon him, about 1520, by the reformers. 



ERI 



455 



ERS 



he was driven to enlist among the de- 
fenders of the church of Rome. 

1524. Erasmus pubhshed his treatise 
" De Libero Arbitrio," which was an 
avowed attack upon Lujiher's opinions 
concerning predestination. In 1529, 
he left Basil for Friburg, and seemed 
now more than ever, fearful of being 
thouglit friendly to the reformation. Jn 
1535, he returned to Basil; and so highly 
was he esteemed by the church of Rome, 
that preparations were made to give 
him a place in the college of cardinals. 
But his health rapidly declined ; and on 
July 12, 1536, he died of a dysentery, 
aged 69. He was buried with great 
funeral pomp, in the cathedral church of 
Basil. He had assumed the name of 
Erasmus in conformity with the pedantic 
taste then prevailing among men of 
letters of taking names of Greek or 
Latin etymology ; he translated his name 
of Gerard, signifying Amiable, into the 
equivalent ones of Desiderius in Latin, 
and Erasmus in Greek, making use of both, 
butthe latter was his common appellation. 
The best and most elegant edition of his 
works is that published in Holland, by 
Le Clerc, in 11 volumes folio, 1703. 

ERATOSTHENES, the Greek philo- 
sopher, flourished a.c. 300. 

ERFURT or Erfurth, formerly 
Erpis, an ancient town of Germany, in 
Upper Saxony, the capital of Thuringia. 
The university was established in 1392, 
and the professors' chairs were allowed 
to be filled half with Roman catholic, and 
half with protestant teachers. In 1754, 
an academy of sciences was formed, to 
which were added, a botanical garden, 
an anatomical theatre, an astronomical 
observatory, a riding school, and a so- 
ciety of natural history. In ISO6, 14,000 
Prussians, who had escaped from the 
battle of Jena, took refuge in this town, 
but were compelled to surrender to the 
French on the following day. In 1808, 
it was the scene of an interview between 
the emperor of Russia and Napoleon ; 
and in 1813, served as an asylum for the 
French army, after the battle of Leipsic. 

ERIE, Fort, taken by the American 
General Brown, July 3, 1814. Attacked 
successfully by the British, with the loss 
of 962 men, Aug. 15, 1814. Sortie from, 
repulsed by the British, but with great 
loss, Sept. 17, 1814. Evacuated by the 
Americans, Nov. 5, 1814. 

ERIE Canal, commences at the city 
of Albany, and terminates at Buffalo, in 



the country of Erie ; connects the waters 
of the Hudson River with those of Lake 
Erie. It is 363 miles in length, has 83 
locks, each 90 feet long in the clear, and 
15 feet wide, of 689 feet rise and fall, 
and 18 aqueducts; the longest at Roch- 
ester, 804 feet, across the Gennessee 
river ; the canal is 40 feet wide at the 
surface, 28 feet at the bottom, and four 
deep. It was commenced in 1817, and 
finished in 1825. 

ERIE, Lake, North America, sepa- 
rates the United States from British A- 
merica ; it is 280 miles long from south- 
west to north-east ; varying in breadth 
from 10 to 63 miles, and 658 miles in 
circuit, covering 12,000 square miles in 
surface. This lake is navigable for ves- 
sels of any burden, but dangerous on ac- 
count of numerous rocks which project 
from the northern shore. An engage- 
ment took place on this lake, Sep. 10, 
1813, between an American and an En- 
glish squadron, the former commanded 
by Admiral Perry. 

ERI VAN, or Persian Arm enia, town and 
province of Persia. In 1724, this town 
was besieged by the pacha of Algezira, 
and capitulated after a vigorous resist- 
ance. . It had been in the possession of 
the Persians since 1748. The Russians 
blockaded it in 1808, and after a pro- 
tracted siege, endeavoured to take it by 
storm, but were repulsed with great 
slaughter. It was taken by the Russians 
in the Persian war, October, 1827. 

ERMINE, order of knighthood, 
be^an in France, 1450 ; in Naples, 1463. 

ERSKINE, Thomas, Lord, was the 
third son of the earl of Buchan, and born 
in Scotland in 1750. He was educated 
for the naval service, and went to sea at 
a very early age. On quitting the sea- 
service in 1768, he entered into the army 
as an ensign, and accompanied his re- 
giment to Minorca. On his return to 
England in 1772, he appears to have ac- 
quired considerable reputation for the 
acuteness and versatility of his conversa- 
tional talents. 

At length, encouraged by the appro- 
bation of his mother, the countess of 
Buchan, he entered upon the study of 
the law in 1777, and registered his name 
as a fellow-commoner of Trinity College, 
Cambridge, and a student of Lincoln's 
Inn. One of his college declamations 
still extant, was the Revolution of I688, 
which gained the first prize. 

Mr. Erskine was called to the bar in 



ERZ 



456 



ESS 



1778; and was very shortly afterwards 
presented with an opportunity of dis- 
playing his shining oratorical powers, in 
favour of Captain Baillie, who had been 
deprived of the directorship of Green- 
wich Hospital by the late earl of Sand- 
wich, then first lord of the admiralty. 
His defence of Admiral Keppel, for 
which he received 1000 guineas, com- 
pletely established his fame as an advo- 
cate ; and, from that time, business be- 
gan to press upon him to an extraordi- 
nary extent, and he was looked upon as 
one of the most able counsellers in the 
court of King's Bench. In 1783, he 
was nominated to a seat in the House of 
Commons as a representative of the 
borough of Portsmouth. His defence 
of Paine is said to have cost Mr. Erskine 
the situation of attorney-general to the 
prince of Wales. In 1802, however, he 
was restored to his situation, and also 
made keeper of the seals, to the duchy 
of Cornwall. The most brilliant event 
in his professional life was the part he 
undertook, in conjunction with Sir Vi- 
cary Gibbs, in the state-trials in 1794. 
The trials lasted several days, and ended 
in the acquittal of the prisoners. 

1806. On the accession of Mr. Fox 
and his party to power, Mr. Erskine was 
sworn a member of the privy council, 
created a baron (Feb. 7 , 1806) by the 
title of Lord Erskine, of Restonnel-castle, 
in Cornwall, and entrusted with the 
great seal as lord high chancellor of Eng- 
land, in which latter capacity he pre- 
sided at the trial of Lord Melville. On 
the dissolution of the Whig administra- 
tion. Lord Erskine retired ripon a pen- 
sion of £4000 a-year. Although his 
lordship was in opposition to the measures 
of government, the Prince Regent, in 
1815, invested him with the order of the 
thistle. He died at Almonde, six miles 
from Edinburgh, in 1823. 

ERZERUM, or Erzerom, city, Asi- 
atic Turkey, capital of Armenia ; taken 
by the Russians, 1829- Count Paske- 
witch appeared before it on July 2, 
stormed the intrenchments, and put the 
Turks to flight; they lost 1,500 pri- 
soners, with the greatest part of their 
artillery, ammunition, and provisions. 
On the 5th, the Russian columns ad- 
vanced against the town, and it was given 
up, with 150 cannon, and large maga- 
zines of ammunition and provisions. 
The Seraskier himself, and four of his 
principal pachas, were made prisoners. 



ESAU born, a.c. 1836. 

E S C O T House, near Honiton, de- 
stroyed by fire, Dec. 27, 1808. 

ESCURIAL, a village of Spain, cele- 
brated for the superb palace of the Es- 
curial, or St. Lorenzo, one of the finest 
in Europe. It was built in commemo- 
ration of a victory which Philip II. ob- 
tained over the French at St. Quintin, on 
St. Lorenzo's or St. Laurence's day, in 
1557. The burial-place of the royal fa- 
mily, called the Pantheon, was begun by 
Philip III, and completed by Philip IV. 

ESOP, a native of Phrygia, who lived 
at the time of Solon, about the 51st 
Olympiad, a.c. 572, during the reign of 
Croesus, the last king of Lydia. His 
condition was that of a slave, and his 
person was so deformed, that one of his 
masters found great difficulty in dispos- 
ing of him, as every one who saw him 
was shocked at the unsightliness of his 
figure. Having obtained his liberty, 
Esop acquired very distinguished repu- 
tation, and was much esteemed by Croe- 
sus. Eusebius and Suidas refer his 
death to the 54th Olympiad ; but this 
date is not consistent \\dth the occasion 
to which Phfedrus ascribes the fable of 
the frogs. In Blair's Tables, his death 
is fixed at about a.c. 5G1. 

ESOPUS, now Kingston, on North 
River, in North America, totally destroyed, 
with great quantities of stores, October 
15, 1777. 

ESQUIMAUX, a people of North- 
America, inhabiting the coasts of La- 
brador and Hudson's Bay. They were 
visited by the Moravian brethren in 
1764. In 1826, both Captain Frank- 
lin's and Dr. Richardson's parties were 
attacked on the same day by great num- 
bers of these people, who had stationed 
themselves in the eastern and western 
outlets of the Mackenzie. 

ESSEQUIBO, colony, South Ameri- 
ca, in British Guiana, on a river of the 
same name, originally settled by the 
Dutch ; taken, and finally ceded in 1814 
to the British. Mr. Schomburgk, in his 
expedition, under the direction of the 
Geographical Society, into the interior 
of Guiana, in the years 1835 and 1836, 
undertook to explore the course of the 
river Essequibo and several of its tribu- 
taries. He pursued his course, under 
unexampled difficulties, to the grand ca- 
taract, which put a stop to their further 
proceedings, and which had never been 
visited by any European. 



ETH 



457 



ETR 



ESSEX, Thomas Cromwell, Eakl 
OF, See Cromwell. 

ESSEX, Robert Devereux, Earl 
OF. See Devereux. 

ESTADO LuD Peruano, new inde- 
pendent state of South America, includ- 
ing the four provinces of Cuzco, Aya- 
ciicho, Puno, and Arequipa. In conse- 
quence of the defeat of the Peruvian 
chief, Salaberry, in February, 1836, by 
the united armies of Bolivia and Peru, 
the representatives of the four southern 
provinces assembled at Sicuani, March 
17, 1837, declared their separation from 
the republic of Peru and their incorpo- 
ration into an independent state. 

ESTCOURT, Richard, dramatic au- 
thor, died 1713, aged 48. 

ESTHONIA government, European 
Russia, was anciently subject to Russia, 
but, in 1385, sold to the Teutonic knights, 
and made part of Livonia. It was an 
object of fierce contention for many years 
between the Russians, Poles, and Swedes, 
but was ceded to the last mentioned, in 
1660, by the peace of Oliva ; it was sub- 
dued by Peter the Great, of Russia, in 
1710, and finally confirmed to that power 
in 1721. 

ETHELBALD I., tenth king of the 
Mercians, 15th monarch of England, in 
716, was slain by his own subjects 
when he was leading his troops against 
Cuthred, the west Saxon, in 756. 

ETHELBALD IL, king of England, 
eldest son of Ethel wolf, succeeded in 857. 
Died Dec. 20, 860. 

ETHELBERT I., fifth king of Kent, 
and sixth monarch of England, in 592. 
St. Augustine first arrived in his domi- 
nions, to whose doctrine Ethelbert be- 
came a convert. He died Feb. 24, 61 7, 
and was buried at Canterbury. 

ETHELBERT II., second son of 
Ethehvolf, succeeded in 860. He died 
in 856, and was buried at Sherborne. 

ETHELBERT'S Tower, in Canter- 
bury, built 1047. 

ETHELRED I., king of England, 
succeeded to the throne in 866. In a 
battle with the Danes he was wounded 
at Wittingham, Berkshire, which occa- 
sioned his death, April 27, 872, and 
he was buried at Winborne, in Dorset- 
shire. 

ETHELRED 11. succeeded, and was 
crowned at Kingston-upon-Thames, on 
April 14, 979. During his reign, Eng. 
land was ravaged by the Danes. Ethel 
red died, April 24, 1016, 



ETHELWOLF, eldest son of Egbert 
succeeded his father, notwithstanding, 
at the time of Egbert's death, he was 
bishop of Winchester. His son Ethel- 
bald obliged him to divide the sovereignty 
with him, 356, He died Jan. 13, 857, 
and was buried at Winchester. 

ETNA, or Gibello, a celebrated vol- 
canic mountain of Sicily, at the east end 
in the Val di Demona. The first record- 
ed eruption of this volcano was in the 
time of Pythagoras. In the reign of 
Dionysius the younger, the sixth took 
place. It threw up flames of lava nearly 
a hundred times between that period and 
the battle of Pharsalia. It was particu- 
larly furious while Sextus Pompeius 
was adding the ravages of war to its 
devastations. Charlemagne was at Ca- 
tania during one of its eruptions ; and 
from his reign the Sicilian chronicles 
mention fifteen, down to that of I669, 
the most terrible of them all. The most 
considerable eruptions of modern times, 
happened in the years 1535, 1554, 1566, 
1579, 1669, 1692, 1755, 1766, 1787, 
and I8O9. The eruption of 1669 com- 
menced March 8, near Nicolosi ; on the 
lOth, a chasm several miles in length 
opened in the sides of the mountains; 
several others were afterwards opened : 
-the stream of lava was two miles broad, 
ami continued its course for some months. 
In the eruption of 1809, no fewer than 
12 new openings appeared half way down 
the mountain, and continued during 
several weeks. Another appeared May 
26, 1830, when seven new craters were 
opened, and eight villages with the in- 
haitants destroyed. The last was in 
1832. 

ETON owes its importance to its 
college, or school, founded by Henry 
VI. in 1440, under the title of "The 
King's College of our Lady at Eton 
by syde Windsore." There are at pre- 
sent a provost, vice-provost, six fel- 
lows, 70 scholars, two masters, having 
each four assistants, two conductors 
or priests, an organist, eight lay clerks, 
two choristers, with subordinate offi- 
cers. 

ETRURIA, kingdom of, created, out 
of the grand duchy of Tuscany, by the 
rench, 1801 ; annexed to the kingdom 
of Italy, 1807. 

ETRURIANS, conquered by the 
Romans, a.c, 567; submitted to Ca- 
millus, 3S6 ; privileges of citizens con- 
ferred on them, 381. 

3 N 



EUG 



458 



EUL 



EUCLID, the" mathematician, was 
born at Alexandria, and flourished 
in the reign of Ptolemy Lagus, about 
A.c. 277- We have no certain informa- 
tion as to the precise period, either of 
his birth or death. The most celebrated 
of his works is his Elements of Geome- 
try. The elements have been translated 
into the language of every country where 
learning has been introduced ; and a 
multiplicity of commentaries have at 
different times, and by various authors, 
been written on them. Among the 
Arabic translations of Euclid, that of 
Honain Ebn Ishak al Ebadi has been 
particularized ; he was a learned physi- 
cian, and flourished in the reign of the 
Caliph al Motawakkel, a.d. 847- Ade- 
lard, a monk of Bath, who lived in the 
12th century, appears to be the first who 
made a Latin translation, which he did 
from the Arabic, as no Greek copy had 
then been discovered. The editions 
of Euclid now mostly used in this coun- 
try are those of Simson, Playfair, and 
Ingram ; that of Dr. Simpson was pub- 
lished in 1756. But the most perfect 
edition of the works of Euclid which 
has hitherto appeared in this country, is 
that by Dr. David Gregory, in Greek 
and Latin, published at Oxford in 
1703. 

EUGENE, Francis, prince of Savoy, 
commonly known by the name of 
Prince Eugene, was descended from 
Carignan, one of the three branches of the 
house of Savoy, and born at Paris in 
1663. His father, Eugene Maurice, was 
general of the Swiss and Grisons. His 
mother, Olympia Marcini, niece of Car- 
dinal Mazarin, was a woman of an in- 
triguing disposition, and once the chief 
favourite of Louis XIV. Thinking that 
his merits were slighted by the French 
court, he quitted France in 1683, full of 
enmity against its sovereign, and vowing 
that he would liever re-enter his terri- 
tories, except with arms in his hands. 
He arrived at Vienna at the moment 
when it was closely besieged by the 
Turkish army, and having greatly signa- 
lised himself both in the defeat and pur- 
suit of the enemy, he was appointed, in 
the course of a few months, to a colo- 
nelcy of dragoons. From this time his 
reputation increased, with every action 
in which he engaged, till, in the year 
1697, he was appointed to the command 
of the imperial army. In the autumn of 
this year, he entirely defeated the Turks 



at the battle of Zeuta, in which the grand 
vizier, and more than 20,000 men were 
left on the field. 

When the war of the Spanish succes- 
sion broke out, in 1701, Prince Eugene 
was appointed to the command of the 
Austrian army in Italy, which consisted 
of 30,000 veteran troops. At the cele- 
brated battle of Blenheim, he command- 
ed the imperial part of the army, and in 
the battle of Malplaquet, in 1709, he 
received a wound behind his ear. At 
length, all parties being worn out with 
perpetual war, Eugene was appointed to 
negotiate with Villars, at Rastadt ; and, 
in the course of the year 1714, concluded 
a general peace between the empire and 
France. But he was soon after called 
out to contend again with the Turks, 
whom he signally defeated in the year 
1716. 

1717. He undertook the siege of Bel- 
grade, which surrendered, and an ad- 
vantageous peace was the result of this 
victor)'. In the year 1733, when it was 
proposed to resist, by force of arms, the 
intention of the French court to replace 
Stanislaus on the throne of Poland, 
Prince Eugene strongly dissuaded the 
emperor from a war in which he foresaw 
so little support, and so formidable an 
enemy ; but his counsel was overruled, 
and he accepted the command of the 
army at the age of 70. Though greatly 
inferior in numbers, he prevented the 
duke of Berwick from penetrating into 
the heart of the country ; and in the fol- 
lowing campaign, he finished his mili- 
tary career, by taking Trarbach, and deli- 
vering the electorate of Treves. He 
spent the remaining years of his life in 
complete retirement, and died tranquilly 
at Vienna, April 10, 1736, in the 73d 
year of his age. 

EULER, Leonard, an eminent ma- 
thematician of the 18th century, was 
born at Basil in 1707- He was after- 
wards sent to the university of Basil, and 
in 1723, took his degree as master of 
arts. In 1725, an academy of sciences 
being instituted at Petersburgh, he was 
made joint professor with his coun- 
trymen, Messrs. Hermann, and Daniel 
Bernouilli. It was at this time that he 
carried to new degrees of perfection the 
integral calculus, invented the calcu- 
lation of sinuses, reduced analytical ope- 
rations to a greater simplicity, and thus 
was enabled to throw new light on all 
the parts of mathematical science. In 



EUP 



459 



EUP 



1730, he was promoted to tlis professor- 
ship of natural philosophy ; and in 1733, 
he succeeded his friend Daniel Bernouilli 
in the mathematical chair. 

1735. A problem was proposed by the 
academy which required expedition, and 
for the solution of which several eminent 
mathematicians had demanded the space 
of some months. The problem was sol- 
ved by Euler in three days, to the great 
astonishment of the academy. In 1742, 
he obtained a pension from the academy 
at Petersburgh, and in 1766, by permis- 
sion of the king of Prussia, returned to 
Petersburgh. Soon after his return, 
having lost his sight, he dictated to his 
servant, a youth entirely ignorant of the 
first principles of mathematics, his Ele- 
ments of Algebra. About this time he 
became a member of the Academy of 
Sciences at Paris, and, after this, the aca- 
demical prize was adjudged to three of his 
memoirs, on the Inequalities in the Mo- 
tions of Planets. At length his life was 
terminated by a fit of apoplexy, Sept. 7, 
1783, at the age of 76. 

EUPHRATES, one of the most con- 
siderable rivers of Asia, the source of 
which is in the mountains of Armenia. 
According to Ptolemy, above Babylon 
it divided itself into two branches, one 
running to Babylon, and the other to 
Seleucia, where it fell into the Tigris. 
Between these two branches a canal was 
cut from the Euphrates, above Babylon, 
to the Tigris at Apamea, 60 miles below 
Seleucia. At the distance of 800 furlongs 
from Babylon, to the south, was another 
canal, called by Arrian Pallacopes, on 
which Alexander sailed from the Eu- 
phrates to certain lakes or marshes in 
Chaldea. The canal of Pallacopes, dug 
by the Babylonian kings, had fallen into 
decay, and was partially cleaned out in 
1793, by the nabob of Oude. 

The navigation of this river is at pre- 
sent a matter of peculiar interest to the 
British public, in consequence of the pro- 
ject for opening a communication be- 
tween England and the East Indies, by 
the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf. It 
is stated that the Euphrates is navigable 
for steam-boats from Bassora to Hit, 
lat. 33«42'N.,long. 42°30'E., at all sea- 
sons of the year; but from Hit, upwards, 
it becomes more difficult. The greatest 
objection to the route to India, by the 
Euphrates, arises from the character of 
the Arabs, whose naturally wandering and 
plundering habits are strengthened by an 
unsettled government. The Tigris is 



more easily navigated than the Euphrates 
as far as Bagdad, because the depth of 
water is more equal. 

Captain (now Colonel) Chesney, in a 
report on the navigation of this river a 
few years ago, stated his reasons for be- 
lieving this undertaking to be practi- 
cable. With a view to substantiate his 
plan he minutely examined the river be- 
tween Anna and Babylon, and for the 
rest of the course between Bir and Bas- 
sora, collected information for the pur- 
pose of enabling those interested to 
judge of the propriety of establishing 
this line of communication. The only 
information we formerly had of that part 
of the course of the river was from Ran- 
wolf, a German traveller, who, in 1575, 
undertook a similar voyage down the 
Euphrates. The point on the river 
which Captain Chesney proposed as the 
station of the steam-boats is Bir, on the 
left bank. The position of this town is 
fixed at about lat. 36° 59' N.; long. 
38° 7' E. From Bir to Bassora, follow- 
ing the windings of the river, the distance 
was calculated by Captain Chesney at 1143 
miles. If to the 1143 miles between Bas- 
sora and Bir we add 600 miles more, 
following the river to its source along 
the Morad, this will make 1743 miles. 
The distance from Bassora to the gulf in- 
creases the whole to about 1800 miles. 

Captain Chesney afterwards made pro- 
posals for a second expedition to explore 
the other part of the river, preparatory 
to carrying into eflfect his original plan of 
establishingsteam navigation on the Eu- 
phrates. In 1834, the last difficulties of 
preparation were removed, and this perse- 
vering navigator set out in order to reap 
the reward of his labours and exertions, 
by being allowed to make his experiment 
in his own way. The expedition sailed 
in the George Canning, of Liverpool; 
which was chartered to convey it to Scan- 
deroon, whence it was planned that the 
iron boats, and other materials, should 
be transported across the desert. 

Preparatory to this principal expedi- 
tion in August, 1835, Lieutenant Mur- 
phy commenced the grand line of levels 
from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates 
with reference to canals and other objects 
of deep interest connected with science. 

In the early part of January, 1836, 
Colonel Chesney, who had suffered much 
from indisposition, left his bed, and was 
actually put upon his horse to prosecute 
a scientific journey to Mount Taurus and 
part of Asia Minor ; he was accompanied 



EUP 



460 



EUR 



1)y Lieutenant Murphy, Mr. Ainsworth, 
and Mr. Staunton. In March, having 
reached the river, the expedition was put 
in motion, consisting of the Euphrates 
and Tigris steam-vessels. On June 9, 
the Euphrates steamer arrived oflf Bas- 
sora, and celebrated its safe descent of 
the great river whose name it bore, gra- 
tifying, at the same time, the feelings of 
loyalty excited by the remembrance of 
the monarch under whose patronage this 
enterprise was carried on, by firing a 
number of guns equivalent to the age of 
that late regretted monarch, William IV. 
At a subsequent period two different as- 
cents were made of the Karun and 
two descents of the Bahamishir, while 
tlie country, intervening between the Je- 
rahi and the Euphrates, the great delta 
of Susiana, concerning which so much 
that is incorrect is laid down in our most 
modern maps, was examined. 

1836. Orders came in September to 
proceed up the Tigris river. This was 
accordingly done, although the difficul- 
ties presented themselves of a current 
considerably stronger at this season of 
the year, and of the numerous sandbanks 
and shoals, such as do not characterize 
the sister stream, and which rendered 
the navigation at the low season much 
more formidable. The Arabs were found 
peaceable ; wood was met with in abun- 
dance on the banks of the river ; and the 
Euphrates succeeded in ascending to 
Bagdad, in a period of 1 04^^ hours ; being 
a distance, from the mouth of the river, 
of 543 miles. A second time, in the 
month of December, 1836, was the river 
Tigris ascended to upwards of 400 miles 
beyond its junction with the Euphrates. 

1837. In March Colonel Chesney ac- 
complished his last arduous and dan- 
gerous task of taking a mail from the 
Persian gulf of Zoobei'r, across the great 
desert to Bairut, which he did, unaccom- 
panied by any European. 

At a late meeting of the British Asso- 
ciation, was read a letter from Lieutenant 
Lynch, Ind. Navy, dated Hit, June 1, 
1838, describing the facility with which 
his steamer had ascended the Euphrates 
from Bassora to that place. Between 
Hillahand Hit the Euphrates is a broad, 
deep, and beautiful stream, in some of 
its bends nearly a mile wide ; the country 
extremely fertile; the crops of corn abun- 
dant, and just reaped ; the population of 
Arabs along the banks extensive, and 
apparently happy, welcoming the ap- 



proach of the steamer with shouting and 
dancing, and supplying its wants of fuel 
with great readiness and cordiality. ITie 
productions of the country, as wool, 
naphtha, bitumen, ghi or butter, tallow, 
corn in abundance, and horses of the 
finest breed, are mentioned as easy to be 
obtained, and in large quantities. The 
letter concludes with an expression of the 
writer's conviction that a profitable trade 
might easily be established ; and, after 
the experience he has had of the river, 
that there are no physical obstacles to its 
free navigation with properly constructed 
vessels. An explanation was then given 
of maps which were exhibited, and par- 
ticularly of that showing the line of levels 
carried between the Mediterranean at 
Iskandertim and the river Euphrates at 
Birehjik ; whence we learn that the city 
of Antioch is situated 300 feet above the 
sea, the town of Birehjik, 628 feet; 
and the highest point between the sea 
and the river rises 1720 feet above the 
Mediterranean. On May 14, the royal 
gold medal of the Geographical Society 
was presented to Colonel Chesney, for 
his distinguished services to Geography; 
as " opening the road into a large range 
of country hitherto very imperfectly 
known ; navigating, for the first time in 
modern history, two of the most cele- 
brated rivers of the ancient world, the 
Euphrates and the Tigris ; adding largely 
to our knowledge of Syria and Mesopo- 
tamia, Assyria, and Susiana; carrying 
on a line of levels from Iskanderiim to 
Bir, and thence, along the whole course 
of the Euphrates, to the Persian gulf ; 
and laying down the course of the 
Orontes from its mouth to Jisr Hadid." 
EURIPIDES, one of the most cele- 
brated tragic poets of Greece, was born 
about A.c. 468, in the isle of Salamis. 
He used to shut himself up in a cave to 
compose his tragedies, which were so 
highly esteemed in his own time, that 
when the Athenian army, commanded by 
Nicias, was defeated in Sicily, the sol- 
diers purchased their lives and liberties 
by reciting the verses of Euripides. He 
died when he was about 75 years of age. 
Of the 92 tragedies which he composed, 
only 19 are remaining; the most valu- 
able editions of which are those of Aldus, 
in 1503, 8 vo. ; of Plautin, in 15/0, l6mo. ; 
of Comelin, in 1597. 8vo.; of Paul Ste- 
vens, in 1604. 4to. ; and of Joshua 
Barnes, I694, folio. 

EUROPE, the smallest of the great 



EUR 



461 



EUS 



.divisions of our globe, but distinguished 
above the rest by the flourishing condi- 
tion of arts, sciences, industry, and com- 
merce. It is probable that the first in- 
habitants emigrated from Asia. Greece 
was first peopled by these emigrants, 
about A.c. 1400. The most flourishing 
period of the Greeks was about a.c. 300. 
The Romans, who appeared at an ear- 
lier period, made no figure in history till 
they had become masters of Italy, and 
had proved victorious in their struggle 
with the Carthaginians, a.c. 146. From 
that period their power began to extend 
over all Europe. By the progress of the 
Roman arms, Spain, Portugal, France, 
the coast of England, Belgium, Helvetia, 
the part of Germany between the Da- 
nube and the Alps, the Hungarian pro- 
vinces (then called Pannonia, lUyria, and 
Dacia), became known, and received the 
Roman manners, language, and refine- 
ment. 

With the fall of the Roman empire, 
occasioned chiefly by its separation into 
the eastern and western empires, a great 
change in the political constitution of 
Europe was produced by the universal 
emigration of the northern nations, who 
poured down upon the beautiful and cul- 
tivated countries of the Roman empire. 
The Ostrogoths and Lombards settled in 
Italy about 493 ; the Franks in France 
about 508 ; the Visigoths in Spain about 
585 ; and the Anglo-Saxons in South 
Britain about 685. The empire of the 
Franks was enlarged, under Charle- 
magne, to such an extent, that the king- 
dom of France, Germany, Italy, Bur- 
gundy, Lorraine, and Navarre, were 
afterwards formed out of it. About this 
time the northern and eastern nations 
of Europe began to exert an influence in 
the aflfairs of the world. The Slavi, or 
Sclavonians, founded kingdoms in Bohe- 
mia, Poland, Russia, and the north of 
Germany ; the Magyarians appeared in 
Hungary, and the Normans agitated all 
Europe. 

The revival of letters, by the Greeks 
fleeing from Constantinople, gave an 
entirely new impulse to Europe. Out 
of the chaos of the middle ages arose 
the states of Germany, France, Spain, 
Portugal, England, Scotland, Switzer- 
land, the Italian powers, Hungary, 
Bohemia, Poland, Denmark, Sweden, 
Norway, and Russia. By the capture 
of Constantinople (1453), the Turks 
became a European power. Austria, 



Holland, Prussia, and Sardinia were also 
added to the number of European states ; 
and Russia, from the time of Peter I. 
1682, was changed from an Asiatic into 
a European empire. The attempts of 
Charles V. and Louis XIV. to become 
masters of Europe failed; but, in our 
own times. Napoleon conceived jthe 
project of forming, from the European 
states, a universal monarchy, and pur- 
sued it for 10 years. 

Since the formation of the states of 
Europe, the following have disappeared 
from the list of independent powers : 
Hungary, Poland, the German empire, 
Scotland, Bohemia, Venice, Genoa, and 
and Milan. The following have been 
added : the states of the Germanic con- 
federacy, the Italian states, the republic 
of the Ionian islands, and the kingdom 
of Greece. 

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL, 

EUROPEAN STATES FOR 1830. 

Areain German 
European States, square miles of Poxmlation. 
about 21 J English. 



Austria 


. 12,151 


32,500,000 


Bavaria 


1,477 


4,037,017 


British Empire 


. 5,556 


22,297,621 


Denmark 


2,465 


2,057,531 


France 


. 10,086 


32,052,545 


Hanover 


695 


1,582,574 


Netherlands 


1,196 


6,977,500 


Ottoman Empin 


} 9,602 


9,393,000 


Portugal 


1,722 


3,782,550 


Prussia 


5,054 


12,778,403 


Russia 


66,718 


41,990,000 


Sardinia 


1,363 


4,167,377 


Saxony 


271 


1,400,100 


Sicilies (The Tw( 


3) 1,947 


7,414,7ir 


Church States 


811 


2,483,940 


Sweden 


13,734 


3,878,700 


Switzerland 


696 


2,037,030 


Spain 


8,446 


13,651,172 


Tuscany 


395 


1,300,530 


Wirtemberg 


359 


1,535,403 


Minor Provinces 


29,304 


43,694,175 



Total 174,048 251,011,885 
For further particulars see the names 
of the diflFerent countries, Austria, Ba- 
varia, &c. 

EUSEBIUS, surnamed Pamphilus, 
the celebrated bishop of Csesarea, was 
born in Palestine about 270. In the per- 
secution of Dioclesian he removed to 
Tyre, and thence travelled into Egypt ; 
but the same persecution was carried on 
in that country, and Eusebius was im- 



EUS 



462 



EXA 



prisoned. When the persecution abated, 
he returned to Palestine, and was elected 
bishop of Caesarea, as is generally sup- 
pose(), in the year 315. 

At the council of Nice, in 325, he was, 
by the command of Constantine, placed 
on the right hand of the throne, and 
commenced the business of the day by 
an elegant address to the emperor. He 
was also present at the council of An- 
tioch, in which Eustathius, bishop of 
that city, was deposed. In 335, he as- 
sisted at the council of Tyre, held against 
Athanasius ; and at the assembly of 
bishops at Jerusalem, at the time of the 
dedication of the church there. By these 
bishops he was sent to the Emperor 
Constantine to defend what they had 
done against Athanasius. Eusebius died 
in 339. 

ManyofEusebius's most valuable works 
are entirely lost, and of others only 
translations of some parts of the original 
remain. The Evangelical or Ecclesias- 
tical History, in 10 books, which con- 
tains the history of the church from the 
birth of Christ, to the death of the elder 
Licinus, a period of 324 years, is ac- 
counted the most valuable, as it furnishes 
the principal information which we pos- 
sess concerning the first ages of Chris- 
tianity. 

EUSTATHIANS, a name given to the 
catholics of Antioch, in the fourth cen- 
tury, on occasion of their refusal to ac- 
knowledge any other bishop besides St. 
Eustathius, deposed by the Arians. 

EUSTATHIANS were also a sect of 
heretics in the fourth century, denomi- 
nated from their founder Eustathius, a 
monk so foolishly fond of his own pro- 
fession, that he condemned all other con- 
ditions of life. 

EUSTATIA, orEusTATius, island. 
West Indies, one of the Leeward or 
Caribbee islands. The Dutch made the 
first settlement here about 1600. In 
1665, it was taken by the British; but in 
1667, the French expelled the English, 
and restored the island to the Dutch. 
In 1689, the English retook it, but re- 
signed it at the termination of the war 
in 1697- In 1781, a large naval and 
military British force seized the island, 
and confiscated all the property on it, 
but, in the same year, were themselves 
driven out by the French. In 1809, they 
retook it, but ceded it finally to the 
Dutch in 1814, with whom it still re- 
mains. 



EUTROPIUS, the Roman historian, 
flourished 428. 

EUTYCHIANS, ancient heretics, who 
denied the union of two natures in 
Christ ; thus denominated from Euty- 
ches, the archimandrite, or abbot of a 
monastery at Constantinople, who began 
to propagate his opinion in 448. This 
heresy was first condemned in a synod 
held at Constantinople by Flavian, in 
448, approved by the council of Ephesus 
in 449, and re-examined and fulminated, 
in the general council of Chalcedon, in 
451. 

EUTYCHIUS, patriarch of Constan- 
tinople, was born in 512. He was brought 
up to the ecclesiastical profession, and 
obtained in early life the episcopal dig- 
nity in a town of Pontus, which he after- 
wards relinquished, and entered into a 
monastery in the city of Amasaea. In 
552, he was deputed by the bishop of 
that city to Constantinople, as his re- 
presentative, in the approaching general 
council that was to be held there. Be- 
fore the meeting of the council he ob- 
tained the favour of Justinian, who raised 
him to the patriarchate in 553. He died 
in 585, aged 73. 

EVELYN, John, a learned writer 
and natural philosopher, was bom at 
Wooton, in Surrey, in 1620. After mak-' 
ing the tour of Europe, he returned to 
England about 1651. He was one of 
the first promoters of the Royal Society, 
and a patron of the ingenious and indi- 
gent. In 1662, he published " Sculp- 
tura, or the History and Art of Chalco- 
graphy, or Engraving on Copper." In 
the reign of James II., during the ab- 
sence of the earl of Clarendon in Ireland, 
he was made one of the commissioners 
for executing the office of privy seal, and 
after the revolution he was appointed 
treasurer of Greenwich Hospital. Mr. 
Evelyn died in 1706, aged 86. He is 
best known as an author by his "Sylva, 
or a Discourse of Forest Trees." 

EXALTATION of the Cross, in- 
stituted 629- 

EXAMINATION of Witnesses. 
A recent and important act, 1 Will, IV. 
c 22, March 30, 1831, to enable courts 
of law to order the examination of wit- 
nesses upon interrogatories and other- 
wise ; enacts that aU the power, provi- 
sions, and matters contained in the 13 
Geo. III. c. 63, relating to the examina- 
tion of witnesses in India, shall be ex- 
tended to all colonies, islands, planta- 



EXC 

tions, and places tinder the dominion of 
his majesty in foreign parts, and to the 
judges of the several courts therein, and 
to all actions depending in any of his ma- 
jesty's courts of law at Westminster. 

EXARCH, an appellation given by the 
emperors of the east to certain officers 
sent into Italy, in the quality of vicars, or 
prefects, to defend that part of Italy 
which was yet under their obedience. 
The Exarchs of Ravenna began under 
Longinus, 569, were conquered by the 
Lombards, 752. 

EXCHANGE, Royal. See Royal 
Exchange. 

EXCHEQUER Bills, bills of credit, 
first issued by authority of parliament in 
1696, as a more convenient kind of se- 
curity than the tallies or orders for re- 
payment then in use. They were then 
taken at the exchequer for all payments 
of the revenue, and, when re-issued, they 
were allowed £7 12«. per cent, interest. 
The Bank of England, ever since the 
year 1706, have been the contractors for 
the circulation of exchequer bills, at a 
certain premium. The commissioners 
of the Treasury are empowered, by vari- 
ous statutes, to borrow money, within a 
specific sum, limited by those statutes, 
by issuing exchequer bills on the credit 
of certain duties; which bills, by 12 
Anne, cap. 11, and 12 Geo I. cap. 11, 
bear an interest of 2d. a day per cent., 
payable to the bearers. But the interest 
payable on them has diflfered according 
to the current rate of interest at the time 
when they have been issued. 

1717. The first funding of exchequer 
bills was eflfected by the conversion of 
their amount into perpetual five per cent, 
annuities : 2,000,000, then held by the 
Bank of England, were converted in this 
manner, by a private arrangement, with 
the directors. The interest payable 
upon these securities was formerly, and 
for a long period, as high as Z\d. per 
centum per diem ; this rate was after- 
wards reduced successively to 3c?., 2^d., 
Id., and, in May, 1824, to ihd., at which 
it now remains. 

EXCHEQUER, Court of, an ancient 
court of record, in which all causes 
concerning the revenues and rights of 
the crown are heard and determined, and 
where the crown revenues are received ; 
said to have been erected by William the 
Conqueror in 1079, its model being taken 
from a like court established in Nor- 
mandy, long before that time. 



46a EXE 

EXCHEQUER Chambkr, Court 
of, erected by Edward HI. 1359; im- 
proved by Elizabeth 1584. 

EXCISE, duties or taxes laid on such 
articles as are produced and consumed 
at home. They were introduced into 
England by the Long Parliament in 
1643; being then laid on the, makers 
and venders of ale, beer, cider, and perry. 
The royalists followed the example, both 
sides declaring that the excise should be 
continued no longer than the war. When 
the nation had been accustomed to it for 
a few years, the parliament declared, in 
1649, that the " impost of excise was the 
most easy and indifferent levy that could 
be laid upon the people," 

The excise was placed on a new foot- 
ing at the Restoration, and has continued 
progressively to gain ground. At the 
time of the peace of Amiens, in 1801, 
the gross amount of it for England was 
£12,507,800. After that, for some 
time, the amount nearly doubled ; the 
gross produce, in 1807, being about 
£24,000,000. In 1820, the gross produce 
was £29,675,988 ; in 1830, £19,990,092 ; 
andiin 1838, £14,750,521. 

EXCISE Office, the first established 
in England, 1643 ; its officers, deprived 
of their votes for members of parlia- 
ment, 1782. 

EXCISE Office, Broad-street, Lon- 
don, built 1774. 

EXCLUSION Bill, first moved in 
parHament, Sunday, April 27, 1679. 

EXCOMMUNICATION by the pope, 
first instance of, 730. 

EXETER, the capital of Devonshire, 
and a bishopric, supposed to be identical 
with Isca-Daumoniorum, a Roman sta- 
tion, mentioned by Ptolemy, in the 
middle of the second century : it was 
called by the Saxons, Monkton, from its 
numerous religious houses. In 914, 
Athelstan expelled the Cornish Britons, 
and changed the name to Exonceaster, 
from which its present appellation is 
derived. It suffered repeated attacks 
during the incursions of the Danes, 
especially in the beginning of the 11th 
century. 

After the Norman conquest, Exeter 
was besieged and taken by William I., 
and it was subsequently exposed %& 
hostilities in the reigns of Stephen and 
Edward IV. Under Henry VII. it was 
besieged by Perkin Warbeck. In 1544, 
the insurgents from Cornwall, against 
Edward VI., made an unsuccessful as- 



EXM 



4€4 



EXT 



eault upon this place. In the beginning 
of the civil war, in the reign of Charles 
I., this city was in the hands of the 
parliament, but was taken for the king 
by Prince Maurice, Sept. 4, 1643. It 
then became the royal residence and head 
quarters of the roj^alists. Tlie duchess 
of Orleans, daughter of Charles, was 
born here. In April, 1646, it surren- 
dered to the parliament. 

The cathedral, founded as a conventual 
church, about a.d. 932, by, King Aihel- 
stan, has' been re-edified, at different 
times, and therefore exhibits several va- 
rieties of architecture; it extends 408 
feet from east to west without the walls. 
The height of the vaulted roof is 69 
feet, and that of the Norman towers 
which form the transepts, 130 feet to the 
top of the battlements. 
EXETER Castle, built 680. 
EXETER Change, taken down to 
make an opening in the Strand, 1829- 
The new Exeter Change opened with 
much ceremony, March 29, 1831. 

EXETER College, Oxford, built 
1316. 

EXETER Conduit constructed 
1486. 

EXMOUTH, Hon. Edward Pel- 
lew, Viscount, born April 19, 1757> 
at Dover. He entered the navy before 
he was 14, and had the opportunity of 
distinguishing himself in the battle on 
Lake ChamplaiUj October 11, 1776. On 
his return to England after the con- 
vention of Saratoga, he was promoted to 
the rank of lieutenant. In 1782 he ob- 
tained his commission as post-captain ; 
and, from the Dictator, his first ship in 
the Medway, was transferred to the Sa- 
lisbury, 50 guns, in which he was flag- 
captain to vice-admiral Milbank, off the 
coast of Newfoundland. In 1793 he was 
appointed to the command of la Nymphe, 
36 guns. On the 18th of June he fell 
in with the French frigate, la Cleopatra, 
36 guns, and after a most gallant and 
determineai action, the enemy struck her 
colours. 

Soon after this Captain Pellew was 
appointed to the Arethusa. In this ship 
he was engaged in many encounters, 
both with batteries on shore, and the 
enemy's vessels at sea. In 1796, while 
in command of the Indefatigable, 49 
guns, he displayed the greatest bravery 
and humanity in saving the crew of the 
Dutton East Indiaman, which had been 
driven on shore in a heavy gale of wind 



on the rocks near the garrison at Ply- 
mouth. For this heroic conduct he was 
presented with the freedom of Plymouth, 
and, on the 5th of March, created a 
baronet. 

1799- Sir Edward Pellew was ap- 
pointed to the command of I'lmpetueux, 
78 guns, and was constantly and actively 
employed in various services on the 
French coast ; he was also attached to 
the squadron under Sir J. B. Warren in 
the expedition against Ferrol, where he 
bore a conspicuous part. In 1802 he 
was nominated colonel of marines. In 
the same year he was returned as a 
member of parliament for Barnstaple. 
He distinguished himself in the house 
by a warm and manly defence of Earl St. 
Vincent; but retired by accepting the 
Chiltern Hundreds, July 26, 1804, when 
he was appointed to the East India sta- 
tion. On the 23d April, 1804, he was 
promoted to the rank of rear-admiral, 
and appointed commander-in-chief in 
the East Indies. 

May 14, 1814, he was raised to the 
dignity of the peerage by the title of 
Baron Exmouth,with a pension of £2000 
per annum, as a reward for his eminent 
and long services. On the 4th of the 
following month he was further promoted 
to the rank of full admiral ; he was no- 
minated a K.C.B. January 2, 1815, and 
a G.C.B. March 16, 1816. On the re- 
turn of Napoleon from Elba, his lordship 
proceeded to his command in the Medi- 
terranean, and concluded treaties with 
Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, for the abo- 
lition of christian slavery. On his re- 
turn to England, the Algerines having 
violated the treat)', his lordship embark- 
ed on board the Queen Charlotte for 
Algiers. The records of the memorable 
battle of Algiers are well known, and the 
honourable result of the action is duly 
appreciated. See Algiers. He was 
raised to the rank of viscount by patent, 
dated December 10, 1816. After Sir 
Thomas Duckworth's demise he was ap- 
pointed to the chief command at Ply- 
mouth ; but after the year 1821 he re- 
tired from public service. He died Fe- 
bruary 6, 1833, at his house at Teign- 
mouth, in his 76th year. 

EXPORTS. See Imports and Ex- 

PORTS. 

EXTINGUISHER, Self-acting. 
This ingenious contrivance was invented 
by Mr. Jones in 1839, who has named 
it "The Photoiyphon, or Self-acting 



FAB 



465 



FAC 



Extinguisher." Being slid on to a can- 
dle at any distance beyond which the 
candle is required not to burn, it snuffs 
it out as soon as the upper part is con- 
sumed. 

EYCK, Hub. Van, founder of the 
Flemish school of painting, born 1366, 
died 1426. 

EYCK, John Van, the supposed 
inventor of oil painting, born at Maa- 
seyk, 1370, died 1441. 

EYEMOUTH, sea-port, Scotland, 
shire of Berwick. On a promontory 
here are the ruins of a fort built by the 
earl of Hertford during the minority of 



Edward VI., but demolished by treaty 
with Mary, his successor, 

EYRE, justices in, the office instituted 
by Henry II., 1184; the last instance of 
their holding a court in any of the forests 
is believed to have been during the reign 
of Charles II. 

EZEKIEL, the prophet, flourished 
A.C- 593. 

EZERGHAN, on the confines of 
Armenia, destroyed by an earthquake, 
when 6300 inhabitants perished, July 
28, 1784. 

EZRA arrived at Jerusalem, and began 
his reform a.c. 458. 



F, 



FABIAN, Robert, an English his- 
torian, born at London in the 15th cen- 
tury. He was chosen sheriff of the city 
in 1493. He employed himself in com- 
piling a chronicle, which was printed 
after his death, entitled " A Concordance 
of Stories." He is copious in the affairs 
of London, for which the work is chiefly 
valuable, and on that account it is called 
by Stow " a painful labour, to the great 
honour of the city and the whole realm." 
FABIUS, Maximus Q., a celebrated 
Roman general, attained the honour of 
the consulship, for the first time, a.c. 
233, when he obtained a victory over 
the Ligurians ; and the fatal battle of 
Thrasymenus, a.c. 217, occasioned his 
election to the dictatorship. In this im- 
portant office he opposed Hannibal. He 
continually harassed his army by coun- 
termarches and ambuscades, from which 
he received the surname of Cunctator or 
Delayer. He died about a.c. 203, in 
the 100th year of his age, after he had 
been five times consul, and twice ho- 
noured with a triumph. 

FABRICIUS, Caius, a celebrated Ro- 
man general, who in his first consulship, 
A.c. 282, obtained several victories over 
the Samnites and Lucanians, and was ho- 
noured with a triumph. In 275,he served 
the office of censor, and displayed that 
rigour against luxury which had been 
customary amongst the ancient Romans. 
He contemned riches' during the whole 
of his life, and died so poor that a dowry 
was given to his dax^ghters out of the 
public treasury. 
FABRICIUS, John Albert, cele- 



brated for his great erudition, was born 
at Leipsicin 1668. In 1686, he entered 
vigorously upon the study of theology, 
and began to conceive the project of his 
Bibliotheca. Duringthenext several suc- 
cessive years he distinguished himself as 
a preacher, a writer, and an able disputant 
in theology. In 1699, he was elected to 
the chair of eloquence at Hamburgh. He 
died in 1736, in his 68th year. His 
principal works are, "Bibliotheca Graeca," 
in 14 vols. 4to. ; "Bibliotheca Latina," 
in two vols. 4to, 

FABRQNI, Angiolo, Italian biogra- 
pher, born 1732, died Sept. 22, 1803. 

FACTORIES Bill. This important 
statute, 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 103, August 
29, 1833, is designed to regulate the la- 
bour of children and young persons in 
the mills and factories of the United 
Kingdom. The following are the most 
important provisions. No person under 
18 years of age shall be allowed to work 
in the night (that is to say) between 
lialf-past eight o'clock in the evening 
and half-past five o'clock in the morning, 
except in certain cases, in any cotton, 
woollen, worsted, hemp, flax, tow, linen, 
or silk mill or factory, in scutching, 
carding, roving, spinning, &c., making 
thread, dressing or weaving of cotton, 
wool, worsted, hemp, flax, tow, or silk, 
either separately or mixed, in any such 
mill, &c., in any part of the United King- 
dom ; but this act is not to extend to 
that part of the process commonly called 
fulling, roughing, or boiling of woollens. 
Persons under 18 years, not to work 
more than 12 hours in one day, or 69 

3 o 



FAH 



466 



FAI 



hours in one week. There shall be al- 
lowed not less than one hour and a half 
for meals. Employment of children under 
nine years prohibited, except in silk 
mills. Employment of children under 
eleven, twelve, and thirteen years of age, 
for more than nine hours a day, prohi- 
bited after the respective periods therein 
mentioned. Holidays to be allowed, 
viz., Christmas-day, and Good-Friday, 
the entire day, and not fewer than eight 
half-days besides in every year. Chil- 
dren employed in any one mill less than 
nine hours, not to be employed in any 
other. Children not to be employed 
without a certificate from a surgeon or 
physician as to their being of ordinary 
strength and appearance. Empowers 
her majesty to appoint four inspectors of 
factories, &c., when such children are 
employed, to visit them by day or by 
night, when at work. Parents liable to 
a penalty of 20s. for the employment of 
children beyond the legal hours, &c. 
Employers offending against this act, 
or any order of aay inspector, shall for- 
feit not exceeding £20, nor less than £l, 
at the discretion of the inspector or 
justice; but if not wilful nor grossly 
negligent, it may be mitigated. 

The subject was again brought before 
parliament in 183S, by Lord Ashley and 
others, and the sixth report on mills 
and factories, 1840, contains minutes of 
evidence before parliament which show 
that the factory laws require revision. 

FAENZA, a town of Italy, States of 
the Church, famous for pottery. In 1796, 
it was taken by the French, and re-taken 
by the army of the pope. In 1797, the 
papal forces were again defeated, and 
driven out; restored in 1814. 

FAGIUS, Paul, a learned protestant 
divine, was born at Rheinzabem, in Ger- 
many, in 1504. He came over to Eng- 
land with Bucer in 1549, at the invitation 
of Archbishop Cranmer, to perfect a new 
translation of the Scriptures. Fagius 
undertook the Old Testament, but the 
design was frustrated by his sudden 
death in 1550. 

FAHRENHEIT, Gabriel Daniel, 
a native of Hamburgh, known for the 
thermometer, chiefly used in England, 
which is graduated according to a stan- 
dard invented by himself; born about 
1686. In 1724, he pubhshed "A Dis- 
sertation on Thermometers." He died in 
1736. 

FAIRFAX, Edward, an English poet. 



chiefly known by his translation of 
"Tasso's Godfrey of Bouillon," which 
was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, in 
the year l600. He died about 1632. 

FAIRFAX, Thomas, Lord, general 
of the parliamentary forces during the 
civil wars in the reign of Charles I., 
was born in l6ll. In 1645, he gained a 
complete victory over the royal army at 
Naseby. He was among the first of 
those nominated for king's judges, but 
he refused to act. He was afterwards 
appointed general-in-chief of the forces 
in England and Ireland. At the restora- 
tion he was at the head of the committee 
appointed by the house of commons to 
attend King Charles II. at the Hague. 
He died in 1671, aged 60. 

FAIRS AND Markets first instituted 
in England, by Alfred, 886. The first 
fairs originated in wakes, when the num- 
ber of people assembled brought toge- 
ther a variety of traders annually on these 
days. In England no fair can be held 
without grant from the crown, or a pre- 
scri{)tion which supposes such grant. The 
times of holding fairs and markets are 
either determined by the letters patent 
appointing the fair or market, or by 
usage. The statute 2 Edw. 3. c. 1 5, enacts, 
that the duration of the fair shall be de- 
clared at its commencement, and that it 
shall not be continued beyond the spe- 
cified time. By statute 5 Edw. 3. c. 5, 
any merchant selling goods after the 
stipulated time is to forfeit double the 
value of the goods sold. 

The following are the principal British 
fairs : — Exeter Dec. fair for cattle, horses, 
and most sorts of commodities. Wey- 
hill fair in Hampshire (October 10), has, 
probably, the greatest display of sheep of 
any fair in the kingdom. Bartholomew 
fair, in London, used to be of consider- 
able importance, but is now appropriated 
only to shows of wild beasts, and such 
like exhibitions, and might be suppressed 
with advantage. St. Faith's, near Nor- 
wich (October 17), is the principal En- 
glish fair for Scotch cattle. Ipswich has 
two considerable fairs : one in August, 
for lambs ; and one in September, for 
butter and cheese : it is reckoned that 
above 100,000 lambs are annually sold 
at the former. Woodborough-hill, in 
Dorset, for west country manufactures, 
as kerseys, druggets, &c. Northampton 
and Nottingham have each several large 
fairs, for horses, cattle, cheese, &c. The 
August fair of Horncastle, in Lincoln- 



FAI 



4C7 



FAL 



shire, is the largest horse fair in the 
kingdom, many thousand horses being 
exhibited for sale during its continuance, 
Falkirk fair, or tryst, is one of the most 
important in Scotland, for the sale of 
cattle and sheep. The Oct. fair of Ballina- 
sloe, in the county Galvvay, Ireland, is 
famous for the display of cattleand sheep ; 
by far the largest proportion of these ani- 
mals raised for sale in Connaught being 
disposed of at it. 

The following are the principal foreign 
fairs : — In France, the fairs of St. Ger- 
main's, Lyons, Rheims,Chartres, Rouen, 
Bordeaux, Troyes, and Bayonne. At 
Beaucaire, in the department of the 
Gard, in July, 1833, it is said that there 
were from 70,000 to 80,000 persons at 
the fair, and that the business done ex- 
ceeded 160,000,000 fr., or £6,400,000. 

The German, or rather European, fairs, 
are those of Frankfort on the Maine, 
Frankfort on the Oder, and Leipsic. The 
fairs at Frankfort on the Maine should 
begin, the first on Easter Tuesday, and the 
second on the Monday nearest to Sept. 8. 
Their duration is limited to three weeks, 
but they usually begin from eight to 15 
days before their legal commencement. 
The fairs of Frankfort on the Oder are 
three in number : viz., Ramieiscere, in 
February or March; St. Margaret, in 
July; and St. Martin, in November. The 
fairs of Leipsic are held thrice a- year, on 
January 1, at Easter, and at Michael- 
mas. The first is the least important. 
About 20,000 dealers are said to have 
been present at the fair at Easter in 
1832, and above 13,000 at that of Mi- 
chaelmas. The Easter and Michaelmas 
fairs are famous, particularly the former, 
for the vast number of new publications 
usually offered for sale. 

Of the Italian fair the most celebrated 
is that of Sinigalgia in the papal domi- 
nions, on the Misa, near its confluence 
with the Adriatic. The fair commences 
on July 14, and should terminate on the 
last day of that month, but it usually 
continues five or six days longer. 

Russian fairs are numerous, and, many 
of them, well attended. The most im- 
portant is held at Nishnei-Novogorod, 
the great emporium of the internal trade 
of Russia; communicating by an inland 
navigation with the Baltic, the Black 
Sea, and the Caspian. It generally lasts 
from six weeks to two months, and is 
well known all over the east of Europe. 
The ))azaars erected for the accommoda- 



tion of those who attend this fair, form, 
according to Dr. Lyell, the finest esta- 
blishment of the kind in the world. The 
sale of iron, and iron articles, is said, 
usually, to amount to above 10,000,000 
roubles ; the furs lo 36,000,000 ; the 
images to 1,300,000. Captain Cochrane 
is of opinion that " the fair, in point of 
value, is second to none in Eurdpe ; the 
business done being estimated at nearly 
200,000,000 roubles." Another cele- 
brated Russian fair is held, in the month 
of December, at Kiachta, in Mongolia, 
on the Chinese frontier, in lat. 50° 20' 
north. The total value of the exports 
by way of Kiachta, in 1831, amounted 
to 4,655,536 roubles, and that of the 
imports to 6,775,858 roubles. 

The most important fair in the eastern 
world is that held at Mecca, during the 
resort of pilgrims in the month of Dhal- 
hajja. It used to be frequented by 
many thousands of individuals of all 
ranks and orders, brought together from 
the remotest corners of the Mohamme- 
dan world ; and though the numbers 
attending it have declined of late years, 
the concourse is still very great. 

Hurdwar, in Hindoostan, 117 miles 
north-east from Delhi, is famous from 
its being one of the principal places of 
Hindoo pilgrimage, and the greatest fair 
in India. The pilgrimage and fair are 
held together at the vernal equinox. 
Every 12th year is reckoned peculiarly 
holy ; and then it is supposed that from 
1,000,000 to 1,500,000, and even 
2,000,000 pilgrims and dealers are con- 
gregated together from all parts of India 
and the countries to the north. In 
1819, which happened to be a 12th 
year, the rush was so tremendous that 
430 persons were either trampled to death 
under foot, or drowned in the river. 

FALCONER, William, English 
poet, author of the " Shipwreck," was 
born at a village in Fifeshire, Scotland. 
He was brought up a sailor, and in that 
capacity he spent the greater part of his 
life, in a very low station. In 1769, he 
published " The Marine Dictionary," a 
work of considerable merit. In the 
same year he embarked on board the 
Aurora, bound to the East Indies. The 
vessel was never heard of after. 

FALEZI, town of European Turkey, 
Moldavia. The peace of Falezi was 
C(mcluded between Russia and Turkey, 
in 1711. The Russians g'ave up Azoph 
and all their possessions on the Black 



FAL 



4G8 



FAM 



Sea to the Turks ; in the following year 
the war was renewed, and terminated 
by the peace of Constantinople, April 
16. 1712. 

FALKIRK, a town of Stirling, Scot- 
land, situated on an eminence near the 
river Carron, on the high road from 
Edinburgh to Glasgow, and commanding 
an extensive prospect of the adjacent 
country ; celebrated for a battle fought 
in its vicinity, July 22, 1298, when the 
Scots, under Sir William Wallace, were 
defeated by the English under Edward 
I. The town was again distinguished 
by an engagement between the royal 
and rebel forces, Jan. 18, 1746. 

FALKLAND, or Malvina Isles, 
Atlantic Ocean, chiefly valuable on ac- 
count of the seal fishery, which is here 
very productive. They were discovered 
by Davis, in 1592, visited by Sir Richard 
Hawkins, in 1594. The French made a 
settlement here in 1764, but in 1766 
surrendered it to the Spaniards. In 1765, 
the English took possession of these 
islands, under the name of the Falkland 
Islands ; in 1770, the Spaniards forcibly 
dispossessed the English, but in 1771, 
restored them; from 1774, Spain was 
the exclusive mistress of all these re- 
gions. 

From the year 1810 up to 1820, no 
permanent establishment was fixed here; 
in 1820, the government of Buenos 
Ayres took formal possession of them. 
In 1821, the republic granted these 
islands, with some reservations, to two 
individuals of their own nation, but Eng- 
land still lays claim to them. InDec. 1832, 
Commander Onslow, in his majesty's ship 
Clio, proceeded to Port Egmont, West 
Falkland Island, and found on Saun- 
ders' Island the ruins of a former British 
establishment. Not finding any inhabi- 
tants, an inscription was left there, at- 
tached to a signal stalF, on a spot which 
appeared to be Fort George, stating, 
" that these islands had been visited by 
his Britannic majesty's ship Clio, for the 
purpose of exercising the rights of 
sovereignty, Dec. 23, 1832." 

FALLOPIAN Tubes, in anatomy, 
derive their distinguishing appellation 
from Gabriel Fallopius, a celebrated 
physician and anatomist, who was born 
at Modena, in Italy, in the year 1523. 
He was made professor of anatomy at 
Pisa in the year 1548, and at Padua in 
the year 1551,'where he died in 1562. 
FALMOUTH, Cornwall, owes its origin 



to a woman, who built a small hut here, 
and sold beer to the sailors coming on 
shore. In 1613, a regular plan was laid 
down, and a town built, which received 
its present name by proclamation of 
Charles II. in 1660. Previous to the 
year 1664, Falmouth was part of the 
chapelry of Budock, and parish of Glu- 
vius ; but was, by an act passed in that 
year, separated and made a distinct parish. 
The Falmouth tramroad, constructed in 
1806, at the expense of Messrs. Fox, 
and Co., connects with this harbour at 
Restonguet and at Pile. 

FALMOUTH, in New England, de- 
stroyed by the British forces, Oct. 18, 
1775. 

FAMILY Compact, between the 
different branches of the House of Bour- 
bon, signed at Paris, 1761. 

FAMINES. The following are the 
most remarkable : 

A.c. 1708. Which lasted seven years 
in Egypt, &c. 

A. c. 440. At Rome, when many 
persons threw themselves into the 
Tiber. 

A.D. 272. In Britain, so that the in- 
habitants ate the bark of trees. 

306. One in Scotland, where thousands 
were starved. 

310. In England and Wales, where 
40,000 were starved. 

325. All over Britain. 

446. At Constantinople. 

450. In Italy, where parents ate their 
children. 

576. In Scotland. 

739. AH over England, Wales, and 
Scotland. 

747. Another in Wales. 

792. In Wales and Scotland. 

803. Again in Scotland. 

823. Again in Scotland, when thou- 
sands were starved. 

836. A severe one in Wales. 

954. In Scotland, which lasted four 
years. 

864, 974, 976, 1005. Famines in Eng- 
land. 

1047- In Scotland, which lasted two 
years. 

1050. 1087. In England. 

1193 to 1195. In England and France. 

1251,1315,1318,1335,1348. In Eng- 
land. 

1358. In England and France, called 
the dear summer. 

1389 and 1438. In England, so great 
that bread was made of fern roots. 



FAR 



469 



FAT 



] 565. Two millions were expended on 
the importation of corn. 

1771- A shocking one occurred in the 
East Indies. 

177'2. In Moravia and Bohemia. 
1775. A dreadful one at the Cape de 
Verd islands : carried off above 16,000 
persons. 

1810. In the province of Vellore, India, 
by which 8,000 persons perished. 

1813. At the diocese of Drontheim, in 
Norway, in consequence of the inter- 
cepting of supplies by Sweden, when 
5000 persons perished. 

1833. In India, so dreadful, that in 
one or two cases parents actually boiled 
and ate their children. 

FANCOURT, Samuel, the first pro- 
moter of circulating libraries, born 1678, 
died 1768. 

FAN-MAKERS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1709. 

FANNY, sloop from St. Malo, wreck- 
ed in the Jersey Road, with the loss of 
2 of the crew and 1 1 passengers, among 
whom was Lord Harley, Jan. 1, 1828. 

FANS, muffs, masks, and false hair, 
first devised in Italy, and brought into 
England from France, 1572. 

FANSHAWE, Sir Rich ard, was born 
at Ware Park, Herts, in 1608. In the civil 
wars he adhered to the royal party, and 
attended the court at Oxford. He was 
secretary of war to Prince Charles, and 
afterwards treasurer of the navy under 
Prince Rupert. He was created a baronet 
in 1650. He acted as secretary of state 
for Scotland, and accompanied Charles 
II. on his expedition to England, and 
was taken prisoner at the battle of Wor- 
cester. The year before the restoration 
he repaired to the king at Breda, by 
whom he was knighted. In 1661, he 
was elected one of the representatives in 
parliament for the university of Cam- 
bridge. He died at Madrid, 1666. 

FARLEY Castle, Somersetshire, 
built 1342. 

FARNHAM, Surrey, chiefly remark- 
able for its castle, seated on a hill north 
from the town, built by Henry de Blois, 
brother of King Stephen, and bishop of 
Winchester. This fortress was seized 
by Louis the Dauphin, and the rebellious 
barons, in 1216, and afterwards demo- 
lished by Henry III. ; it was, however, 
soon after rebuilt. During the civil war 
it was garrisoned for the king, but in 
December, 1642, was taken by the par- 
liamentary general, after an obstinate 



siege. It was then demolished, but re- 
built after the restoration. 

FAROE, or Feroe Islands, a group 
situated in the Northern Ocean, formerly 
subject to Denmark. Christianity was 
introduced about 1000, and protestantism 
in the 16th century. About the year 
1809, a German baron landed at Thors- 
havn, and plundered the inhabitants of 
every thing, till the British humanely 
interfered, and put a stop to these out- 
rages, and took them under their pro- 
tection, 1810. 

FARQUHAR, George, dramatic 
writer, was born at Londonderry about 
1677. In 1696, he came to London, ob- 
tained a lieutenant's commission through 
Lord Orrery, and sustained the military 
character a considerable time. His first 
effort as a writer was in 1698, a play, 
entitled " Love and a Bottle." The 
" Constant Couple, or a Trip to the Ju- 
bilee," was his next play, which was act- 
ed with great applause, and which has 
maintained its reputation' to the present 
day. In 1703, he produced the " Incon- 
stant, or the Way to Win Him ;" and 
in 1706, the "Recruiting Oflficer." His 
last piece was entitled " The Beaux' Stra- 
tagem," which, though composed in six 
weeks, is reckoned the author's master- 
piece. He died in 1707, aged 30. 

FARRIERS' Company, London, in- 
corporated, 1673. 

FARTHINGS coined in silver by Henry 
VIII., 1522 ; in copper by Charles II. 

FASTING, or abstinence on religious- 
accounts, has. been practised by most 
nations from the remotest antiquity. It 
was early introduced into the christian; 
church, though in the most ancient times 
we find no mention of any public and 
solemn fasts, except upon the anniver- 
sary of Christ's crucifixion, about 138. 

FASTOLFF, Sir John, a renowned 
general, during the English conquests in 
France under Henrys IV., V., and VI., 
born about the year 1377- In 1413, he 
had the castle and dominion of Veires, 
in Gascony, committed to his custody 
and defence. He was afterwards engaged 
in the famous battle of Agincourt. He 
died in 1459 or 1460. So highly was he 
venerated, that John Beauchamp, lord 
of Powyke, appointed by his will a chaunt 
especially for the soul of Sir John Fas- 
tolff. 

FATIMITES, the descendants of Ma- 
homet by Fatima, his daughter. This 
dynasty commenced in Africa, 908, ended 



FEL 



470 



FEN 



in Egypt, 1171> when Saladin became 
master of that country, assumed the title 
of Sultan, and caused the spiritual autho- 
rity of the caliphs of Bagdad to be re- 
cognised by his subjects. 

FAUNTLEROY, Henry, a London 
banker, hanged for forgery, November 
30, 1824. 

FAUST, or Faustus, John, a gold- 
smith at Mentz, celebrated on account 
of the share which he had in the inven- 
tion of printing. The first work printed 
by him was entitled "Durandi Rationale 
divinorum officiorum," 1459. He died 
of the plague in 1466. 

FAUX, GuiDO, vulgarly called Guy 
Faux, e.xecuted in Parliament- yard, for 
attempting to set the houses of parlia- 
ment on fire, January 31, 1606. 

FAVERSHAM, or Feversham, 
Kent, a place of high antiquity, was de- 
nominated the king's town, in 811, and 
the Saxon kings had a place here. King 
Stephen founded an abbey of Cluniac 
monks here in 1147i with considerable 
endownjents. At the siege of Calais, 
in the time of Edward HI., this town 
furnished two ships and 53 mariners. 
Henry VHI. granted it a charter in 
1545. A manufacture of gunpowder 
was established here prior to the reign 
of Elizabeth, about 1760; the works 
were purchased by government. The 
most dreadful explosion that has occur- 
red took place in April, 1781, by the 
blowing up of 7000 pounds of powder. 

FAWKES, Francis, translator of 
Anacreon, Sappho, Bion,» Moschus, and 
Theocritus, died 1777- 

FEJEE ISLANDS, South Pacific 
Ocean, were discovered by Tasman in 
1643, when the most northern was called 
•Prince William's Island. They were 
visited in 1794, by Captain Barber, and 
frequently since that time; particularly 
by Mr. Williams, the late missionary, 
about 1832, and described in his " Nar- 
rative," recently pulilished. 

FELONY comprises every species of 
crime which occasions at common law 
the forfeiture of lands or goods. In 
1836, an Act passed (6 and 7 William IV. 
c. 114. August 20) for enabling persons 
indicted of felony to make their defence 
by counsel or attorney. In all cases of 
summary conviction persons accused 
shall be admitted to make their full 
answer and defence, and to have all wit- 
nesses examined and cross-examined by 
counsel or attorney. See Criminal Law. 



FELT-MAKERS' Company, Lon- 
don, incorporated 1604. 

FENELON, Francis de Salignac 
DE LA MoTTE, the Celebrated archbishop 
of Cambray, was born in 1651, at Peri- 
gord, in France. He soon distinguished 
himself so much by his attainments, that 
he was permitted to preach in public at 
the age of 15 ; and, at the age of 24, en- 
tered into holy orders. He was recom- 
mended by Bossuet to Louis XIV., as a 
proper person to be employed in eon- 
verting the sectaries of Poitou and Sain- 
tonage. His friend, the Duke de Beau- 
villers, having been in 1689 appointed 
by Louis XIV. governor to his grandson, 
the duke of Burgundy, nominated the 
Abbe de Fenelon preceptor to the young 
prince. His services were rewarded in 
1695 with the splendid preferment of the 
archbishopric of Cambray, which includ- 
ed a dukedom. 

Soon after, he wrote his " Maxims of 
the Saints," which was denounced as 
heretical immediately on its publication 
in 1697> and was the origin of a long 
series of persecutions against him, sup- 
ported chiefly by Bossuet. About the 
same time appeared his " Teleraachus," 
which was denounced to the jealous 
monarch, Louis XIV., as a satire on his 
reign. This work was written only for 
his i)upil, the duke of Burgundy ; but 
through the infidelity of a servant it be- 
came public, and he was dismissed from 
court. His banishment afforded an op- 
portunity of displaying the virtues of his 
character as a christian pastor. In 1715 
he was seized with an inflammation in 
his lungs, accompanied with continued 
fev^er, and he died January 7, aged 64. 
Besides his works already mentioned, 
the following are the principal : — "Trea- 
tise on the Education of a Daughter," in 
1687; "Treatise on the Ministry of 
Pastors,"l688; "Pastoral Letters against 
the Jansenists," 1704 ; " Dialogues of 
the Dead," 17 12; "Demonstration of 
the being of a God," 1713. 

FENNING, Eliza, whose case ex- 
cited much curiosity from the supposition 
of her innocence, was executed before 
Newgate for poisoning the family with 
whom she lived servant, July 26, 1815. 

FENTON, Elijah, an English poet, 
born at Shelton, near Newcastle, in 
Staffordshire. His tragedy of Mariamne 
was performed in 1723, with very great 
applause, and produced him £1000. He 
died in 1730. 



FER 



471 



FER 



FERDINAND V., king of Spain, 
called the Catholic. He married Isabella 
of Castile, by which that kingdom was 
united to the Spanish crown. This 
illustrious couple laid the foundation of 
the future glory and power of Spain. 
During their reign the Inquisition, that 
horrible engine of torture, was introduced 
into Spain. The conquest of Granada, 
and the discoveries of Christopher Co- 
lumbus, make this reign a celebrated era 
in the Spanish history. Ferdinand died 
in 1516, aged 63. 

FERDINAND VII., late king of Spain, 
born at San Lorenzo, October 14, 1784. 
At the age of six he was proclaimed 
prince of Asturias, The insurrection of 
Aranjuez, in which the prince took a 
share, forced Charles IV. to abdicate in 
his favour, when he was proclaimed king 
March 29, 1808. When Napoleon de- 
clared that the family of Bourbon had 
ceased to reign, and that the crown of 
Spain must adorn the brow of his bro- 
ther Joseph, Ferdinand was exiled to 
Valengay, in Berri, about 1809, where 
he remained five years, leading an idle 
country gentleman's life. 

In March, 1814, he left France again to 
return to the kingdom of his ancestors. 
Immediately after his entry into the ca- 
pital he dissolved the Cortes, and annul- 
led by various decrees all that they had 
done. At the same time he re-established 
the Inquisition, ordered the monks to 
return to their convents, proscribed all 
who had taken the oath of allegiance to 
Buonaparte or Joseph, and condemned 
to prison or to exile a great number of 
persons, many of whom had been depu- 
ties to the Cortes. 

The liberal feeling in Spain, however, 
was not totally suppressed, and after 
much hesitation, he, on March 7, 1820, 
accepted the constitution of 18 12,which a 
part of the troops destined for America 
had proclaimed in Cadiz at the beginning 
of January. In consequence of this 
change of politics, all persons who had 
been confined for political opinions were 
set at liberty, the Inquisition was abo- 
lished, the liberty of the press re-esta- 
blished, all the emigrants and partisans 
of Joseph permitted to return to Spain, 
the national militia organised, &c. &c. 
Again the opposite party predominated 
in his councils; and, assisted by the 
Bourbons of France, he dissolved the 
Cortes, and returned to his former des- 
potism; yet as compared with the church. 



and with his brother Carlos, affecting a 
sort of moderate policy. He was taken 
ill in July 1833, and died September 29 
following. 

Ferdinand married first, in 1802, his 
cousin Maria An toinetta Theresa, daugh- 
ter of Ferdinand IV,, king of the Two 
Sicilies; she died childless. May 21, 
1806, suddenly, and not without suspi- 
cion of poison. He married a" second 
time, September 29, 1816, Isabella Maria 
Francesca, daughter of John VI., king 
of Portugal ; she died December 26, 

1818. He married thirdly, October 20, 

1819, Maria Josepha Amelia, daughter 
of Prince Maximilian of Saxony, and 
niece to the king of Saxony. This queen 
died without issue. May 17, 1829. Fer- 
dinand married fourthly, November 5, 
1829, Maria Christina, daughter of Fran- 
cis, late king of the Two Sicilies, by his 
own sister, Maria Isabella. By the last, 
who, in pursuance of his will became the 
Queen Regent of Spain, he left two 
daughters : — 1. Maria Isabella Louisa, 
born October 10, 1830, proclaimed queen 
of Spain by the style of Isabella the Se- 
cond. 2. Maria Louisa Ferdinanda, 
born January 30, 1832. 

FERDUSI, the author of the Persian 
epic poem, " Shah Nameh^" born 932, 
died 1020. 

FERG, or Fergue, Paul Francis, of 
Vienna, an eminent landscape painter, 
born 1639, died of want, 1740. 

FERGUSON, Adam, professor of 
moral philosophy in the university of 
Edinburgh, died Feb. 22, 1816. 

FERGUSON, Robert, the Scottish 
poet, born 1730, died 1774. 

FERGUSON, James, a celebrated 
philosopher and astronomer, was born 
at Keith in Scotland, in 1710. He soon, 
discovered a peculiar taste for mechanics, 
which first arose on seeing his father use 
a lever. Whilst he was servant to a 
farmer, who employed him to watch his 
sheep, he frequently contemplated the 
stars, and began the study of astronomy, 
by laying down, from his own observa- 
tion only, a celestial globe. In 1754, he 
published, " A brief Description of the 
Solar System." In 1756, he published 
a larger work, entitled, *' Astronomy ex- 
plained upon Sir Isaac Newton's Prin- 
ciples, and made easy to those who have 
not studied Mathematics," In 1760, he 
published his "Lectures on Subjects in 
Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, 
and Optics, with the Use of the Globes, 



FER 



472 



FES 



the Art of Dialling, and the mean Times 
of new and full Moons and Eclipses." 
His " Plain Method of determining the 
Parallax of Venus by her Transit over the 
Sun, and thence, by Analogy, the Pa- 
rallax and Distance of the Sun and all 
the rest of the Planets," first published 
in 1761, was annexed to the fourth edi- 
tion of his Astronomy. 

In 1763, Mr. Ferguson was elected a 
fellow of the Royal Society. His "Young 
Gentleman and Lady's Astronomy, fa- 
miliarly explained in Ten Dialogues," 
was pubhshed in 1768. In 1775, ap- 
peared his last work, entitled, "The Art 
of Drawing in Perspective, made easy to 
those who have no previous Knowledge 
of the Mathematics." Having long 
struggled with the infirmities of a weak 
constitution, he died in 1776. 

FERGUSSON, Robert Cutlar, 
her majesty's judge-advocate-general, 
and M.P. for the Stewartry of Kirkcud- 
bright, born 1760, died Nov. 16, 1838, 
aged 70. 

FERMOY, Ireland, encounter at, 
between the populace and military, July 
20, 1828, where great numbers had as- 
sembled to celebrate the election of Mr. 
O'Connell. The armed police fired on 
the mob : four persons were wounded, 
one mortally. 

FERNANDEZ. See Juan Fer- 

NANDEZ. 

FERNANDO PO, island, Western 
Africa, off the coast of Biafra, in the 
Bight of Benin, derived its name from a 
navigator in the service of Alphonso V., 
of Portugal, named Fernoo do Po, who 
discovered it in 1472, and called it For- 
mosa, or Beautiful Island. Portugal, 
after having previously abandoned it, 
ceded it, in 1778, to Spain; but the 
Spanish settlers nearly all perished. An 
attempt was made by a Mr. Robertson, 
in 1819, to colonize it, but, owing to 
untoward circumstances, the design mis- 
carried. Till lately it was occupied only 
by a lawless race, composed of slaves or 
malefactors escaped from the neighbour- 
ing coast ; but the British government, 
upon the disappointment experienced in 
regard to Sierra Leone, formed, in 1827, 
a settlement on this island. Lander, the 
African traveller, died at this place, of a 
wound he had received, in 1834. 

FERNS, Ireland. A diocesan school 
was founded here in the 12th of Ehza- 
beth. The see is supposed to have been 
founded in 599, by Maidoc, the friend of 



St. David ; it included all the county of 
Wexford and part of the county of Wick- 
low, and has lately been united with the 
diocese of Ossory,as it was formerly with 
that of Leighlin. Ferns was at one time 
the residence of the kings of Leinster, 
and the ruins of the palace of M'Mur- 
chard, who, in 1166, fired the town, are 
still visible. 

FEROE ISLES. See Faroe Isles. 

FERRAR, bishop of St. David's, burnt 
to death at Caermarthen, 1555. 

FERRARA, city and legation, south 
of Italy, States of the Church, formerly 
a duchy under the ancient house of 
D'Este, having a population of 80,000 
inhabitants, and the most splendid and 
refined court of Italy. It is now, com- 
paratively, forsaken. Ferrara was taken 
by the French in 1796, and retaken by 
the Austrians in 1799, but shortly after- 
wards again surrendered to the French. 
The French army, under Murat, was de- 
feated here, in April, 1815, by the Aus- 
trians, under General Mohr and Count 
Neipperg. 

FERRARS, George, English poet 
and historian, born 1510, died 1579- 

FERRERS, Law^rence, Earl of, 
committed to the Tower for murdering 
his steward, Feb. 13, 1760; tried and 
condemned, April 18; hanged at Tyburn, 
May 5. 

FERRI, CiRo, an eminent painter, 
born at Rome 1634, died 1689. 

FERRIARS, Dr., critic and medical 
writer, author of " The Theory of Ap- 
paritions," born 1764, died 1815. 

FERROL, town of Spain, the great 
rendezvous of the Spanish navy, surren- 
dered to the French, Jan. 26, 1809. 

FERRY-BOAT upset in attempting 
to cross the Menai Strait, between An- 
glesea and Caernarvon, when 50 persons 
perished, Dec. 4, 1785. 

FERSEN, Count, murdered by the 
Swedish populace, June 20, 1810. 

FESCH, Joseph, senior Priest Car- 
dinal of the Sacred College, and arch- 
bishop of Lyons, brother, by his mo- 
ther's side, of Letitia Ramolini, the 
mother of the Emperor Napoleon, born 
at Ajaccio, in Corsica, Jan. 3, 1763. He 
was educated as a priest, but becoming 
a zealous partisan of the French revolu- 
tion, he threw off the clerical dress, and 
in 1796, he was commissary general in 
the army of Italy, commanded by his 
nephew Napoleon Buonaparte. He after- 
wards resumed the clerical profession 



FEU 



473 



FIE 



and was appointed archbishop of Lyons ; 
he received, in 1803, a cardinal's hat, 
and was soon afterwards sent ambassador 
from France to Rome. In 1805, he was 
appointed grand almoner of France and 
principal officer of the legion of honour ; 
but by opposing the schemes of Buona- 
parte, he afterwards fell into disgrace at 
court, and retired to his see in Lyons, 
where he. lived in great splendour. When 
Buonaparte made his escape from Elba, 
the cardinal followed him to Paris ; but 
his abode there was short. He again re- 
turned toRome, where he afterwards resid- 
ed in the enjoyment of immense wealth, 
and one of the finest galleries of pictures 
in that citJ^ He died May 13, 1839. His 
funeral was attended by many cardinals, 
and upwards of 100 archbishops and 
bishops. 

FESTIVAL OF THE Jews. The prin- 
cipal, being the feast of the Tabernacles, 
is celebrated by the Jews to this day : it 
was instituted by Moses in the wilderness, 
A.c. 1490 , but was celebrated with the 
greatest magnificence for 14 days, upon 
the dedication of the temple of Solomon, 
A.c. 1005. They carried boughs loaded 
with fruit in the procession. 

FESTIVALS OF the Christian 
Church. Christmas, Easter, Ascension, 
and the Pentecost or Whitsuntide, intro- 
duced during the first and second centu- 
ries. Rogation days appointed, 469. Ju- 
bilees in the Romish church, instituted by 
Pope Boniface VIII., 1300. At first they 
were observed every hundred years ; but 
future popes reduced them to fifty, and 
then to every period of twenty-five years. 

FEUDAL System, which about 12 
centuries ago was universally received 
in Europe, derived its origin from the 
military policy of the Goths, Vandals, 
Franks, Huns, and Lombards, which 
overran all the European countries, on 
the declension of the Roman empire. 
The victorious general allotted consider- 
able tracts of land to his principal offi- 
cers, named feoda, fiefs, fees, or 
feuds, on condition that the possessors 
should faithfully serve the person from 
whom they were received, both at home 
and abroad, in the military way. This 
system was introduced into England by 
the Saxons about 600. The slavery of this 
tenure increased under William I., 1070, 
This was owing to dividing the kingdom 
into baronies, giving them to certain 
persons, and requiring those persons to 
furnish the king with money, and a 



stated number of soldiers. It was dis- 
countenanced in France by Louis XL 
about 1470; restored and limited in 
England by Henry VII., 1495 ; abohsh- 
ed by statute, 12 Charles II., 1662. 

FEZ, city. North Africa, capital of Fez, 
composed of three towns called Beleyde, 
Old Fez, and New Fez. Old Fez was 
founded in 793, by Sidy Edris, a descen- 
dant of Mahomet, and Ali, whose father 
fled from Medina, to avoid the proscrip- 
tions of the caliph Abdallah. It soon 
became a large city, and was esteemed sa- 
cred, so that when the road to Mecca was 
shut up in the fourth century of the 
Hegira, the western Mahommedans made 
pilgrimage to Fez, and the eastern to 
Jerusalem. It was also famous as a 
school of learning when knowledge was 
almost exclusively possessed by the 
Saracens. 

FIELDING, Henry, a celebrated 
dramatic writer and novelist, was born at 
Sharpham, near Glastonbury, Somerset- 
shire, April 22, 1707. His first drama- 
tic piece, " Love in several Masques," 
appeared in 1727, and was well received; 
and all his plays and farces, to the 
amount of 18, were written before the 
year 1737. Being reduced to poverty 
soon after the rebellion in 1745, he 
accepted the office of acting justice for 
Middlesex, an employment much more 
profitable than honourable in the pub- 
lic esteem. He died in 1754, in his 
48th year. He wrote many fugitive 
pamphlets, and was the editor of several 
papers, particularly the True Patriot, 
and the Jacobite Journal ; but he is 
chiefly admired for his " Joseph An- 
drews," published in 1742 ; and his 
" Tom Jones," about 1749. 

FIELDING, Sir John, an eminent 
London magistrate, died Sept. 6th, 1780. 

FIESCHI, an assassin, fired an in- 
strument called " an infernal machine," 
at Louis-Phillipe, the French king, July 
28, 1835, as he was riding along the lines 
of the national guard, on the Boulevard 
du Temple. The king and his sons es- 
caped ; but Marshal Mortier (duke of 
Treviso) was shot dead. The trial of 
Fieschi and his accomplices commenced 
before the chamber of peers, at Paris, Jan, 
30; it lasted two weeks ; the prisoners re- 
ceived their sentence Feb, 15. Three of 
them were guillotined on the 19th; a 
fourth was condemned to 20 years' im- 
prisonment. 

FIGUERAS, a town of Spain. Ap. 
3P 



F 1 N 



impregnable castle at this place was put 
into the hands of the French in 1 808 ; 
surprised by the Spaniards in 1811, but 
again given up to the French in the 
same year, and remained in their pos- 
session until 1814. 

FILANGIERI, Gaetau. author of 
"The Science of Legislation," &c., born 
at Naples 1751, died 1799. 

FILE.CUTTING, Ericusson's Ma- 
chine FOR, patented about 1836 ; but 
then deemed impracticable. Improved in 
1839 ; turned out files of a superior and 
more regular cut than the average of 
those made by hand, and in much 
greater number in the same time. The 
principal beauty of the machine consists 
in the simplicity of its movements, and 
the skilful application of the principles 
of mechanics in modifiying the stroke 
according to the varying thickness of 
the steel ; striking lightly at the point, 
and increasing in strength as the thicker 
parts of the file come under its action. 

FINALE, a town of Sardinia, formerly 
the capital of a marquisate, and annexed 
to the duchy of Milan in 1602, but sold 
to the Genoese in 1713. It was taken 
by the Sardinians, but restored in 1748. 
It has been repeatedly the scene of mi- 
litary operations, especially in April, 
1796, and at the time of the temporary 
success of the Austrian arms in 1800. 

FINCH-DALE, township in England, 
was a place of importance in the Saxon 
era : a synod was held here, according 
to Leland, in 792, and again in 810. 

FINES AND Recoveries. The fri- 
volous and absurd formalities of fines and 
recoveries for barring entails, abolished, 
1833. 

FINET, Sir John, English wit, bom 
1571, died 1641. 

FIN GAL, the celebrated hero of the 
poems of Ossian, was king of Morven, 
in ancient Caledonia. He is supposed 
to have flourished in the third century, 
and, according to the Irish histories, died 
in 283. He was the son of Comhal, the 
■grandson of Truthal, and the great 
grandson of Trenmor, all Caledonian 
princes of great military reputation, 
during the severe struggles the Celtic 
tribes held with the invaders of Britain. 
See Ossian. 

FINLAND, principality, Russian em- 
pire, formerly belonged to Sweden, but 
by the peace of Abo, in 1743, Sweden 
was compelled to cede apart; in 1721 ano- 
ther portion was yielded ; and, finally. 



474 F I R 

the remainder in 1809. The grand ])rin. 
cipality of Finland was erected August 6, 
in the same year. Since 1826, the affairs 
of Finland have been managed at St. 
Petersburgh by a separate department of 

FINSBURY District, London, 
erected into a borough, 1832. 

FIREBARS, Miller's Patent, in- 
troduced 1 839, suitednot only to the com- 
mon steam-engine furnaces, but can with 
equal facility be applied to the furnaces of 
marine engines, and the locomotive en- 
gines of railways, &c. The principle of the 
invention consists in moving each alter- 
nate bar longitudinally in one direction, 
whilst the intermediate bars are moved in 
the opposite one. This movement, aided 
by the channelled surface of the bars, 
breaks up the clinkers the instant they 
are formed, or prevents their formation, 
and thus keeps the air-way perfectly free. 

FIRE-DAMP, an explosion of a very 
dangerous nature to which coal-mines are 
subject. See Coal-Mine Accidents. 

1839- It is well known that fire-damp 
explodes on ignition by an electric spark; 
and on this principle it has been recently 
proposed, that an experiment be made 
with apparatus, consisting of Professor 
Daniell's voltaic battery and electrical 
wires, for the purpose of firing the gal- 
lery of a mine charged with an explosive 
mixture. By means of this ingenious 
and scientific contrivance, an explosion 
of fire-damp can, at all times, be effected 
with perfect safety. This formidable and 
treacherous enemy will thus be effectu- 
ally and instantaneously annihilated, that 
otherwise could be but slowly, partially, 
and progressively consumed ; combined 
with the advantage, that the health of 
the miners will cease to be impaired from 
respiration in a foul atmosphere. 

FIRE-ENGINES invented, 1663 ; im- 
proved as now used, or nearly so, 1752. 

1839. Mr. Merryweather construct- 
ed for the Liverpool fire-police a large 
engine, which is equal in power to 
the combined force of two London en- 
gines, each having two working barrels 
seven inches in diameter, with an eight- 
inch stroke. In an experiment in Hyde- 
park, with nose-pipes, one 1-8 inch, and 
one 1-16 inch in diameter, two jets of 
water have been thrown to a nearly per- 
pendicular height of 80 feet. 

FIRESHIP, in naval warfare, a vessel 
charged with combustible materials of 
various kinds, for the purpose of setting 



FIR 



475 



FIR 



fire to the ships of the enemy. Livy in- 
forms us, that vessels of this kind were 
employed by the Rhodians as early as 
A. c. 190. In England the use of fire- 
ships originated in the Spanish invasion, 
in the time of Elizabeth, in 1588 ; when 
the English, under Sir F. Drake, sent a 
number of ships, charged with burning 
combustibles, into the midst of the Spa- 
nish armada, 

FIRES. In 1838, Mr. Rawson read 
to the British Association an interesting 
report on these calamities, whence the 
following facts are extracted : — The total 
number of alarms attended by the Lon- 
don fire engine establishments, during 
the five years, from 1833 to the end of 
1837, was 3359, or 672 on the yearly 
average : of these, 343, or 68 per annum, 
were false alarms, and 540 or 108 per 
annum, were fires in chimneys. Thus, 
the number of alarms was 13 per week, 
and of actual fires four in every three 
days. Of the 2476 fires, the premises 
were wholly consumed in 145 instances ; 
seriously damaged in 632 ; and slightly 
damaged in 1699. It was observed, that 
the number of fatal fires had greatly in- 
creased. The winter months do not ex- 
hibit so large a preponderance of fires as 
might be expected. December presents 
the largest average, but the next in order 
is May. The number of wilful fires in 
the five years was 31, or six per annum, 
which is as one in 64 to the number of 
fires of which the causes were discovered. 
The total number of fires in the metro- 
polis, in the year 1837, was 501 ; alarms 
from fires in chimneys, 127 ; false alarms, 
89; making the number of calls, 717. 
The great excess of fires in the southern 
counties of England over the midland 
counties, was attributed by Sir Charles 
Lemon and Mr. Felkin to the use of 
thatched roofs. Newcastle, notwithstand- 
ing the vast consumption of coal in the 
town, is remarkably free from fires of 
dangerous magnitude : and it was sug- 
gested whether, as the greater number 
of fires occurred m London about 11 
o'clock at night, the practice of raking 
out the fire at bed-time, which is not 
done at Newcastle where coals are cheap, 
might not have some connection with 
these conflagrations. 

The following are the most remarkable 
fires on record in the world, exclusive of 
London : — 

A.D. 80. At Rome, which destroyed 
the Capitol, Pantheon, &c. 



182. At Alexandria, which destroy- 
ed the temple of Serapis. 

191. At Rome : great part of the city, 
with the palace, the temple of Vesta, &c., 
destroyed. 

247. Another, which destroyed Pom- 
pey's theatre. 

260. At Ephesus, the temple of Diana 
destroyed. 
307.The greater partof Rome consumed. 

362. The temple of Apollo, at Delphi 
destroyed. 

433, 461, 476,509. At Constanti- 
nople : great part of the city consumed. 

525. The city of Antioch consumed. 

588. Paris destroyed. 

1613. At Osnabruck, Magdeburgh, 
and Gnesna. 

1729, and following years, at Con- 
stantinople. See Constantinople. 

1808. At Dantzic and Port Espagne. 

1810. Near Paris, during the Austrian 
ambassador's fete. A forest burnt' in 
India. 

1824. A great one at Edinburgh, No- 
vember 15 and 16. 

1827. Abo, the capital of Finland, 
destroyed. 

] 834. Incendiary fires in various parts 
of the kingdom, particularly in the 
eastern counties. 

1834. One at Forfarshire in Scotland, 
Jan. 31. 

1835. At Constantinople, Sept. 6. 
1835. At Canton, which destroyed 

above 3000 houses, Nov. 22. 

1835. At New York, United States, 
which raged over 54 acres of ground, 
destroyed 674 houses, and property to 
the amount of 20,000,000 of dollars, 
Dec. 17. 

1836. Glynnllivon, the noble mansion 
of Lord Newborough, Wales, destroyed. 
By an early hour in the morning, the 
stately pile was completely gutted, and 
nothing left but the bare and blackened 
walls, Feb. 10. 

1837. Dreadful conflagration in India, 
July 17, which destroyed three-fourths of 
Surat, (comprising from 5000 to 6000 
houses) above 500 lives, and an immense 
quantity of property. It raged with ter- 
rific fierceness till midnight.when it burn- 
ed itself out, and left Surat one vast ex- 
tended heap of ruins. 

1837- At the imperial winter palace 
of St. Petersburgh. It first appeared 
in the hall of Peter the Great. I'his vast 
palace, one of the largest in Europe, 
which accommodated 12,000 persons 



F I R 



476 



F I R 



within its walls, was almost totally de- 
stroyed, Dec. 29. 

1838. At Paris, the Italian opera- 
house burnt down. M. Severini.the act- 
ing manager, and five firemen perished. 

1840. At Devonport dock-yard, Sep- 
tember 27. The Talavera, 72 guns, and 
the Imogene, 28, which were in dock — 
the Adelaide gallery, and sheds contain- 
ing prepared timber — 800 deck deals, a 
considerable quantity of the most valu- 
able compass timber — and nearly all the 
timber of the Malta 74, a ship lately 
broken up, were destroyed. The amount 
of damage was estimated at £150,000. 
October 3 following, an attempt to 
.fire the dock-yard at Sheerness, gave 
countenance to the suspicion that the 
iire at Devonport was not accidental. It 
broke out on board the Camperdown, in 
one of the lockers of the midshipmen's 
berth. It was extinguished without 
much damage ; but there was resin and 
other combustible materials immediately 
over the locker between the beams, 
which proved it to be the work of an in- 
cendiary. 

1840. At Manchester, of premises in 
Peter-street, and property to a consi- 
derable amount consumed, October 15. 
Another, near the Exchange, so ex- 
tensive as has not taken place before, 
within the memory of the living inhabit- 
ants, October 17- 

The following are the most remarkable 
fires in London on record : — 

982. One which destroyed great part 
of the city. 

1212. On London Bridge, which de- 
stroyed 2000 persons, July 10. 

1484. One at Leadenhall. 

1540. Westminster palace burnt. 

1666. " The Great Fire," that burnt 
down 13,200 houses, the city gates, 
Guildhall, &c., 89 churches, amongst 
which was St, Paul's cathedral, and 400 
streets ; the ruins of the city extended 
over 436 acres, reaching from the Tower 
to the Temple church, and from the 
north-east gate to Holborn-bridge, and 
Fleet ditch ; it broke out near the Monu- 
ment, at the house of the king's baker, 
(Faryners) Pudding-lane, and stopped at 
Pye corner, near the Temple, burning 
four days and nights. Sept, 2. 

1671. Drury-lane play-house, and 60 
houses were burnt in January. 

1676. In Southwark, 600 houses. 

1 690, Whitehall palace burnt in part, 
April. 



1698, Whitehall palace totally con- 
sumed, Jan. 5. 

1716. 150 houses were burnt down in 
Nightingale-lane, Wapping, Dec. 4. 

17I8. Custom-house burnt. 

1776. The Savoy burnt to its founda- 
tion, March 2, 

1779- Greenwich Hospital, Jan. 2. 

1779. London-bridge water-works, 
Oct. 31. 

1789. The Opera-house in the Hay- 
market, June 17. 

1791. The Albion mills destroyed, 
March 2. 

1791- From Cherry-garden- stairs to 
West-lane, Rotherhithe, destroyed, and 
several vessels.with 60 houses, Sept. 14. 

1791. At a sugar-house, Wellclose- 
square, &c., where £30,000 damage was 
done, Dec. 12. 

1792. The Pantheon, in Oxford-street, 
burnt, Jan 14. 

1794, At Wapping, where upwards 
of 630 houses were destroyed, together 
with an East India warehouse, in which 
35,000 bags of saltpetre were destroyed: 
the whole loss was estimated at above 
£1,000,000 sterling; there was £40,000 
worth of sugar in one sugar-house : the 
whole was said to have been the most 
dreadful accident of the kindsince the fire 
of London in I666. Sept. 22 and 23. 

1794. At Astley's theatre, near West- 
minster-bridge, which destroyed to the 
value of near £30,000, together with 19 
other houses, 

1795, The elegant church of St. 
Paul's Covent-garden, was burnt down 
by the carelessness of workmen employ- 
ed in its repairs, Sept. 17- 

1797. The water-works at Shadwell, 
which conveyed water from the Tower 
to Limehouse, and raised 903 gallons in 
a minute, were burnt down in one hour 
and a half, Dec. 12. 

1799. The King's-bench prison had 
50 apartments destroyed by an accidental 
fire, July 14. 

1800. Near the Custom-house, three 
large warehouses of West India goods, 
valued at £300,000 destroyed, Feb. 11. 

1800. At Wapping, where 30 houses, 
besides warehouses, value £80,000 were 
burnt, and many lives lost ; it extended 
from New-stairs to Execution-dock, 
Oct. 6. 

1803. The great tower over the choir 
of Westminster-abbey destroyed, July 9. 

1808, Covent-garden theatre totally 
destroyed by fire, Sept. 20. 



FIR 



477 



FIS 



1809. The south-east wing of St. 
James's palace burnt down, Jan. 21. 

1809. Drury-lane theatre completely 
destroyed, Feb. 24. 

1813. At the Commercial-hall, Skin- 
ner-street, which was entirely consum- 
ed, April 4. 

1814. At the Custom-house, Thames- 
street, by which the whole range of 
buildings and many other houses were 
destroyed, Feb. 12. 

1815. Part of the works belonging to 
the Gas Company, in Dorset- street, de- 
stroyed. May 24. 

1815. At the Mint, by which the 
eastern and southern wings of the build- 
ing were unroofed, and the interior, con- 
taining the machinery, destroyed,Oct.31. 

1816. At the Stock Exchange Coffee- 
house, which was entirely destroyed, as 
were several adjoining counting-houses, 
April 23. 

1829. Royal Bazaar, and Diorama, 
O.vford-street, consumed. May 27- 

1834. The two houses of Parliament 
burnt down. See Parliament, Houses 

OF. 

1835. Mill-bank Penitentiary partly 
burnt October 2. 

1836. Destructive one in Bond-street, 
and Burlington Arcade, extending to 
Western Exchange. The loss of pro- 
perty was immense. Scarcely any of the 
valuable articles belonging to the un- 
fortunate individuals occupying the 
stands in the Western Exchange was 
saved. April 26. 

1837- Most destructive fire at Davis's 
Wharf, on the Thames, nearly opposite 
the Tower. Destroyed three vessels ; 
the damage estimated at from £120,000 
to £150,000. Dec. 28. 

1838. The Royal Exchange burnt 
down January 10. See Royal Ex- 
change. 

1840. Fire in Wapping, which broke 
out at St. Andrew's Wharf, High-street, 
on Tuesday morning, June l6, attended 
with more destructive consequences than 
any conflagration in the metropolis, since 
the burning of the Royal Exchange, 
The property destroyed was immense, 
and consisted of sails, ship stores, masts, 
provisions, and merchandize of various 
descriptions. Besides the Globe Tavern, 
there were five wharfs, and nine houses 
adjoining, and the opposite side of the 
street destroyed. The loss was estimated 
at £40,000. 

FIRES IN Chimneys prevented. 



The principle of Davy's safety-lamp has 
been successfully applied to prevent 
fires in chimneys, by M. Maratueh, in 
France, 1839. He found by experiments, 
that, if three frames of wire-work are 
placed near the base of the chimney, one 
above the other, about one foot apart, 
no flame will pass through them, whilst 
the draught of the chimney will not be 
impaired, and consequently, no fire can 
ever happen in the chimney. As most 
of the soot lodges on the uppermost wire, 
but little on the second, and none on the 
third, he suggests that with a brush ap- 
plied once a day, to the lowest, or two 
lowermost, the chimney will never want 
sweeping. 

FIRMIN, Thomas, the patriotic citi- 
zen of London, died in 1697. 

FIRST Fruits, the profits of a bene- 
fice for the first year after avoidance. 
The first fruits were formerly estimated 
according to a rate made under the di- 
rection of pope Innocent I"V., in 38 Hen, 
III., and afterwards advanced in value by 
commission from Pope Nicholas III., 
1292, 20 Edward I. These usurpations 
were first introduced during the reigns 
of kings John and Henry III., in the 
see of Norwich, and afterwards at- 
tempted to be made universal, by the 
popes Clement V. and John XXII. about 
the beginning of the 14th century. This 
revenue was annexed to the crown by 26 
Henry VIII. c. 3; confirmed by 1 Eliz, 
c. 4. Queen Anne granted her royal 
charter, confirmed by statute 2 Anne 
c. 11, whereby the whole revenue of first 
fruits and tenths was vested in trustees 
for ever, to form a perpetual fund for the 
augmentation of poor livings, usually 
called Queen Anne's bounty. 

1838. 1 Vict. c. 20. April 11, abolishes 
the office of remembrancer, collectors, 
&c., and places the first fruits under the 
management of the governors and trea- 
surer of Queen Anne's bounty. 

1840. In March, a bill was brought 
into the House of Commons to the effect, 
" That it is expedient to abolish the first 
fruits and tenths of the clergy, after the 
next avoidance ; and in lieu thereof, to 
levy an assessment of one-tenth part of 
the clear annual value upon all bishop- 
rics, benifices, &c., above the clear yearly 
value of £300." It was lost by a majority 
of eight. 

FISCHET, William, the restorer off 
the purity of the Latin tongue in Europe 
died 1646, 



FIS 



478 



FIT 



FISH, Shower of, happened on 
May 17, 1834, in the neighbourhood of 
Allahabad. About noon.a blast of wind 
which changed the atmosphere to a red- 
dish yellow hue, came on. When the 
storm had passed over, the ground, south 
of the village, to the extent of two bigahs, 
was strewed with fish, in number no less 
than 3000 or 4000, of the Chalvva spe- 
cies, a span or less in length. When 
found they were all dead and dry. Chalwa 
fish are found in the tanks and rivers 
in the neighbourhood. The nearest tank 
in which there was water, was about half 
a mile south of the village. 

FISHER, John, bishop of Rochester, 
was born at Beverley, in Yorkshire, in 
1459. In 1474 he was sent to Cam- 
bridge, and was appointed one of the 
proctors of the university in 1495. In 
1501, he took the degree of doctor of 
divinity, the same year was elected 
chancellor of the university, and in 1504, 
consecrated bishop of Rochester. On 
the promulgation of Martin Luther's 
doctrine, the bishop was the first to enter 
the lists against him. On this occasion 
he exerted all his influence, and is gene- 
rally supposed to have written the book 
by which Henry VIII. obtained the title 
of Defender of the Faith. 

1534. The parliament found him 
guilty of misprision of treason, for con- 
cealing certain prophetic speeches of a 
fanatical impostor, called the Holy Maid 
of Kent. He was, on this ground, at- 
tainted by the parliament, and commit- 
ted to the Tower, where he was cruelly 
treated. The king sent Rich, the so- 
licitor-general, to obtain from him his 
opinion with regard to the supremacy. 
The bishop gave an unreserved decision 
on the subject, which the solicitor carried 
to his master ; the consequence was, that 
a special commission was immediately 
issued for trying him for high treason. 
He was condemned by the court, and be- 
headed on Tower-hill, June 22, 1534, in 
his 76th year. 

FISHERMEN'S Company, London, 
incorporated 1709. 

FISHERIES. The situation of the 
British coasts is the most advantageous 
in the world for catching fish. Gr^at en- 
couragement was given to the establish- 
ment of fisheries by James I. and Charles 
I., particularly in the Hebrides, but the 
hopes of the adventurers were frustrated 
by the civil wars. In 1661, Charles II., 
the duke of York, and others, resumed 



the business of the fisheries, a company 
was formed, and the king embarked con- 
siderable sums in the undertaking. In 
1677, a new royal company was esta- 
blished in England, at the head of which 
was the duke of York, the earl of Derby, 
&c. ; but an unforeseen event ruined the 
whole design. In 1750, an incorporated 
society was formed for 21 years. But 
the Dutch, who had hitherto monopo- 
lized the British markets, still main- 
tained their ground. Since this period, 
various acts of parliament have been 
passed, and diflferent societies formed; 
but notwithstanding the advantages 
which our island possesses, our fisheries 
(except that for whales, which has been 
carried on exclusively by this country) 
have continued on the decline for several 
years past. See Whale Fisheries. 
There has been, latterly, a growing 
complaint of a scarcity of such fish 
as breed in the Channel ; and it is 
affirmed, in the report of the commons' 
committee of 1833, on the Channel fish- 
eries, that the fact of such scarcity ex- 
isting has been completely established. 

FISHGUARD, town of Pembroke- 
shire, South Wales. A detachment of 
French troops that made a descent at this 
place, in 1797, were taken prisoners by 
Lord Cawdor. 

FISHING Towns, legally regulated, 
1542. 

FISHMONGERS' Company, Lon- 
don, incorporated, 1536. 

FISHMONGERS' Hall, pulled 
down at the building of new London- 
bridge, 1831, new building completed, 
1836. It occupies one of the finest situ- 
ations in the city, standing at the south- 
west angle of the north approach to the 
new London-bridge, towards which it 
presents an elevation upwards of 160 
feet in length- The great banqueting- 
hall occupies the centre of the east-front 
of the building, and is 73 feet in length ; 
38 feet in width, and 33 feet in height. 
The arms of the city and of the 12 prin- 
cipal companies, are emblazoned on the 
front of the Music Gallery. 

FITZGERALD, William Thomas, 
one of the vice-presidents of the literary 
fund, author of " Nelson's Triumph, or 
the Battle of the Nile," &c., died July 
9, 1829. 

FITZGERALD, Lord EDWARD,exe- 
cuted as a rebel under martial law, in 
Dublin, May, 1798. 

FITZHERBERT, Sir Anthony, 



FIT 

an eminent English judge, and au- 
thorof a work on husbandry, died in 1538. 
FITZHERBERT, Mrs.Maria Anne, 
born July 26, 1756, the youngest daugh- 
ter of Walter Smythe, of Bambridge in 
Hampshire : first married in 1775, to 
Edward Weld, esq., of Lulworth-castle, 
Dorset, who died without issue the same 
year ; secondly, to Thomas Fitzherbert, 
Esq., of Norbury, Derby, who also died 
without issue at Nice, May 7, 1781. 
Shortly after, her beauty and fascinating 
manners attracted the particular admi- 
ration of the prince of Wales ; and after 
having, for some time, received his assi- 
duous attentions, she consented to a 
nuptial union with his royal highness, 
according to the forms of her own (.the 
Roman Catholic) church. This fact has 
been disputed, but it was alluded to 
during a debate which took place in the 
house of commons in 1787, relative to 
the prince's pecuniary difficulties. She 
died at her house at Brighton, March 27, 
1837, aged 80. In disposition, Mrs. 
Fitzherbert was frank, generous, indul- 
gent, and hospitable, and she retained in 
advanced age, the warmth, the enthusi- 
asm, the freshness, and disinterested 
feelings of youth. 

FITZPATRICK, Richard, a general 
in the army, and writer of several hu- 
moroiis political poems, died April 25, 
1813. 

FITZWILLIAM, William Went- 
woRTH, Earl, a privy councillor, 
high steward of Hull, custos rotulorum 
of the soke of Peterborough, recorder of 
Higham Ferrers, &c., was born May 30, 
1748, and was the elder son of John, the 
second earl, by lady Anne Wentworth, 
eldest daughter of Thomas, first marquis 
of Rockingham. He was only in his 
ninth year at the death of his father, Au- 
gust 10, 1756. At an early age he was 
sent to Eton; removed to King's College, 
Cambridge ; and he afterwards travelled 
abroad. The degree of D.C.L. was con- 
ferred upon him at Oxford, July 3, 1793. 

In 1769 betook his seat in the house of 
peers. Having enrolled himself among 
the opponents of Lord North's adminis- 
tration, he persevered throughout the 
American war in resistingthe continuance 
of that contest. On the recovery of 
King George III., in 1789, the royal 
family paid a visit to him at Went- 
worth House. A very magnificent fete 
was celebrated on this occasion, Sep- 
tember 2, at which it was supposed that 



479 FLA 

40,000 persons were entertained. In 
1794 Earl Fitzwilliam accepted the office 
of president of the council. In 1795 he 
was appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland, 
in consequence of the countenance given 
by him to the claims of the catholics. 
When the death of Mr. Pitt occasioned 
a new ministerial change in 1806, Earl 
Fitzwilliam returned to the seat of pre- 
sident of the council, which he retained 
until the fall of the Grenville adminis- 
tration in the following year. He after- 
wards gradually retired from public life, 
and in 1819 he was removed from the 
lieutenancy of the West Riding of York- 
shire, in consequence of the part he 
took at a public meeting where resolu- 
tions were passed condemning the con- 
duct of the yeomanry in dispersing the 
celebrated Manchester meeting. He died 
February 8, 1833, at Milton House, near 
Peterborongh, in his 85th year. His 
funeral took place at Masholm church, 
Northamptonshire, on Sunday Feb. 24. 

FIUME, capital of the Hungarian Li- 
torale. From 1809 until 1813 Fiume 
was in the possession of France, and 
formed part of the lUyrian provinces, 
but was recovered at the latter period by 
an Austrian and British force. 

FIVE-MILE-ACT passed October 4, 
1665. This act obliged nonconformist 
teachers, who refused to take the non- 
resistance oath, not to come within five 
miles of any corporation where they had 
preached since the act of oblivion, unless 
they were travelling, under the penalty 
of £50. 

FLAMMEL, Nicholas, an impu- 
dent alchemist of the 14th century, who, 
by pretending to convert mercury into 
gold and silver, and to be in possession 
of the art of prolonging life, contrived to 
amass so large a sum of money, that he 
expended between £200,000 and £300,000 
in building three churches, and endow- 
ing 14 hospitals. 

FLAMSTEAD, or Flamsteed, 
John, a celebrated British astronomer, 
was born at Derby in 1646, and educated 
at the free school of Derby, where he 
was head scholar at 14 years of age. In 
1669 he calculated an eclipse of the sun, 
which had been omitted in the Epheme- 
ris for the following year, and sent it to 
the Royal Society. In 1670 he went to 
London, where he was introduced to Sir 
Jonas Moore, who afterwards became 
his warm friend and patron. In 1673 
he composed a tieatise on the true and 



FLA 



480 



FLE 



apparent diameters of the planets when 
at their greatest and least distance from 
the earth, which Newton made use of in 
his Principia in 1685. He pubhshed an 
Ephemeris in 1674, in which he exposed 
the folly and absurdity of astrology. 

In 1675 the foundation stone of the 
royal observatory at Greenwich was laid, 
which received the name of Flamstead 
House, in honour of him as the first as- 
tronomer royal. Several years after- 
wards his " Doctrine of the Sphere" was 
published by Sir Jonas Moore in his 
"System of the Mathematics." He spent 
the remainder of his life in prosecuting 
his labours in the improvement of astro- 
nomy with unwearied exertion and ac- 
tivity, and died in 1719, at the age of 73. 
His most celebrated work is his " His- 
toria Coelestis Britannica," in three vo- 
lumes, folio. 

FLANDERS, an ancient country of 
Europe, formerly divided into French, 
Austrian, and Dutch Flanders. This 
whole district was overrun by the French 
in the early part of the war which com- 
menced in 1793, and confirmed to them 
by the peace of Campo Formio in 1797. 
Dutch and Austrian Flanders were, at 
the general peace in 1814, ceded to the 
kingdom of the Netherlands, and are 
now comprised in the kingdom of Hol- 
land, under the names of East and West 
Flanders, 

FLAVEL, John, an eminent non- 
conformist divine, was born in Worces- 
tershire about 1627, and educated at 
University College, Oxford. .In 1656 he 
became minister of a very populous parish 
at Dartmouth. In 1662 he was among 
the number of ejected ministers for re- 
fusing the terms proposed by act of par- 
liament. At the passing of the Oxford 
act in 1665, he was obliged to retire to 
Slapton, a village five miles from Dart- 
mouth. After various wanderings, in 
1685 he came to London to avoid falling 
into the hands of the mob. He died at 
Exeter in 1691, in the 64th year of his 
age. Among his works the most famous 
are his " Navigation Spiritualized," and 
his " Husbandry Spiritualized," printed 
after his death. 

FLAX.NewAmericanMachinery 
FOR Dressing, recently invented in 
the United States for the preparation of 
flax for spinning, after the manner in 
which cotton is now spun. A large 
company, in Delaware, is now engaged 
in the manufacture of the " short staple" 



produced by the new invention. Tlie 
advantages alleged are these : — 1, That 
there is no loss of fibre, as no tow is to 
be taken out, all the lint being used up ; 
whereas, by the old plan of hackling, 
finger-spinning, &c., there was a loss of 
perhaps half the original weight. 2. 
That the expense of labour on the whole 
process of cloth making is reduced to 
one-tenth of what it was. 3. That the 
expense of bleaching on the flax, as now, 
is much less than in the old plan, and 
the process less injurious to the texture. 
— Athenaeum, 1840. 

FLAXLEY Abbey, built in the reign 
of Henry I., 1110; totally destroyed by 
fire, damage estimated at £7000, April 1, 
1777. 

FLAXMAN, John, an eminent En- 
glish sculptor, born at York, 1755, died 
1826. 

FLAXMAN, Anne, wife of the 
sculptor, and an accomplished classical 
scholar, died February 6, 1820. 

FLECHIER, Esprit, a French pre- 
late, one of the most celebrated preach- 
ers of his age, was born at Perne, in 
Avignon, in 1632. He was chosen one of 
the 40 members of the French Academy 
in 1673; and, in 1679, published his 
History of the Emperor Theodosius the 
Great. In 1685 Flechier was nominated 
by Louis XIV. to the bishopric of Lor- 
raine. He died in 1710. He was author 
of many valuable works, which, in the 
year 1782, were collected and published 
at Nismes, in 10 volumes octavo. 

FLECKNOE, Richard, an English 
dramatist, flourished 1664. 

FLEET Market, Old, opened Sep- 
tember 30, 1737; obelisk erected 1775 ; 
a new market opened June 7, 1780. 
The corporation of London were autho- 
rised by an act of parliament, passed in 
1824, to remove the late market, and to 
provide for a new one at a short distance, 
which was opened for the commencement 
of business November 20, 1829- 

FLEET Prison burnt by the rioters, 
June 7, 1780. 

FLEETWOOD, William, bishop of 
St. Asaph, antiquarian, died 1723. 

FLETCHER, James, author of the 
History of Poland, died February 2, 
1832, aged 21. 

FLETCHER, John, dramatic writer, 
born 1576, died 1625. 

FLETCHERS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1526. 

FLEURIEU, Charles Pikre?, 



FLO 



481 



FLU 



Claret de, born July 2, 1738, died 
August 13, 1810. 

FLEURY, Cardinal, prime minis- 
ter of France in the reigns of Louis 
XIV. and XV., was born in 1653, made 
bishop of Frejus in 1698, died 1743, 
aged 90. 

FLEURY, Claude, a French writer, 
born 1640, died 1723. 

FLINT CASTLE, north Wales, begun 
in 1185, by Henry II. ; perfected by 
Edward I. ; granted by Richard II. to 
Percy, earl of Northumberland, and within 
its walls King Richard was betrayed by 
Percy into the hands of Bolingbroke. 
During Cromwell's usurpation it was 
garrisoned by King Charles, but sur- 
rendered to the parliamentary forces. 
The ruins are still considerable. 

FLODDEN FIELD, Northumber- 
land. In September 1513 a sanguinary 
battle was fought near this place between 
the Scotch and the English, in which the 
former were routed, James IV., their 
king, slain, with many of his nobles, and 
10,000 men. 

FLOGGING, Military. This sub- 
ject has been several times brought before 
parliament by Mr. Hume. Among others 
on March 25, 1824, in 1827, and in 1833. 
On the latter occasion Mr. Hume re- 
minded ministers that many of them- 
selves and their adherents were bound, 
by previous votes, to support him. After 
the usual arguments on both sides his 
motion was lost by only 1 1 votes ; there 
being 140 for it, and 151 against it. 

1835. An inquest was held at the ma- 
rine barracks, Woolwich, on the body 
of Thomas Ramsby, a private in the 
royal marines, who died after being flog- 
ged. The sentence was 150 lashes, part 
only of which was executed. The jury 
returned the following verdict : " That 
Thomas Ramsby came by his death in 
consequence of a locked jaw, arising 
from the punishment he received in pur- 
suance of the sentence of a court martial 
upon him." See Army Punishments. 

FLOOD, Sir Frederick, the dis- 
tinguished Irish orator, died 1834. 

FLOODS. See Inundations. 

FLOOR of an apartment at Clermont 
Farrand, France, gave way during a the- 
atrical entertainment, when 36 persons 
were killed, and 57 had their limbs bro- 
ken, or were severely wounded, Decem- 
ber, 1791. 

FLORENCE, the capital of the grand 
duchy of Tuscany, was founded by the 



soldiers of Sylla about A.c. 80 ; enlarged 
and embellished by the triumvirate ; de- 
stroyed by Totila ; and rebuilt by Char- 
lemagne, in the 9th century. In the 
middle ages Florence rose to a degree of 
wealth and power which placed her far 
above all the neighbouring states, and 
which, principally through the influence 
of the Medici family in the 1 5th century, 
enabled her to render them her tributa- 
ries. The most celebrated buildings are 
the Palazzo Pitti, purchased by the fa- 
mily of the Medici, containing the Venus 
de Medici, the two wrestlers, the young 
Apollo, Amor and Psyche, &c. These 
treasures were plundered by the French 
in 1800, and carried to Paris; but many 
were restored at thegenereilpeacein 1815. 

FLORIDA, territory in the United 
States. The name was given to this re- 
gion by Juan Ponce de Leon, the Spanish 
discoverer, from Pasqua Florida, or Palm 
Sunday, in 1512, and for a long time the 
name was general for the Atlantic coast 
of North America, Carolina was for- 
merly included in it. 

This colony was almost extirpated 
by the Spaniards in 1564; after many 
vicissitudes it remained in the hands of 
the Spaniards until 1763, when it was 
ceded to the British, who divided it into 
the east and west provinces. In 1781, the 
Spanish governor, DonGalvez conquered 
West Florida, and by the treaty of Paris, 
1783, the whole of both Floridas was re- 
stored by Great Britain to Spain. In 
1810, a revolution took place in West 
Florida, and it continued to be an 
object of contention for some time be- 
tween Spain and America. In 1819, 
negotiations were commenced for the 
cession of it to the Union ; this treaty 
was ratified by Spain in October, 1820, 
and by America in February, 1821, and 
in July it was finally taken possession of 
by General Jackson. 

' FLORUS, the Roman historian, flou- 
rished in the second century of the 
christian era. 

FLUORIC Acid. The existence of 
this acid asaconstituent of human teeth, 
bones, and urine, has been admitted by 
chemists generally, since the year 1802 ; 
when Morichini declared that he had de- 
tected it in the teeth, and that he had 
been led to this examination by the dis- 
covery of fluoride in fossil ivory. 

1839. Dr. G. O. Rees has repeated the 
experiments upon which the above belief 
was based by several continental che- 
3 a 



FON 



482 



FOR 



mists, but with reversed results, save in 
the case of fossil ivory, wherein he de- 
tected the fluoride ; but he regards this 
as an extraneous matter introduced by 
the partial mineralization of the animal 
substance : he is convinced that no such 
constituent exists in recent ivory, the 
enamel of teeth, human bone, or urine ; 
in fact, that fluoride of calcium should 
be expunged from the list of the consti- 
tuents of animal substances. Dr. Rees 
attributes the fallacy of the continental 
chemists to their experiments being made 
in apparatus of bad glass, the peculiar 
action on which has been erroneously con- 
sidered to denote the presence of the acid. 
FLUSHING, town in Holland, on the 
island of Walcheren, has long been 
noted as the resort of English smugglers 
both in peace and war, and sustained a 
siege from the British in 1809, when it 
was taken by them. The island was 
afterwards annexed by Buonaparte to 
France, and continued so until 1814, 
when it was restored to the king of the 
Netherlands, and since the dismember- 
ment of that kingdom, forms part of the 
kingdom of Holland. 

FLUXIONS, invented by Newton in 
1669. Differential calculus, by Leibnitz, 
in 1684. The finest applications of the 
calculus have been made by Newton, Eu- 
ler, Lagrange, and Laplace. Maclaurin's 
Fluxions, the most complete work on 
this science that has appeared, was pub- 
lished in 1742. 

FOGS, remarkable, in London, Jan. 1, 
1720, when several chairmen fell with 
their fares into the canal in St. James's 
Park, others into Fleet-ditch, and much 
damage was done on the Thames. A 
fog equally dense occurred Jan. 10, 1812, 
and a third Dec. 20, 1813. 

FOLEY, Admiral Sir Thomas, 
one of the heroes of St. Vincent, the 
Nile, and Copenhagen, born 1758, died 
January 3, 1833. 

FOLKES, Martin, antiquarian, died 
in 1754, aged 64. 

FONTAINE, John, a French poet, 
was born at Chateau-Thierri, in Cham- 
pagne, in 1621. He died at Paris in 
1695, at the age of 74. His most cele- 
brated work is his Fables, which has 
passed through a great number of edi- 
tions. 

FONTAINEBLEAU, town of France, 
celebrated for its palace, which is of great 
antiquity, founded previous to the 13th 
century, but enlarged and improved by 



Francis I., Henry IV,, and Louis XIV., 
and XV. In this palace, Christiana, 
queen of Sweden, caused her equerry. 
Count Monaldeschi, to be executed in 
1654. The preliminaries of peace be- 
tween France, England, Spain, and Por- 
tugal, were signed here, Nov. 5, 1762. 
Pope Pius VII., with his cardinals, lived 
here in exile from June 19, 1812, to Jan. 
24, 1814. A concordat was signed here 
in 1813. Here also Napoleon signed his 
first abdication, April 11, 1814. 

FONTAINE-NOTRE-DAME, village 
of, nearlydestroyed byfire,April25, I8I6. 

FONTARABIA, town of Spain, con- 
sidered one of the keys of the kingdom, 
on the frontiers of France, taken by the 
French in 1794. 

FONTENAY, village in France ; re- 
markable for having been the scene of a 
bloody battle between the sons of Louis 
le Debonnaire, in the year 841, in conse- 
quence of which the Frankish empire, 
founded by Charlemagne, was dissolved. 
Lothaire I. received Italy ; Louis, Ger- 
many ; and Charles the Bald, France. 

FONTENELLE, author of "The 
Plurality of Worlds," died Jan. 9, 1757, 
aged 100. 

FONTHILL, near Salisbury, burnt 
down, valued at £30,000., Feb. 12, 1765. 

FOOLS, festival of, at Paris, held 
Jan. 1, 1 198, and continued for 240 years, 
in which all sorts of absurdities and in- 
decencies were committed. 

FOOTE, Samuel, dramatic writer and 
actor, was born at Truro, in Cornwall, 
1717. In 1747, he opened the little 
theatre in the Haymarket, taking upon 
himself the character of author and per- 
former; and appeared in a dramatic 
piece of his own composing, called 
" The Diversions of the Morning." In 
1766, being on a party of pleasure with 
the duke of York, he broke his leg, and 
was compelled to suffer amputation. 
This accident so much affected the duke, 
that he obtained for him a patent for life, 
by which he was allowed to perform at 
the theatre, Haymarket, from May 15, to 
September 15, every year. He died at 
Dover on his way to Paris, on October 
21, 1777, in the 56th year of his age, 
and was interred in Westminster-abbey. 
FORBISHER. See Frobisher. 
FORD, Northumberland. Its castle 
was built in 1287, several times besieged, 
and in 1385, nearly demolished by the 
Scots under the earls of Fife, Marsh, 
and Douglas. It was also taken by King 



FOR 



483 



FOR 



James's troops previous to the battle of 
Flodden. 

FORDYCE, David, professor of 
philosophy, died in 1751, aged 40. 

FORDYCE, James, Scotch divine, 
born at Aberdeen in 1720, died October 

I, 1796, in the 76th year of his age. 
FORESTER, John Rain hold, na- 
vigator, died Jan. 9, 1799, aged 70. 

FORGERY, by various statutes, was 
formerly made capital; as, altering, or 
uttering as true, when forged, of any 
bank bills or notes, or other securities, 
by Stat. 8 and 9 Will. III. c. 20. 36; 
1 1 Geo. I. c. 9 ; 12 Geo. I. c. 32 ; 25 Geo. 

II. c. 13 ; 13 Geo. III. c. 79. Stock, or 
dividends by 8 Geo. I. c. 22 ; 9 Geo. I. c. 
12; 31 Geo. II. c. 22, 11, &c. There 
was formerly hardly a case wherein for- 
gery, that tended to defraud, whether in 
the name of a real or fictitious person, 
was not made a capital crime. But va- 
rious alterations have been recently 
made. 

1830. 1 Will. IV. c. 66, July 23. After 
reciting all the different kinds of forgery 
heretofore liable to the punishment of 
death, declares that any person so offend- 
ing, shall not suffer death for the same, 
unless in either cases specified. 

1832. 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 123, 
Aug. 16. Further abolishes the punish- 
ment of death in cases of forgery, except 
for forging or altering wills and powers 
of attorney, to transfer stock, &c. 

1837. Lastly. 1 Vic. c, 84, July 17. 
Reciting various acts, 1 Will. IV. c. 66. 
2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 59, the 2 and 3 
Will. IV. c. 123, by which the forging of 
the different instruments was made pu- 
nishable by death, enacts that persons 
convicted of any forgery should, in fu- 
ture, be liable to be transported for life, 
or for not less than seven years, or to be 
imprisoned for not exceeding four years, 
nor less than two years. 

FORMOSA, or Taiouan, an island 
in the Chinese Sea, subject to the Chi- 
nese, discovered by them in the year 
1430. The Dutch built the fort of Zea- 
land in its western division in 1643, but 
were driven out in 1661 by a Chinese 
pirate, who then made himself master 
of all the western part. In 1682, the 
emperor of China obtained possession of 
the whole island. 

FORT BALAGUER, taken by the 
French, Jan. 9, 1811. 

FORT ST. DAVID, fortress in Hin- 
doostan, Carnatic. A British factory was 



first established here in 1688 and 1746, 
when Madras was taken, it was besieged 
afterwards by the French ; taken by them 
in 1785, and the fortifications destroyed. 

FORT- GEORGE, taken by the Ame- 
ricans, May 27, 1813. 

FORT ST. GEORGE, in the East 
Indies, seized by the French, 1746. Re- 
stored, 1748. 

FORT MICHILIMACHINACK. ta- 
ken by the British, Canadians and sa- 
vages, July 17, 1812. 

FORT WILLIAM, Calcutta, com- 
menced by Lord Clive after the battle of 
Plassie, in 1757. 

FORTESCUE, Sir John, author of 
the " Laws of England," died in 1465. 

FORTIFICATION, practised in very 
early times, though in a rude manner. 
In the land of Canaan, A. c. 1490, " the 
cities were walled and very great." One 
of the first improvements in the ancient 
walls for defence was the perforating 
them with loop-holes ; through these the 
enemy was constantly annoyed, by the 
arrows and other missile weapons of the 
besieged. To the walls square towers 
were added at proper distances along the 
top, and projecting a little way beyond 
them. Fortifications of this kind, still 
without moats or ditches, continued for 
many centuries to be the chief or only 
artificial means of defence. 

The invention of gunpowder in the 
14th century changed the mode of attack; 
and this consequently imposed the ne- 
cessity of changing altogether the system 
of defence. About the year 1500, the 
walls were strengthened by thick ram- 
parts of earth, and the two sides of the 
towers within the walls were removed as 
useless, leaving only the two e?;terior 
sides, which were afterwards altered into 
bastions ; and the walls were universally 
surrounded by wet or dry ditches. But 
it was soon found that all the parts of 
the defence were not equally strong ; this 
gave rise to the invention of ravelins, te- 
nailles, counter-guards, bonnets, horn- 
works, crown-works, lunettes, the covert 
way, and other outworks ; all of which 
are designed to make the body of the 
place equally inaccessible in every part. 

Towards the end of the l6th century, 
the art received some important improve- 
ments, and at length began to assume the 
form of a regular system. To this 
effect none more contributed than Count 
de Pagan, a French nobleman, born in 
the year 1604. M. deVauban also made 



FOU 



484 



FOX 



many improvements about 1690. His 
method of ricochet firing was first em- 
ployed in 1697 at the siege of Ath, a town 
in Austrian Hainault. He died in 1707, 
after having, by his inventions and im- 
provements, brought fortification to a 
very high degree of perfection. 

FOSSIL organic remains of an ic- 
thyosaurus, from 12 to 14 feet in length 
dug up near Bedford, in 1832; of a 
plesiosaurus, the length of which is com- 
puted to have been between 17 and 18 
feet, dug up, Jan. 17, 1833. 

FOSTER, Captain Henry, one of 
the companions of Captain Parry, drowned 
in the river Chagres, in Darien, Feb. 6, 
1831. 

FOSTER, Dr. James, a celebrated 
nonconformist preacher, was born at 
E.xeter in I697. In 1 728, he commenced 
a Sunday evening lecture in the Old 
Jewry, which he continued till within a 
short time of his death, with almost un- 
exampled popularity. He died Nov. 5, 
1752, aged 55. 

FOTHERGILL, John, an eminent 
physician and botanist, was born at Car- 
rend, near York, March 8, 1712. In 
1754, he was elected a fellow of the col- 
lege of physicians at Edinburgh, and in 
1763, a member of the Royal Society, 
He instituted the seminary at Ackworth, 
in Yorkshire, 1778, to which he was a 
liberal benefactor. He died December 
26, 1780. His understanding was com- 
prehensive and quick, and there was a 
charm in his conversation, that concili- 
ated the regard and confidence of all who 
employed him. By his uniform and 
steady temperance, he preserved his 
mind vigorous and active, and his consti- 
tution equal to all his engagements. 

FOTHERING AY, Northamptonshire, 
remarkable for its castle, founded by 
Simon St. Liz, second earl of Northamp- 
ton, in the time of William the Con- 
queror, and rebuilt by Edmund, duke 
of York, second son of Edward III. 
By marriage-settlement this castle became 
the property of the Scottish kings, but, 
during the reign of John David, king of 
Scotland, it was compelled to surrender 
to the king of England. In it Richard 
III , of England, was bom. Mary, 
queen of Scots, in 1586, having previ- 
ously suffered a long imprisonment, was 
here tried and condemned in the hall, 
and shortly afterwards executed. 

FOUNDERS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1614. 



FOUNDLING Hospital, London, 
was founded in 1736; incorporated 1739 ; 
building began, 1742; began to receive 
children, 1756; let part of their estate 
in 1797, which yields £2000 a year 
addition to their income. 

FOUNTAIN, Hero's, received its 
name from the inventor. Hero, of Alex- 
andria, who lived about a.c. 250. In 
this fountain, the air is compressed by a 
concealed fall of water ; and the jet pro- 
duced by this pressure induces those 
who are ignorant of the device to ima- 
gine, that the same water which fell from 
the jet rises again, and constitutes a per- 
petual motion. 

FOUNTAIN in the Piazza Norlua, 
at Rome, built 1682. 

FOUNTAIN DE Trevi, in Rome, 
built, 1751. 

FOUNTAINE, Sir Andrew, En- 
glish antiquary, died 1759. 

FOUNTAIN'S Abbey, Yorkshire, 
built, 1132. 

FOURCROY, Anthony Francis, 
chemist, author of the new nomenclature, 
born June 15, 1755, died Dec. 16, 1809, 

FOURNIER, P. S., the Parisian let- 
ter-founder, died, 1758. 

FOWEY, Cornwall, was famous for 
the piracies of its inhabitants in the reign 
of Edward I., but afterwards became 
mercantile. In the reign of Edward III. 
it furnished 47 vessels to assist the king 
in his wars. During the same reign it 
obtained the name of the gallants of 
Fowey, in consequence of a successful 
attack on the ships of Rye and Win- 
chelsea, which refused to strike their 
colours. 

FOX, Charles James, one of our 
most distinguished statesmen, was born 
January 13, 1749. He was third son of 
Henry Fox, afterwards Lord Holland, 
by Lady Georgiana Carolina Lennox, 
eldest daughter to Charles, second duke 
of Richmond. At the early period of 
nine years of age, the dawn appeared of 
that genius which has since proved 
the admiration of the world. At Eton 
he formed his early friendships with 
many of the most eminent characters of 
the age. 

1768. When he was but 19 years 
old, his father procured him the return 
for the borough of Midhurst. It was on 
occasion of the unhappy disputes which 
led to the American war, that his splendid 
talents and truly patriotic sentiments first 
displayed themselves to public view. In 




CMAIEILIS^ JAMIiS F©X. 





t/ 



J.cindon Published ly H-iomas Ifelly, J7, Patej-jmstex J<om.J8S0 



FOX 



485 



FOX 



17S0, he became candidate for the city 
of Westminster, in which, after a violent 
contest, he succeeded. On the Rock- 
ingham party coming into power, he 
obtained the office of secretary of state 
for foreign affairs, and the marquis was 
nominated the first lord of the treasury. 
A more generous policy was adopted in 
regard to Ireland ; a general peace was 
meditated ; and America, which could 
not be restored, was at least to be con- 
ciliated. But in the midst of these pro- 
mising appearances, the marquis of Rock- 
ingham suddenly died, — an event which 
divided the friends of liberty, and Mr. 
Fox retired in disgust. His memorable 
bill upon the adminstration of affairs in 
India, which he introduced into the 
house of commons on the 18th of No- 
vember, 1783, drew from the celebrated 
Mr. Burke a high eulogium. 

1788. He repaired to the continent. 
Here his fame travelled far before him ; 
and, if he was the particular object of 
attention in his own country, he was no 
less so in other nations. No sooner had 
the French nation evinced a sincere desire 
to shake off the yoke of absolute power, 
than Mr. Fox hailed the auspicious dawn 
of rising liberty. At first the two great 
rival statesmen. Fox and Pitt, who agreed 
in nothing else, united cordially in this 
cause; but they soon became opposed 
to each other, and the most serious con- 
flicts were the result of their discussions. 
After a period of 18 years, Mr. Pitt re- 
tired from office. At his death, which 
took place soon after, his associates, after 
a short trial, gave way for the introduc- 
tion of Mr. Fox once more into office. 
He resumed his situation as secretary of 
state for the foreign department, which 
he had surrendered 22 years before, but 
he enjoyed this station but for a few 
months, when he was deprived by death 
of serving his country, the first and 
nearest object of his heart. He died on 
Sept. 13, 1806, in the 58th year of his 
age, and was buried in Westminster- 
abbey, on the 10th of October following. 
" To an extraordinary natural capacity, 
improved and embellished by a liberal 
education, and to a quickness of appre- 
hension which instantly seized every 
object that was presented to it, and which, 
with incredible facility, developed the 
most intricate problems, this great man 
added a memory, richly stored with the 
treasures of science and literature, and 
well fraught with historical and political 



knowledge. His eloquence was plain, 
nervous, energetic, and vehement: it sim- 
plified what was complicated, it unra- 
velled what was entangled, it cast light 
upon what was obscure, and through the 
understanding it forced its way to the 
heart. It came home to the sense and 
feelings of the hearer, and by a secret, 
irresistible charm, it extorted the .assent 
of those who were most unwilling to be 
convinced. And to crown all, this asto- 
nishing eloquence was uniformly exerted 
in the cause of liberty and justice, in 
defence of the oppressed and persecuted, 
and in vindicating the rights, the free- 
dom, and the happiness of mankind. 
He made the cause of all that were 
wronged his own ; and, even where he 
failed, through the perverseness of the 
times, of procuring justice for them, he, 
in a measure, compensated their suffer- 
ings, by lending his great talents to their 
cause, and by drawing towards it the 
sympathy of mankind." 

FOX, George, the founder of the 
society commonly called Quakers, Avas 
born at Drayton in Leicestershire, in 
1624. When he was about 19 years of 
age he fancied he had received a divine 
communication, urging him to forsake 
all, to separate himself from the old and 
young, and devote his life to the duties 
of religion. After a life of incessant 
fatigues, and almost perpetual persecu- 
tions, he died in the year 1690, in the 
67th year of his age. 

FOX, John, author of the well known 
" Book of Martyrs," was born at Boston 
in Lincolnshire, in 1517. At 16 he was 
entered a student of Brazen-nose College, 
0.xford; and, in 1543, he took his de- 
gree of master of arts, and was soon after 
elected fellow of Magdalen College, but 
on discovering a propensity to the doc- 
trines of the Reformation, he was expelled 
the college as a heretic. At length, per- 
secuted by his implacable enemy. Bishop 
Gardiner, he was obliged to seek refuge 
abroad. On the death of Queen Mary 
he returned to England ; where he was 
patronized by his former pupil, the duke 
of Norfolk, who retained him in his fa- 
mily as long as he lived, and bequeathed 
him a pension at his death. He died in 
1587, aged 70, and was buried in the 
chancel of St. Giles's, Cripplegate. 

FOX, G. Lane, Esa , his mansion 
at Bramham Park destroyed by fire, 
July 29, 1828; the loss estimated at 
£40,000. 



FRA 



486 



FRA 



FOX, or Aleutian Isles. SccAleu- 
TiAN Isles. 

FRAMES, stocking or lace, destroy- 
ing of, made a capital offence, 1812. The 
law continued in force till March 1, 1814. 
FRAME-WORK-KNITTERS' Com- 
pany, London, incorporated 1664. 

FRANCE, a kingdom of Europe, 
bounded north and north-west by the 
English Channel, north-east by the Ne- 
therlands, east by Baden, Switzerland, 
and the Sardinian states, south by the 
Mediterranean Sea and the Pyrenean 
mountains, and west by the Bay of Bis- 
cay. The first known inhabitants of 
this part of Europe were the Celtae or 
Gauls. 

This country was conquered by Cae- 
sar, A. c. 57 to 50, and together with 
Spain and Britain, made a Roman 
province. The country was then over- 
run by the barbarians ; first, by the 
the Visigoths, who founded the kingdom 
of Toulouse, A.D. 412 — 419; secondly, 
by the Burgundians, who founded the 
kingdom of Burgundy under Gondicaire 
in 414; thirdly, by the Franks-Saliens, 
who at last gave their name to the coun- 
try. This people, after many struggles, 
took possession of the province. Pha- 
ramond, the first king of the Franks, 
distinctly mentioned in history, is said 
to have reigned from about the year 418 
to 428. He was succeeded by his son 
Clodio, who carried on a war against 
the Romans. He died in 448, and was 
succeeded by Merovaeus. Merovaeus 
died in 458, and was succeeded by his 
son Childeric, who took the city of Paris 
after a siege of five years. The Roman 
power was now destroyed in Italy, and 
Clovis, who succeeded Childeric, con- 
quered Gaul. 

487- The French monarchy was esta- 
blished by Clovis. See Clovis. 

The first race of kings ended with 
Childeric III. in 752 ; their history pre- 
sents only the characteristics of a bar- 
barous age, during which the kingdom 
was frequently divided among petty 
sovereigns, and the princes weakened each 
other with their contests, while the nobles 
increased in power, and left the kings 
only the title of royalty. The latter 
princes of this race, giving themselves 
up to a life of indolence and ease, aban- 
doned the reins of government to officers 
named mayors of the palace ; of whom 
the most celebrated were Charles Martel, 
who governed for twelve years, under the 



title of duke of France; and his son Pe- 
pin the Little, who, at length, deposed 
Childeric, and assumed the title of 
king. 

The second race, which began with 
Pepin, was named Carlovingian, from 
his son Carolus Magnus, commonly 
called Charlemagne. See Charle- 
magne. 

At the time of this prince's death, in 
814, he had reduced all that part of Spain 
which lies between the Pyrenees and the 
Ebro, including Rousillon, Navarre, Ar- 
ragon, and Catalonia : he had seized 
Italy, from the Alps to the borders of 
Calabria, though the duchy of Beneven- 
tum, with most of the modern kingdom 
of Naples, escaped his yoke ; and he 
also had added to his dominions all Ger- 
many south of the Eyder, and Panno- 
nia. At the death of his son, Louis I., 
840, the monarchy was divided. A vast 
number of petty tyrannies were esta- 
blished, while the sovereign retained 
little more than the title and orna- 
ments of royalty. This declension 
was more particularly visible in the 
reign of Charles IV., or the Simple, who 
ascended the throne in 898, when the 
grant of Neustria to RoUo the Norman, 
and the usurpations of Robert, grand- 
father of Hugh Capet, and Rodolphus, 
duke of Burgundy, reduced the power 
of the Carlovingian race to a mere sha- 
dow ; it continued to decline during the 
reigns of Louis IV., Lothaire, and Louis 
v., till, at length, on the death of the 
latter, in 987. they were superseded by 
Hugh Capet, who had been created duke 
of France by Lothaire. 

The third race (of Capetians) be- 
gan in 987. Hugh Capet, duke of 
France, effected a revolution nearly 
similar to that brought about by Pe- 
pin ; he had supplanted Louis V. in the 
exercise of the royal functions, but suf- 
fered him to retain the title of king till bis 
death, when he usurped the crown, and 
became the founder of the third race of 
kings, called after himself Capetian. 
Though Hugh Capet had assumed the 
title of king, his power was very limited ; 
for the dukes and counts, the former 
commanders of provinces, the latter of 
counties or cities, being absolute on their 
several estates, were the real sovereigns, 
among whom the king could only be 
considered as president in council, or 
leader in battle. 
This state continued till Philip II.,sur- 



FRA 



487 



FRA 



named Auffuatus, who ascended the 
throne in 1180, by his victories, and po- 
licy, re-united most of the great fiefs to 
the crown, the power of which was in- 
creased by his successors, either by arms, 
by succession, by donation, or other titles 
of acquisition ; so that, in the reign of 
Louis XIV., all the dismembered parts 
were annexed, and the kingdom of 
France was, under that prince, raised to 
the highest pitch of glory it had known 
since the days of Charlemagne, The 
other princes of this race who are dis- 
tinguished in history are — Francis I., 
taken prisoner by the imperialists, and 
carried into Spain, Aug., 1525 ; — Charles 
IX., who, on the eve of St. Bartholomew, 
1572, ordered a general massacre of the 
protestants ; — Henry IV., who united the 
kingdom of Navarre to that of France, 
abjured the protestant religion, in which 
he had been educated, and quieted the 
religious disputes which had long dis- 
turbed the peace of his kingdom, by the 
edict of Nantz, published in 1598 ; — 
Louis XIV., who reversed this edict in 
1685, and who banished the protestants 
from all his dominions ; — and Louis 
XVI., who was executed on a public 
scaffold, at Paris, by his revolution- 
ary subjects, January 21, 1793. See 
Louis. 

The following is a chronological list of 
this race of kings. Firstly, direct Ca- 
petians : Hugh Capet, who died in 996 ; 
Robert, in 1031; Henry I., in 1060; 
Philip I., in 1108; Louis VI., in 1137 ; 
Louis VII., in 1180; Philip II., in 1223; 
Louis VIII., in 1226; Louis IX., in 
1270 ; Phihp III., in 1285 ; Philip IV., in 
1314 ; Louis X., in 1316 ; Philip V., in 
1321 ; Charles IV., in 1328. Secondly, 
the first line of Valois : Philip VI., in 
1350; John, in 1364; Charles V., in 
1380; Charles VI., in 1422; Charles 
VII., in 1461 ; Louis XL, in 1483 ; 
Charles VIII., in 1497. Thirdly, the 
line of Orleans: Louis XII., in 1515. 
Fourthly, the second line of Valois: 
Francis I., in 1547; Henry II., in 1559; 
Francis II., in 1560; Charles IX., in 
1575; Henry III., in 1589. Fifthly, the 
Bourbons: Henry IV., in 1610; Louis 
XIII., in 1643 ; Louis XIV., in 1718 ; 
Louis XV., in 1774 ; Louis XVI., de- 
throned in 1792. 

1792. Prussia, Sweden, and Russia, 
having entered into engagements for the 
restoration of the ancient despotism of 
France, they were afterwards joined for 



that purpse by Germany and Eng- 
land. 

The war of the revolution commenced 
July 25 ; the duke of Brunswick issued 
at Coblentz his celebrated manifesto, 
declaring the intended invasion of 
France to be the restoration of the French 
king to full authority. The combined 
armies of Austria and Russia entered 
France in August, but were repulsed by 
the successes of Dumourier. Battle of 
Jemappe, Nov. 5. This victory decided 
the fate of the Netherlands. Mons and 
Brussels surrendered to Dumourier ; 
Tournay, Malines, Ghent, and Antwerp, 
were taken possession of by General La- 
bourdonnaye ; Louvaine and Namur 
were taken by General Valence ; and 
the whole Austrian Netherlands, Luxem- 
bourg only excepted, fell into the hands 
of the French. 

1793. Execution of Louis XVI. See 
Louis XVI, Triumph of the Jacobins ; 
republican constitution; massacre at 
Lyons ; success of the French armies ; 
execution of the queen, Oct, 16 ; ascen- 
dency of Robespierre, 

1794. The allies generally unsuccess- 
ful ; fall of Robespierre ; the republic ac- 
knowledged by the alHes. 

1795. New constitution by which the 
legislative power was vested in two 
councils, chosen through the medium of 
the electoral assemblies, the one consist- 
ing of 500, the other of 250 members. 
The executive power was delegated to a 
directory of five members, to be partially 
renewed: by the annual election of one 
member in regular rotation ; the direc- 
tory to be elected by the councils. Re- 
treat of the French ; peace with Holland 
concluded at the Hague, May 15. 

1796. Triumph of Buonaparte in 
Italy ; battle of Lodi, May 10. " Of 
all the actions in which the troops under 
my command have been engaged," said 
Buonaparte in his dispatches to the di- 
rectory, "none has equalled the tremen- 
dous passage of the bridge of Lodi," 

1797. Buonaparte entered the papal 
dominions ; peace of Campo Formio, 
which was signed Oct. 17. By this 
treaty, the emperor " renounced for him- 
self and his successors, in favour of the 
French republic, all his rights and titles 
to the Austrian Netherlands ;" and con- 
sented that the French republic should 
possess in full sovereignty the Venetian 
islands of the Levant, and the other is- 
lands dependent thereon. Buonaparte 



FRA 



48S 



FRA 



having thus obtained a peace, returned 
to Paris, Nov. 20, where he was hailed 
with the most rapturous applause by the 
people, and received with every possible 
mark of consideration by the govern- 
ment. 

1798. Congress of Radstadt, in^vhich 
it was proposed to discuss and settle all 
the disputes between the French republic 
and the German empire. At the mo- 
ment when the French plenipotentiaries 
at Radstadt were giving the most solemn 
assurance that their government panted 
for tranquillity, a war was suddenly de- 
clared against Switzerland, which was 
conquered by the French. 

1799. Buonaparte made first counsel. 
See Buonaparte, p. 164. 

1802. Peace of Amiens; the definitive 
treaty was concluded March 22, in con- 
sequence of which the French republic 
was acknowledged by the whole of Eu- 
rope. 

180.3. Recommencement of hostilities. 
May 16 ; letters of marque were issued 
against the French republic ; while, on 
the part of the French, all subjects be- 
longing to Britain who were found in 
France and Holland were 'arrested and 
detained, an event which was speedily fol- 
lowed by the march of a republican army 
towards Osnaburgh and Hanover. 

1804. Imperial dynasty commenced. 
Trial of certain state prisoners at Paris, 
in May. They were charged with con- 
spiring against the life and government 
of Buonaparte. Georges,' with 11 of 
his associates, were condemned and exe- 
cuted, June 25 ; the gallant Moreau, 
and four more, were sentenced to suffer 
two years' imprisonment; and about 18 
were acquitted. 

1805. The decisive and memorable 
victory of Trafalgar, October 21. See 
Trafalgar. Battle of Austerlitz, Dec. 
2. In less than an hour the whole left 
wing of the Allies was cut off, their 
right being by that time at Austerlitz. 
The loss sustained by the Allies during 
the whole of the battle was estimated at 
150 pieces of cannon, with 45 stand of 
colours, and 18,000 men. Dec. 5, an 
interview took place between the em- 
perors of Austria and France. An 
armistice was mutually agreed to, which 
was to serve as the basis of a definitive 
treaty, which was afterwards signed at 
Presburg, Dec. 25. The French agreed 
to evacuate Brunn, Jan. 4, 1806, Vienna, 
on the 10th, and the whole Austrian 



states in six weeks after the signing of 
the treaty, e.xcept such as were ceded to 
Italy and Bavaria. 

I8O6. Prussia, which had for a con- 
siderable time manifested its adherence 
to the cause of the French ruler, deter- 
mined at length to join the confederacy 
against France. But the Prussian army 
sustained the most dreadful reverses ; 
the battles of Jena, and Auerstadt were 
productive of the most distressing con- 
sequences ; whole armies, and strong 
fortresses, either from panic or treachery, 
surrendered without a blow ; and the 
capital itself was abandoned to the con- 
queror, who now resolved to push his 
victories into Poland. 

IS07. June 25, an interview took 
place on the Neimen, between the em- 
perors of Russia and France, at which the 
preliminaries of a pacification were ad- 
justed, between these two countries ; and 
the king of Prussia, no longer supported 
by Russia, was compelled to submit to 
his hard destiny. A peace was therefore 
concluded at Tilsit, July 9, by which 
the Prussian monarchy was diminished 
nearly one-half. 

1808. Commencement of the Penin- 
sular war; the French emperor con- 
trived, under a variety of specious pre- 
tences, to introduce a powerful body of 
his troops into Spain ; he then induced 
the reigning monarch to make a formal 
renunciation of his crown ; and having 
dexterously allured his successor, Fer- 
dinand, beyond the protection of his 
army, he sent him a prisoner to France, 
and bestowed the sovereignty of Spain, 
and of the Indies, on his brother Joseph. 
King Joseph, with his army, in July, 
was compelled to retire from Madrid 
with the most disgraceful precipitation. 

1809 — 11. Peninsular war continued. 
Successes of the British in Spain under 
Lord Wellington. 

1812. April 6, the important fortress 
of Badajoz, which might be considered 
as the key to Spain, was taken by storm, 
by the army under Lord Wellington, 
which caused the French afterwards to 
evacuate Spain. 

1813. Campaigns in Russia, Ger- 
many, Spain, and France, disastrous 
to the French cause ; defeats of the 
French at Leipsic, &c. 

1814. Napoleon's resignation of the 
crown, and the entrance of the allied 
armies into Paris ; Louis XVIII. pro- 
claimed king of France. 



FRA 



489 



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1815. Return of Buonaparte from 
Elba, Feb, 26 ; the expedition, with Na- 
poleon and his staflF on board the In- 
constant, sailed from Porto Ferrajo, at 
the signal of a single gun, amidst the ex- 
clamations of Paris ou la mort ! " Paris 
or death!" The armies of the Allies 
were soon collected to an immense num- 
ber ; the British troops under Lord Wel- 
lington, as well as the Austrians and 
Prussians, were assembled in the neigh- 
bourhood of Brussels, as it was under- 
stood that Buonaparte would first direct 
his army towards that quarter. The im- 
perial army advanced with unexampled 
rapidity, and was met on the field of 
Waterloo by the allied army, consisting 
chiefly of British troops. On June 18, 
that memorable battle was fought, which, 
after a severe and sanguinary contest, 
so happily decided the fate of Europe. 
See Waterloo. After this memor- 
able defeat the French emperor precipi- 
tately quitted the field of battle, and ar- 
rived at Paris June 20. Return of 
Louis XVIII., July 6, and the surren- 
der of the capital of France to the 
British army. This ceremony took 
place at half-past four o'clock, when all 
the gates of the city were placed in the 
hands of their new masters. 

The negotiation of a general treaty of 
peace with the allied powers began im- 
mediately to occupy the attention of the 
French government. The boundaries of 
France, as they stood in 1790, from the 
North Sea to the Mediterranean, formed 
the fundamental principles of the terri- 
torial arrangements ; and on this point 
it was determined that the boundaries of 
former Belgium, of Germany, and of 
Savoy, which, by the treaty of Paris in 
1814, were annexed to France, should 
now be separated from that kingdom. 
After various declarations and confer- 
ences, treaties grounded on these bases 
were concluded at Paris, Nov. 20. 

1816. A conspiracy detected at Paris, 
for overthrowing the government, mur- 
dering the whole of the royal family, 
and placing Napoleon II. on the throne. 
Several of the conspirators were capitally 
convicted, and others subject to various 
degrees of punishment. The ministry, 
at the head of which the duke of Rich- 
lieu had been placed, after the re-esta- 
blishment of the monarchy, had carried 
most of their measures with a high hand, 
till the beginning of the year 1819, when 
the duke and his friends having resigned. 



a new ministry was formed, consisting 
of men supposed to lean more to the side 
of the liberal party. 

1820. While the ministry had in view 
the discussion of a modification of the 
election law, the Due de Berri fell by the 
hand of the assassin Lovel. The gene- 
ral horror excited by this deed tended to 
forward the views of the royalist party. 

1822. French invasion of Spain.- See 
Spain. 

1825. Death of Louis XVIII., Sep- 
tember 16, in the 69th year of his age, 
and the 10th of his reign. Succeeded 
by his brother, the Comte D'Artois, 
under the title of Charles X. This 
prince was nearly the age of his brother, 
and his political opinions, at that time, 
seemed much the same. After his ac- 
cession, however, he showed a greater 
inclination to yield to the impulse of 
pubUc opinion than his predecessor ; as 
a first step, agreeably to the power 
vested in the crown, he removed the 
censorship of the press. 

1827. Under the influence of mischie- 
vous councils, attempts to enforce that 
obnoxious measure were renewed with 
circumstances of peculiar atrocity. The 
promulgation of the new regulations 
excited in Paris, one loud and universal 
expression of alarm and indignation. 
The bill enforcing the censorship was 
carried and sent up to the Chamber of 
Peers by a majorityof 233to 134 votes,but 
ministers anticipated, from the disposi- 
tions manifested, the total rejection of the 
bill, and resolved to give up the project. 

1829. August 8, the Polignac admini- 
stration was formed, who were destined, 
before another year should have run, to 
precipitate the king from his throne. 

1830. May 20, the ministry was re- 
modelled. They met March 2, and an 
address being moved in the Chamber of 
Deputies, was carried by a majority of 
221 against 181. On this, the king pro- 
rogued the house to September 1, 
and on May 17, issued an ordinance, 
declaring the Chamber of Deputies dis- 
solved, and appointing June 23, and 
July 3, for the election of the members 
of a new chamber, to assemble August 
3. The ministers proposed six extra- 
ordinary enactments. The first annihi- 
lated the liberty of the press ; the 
second dissolved the Chamber of De- 
puties ; the third abrogated the ex- 
isting law of election ; the fourth 
appointed September 6 and 13 for the 

3 R 



FRA 



490 



FRA 



meeting of the two classes of Electoral 
Colleges, and convoked the Chamber; 
to be elected upon the new system. The 
remaining two ordinances nominated to 
the dignity of counsellors of state a 
number of the most obnoxious adherents 
of the old Villele administration. These 
enactments roused up Paris to the me- 
morable three days' conflict, in July, See 
Paris. 

To these transactions followed the 
flight of Charles X., from St. Cloud to 
Trianon, and thence to Rambouillet, the 
march of the people to accelerate the 
departure of the proscribed king, his 
abdication in favour of his grandson, 
the nomination of the duke of Orleans, 
first as lieutenant-general, and then as 
king, under the title of Louis Phihppe I, 
and finally, the deliberate and almost 
unregarded procession into exile of the 
deposed monarch and his family. See 
Charles X. 

1832. Popular commotions in Paris, 
at Lyons, &c. At the latter place after 
having been fired on by the national 
guards, and some of them sabred by 
the cavalry in repeated charges, became 
desperate, and in the course of the aflfray 
attacked and disarmed several bodies of 
the military. The number of killed on 
both sides was between 500 and 600. 

The duchess de Berri arrived at La 
Vendee in the beginning of May, and 
preparations were made for a gene- 
ral rising ; La Vendee and three other 
departments were consequently placed 
under martial law, but the insurrection, 
was soon put an end to, and the duchess 
apprehended. See Berri. 

1834. French occupation of Algiers. 
See Algiers. 

1835. Attempted assassination of the 
king by the Infernal Machine. See 

FlESCHI. 

1836. In France, dissatisfactions con- 
tinued to prevail; during the year, seve- 
ral attempts were made to assassinate the 
king, but without effect. In the even- 
ing of June 25, an assassin named Ali 
band, armed with an air-gun in the form 
of a walking-stick, fired at the king at 
so short a distance that the gun nearly 
touched his majesty, while going out in 
his coach. The assassin was arrested 
on the spot. He made an attempt to 
stab himself, but was disarmed. 

Another attempt at assassination oc- 
curred at the end of December, on the 
day fixed for the opening of the French 



Chambers. The king, in a close car- 
riage, with his three sons, the dukes of 
Orleans and Nemours, and the prince 
de Joinville, proceeded along the quay 
which separates the terrace of the Tuil- 
eries gardens by the river Seine. The 
procession had gone but about 50 yards, 
when a shot was fired by a person in 
the crowd, behind the grenadiers of the 
national guards, who lined the right side 
of the quay. The ball entered the front 
window of the carriage, passing t)etween 
the duke de Nemours and the prince de 
Joinville, who sat facing the king, and 
went out through the back of the car- 
riage, thus narrowly missing Louis Phi- 
lippe. 

Prince Louis Napoleon, son of Louis 
the ex-king of Holland, formed a cor- 
respondence with colonel Vaudrey of 
the garrison of Strasburgh, to deliver 
that town into his hands. But the party 
were surprised, the gates immediately 
closed, and the whole arrested. The 
other persons implicated were destined 
for trial ; but Prince Louis was allowed 
to go to the United States, and a French 
frigate sailed with him from L'Orient, 
Nov. 21. 

1838. In the beginning of autumn, 
the French government became engaged 
in a struggle with the Swiss confedera- 
tion. Prince Louis Napoleon had hardly 
landed on the shores of the other hemi- 
sphere, than he retraced his course to 
Europe, and re-established himself in his 
former quarters at Arenenburgin Switzer- 
land. The expulsion of this young man 
from the territories of the confederation 
was peremptorily demanded by the 
French Government and refused. But 
he afterwards withdrew to England. 

1840. Louis Napoleon made a de- 
scent August 6, upon Boulogne with 
about fifty followers : they marched to 
the barracks and endeavoured to seduce 
the soldiers from their allegiance : the 
national guards were called out, when 
the prince and his followers were obliged 
to flee. They were fired at in their re- 
treat, and several were killed in their at- 
tempts to reach the steam boat that took 
them to Boulogne from England ; some 
few took possession of horses, and tried 
to escape ; but the prince and most of 
them were secured. He issued, on his 
landing, a manifesto to the following 
effect: "The dynasty of the Bourbons 
of Orleans has ceased to reign. The 
French people are reinstated in their 



FRA 



491 



FRA 



rights. The troops are delivered from 
their oath of fidelity. The Chamber of 
Peers and the Chamber of Deputies are 
dissolved. A national congress shall be 
convoked on the arrival of Prince Na- 
poleon at Paris." The trial of Prince 
Louis and his companions commenced 
at Paris, Monday, Sept. 28, and excited 
unusual interest. He was sentenced to 
perpetual imprisonment. 

Oct. IS. Another attempt to assassi- 
nate the king, on his return to St. Cloud. 
A shot was fired from a carbine so heavily 
loaded that it carried away three fingers 
of the assassin, who then quietly surren- 
dered himself. 

FRANCE, IsLK OF. SeeMAURiTius. 

FRANCE, New, name given to 
Florida, on the first voyage of discovery 
made by the French under Francis I., 
one of whose ships, after reaching this 
country, coasted as far as 50° north 
latitude, and gave to this part. the name 
of New France. 

FRANCIS I., king of France, the 
rival of the Emperor Charles V. and 
the restorer of learning and politeness 
in France, succeeded to the throne in 
1514. Immediately on his accession re- 
solved on an expedition into Italy. In 
this he was at first successful, defeating 
the Swiss at Marignon, and reducing 
the duchy of Milan. In 1518, the Em- 
peror Maximilian dying, Francis was 
very ambitious of becoming his succes- 
sor. But Maximilian before his death, 
had exerted himself so much m favour 
of Charles V. of Spain, that Francis 
found it impossible to succeed ; and 
from that time an irreconcileable hatred 
existed between the two monarchs. In 
1521, this ill-will produced a war; 
which was continued with various suc- 
cess till the year 1524; when Francis 
having invaded Italy, and laid siege to 
Pavia, he was utterly defeated before that 
city, and taken prisoner, Feb. 24. 

He was carried to Madrid ; where, Jan. 
14, 1525, he signed a treaty, the principal 
articles of which were, that he should 
resign to the emperor the duchy of Bur- 
gundy in full sovereignty ; that he should 
renounce all claim to Naples, Milan, 
Asti, Tournay, Lisle, Hesden, &c. 
All these articles the king of France 
promised on the word and honour of a 
prince to execute ; but when he returned 
to his dominions, his first care was to 
get himself absolved by the pope from the 
oaths he had taken. All differences being 



at last adjusted, a treaty was concluded 
at Carabray, Aug. 5, 1528. The war 
was renewed with Charles, who invaded 
France, but with A^ery ill success ; nor was 
peace fully established but by the death 
of Francis which happened March 3, 
1547. 

FRANCISCANS, rehgious, of the order 
of St. Francis, founded by him in the 
year 1209. Francis was the son of a 
merchant of Assisi, in the province of 
Umbria, who, liaving led a dissolute life, 
was reclaimed by a fit of sickness, and 
afterwards fell into an extravagant kind 
of devotion. He was led to consider a 
voluntary and absolute poverty as the 
essence of the gospel, and to prescribe 
this poverty as a sacred rule both to 
himself and to the few that followed him. 
This new society was solemnly approved 
and confirmed by Honorius III. in 1223, 
and had made a considerable progress 
before the death of its founder, in 1226. 
In 1231, Gregory IX. published an in- 
terpretation of this rule, mitigating its 
rigour, which was further confirmed by 
Innocent IV., in 1245, and by Alexan- 
der IV., in 1247- The general opinion 
is, that the Franciscans came into Eng- 
land in the year 1224, and had their first 
house at Canterbury, and their second 
at London ; but there is no certain ac- 
count of their being here till king 
Henry VII., built two or three houses 
for them. 

FRANCKLIN, Dr. Thomas, trans- 
lator of Sophocles, &c. died, 1784. 

FRANCOIS, Cape, town, island of 
St. Domingo, was founded in 1670, de- 
stroyed by fire in 1793, surrendered by 
th(i French to the natives in 1 803. 

FRANKENDAL, town of Bavaria, 
taken by the French, Oct. 17, 1794. 

FRANKFORT on the Maine, city, 
Germany, grand duchy of Frankfort, 
called the ford of the Franks, was probably 
the rendezvous of that people in the fifth 
century. The Saxons were defeated 
under its walls by Charlemagne, and the 
suburb on the left bank of the Maine, 
retains its ancient name of Saxenhausen. 
Frankfort dates its freedom from the 
same period as the ancient Hanseatic 
towns, Hamburgh, Bremen, and Lu- 
beck, but was not, like them, considered 
a conquest by Napoleon, or united to 
the French empire, but continued after 
1806, the capital of a duchy, and go- 
verned by a sovereign primate. It was 
declared free in 1815. 



FRA 



492 



FRE 



FRANKFORT on the Oder, town 
of Prussia, province of Brandenburg. 
The uniA'^ersity, founded in 1506, has 
been transferred to Breslau. At a short 
distance is Cunersdorf, celebrated for the 
battle fought here between the Russians 
and Prussians in 1759. Frankfort was 
taken by the French, Nov. 28, 1806. 

FRANKLIN, Dr. Benjamin, a cele- 
brated American philosopher and states- 
man, was born in l706, at Boston, in 
New England. He very early disco- 
vered a propensity towards literary pur- 
suits, but in consequence of his father's 
poverty he was taken from school at the 
age of ten years. He came to England 
in 1725, and was obliged to obtain work 
as a journeyman in London for his im- 
mediate subsistence. After 18 months' 
residence there, he returned to Philadel- 
phia in the year 1726, and was after- 
wards employed as overseer in a print- 
ing office. The public library at Phila- 
delphia was established in 1731, chiefly 
by his exertions, and he had the satisfac- 
tion of seeing it attain to a very flourish- 
ing condition. His well known work 
called " Poor Richard's Almanac," was 
begun in 1732, and became remarkable 
for the prudential maxims with which 
it abounded. 

Franklin's political career commenced 
in 1736, when he was chosen clerk to 
the general assembly of Pennsylvania, 
to which he was re-elected for several 
years, and at last became a representa- 
tive. In 1737, he was made postmaster 
of Philadelphia, and in the subsequent 
years he greatly improved the police of 
the city, by the formation of a fire com- 
pany, and afterwards of an insurance 
company. In the war with France, 
which broke out in 1744, Franklin sug- 
gested the idea of a voluntary associa- 
tion for defence, which was instantly 
joined by 1200 persons. 

About this period he began his in- 
teresting experiments on electricity, by 
the result of which he acquired so dis- 
tinguished a reputation. The most bril- 
liant of his discoveries was that which 
proved the identity of the electric fluid 
and lightning. He was chosen a repre- 
sentative of the city of Philadelphia for 
the provincial assembly in 1747. He 
drew up the plan of an academy to be 
founded at Philadelphia, which was car- 
ried into effect in 1750. 

1757. Franklin set sail for London, 
as agent for Philadelphia, the assembly 



of that province being involved in dis- 
putes with the proprietary. His merit 
as a philosopher, was now justly appre- 
ciated in Europe, and he was made a 
member of the Royal Society of London ; 
the degree of doctor of laws was also 
conferred upon him at St. Andrews, 
Edinburgh, and Oxford. In 1762, he 
returned to America, where he received 
the thanks of the assembly of Pennsyl- 
vania, and a handsome recompense for 
his important services. 

On the commencement of hostilities 
between Great Britain and the colonies, 
in 1775, Dr. Franklin returned to Ame- 
rica, and was chosen a delegate to con- 
gress by the legislature of Pennsylvania. 
In 1776 he treated with Lord Howe on 
the subject of a reconciliation. When 
a negotiation with France was opened, 
he was chosen to reside at that court ; 
and he effected a treaty with France of 
an offensive and defensive nature, in 

1778, the immediate consequence of 
which was a war with Britain. He was 
recalled from that active station in 1785, 
which he had filled with so much ability, 
and chosen president of the supreme 
executive council. His increasing infir- 
mities obliged him, however, to with- 
draw from all public business, in 1788; 
and on April 17, 1790, terminated his 
life, in the 85th year of his age. In 

1779, his political, miscellaneous, and 
philosophical pieces, were published in 
4to. and 8vo. 

FRANKS, first noticed by historians, 
241 ; committed depredations in Spain, 
260; settled in Gaul, 277; the Salians 
established themselves at Toxandria, 287; 
were driven out of Batavia, 293 ; defeat- 
ed in Gaul, 305 ; defeated by Aetius, 
428 ; destroyed Cologne, 355 ; their 
kingdom began, under Pharamond, on 
the Lower Rhine, 420. See France. 

ERASER, William, an extraordi- 
nary instance of mental calculation, died 
1806. 

FRAUDS by bankrupts punished by 
act, passed 1782. 

FREDERICK the Great, of Prus- 
sia, one of the most celebrated monarchs 
of his age, the son of Frederick I., was 
born in 1712. At seven years of age, 
he was placed by his father under the 
care of military tutors. Born, however, 
with a taste for the arts, he devoted to 
their cultivation every moment he could 
escape from the vigilance of his guar- 
dians; whenever his father found him 



FRE 



493 



FRE 



thus employed, he broke his flute and 
threw his books into the fire. The prince, 
chagrined at this treatment, formed a 
design of travelling to see other countries, 
without his father's knowledge: the pro- 
ject was discovered, and the king, im- 
placable in his resentment, determined 
to put him to death. He was shut up 
in the fortress of Custrin; and it was 
with the utmost difficulty that the Count 
de Seckendorf could prevail on the king 
to alter his resolution. In an interval 
of peace and tranquillity spent at his 
own mansion, at Rheinsburgh, Frederick 
conceived that ardent passion for mili- 
tary glory and the aggrandisement of his 
kingdom, for which he afterwards be- 
came so remarkable. 

1736. He began a correspondence 
with the celebrated Voltaire, who con- 
tributed much in forming his opinions 
and his taste, and impressed him with 
that spirit of toleration which distin- 
guished his reign. The king, his father, 
died May, 1740, leaving the throne to 
his son. The acquisition of a kingdom 
did not abate Frederick's passion for 
literature. For an account of his public 
transactions, see Prussia. 

In the first year of his reign, he re- 
stored the academy of sciences, at Ber- 
lin, which had been founded in 1700; 
and in the interval betwixt the conclu- 
sion of the first war, and beginning of 
that of 1756, he composed most of the 
works which are now ascribed to him. 
In August 1785, he impaired his health 
by assistirig at a review. Though greatly 
weakened, he continued to employ him- 
self in public affairs till the day before 
he died, which was on Aug. 17, 1786, 
in the 75 th year of his age, and Utie 
47th of his reign. 

FREDERICK William III., late 
king of Prussia, born May 3, 1770, as- 
cended the throne, 1797. During his 
reign, some of the most memorable 
transactions in relation to the wars of 
the French revolution took place. See 
Prussia. He visited England in June, 
1814, with the emperor Alexander of 
Russia and their suite. The remainder 
of his reign was eminently peaceful and 
prosperous. He died June 7, 1840. 

FREDERICKS HALL, town Nor- 
way ; near to this is the fortress of Fre- 
derickstein, which in 1665 made an ob- 
stinate resistance to the Swedes, and 
Charles XII. was killed in the trenches 
here, Dec. 11, 1718. 



FREEMASONRY, the rule or system 
of mysteries and secrets peculiar to the 
society of free and accepted masons. A 
similar institution has existed, from a 
very early period, under diff"erent forms 
and appellations. Its earliest appear- 
ance in modern times was under the 
form of a travelling association of Italian, 
Greek, French, German, and Flemish 
artists, who were denominated free ma- 
sons, and went about erecting churches 
and cathedrals. 

About the 14th century, the principles 
of freemasonry were rapidly diffused 
throughout Great Britain, and several 
lodges were erected in different parts of 
the island. In 1425, an act was made 
against the meetings of the chapters 
and congregations of masons. On the 
accession of Henry VI., he permitted 
the order to hold their meetings without 
molestation, and himself became a mem- 
ber of the order. On the accession of 
Henry VIII., Cardinal Wolsey was ap- 
pointed grand-master. In the time of 
James I., masonry flourished; lodges 
were held in both kingdoms, and the 
celebrated Inigo Jones, who was appointed 
general surveyor to the king, was named 
grand-master of England. 

The grand lodge of England was in- 
stituted in 1717, at a time when there 
were only four lodges in the kingdom ; 
and, in 1730, was established the grand 
lodge of Ireland. In 1729, freemasonry 
was introduced into the East Indies ; 
and in a short time after, a provincial 
grand-master was appointed to superin- 
tend the lodges in that quarter. A pa- 
tent was sent from England, in 1731, to 
erect a lodge at the Hague. In 1738, a 
lodge was instituted at Brunswick, under 
the patronage of the grand lodge of 
Scotland, and the order was at length 
diflfused over every part of Europe. 

FREEMASONS' Hall, Queen- 
street, Lincoln's- Inn- Fields, London, 
built 1775, opened May 23, 1776. 

FREJUS, town of France, department 
of Var, the birthplace of Agricola. In 
1799, Buonaparte landed here on his 
return from Egypt, and in 1815, on his 
escape from Elba. 

FRENCH Protestants' Hospital, 
London, incorporated, 1718. 

FRENCH Town, America, taken 

by the American general Winchester, 

January 18, 1813. Retaken by Colonel 

Proctor, 22d of the same month. 

FRESNOY, Charles Alphonse' D u. 



F R I 494 FRO 

a celebrated French poet and painter, within which pre-existing societies must 

born 1611, died 1665. conform to its provisions. 

FRE'ITEVAL, town of France. In 1834. 4 Will. IV.! c. 40, July 30, 

1194, the English obtained a victory empowers any number of persons to 

over the French at this place, and form themselves into a society, imder 

amongst the spoils were found some im- the provisions of 10 Geo. IV., before 

portant records of the French monarch, recited, for the mutual relief and main- 

FRIARS AND Nuns, 10,000 turned tenance of "all and every the members 

outof the monasteries in England, 1536. thereof, their wives, children, relations, 

FRIBOURG, in Switzerland, founded or nominees, in sickness, infancy, ad- 

1179. vanced age, or widowhood; but when 

FRIEDWALD, Treaty of, between the rules of any society provide for re- 
France and the Protestant princes of Ger- lief in any other case than that of sick- 
many, Oct. 5, 1551. ness, infancy, advanced age, widowhood, 

FRIENDLY Isles, in the South or other natural state or contingency. 

Pacific Ocean, thus named by Captain the contributors for such other purpose 

Cook. Abel Jansen Tasman, an emi- shall be kept separate and distinct, or 

nent Dutch navigator, first touched there the charges defrayed by extra subscrip- 

in 1643, and gave names to the principal tions of the members at the time such 

islands. Captain Cook explored more contingencies take place." Funds of 

than sixty of them in 1773. The chief friendly societies may be deposited in 

of them is by the natives called Tonga- savings banks, subject to 9 Geo. IV. 

taboo, and they have latterly excited c. 92. 

much interest from the successful la- A recent parliamentary return states, 

hours of the missionaries among them, that the number of friendly societies 

particularly the late Mr. Williams. See filed by the clerks of the peace, from 

Missions, and Tongataboo. 1793 to 1833, have been — 

FRIENDLY or Benefit Socie- England 16,596 

TIES, first established 1793, and regu- Wales 769 

lated by various statutes ; amended by Scotland 2,144 

10 Geo. IV., 2 and 4 Will. IV. — -„- 

1829. By 10 Geo. IV. c. 56. ; 1^"""^ 

passed June 19, any persons are era- FRIESLAND, East, and Harlingen, 

powered to form themselves into a so- annexed to the kingdom of Hanover, 

ciety for their mutual relief, to "raise 1815. 

funds for that purpose, to make and FRITHELSTOCK Priory, Devon, 

alter, and amend rules for the govern- built 1222. 

ment and guidance of the same, and to FRIULI, district, north Italy, during 

inflict fines, &c. upon members who the Lombard dynasty, was a duchy ; 

shall offend against such rules. Such in 1420 it was added to Venice; in the 

societies in their rules, before they be following century, a part was seized by 

confirmed by the justices, to declare all Aftstria, and the whole ceded to that 

and every intent and purpose for which power in 1797. The peace of Presburg 

such society is intended to be established; attached it to the new kingdom of Italy, 

and to direct all the uses and purposes and at the general settlement of Europe, 

to which the money subsoribed shall in 1814, it was again ceded to Austria, 

be applied, and in what proportions, and and forms a part of the Lombardo-Ve- 

under what circumstances, any member netian kingdom. 

or other person shall become entitled FROBISHER, or Forbisher, Mar- 
thereto ; the money so subscribed not tin, a celebrated British admiral, was 
to be diverted or misapplied by the trea- born near Doncaster, in Yorkshire. Set 
surer or other person entrusted therewith, out on an enterprise to discover a north- 
under such penalty as the society shall west passage to the East Indies in 1576. 
by any rule impose. No confirmed rule In August, he sailed into the straits in 
to be altered, &c. but at a general meet- 63 degrees of N. lat. which he named 
ing of the society, convened in pur- Frobisher's Straits. Made two voyages 
suance of a requisition for that purpose, to these parts in 1577 and 1578, and 
by seven or more members." with great perseverance and bravery at- 

1832. 2 Will. IV. c. 37, May 23, tempted to approach nearer to the north 

amends the above, and extends the time pole. In 1585, he was appointed to the 



FRO 



495 



FRO 



command of the Aid, in Sir Francis 
Drake's expedition to the West Indies, 
which took the town of St. Domingo. 
In 1588 he exerted himself against the 
Spanish Armada. He afterwards com- 
manded a squadron which was ordered 
to cruise on the Spanish coast ; and, in 
1592, took two valuable ships, and a 
rich carrack. In 1594 he was sent to 
the assistance of Henry IV., king of 
France, against a body of the Leaguers 
and Spaniards ; but in an assault upon 
Brest, November 7, was wounded with a 
ball, of which he died soon after. 

FROISSART.JoHN, chronicler, born 
about 1333, died 1402. 

FROLIC, steam vessel, lost and 80 
persons dro^vned, on the Ness Sands, 
Glamorganshire, April 11, 1831. 

FROST being derived from the atmo- 
sphere, naturally attacks the surfaces of 
bodies first, whence it gradually pro- 
ceeds to their interior parts ; hence the 
longer a frost continues, the thicker will 
be the ice. At Moscow, in a hard sea- 
son, the frost penetrates to the depth of 
two feet; and, according to Captain 
James, in Charlton Island, the water 
was frozen to the depth of six feet ; also, 
at the same time, the frost had descended 
ten feet into the ground. 

The following are some of the most 
remarkable frosts on record. 

220. One frost in Britain lasted five 
months. 

250. The Thames frozen nine weeks. 

291. Most of the rivers in Britain 
frozen six weeks. 

359. A severe frost in Scotland 14 
weeks. 

401. The Pontus sea was entirely 
frozen over, for the space of 20 days; 
and the sea between Constantinople and 
Scutari. 

508. So severe a frost all over Britain, 
that the rivers were frozen up for above 
two months. 

558. One so great that the Danube 
was quite frozen over. 

695. The Thames frozen for six weeks, 
when booths were built upon it. 

760. One that continued from Oct. 1 
to Feb. 26. 

827. One in England, which lasted 
nine weeks. 

859- Carriages were used on the 
Adriatic Sea. 

860. The Mediterranean Sea was fro- 
zen over, and passable in carts. 

908. Most of the rivers in England 
frozen for two mouths. 



923. The Thames frozen 13 weeks. 
987. Dec. 22, one that lasted 120 days, 

998. The Thames frozen five weeks. 

1035. A frost on Midsummer- day, 
so vehement, that the corn and fruits 
were destroyed. 

1063. The Thames frozen 14 weeks. 

1076. A frost in England, from No- 
vember to April. 

1114. Several bridges in England, 
being then of timber, broken down by a 
frost. 

1205. A frost from January 14 to 
March 22. 

1207. One of 15 weeks. 

1234. The Mediterranean was frozen 
over, and the merchants passed with 
their merchandize in carts. 

1294. The Cattegat, or sea between 
Norway and Denmark, was frozen ; and 
from Oxslo, in Norway, they travelled 
on the ice to Jutland. 

1296. The sea between Norway and 
the promontory of Scagemit frozen over; 
and from Sweden to Gothland. 

1306. The Baltic was covered with 
ice 14 weeks, between the ^Danish and 
Swedish islands. 

1323. TheBalcicwas passable for foot 
passengers and horsemen for six weeks. 

1349. The sea was frozen over, and 
passable from Stralsund to Denmark. 

1402. The Baltic was quite frozen 
over from Poraerania to Denmark. 

1408. The sea between Gothland and 
Geland was frozen ; and from Restock 
to Gezeor. 

1423, 1426, and 1459- The ice bore 
riding on from Lubec to Prussia ; and 
the Baltic was covered with ice from 
Mecklenburgh to Denmark. 

1420. The sea between Constanti- 
nople and Iskodor was passable on ice. 

1434. From November 24 to Febru- 
ary 10, one in England, when the 
Thames was frozen below the Bridge to 
Gravesend. 

1683. Another 13 weeks. 

1709. From December to March, 
with heavy snows. 

1716. When a fair was held on the 
Thames. 

1739. December 24, and continued 
nine weeks. 

1740. Feb. 2, Lough Neagh, was en- 
tirely frozen over, and the ice so hard, 
that many persons walked directly 
across the lough from Mountjoy Castle, 
in the county of Tyrone, to the Antrim 
market, a distance of 20 miles. 

1747. A very severe one in Russia. 



FRU 



496 



FUN 



ir54. Feb. 11, a fortnight in England, 
harder than had been witnessed for 
many years ; the river Thames being so 
chdaked up with ice, as to render the 
navigation of barges from the westward 
very difficult. 

1763. One which lasted 94 days. 

1779. One which lasted 84 days. 

1784. One which lasted 89 days. 

1785. One which lasted 115 days. 

1788. One which lasted from Novem- 
ber to January, 1789, when the Thames 
was crossed opposite the Custom-house, 
the Tower, Execution-dock, Putney, 
Brentford, &c ; it was general through 
Europe, particularly in Holland, at the 
same time. 

1791. Frost and snow, with hail in 
England, at Midsummer, and in Italy 
and Spain, in December following. 

1796. The most severe that had been 
felt in the memory of man. 

1814. Severe one, when booths were 
erected on various parts of the Thames ; 
several contained printing-presses, the 
owners of which sold various brief ac- 
counts of "The Fair Frost;" interspersed 
with scraps of poetry. The Antiquarian 
Society of Newcastle recorded, that the 
rapid river Tyne was frozen to the depth 
of 20 inches. 

1815. August 7, a severe frost at 
Quebec. 

1830. Severe frost together with an 
exceedingly heavy fall of snow, which 
greatly impeded all means of conveyance 
both by land and water; similar weather, 
with even a greater degree of severity, 
was experienced in the south of Eu- 
rope. January 18, the thermometer, 
on Hampstead-heath, was 22" below the 
freezing point. 

FROZEN Ocean. In 1636, the Rus- 
sians discovered that this ocean washed 
and bounded the north of Asia. The first 
Russian ship sailed down the Lena into 
this sea. 

FRUITS and Flowers. Sundry sorts 
before unknown, were brought into Eng- 
land in the reigns of Henry VII. and 
VIII., from about 1500 to 1578. Among 
others of less note, the musk and da- 
mask roses, of great use in medicine, 
and tulips. Several sorts of plum trees 
and currant plants ; also saffron, woad, 
and other drugs, for dying, attempted to 
be cultivated, but \vithout success. 

FRUITERERS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1604. 

FRUMENTIUS, a saint in the Ro- 
man calendar, entitled the " Apostle of 



Ethiopia," was a native of Tyre, and 
flourished in the fourth century. He 
was made a bishop, and appointed on a 
mission to Ethiopia, in the year 331. A 
great number of people were converted 
to the christian faith, and numerous 
churches were established throughout 
the empire. 

FUESSEN, peace of, between the 
queen of Hungary and elector of Ba- 
varia, April 23, 1745. 

FULDA, ancient principality of Ger- 
many. The greater part was formerly 
the estate of the celebrated and wealthy 
Benedictine abbey of Fulda. Tlie town 
was founded in 1162. In 1802, the ter- 
ritory was made over to the prince of 
Nassau, as an indemnification ; but re- 
sumed by Napoleon in 1810; in 1814, 
one section was given to Saxe Weimer, 
and the other to Hesse-Cassel. 

FULLER, Andrew, eminent non- 
conformist divine and theologian, born 
at Wicken, near Ely, in Cambridge, in 
1758. In 1775, he became pastor of the 
congregation at Soham; removed to Ket- 
tering, in October, 1783. In 1792, he 
pubhshed the " Calvinistic and Socinian 
Systems examined and compared as to 
their Moral Tendency;" in 1800, the 
" Gospel its own Witness, or, the Holy 
Nature and Divine Harmony of the 
Christian Religion, contrasted with the 
Immorality and Absurdity of Deism." 
He died April 11, 1815. The variety 
and compass of his writings serve to 
show what native talent, sound principle, 
ardent zeal, and persevering application 
can do, unaided by the regular advan- 
tages of mental culture. 

FULLER, Rev. Dr. Thomas, histo- 
rian and biographer, born 1606, died 
1661. 

FULTON, John, the first person who 
practised steam-navigation with success, 
died 181*5, aged 45. 

FULTON, American steam vessel, 
destroyed at the navy-yard of New York, 
by the explosion of the powder on board ; 
22 persons were killed, and many others 
wounded, June 16, 1829. 

FUNDS, THE Public, a term origi- 
nally applied to the taxes appropriated 
by parliament to the support of civil go- 
vernment, and the payment of the prin- 
cipal and interest of money borrowed for 
public service. But the term is now 
more commonly used for those sums 
which have from time to time been lent 
to government, and which constitute the 
national debt. 



GAI 



497 



GAL 



The followinff are the principal funds 
or stocks forming the public debt, with 
the dates of their formation : — 

1716. South Sea Debt Annui- 
ties, Old and New, amounting to 
£10,144,584. Dividends on the Old 
South Sea Annuities payable April 5 
and October 10; dividends on the rest of 
the company's stock payable January 5 
and July 5. 

1751. Three per cent. Consols 
or Consolidated Annuities. When 
the consolidation took place, the prin- 
cipal of the funds, blended together, 
amounted to £9,137,821. Dividends 
payable January 5 and July 5. 

1757. Three per cent. Reduced 
Annuities amounted at the establish- 
ment of the fund to £17,571,574. Divi- 
dends payable April 5 and October 10. 

1818. Annuities at 3i per cent. 
payable April 5 and Oct. 10. The capital 
of this stock amounts to £12,350,802. 

1824. Reduced 34 per cent. An- 
nuities payable April 5 and Oct. 10. 

New 3i per cent. Annuities 
formed by 11 Geo. IV. c. 13, payable 
January 5 and July 5. 

Four per cent. Annuities created 
1S26. Dividends payable April 5 and 
October 10. 

Long Annuities created at different 
periods, but they all expire together, 
I860. Dividends payable April 5 and 
October 10. 

FUR Trade was first practised by 
the early French settlers at Quebec and 
Montreal ; and consisted then, as now, 
in bartering fire-arms, ammunition, 
cloth, spirits, and other articles in de- 



mand among the Indians, for beaver and 
other skins. In 1670, Charles IL esta^ 
bhshed the Hudson's Bay Company, to 
which he assigned the exclusive privi- 
lege of ti-ading with the Indians for furs. 

In 1783-4, the principal traders en- 
gaged in the fur trade of Canada formed 
also the North-west Company. These 
rival companies ultimately united in 
1787, under the name of the Hudson's 
Bay Fur Company, which at present 
engrosses most of the fur trade of British 
America. 

The North American Fur Company, 
the leading directors of which reside in 
the city of New York, have long en- 
joyed the principal part of the Indian 
trade of the great lakes and the Upper 
Mississippi. According to Mr. M'Gregor, 
the value of the furs annually exported 
from British America, amounted, at an 
average of the five years ending with 
1832, to about £210,000 sterling a year. 

FURNIVAL'S Inn Society began 
1563. 

FURRIERS' Company, London, in- 
corporated 1509. 

FUSELI, Henry, a distinguished 
painter, and accomplished scholar, a na- 
tive of Zurich, was born in the year 1738. 
Early in life he came to seek his fortune 
in England. He opened his Milton Gal- 
lery about the year 1798, when the ex- 
tent of his intellectual acquirements, his 
lofty imagination, and singular fancy» 
were fully appreciated. The pictures he 
painted for the Shakspeare Gallery are' 
also remembered with feelings of high 
admiration. He died April 15, 1825, in 
the 87th year of his age. 



G. 



GABEL, in Bohemia, a large town, 
totally destroyed by fire, May 11, 
1788. 

GAETA, town in Naples, one of the 
strongest fortresses in Europe, was be- 
sieged in 1435, by Alphonso, king of 
Arragon; in 1702, it was taken by as- 
sault by the Austrians, after a siege of 
three months ; and in 1734, by the united 
armies of France, Spain, and Sardinia ; 
and lastly by the French, July 18, I8O6, 
after a siege of five months. 

GAINSBOROUGH, Lincolnshire. 



The Danes under Sweyne,. landed here, 
and Alfred the Great, in 868, celebrated 
his nuptials at this place. This was the 
birthplace of William de Gainsborough, 
who was l)red a Franciscan friar at Ox- 
ford, and afterwards became ambassador 
to Edward I. 

GAINSBOROUGH, Thomas, a cele- 
brated English painter of landscape and 
portrait, born 1727, died 1788. 

GALATZ, or Galacz, town in Mol- 
davia, was taken and burned by the 
Russians in 1789, after a severe conflict. 
3 s 



GAL 



This town may be said to be the port 
of the Danube, and has recently been 
rapidly rising in importance. Steam 
vessels have been established on the 
Danube, from Presburg to Galacz, and 
thence by the Black Sea, to Constanti- 
nople and Trebizond. See Danube. The 
value of the merchandise imported into, 
and exported from, the port of Galacz 
in 1835, was, imports £254,250; exports 
£527,925. 

GALBA, the Roman emperor, died 69, 
aged 73. 

GALE, destructive one, off the coast 
of Yorkshire, Dec. 1, 1828; 13 vessels 
cast on shore near Filey, and eight at 
Whitby. Crews saved by life-boats. 

GALE, Rev. Dr. John, an eminent 
nonconformist writer and preacher, born 
in London, in 1680. In 1711, he pub- 
lished " Reflections on Mr. Wall's His- 
tory of Infant Baptism, in several Let- 
ters to a Friend." He died in 1721, in 
the 42d year of his age. 

GALEN, Claudius, the celebrated 
Greek physician, was born at Pergamus, 
in Asia Minor, about 131. He chiefly 
studied the works of Hippocrates. At 
Pergamus his practice was attended with 
extraordinary applause, but he was in- 
duced to go to Rome, where he encoun- 
tered much opposition and jealousy from 
the physicians of that city, who adhered 
to the principles of the methodic sect. 
He died about the year 200. The best 
edition of his works is that printed at 
Basil, in 1538, and that of Venice, in 
1625. 

GALERIUS, the Roman emperor, 
died of a loathsome disease, and Maxen- 
tius ordered him to be ranked among 
the gods, 311. 

GALICIA, a province of Spain. The 
name is derived from the Callaici, an 
ancient tribe, who resisted the Romans, 
and also, in 714, opposed the Moors. In 
1060, this province was erected into a 
kingdom by Ferdinand the Great, king 
of Leon and Castile. In 1474, in the 
reign of Ferdinand V., it was made a 
province of Spain, retaining the title of 
a kingdom. 

GALILEO, Galilei, a celebrated 
mathematician, philosopher, and astro- 
nomer, was born in 1564, at Pisa, in 
Italy. Being informed in l609, that 
Jansen, a Dutchman, had invented a 
glass which made distant objects appear 
as if they were near, Galileo turned his 
attention to the subject, and invented the 



498 GAL 

telescope. Having observed some spots 
in the sun's disk, in 1612, he printed an 
account of his discovery the following 
year at Rome, and ventured to assert the 
truth of the Copernican system. For 
these he was cited before the Inquisition. 
Again in 1632, he published at Florence 
his " Dialogues of the two greatest Sys- 
tems of the World, the Ptolemaic and 
Corpernican," when he was also cited 
before the Inquisition, and committed to 
the prison of that ecclesiastical court at 
Rome. He became totally blind in 1639, 
and died at Arcetti, near Florence, in 
January, 1642, in the 78lh year of his 
age. Galileo was the inventor of the 
simple pendulum. Vicenzio, his son, 
first applied it to clocks at Venice in 
1649. 

GALL, Dr., the founder of the crani- 
ological doctrine, and joint author with 
Spurzheim, of " The Anatomy and Phy- 
siology of the Nervous System," was 
born in 1758, in a village of the duchy 
of Baden. At Vienna he was invested 
with the title of doctor, in 1785, and he 
afterwards followed the practice of medi- 
cine there. He went to Paris in 1807, 
where his reputation had already pre- 
ceded him. The great work of Gall and 
Spurzheim was published at Paris, in 
1810. Dr. Gall died August 22, 1828, 
at his country-house, at Montrouge, near 
Paris, aged 71. 

GALLAPAGOS Isles, discovered in 
1700; explored by Captain James Col- 
nett in 1793. 

GALLEYS, first used with three men 
to each oar, a.c. 786. They came ori- 
ginally from Corinth. 

GALLIENUS, the Roman emperor, 
assassinated by his officers at Milan, on 
Feb. 21, 268, aged 50. 

GALLON. The old English gallon, 
wine measure, contained 23 1 cubic inches ; 
and the old English gallon, ale measure, 
contained 282 cubic inches. By the 
6 Geo. 4. c. 58. s. 6. it is enacted, that 
after January 5, 1826, whenever any 
gallon measure is mentioned in any act 
of parliament relative to the excise, it 
shall be taken and deemed to be a gallon 
imperial standard measure ; the imperial 
gallon shall contain lOlbs. avoirdupois 
weight of distilled water, weighed in air 
at the temperature of 62° of Fahrenheit's 
thermometer, the barometer being at 30 
inches, or 277274 cubic inches, and all 
other measures of capacity to be used, as 
well for wine, beer, ale, spirits, and all 



GAL 



499 



GAL 



sorts of liquids, as for dry goods, not 
measured by heaped measure, shall he 
derived, computed, and ascertained from 
such gallon ; and all measures shall be 
taken in parts, or multiples, or certain 
proportions, of the said imperial standard 
gallon. 

GALLOWAY, district in Scotland, 
anciently independent both of the Picts 
and Scots. The kings of Scotland, 
afterwards assumed a feudal superiority 
over its lords, who long disputed the 
claim. The lordship descended to the 
family of Douglas, and remained in their 
possession until it was forfeited by their 
rebellion, in 1455, against James IL It 
was then declared a province of Scot- 
land. Galloway now gives the title of 
earl to the ancient family of Stewart, so 
created in 1623. 

GALT, John, a well-known author 
of various literary works, was born in 
1779, at Irvine, in Scotland, was edu- 
cated at Greenock, and in early life en- 
gaged in trade in London, but was un- 
successful. He then visited the south of 
Europe, and, after returning to England, 
published the result of his observations, 
under the title of " Voyages and Travels 
in the years 1809, 1810, and 1811, con- 
taining Statistical, Commercial, and Mis- 
cellaneous Observations on Gibraltar, 
Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, and Turkey;" 
and he afterwards pursued an active lite- 
rary career. He published a considerable 
number of novels, among which are, 
" Lawrie Todd," "Annals of the Parish," 
" The Entail," " Sir Andrew Wylie," 
'■ The Provost," " Ayrshire Legatees ;" 
various miscellaneous and biographical 
works, among which is the " Autobio- 
graphy of John Gait, Esq." 2 vols. 1833. 
He died at Greenock, April 11, 1839, 
aged 60. 

There is a thorough quaintness of 
phrase and dialogue in Mr. Gait's best 
works, which places him apart from all 
other Scotch novelists. Much " know- 
ledge of life, variety of character, live- 
liness, and humour are displayed in these 
novels, and render them justly popular. 
His humour and truth were recognised 
as admirable by Sir Walter Scott." 

GALVANI, Louis, the philosopher, 
who discovered the principle and gave 
the name to the science of galvanism, 
was born at Bologna in Italy, in 1737. 
He acquired great reputation by his in- 
augural thesis, " De Ossibus," in 1762; 
and was soon after chosen public lec- 



turer in the university of Bologna, and 
reader in anatomy to the institute of that 
city. Soon after his anatomical and phy- 
siological knowledge was fully esta- 
blished throughout the Italian schools, 
a mere accident led him to that interest- 
ing discovery which will transmit his 
name to the latest posterity. His first 
publication on this discovery made its 
appearance in 1791. He died Nov. 5, 
1798. 

GALVANISM is a peculiar kind of 
electricity, elicited by the force of che- 
mical action, instead of friction. The 
exhibition of phenomena, apparently de- 
pending on electricity, by the voluntary 
action of animals, in the case of the tor- 
pedo, and some other fishes, which com- 
municate a kind of electric shock to 
those who touch them, had long been 
known, when Galvani, in 1790, observed 
that the contact of metals with the nerves 
of a frog recently killed, produced con- 
vulsive motions, which might, for some 
time after the death of the animal, be 
renewed at pleasure^ by repeating the 
application of the metals. These singu- 
lar phenomena were at first supposed to 
depend on some peculiar action of me- 
tals on the nerves of animals ; and were 
regarded as constituting the foundation 
of a new science, to which was appro- 
priated the appellation of Galvanism. 

1800. Professor Volta, of Pavia, dis- 
covered the electric effect of certain ar- 
rangements of different metals, forming 
what has been since called a voltaic pile, 
and that of the similarity of the effect of 
electricity accumulated from bodies ex- 
cited in the usual manner by friction, 
with the effect of such a pile. 

Professor Volta afterwards conceived 
the idea of forming what may be termed 
a compound galvanic or voltaic circle, 
called the voltaic pile. It consists in 
arranging a number of discs of different 
metals, as zinc and copper, with cloth or 
pasteboard, soaked in some acid or saline 
solution between them ; as thus the 
effect might be indefinitely augmented, 
according to the number and size of the 
discs. 

1806 — 1820. Sir H. Davy discovered 
the decompositions of the alkalies and 
earths ; also, that the chemical action of 
bodies upon each other may be modified 
or destroyed by changes in their electri- 
cal states ; that substances will combine 
only when they are in different electrical 
states; and that by bringing a body 



GAL 



500 



G A iM 



naturally positive, artificially into a nega- 
tive electrical state, its usual powers of 
combination are altogether destroyed. 
By reasoning upon this general princijjle, 
Sir Humphry was led to another impor- 
tant discovery, that copper being a metal 
only weakly positive in the electro-che- 
mical scale, he conceived that it could 
only act on sea-water in a positive state, 
and consequently that if it could be ren- 
dered slightly negative, the corroding 
action of sea water upon it would be de- 
stroyed. The application of these results 
to the preservation of the copper sheeting 
of ships of war and other vessels is ob- 
vious, and the e.vperiment has been tried 
with the happiest effect. See further the 
article Davy. 

1821 — 1838. Numerous modifications 
and improvements were made in the vol- 
taic pile. The following are some of the 
most recent. In 1838, a powerful bat- 
tery was executed by Mr. E. M. Clarke, 
at the Gallery of Practical Science. Its 
effects are truly surprising. Cylinders 
of coke when placed in the circuit, pro- 
duce a light so intense, that the eye can- 
not dwell on without pain. Copper wire 
of one quarter of an inch diameter is 
rapidly fused ; but the most extraordi- 
nary fact is that, notwithstanding such 
intense power, the experimenter holds 
the conducting wires in each hand, and 
states that the battery gives no shocks 
without the aid of a coil of wire on the 
principle of Professor Colons. 

On April 9, 1838, Professor Apjohn 
read a paper to the Royal Irish Academy, 
*' On the Properties of a new Voltaic 
Combination," by Thomas Andrews, 
M.D. The object of the author in this 
paper is to extend the results which he 
has already obtained on the influence of 
voltaic circles upon the solution of the 
metals in nitric acid to the case of con- 
centrated sulphuric acid. When a plate 
of zinc is heated to the temperature of 
240° cent, in sulphuric acid, of the sp. 
gr. "847, it is dissolved with the rapid 
disengagement of a mixture of hydrogen 
and sulphureous acid gas ; but when a 
similar plate, voltaically associated with 
a platina wire, is introduced into the 
same acid, its rate of solution is reduced 
to one-third of the other, no gas appears 
at the zinc, and sulphureous acid, almost 
perfectly pure, separates at the platina 
wire. Similar effects occur at other tem- 
peratures ; but the proportion between 
the quantity of zinc dissolved when 



alone, and when connected with platina, 
varies with the temperature. 

1839. Mr. W. R. Grove, M.A., has 
constructed a small, but very powerful 
battery, consisting of seven liqueur- 
glasses, containing the bowls of common 
tobacco pipes; the metals, zinc, and pla- 
tinvim ; and the electrolytes, concentrated 
nitric and dilute muriatic acids. This 
little apparatus has produced effects of 
decomposition, equal to the most power- 
ful batteries of the old construction. 
See Electricity and Electro-Mag- 
netism. 

GALWAY, town in Ireland. In 1296, 
a Franciscan monastery was founded 
here by WiUiam- de Burgh, and in 1381, 
Pope Urban emjiowered the guardian of 
this house to excommunicate all Con- 
naught men who acknowledged his rival, 
Clement VII. 

GALWAY College, Ireland, found- 
ed by Edward VI. 1551. 

GAMA, Vasco de, a celebrated Por- 
tuguese navigator, born at Sines, a sea- 
port town in the province of Alentejo. 
He sailed on his first voyage of discovery 
in Africa in July, 1479; returned in 
September, 1499, with the loss of the 
majority of his crew, arising from fatigue 
and disease. By this voyage the prac- 
ticabihty of a new passage to the Indies 
was fully established. In ] 502, he un- 
dertook a second voyage, wth the title 
of admiral of the Indian, Persian, and 
Arabian seas, having 20 sail of ships 
under his command; returned Sej)tem- 
ber, 1503, with great riches. In 1524, 
he undertook a third voyage, with the 
exalted rank of viceroy of the Indies. 
He died at Cochin, December 25, 1525, 
three months after his arrival. 

GAMBIA, river. Western Africa, on 
which are several British settlements. 
Fort James is situated on an island 
about 30 miles up the river, and was 
formerly strongly fortified ; but the 
French, on capturing it in 1688, de- 
stroyed the works, which have never 
been entirely restored. The French 
have a factory called Albredar, about 
three miles below Jillifree, which they 
retained possession of, in defiance of the 
treaty of 17S3, and have retained, most 
unjustifiably, to the present day. The 
trade of the Gambia has recently suf- 
fered severely from outrages committed 
upon the river by a native chief, who has 
seized and plundered the trading vessels 
belonging to the merchants at Bathhurst. 



GAM 



501 



GAR 



GAMBIER, James, Baron Gambier 
of Iver, county of Buckingham, admiral 
of the fleet, and G.C.B., was born in the 
Bahama isles, Oct. 13, 1/56. He went 
to sea at an early age ; and in 1778, was 
commander of the Thunder Bomb, in 
which he was captured by the French 
fleet under count D'Estaing. He was 
promoted to the rank of ])ost-captain, 
Oct. 9, and was engaged in repelling the 
French attempt upon Jersey, January 6, 
1781. 

1795. He was advanced to the 
rank of rear-admiral ; vice-admiral in 
1799. On April 4, 1807, (having be- 
come full admiral in 1805) he was ap- 
pointed to assist in the direction of 
naval affairs, under Lord Mulgrave ; in 
the following summer he was entrusted 
with the command of the fleet sent to 
demand possession of the Danish navy. 
For his conduct in this affair he was re- 
warded with a peerage, by patent dated 
Nov. 9, 1807. In the month of May 
1808, Lord Gambier finally retired from 
his seat at the Admiralty. April, 1809, a 
detachment of his fleet attacked a French 
squadron in the Aix roads, and de- 
stroyed la Ville de Varsovie 80, Tonnerre 
74, Aquilon 74, and Calcutta 56, besides 
driving several others on shore. Lord 
Gambier retained the command of the 
channel fleet until 1811. In 1814 he was 
placed at the head of the commissioners 
for concluding a peace with the United 
States of America. He died at his 
house at Ivei% near Uxbridge, April 19, 
1833, aged 76. 

Lord Gambier was characterised by 
feelings of great piety and benevolence. 
He was president of the Church Mis- 
sionary Society, and a vice-president of 
the Naval Charitable Marine, and other 
societies ; and also of the Lock Hospital, 
the Asylum, and the African and Bene- 
A-olent Institutions. 

GAMBIER'S Islands, a group of 
islands in the South Pacific Ocean, dis- 
covered in 1797, by Captain Wilson, in 
the Duff", but not particularly explored 
by him. They were visited about 1828, 
by Captain Beechey in the Blossom. 
They consist of five large islands and 
several smaller ones. The largest island 
Captain Beechey named, after the first 
lieutenant, Perd island ; and the others 
in succession Belcher, Wainwright, El- 
son, Collie, and Marsh, after the other 
officers, and the lagoon in which the 
ship was anchored, after herself. 



GAMBOLD, John, an eminent Mo- 
ravian bishop, died l77l- 

GAME-LAWS. In the times of the 
Britons, game was enjoyed in common : 
but when husbandry took place under 
the Saxon government, our royal sports- 
men reserved it for their own diversion, 
on pain of a pecuniary forfeiture for such 
as interfered with their sovereign. Upon 
the Norman conquest, a right of pur- 
suing and taking all beasts of chace was 
held to belong to the king, and to such 
only as were authorised by him. 

In succeeding reigns various statutes 
were enacted for the protection of game, 
particularly 28 Geo. II. c. 12. About 
1827, attempts were unsuccessfully made 
to introduce some alteration. An im- 
provement was at length accomplished 
by 2 Will. IV. c. 32, October 5, 1831, 
allowing certain persons to deal in game 
by licence, provided that every person 
while so licensed, shall affix to some 
part of the outside of the front of his 
house, &c., a board, having thereon, in 
clear and legible characters, his chris- 
tian name and surname ; together with 
the words, " Licensed to deal in Game ;" 
and every such licence, granted in the 
present year, shall continue in force until 
July 15, 1832, and in any succeeding 
year,*for one year. 

GAMING severely prohibited by va- 
rious statutes. 33 Henry VIII. c. 9, 
prohibits to all but gentlemen, the games 
of tennis, tables, cards, dice, bowls, and 
other unlawful diversions. 23 Geo. 11. 
c. 24, inflicts pecuniary penalties, as 
well upon the master of any public- 
house wherein servants are permitted to 
game, as upon the servants themselves, 
who are found to be gaming there. By 
several statutes of the reign of King 
George XL, all private lotteries by tickets, 
cards, or dice, are prohibited under a 
penalty of £200 for him that shall erect 
such lotteries, and £50 a time for players. 
And, lastly, by 42 Geo. III. c. 119, all 
games or lotteries called "httle-goes" 
are declared to be public nuisances. 

GAMING-HOUSES licensed in Lon- 
don, in 1620. 

GAMUT, in music, invented by Guido 
L'Aretino, in 1022. See Aretino. 

GANDON, John, an eminent Irish 
architect, born 1742, died 1824. 

GAOL Fees, abolished by law, 1815. 

GARAMOUD, Claude, a French 
letter-founder and engraver, died 1561. 

GARDA Lake, North Italy, Lorn- 



GAR 



502 



GAR 



bardo- Venetian territory, though not the 
largest, is one of the finest in Italy ; it 
is celebrated by Virgil and Catullus, and 
was the scene of some of Napoleon's 
most brilliant exploits in 1796. 

GARDENING was introduced into 
England, from the Netherlands, whence 
vegetables were imported, about 1509- 

1520. The pale gooseberry, with sa- 
lads, garden-roots, cabbages, &c., brought 
from Flanders, and hops from Artois. 
The damask rose brought here l)y Dr. 
Linacre, physician to Henry VIII. In 
1525, pippins were brought to England 
by Leonard Mascal, of Pluinstead in 
Sussex. In 1555, currants or Corinthian 
grapes, were first planted in England, 
brought from the Isle of Zante. The 
musk-rose, and several sorts of plums 
were brought from Italy by Lord Crom- 
well. Apricots brought here by King 
Henry VIII. 's gardener. In 1567, at 
and al)out Norwich, the Flemings first 
planted flowers, unknown in England, 
as gilliflowers, carnations, the Province 
rose, &c. In 1578, tulip-roots were first 
brought into England, from Vienna. 

GARDENERS' Company, London, 
incorporated in I6l6. 

GARDINER, Colonel James, who 
has been justly celebrated as sustaining, 
in an eminent degree, the character of a 
christian soldier, was born at Carriden, 
in Linlithgowshire, Scotland, on Jan. 10, 
1688. In 1715, by the influence of Lord 
Stair, a captain's commission was pro- 
cured for him in the regiment of dragoons 
commanded by Colonel Stanhope ; and 
in the year 1717, he was advanced to 
the rank of major. 

His life had been so eminently marked 
by dissipation, that multitudes envied 
him, and called him by a dreadful kind 
of compliment, "the happy rake." But 
in 1719, some remarkable circumstances, 
as related by Dr. Doddridge, produced 
a complete change in his character. He 
became an eminent christian hero. On 
Jan 24, 1730, he was advanced to the 
rank of lieutenant-colonel ; and in 1743, 
he received a colonel's commission over 
a regiment bf dragoons, at the head of 
which he valiantly fell, covered with 
wounds, in the defence of his sovereign 
and his country, on Sept. 21, 1745, at 
the battle of Preston Pans. 

GARDINER, Stephen, a prelate 
celebrated in British history during the 
reign of Queen Mary, was born at Bury 
St. Edmund's, in Suffolk. He took his 



degree of doctor in 1520, About 1527 
he was appointed chief of an embassy to 
Rome, to negotiate with the pope the 
affairs of the king's divorce from Queen 
Catherine. In 1531 he was consecrated 
bishop of Winchester. In 1538 he was 
sent ambassador to the German diet at 
Ratisbon. In 1539 he distinguished 
himself by his exertions to procure the 
act of the six articles, commonly deno- 
minated the Bloody Statute, and in 
1540, he was elected chancellor of the 
university of Cambridge. 

After the death of Henry VIII., Gar- 
diner objected against the measures of 
reform which Cranmer was desirous of 
introducing; and on this account he was 
imprisoned in the Fleet, treated with 
much severity, and was, in consequence, 
deprived of his bishopric. In 1535, on 
the accession of Mary, he was appointed 
to perform the Romish obsequies for the 
late king, and on the following day he 
resumed the possession of Winchester 
House. He was very soon after declared 
chancellor of England, and the queen's 
prime minister. He gave full scope to 
his sanguinary disposition, and was even 
personally concerned in the most savage 
acts of barbarity. He died at the palace 
at Whitehall, Nov. 1555. 

GARRICK, David, the celebrated 
English actor, was born at Hereford, 
in 1716. About 1737 he entered at Lin- 
coln's Inn, but he soon relinquished the 
law, with a determination of following 
his favourite plan of becoming an actor 
by profession. In 1741 he began a 
summer's campaign at Ipswich, and 
played a variety of parts with uniform 
success. In the same year he made his 
appearance in London, when he per- 
formed the part of Richard III., in Good- 
man's Fields. In 1742 he entered into 
an agreement with Fleetwood, patentee 
of Drury Lane, for the annual income of 
£500. 

Having very advantageous terms of- 
fered him for performing in Dublin, he 
went over in June, 1742. In 1744 he 
made a second voyage to Dublin, and 
became joint manager of the theatre 
there with Mr. Sheridan. They met with 
great success ; and Garrick returned to 
London in May, 1746, and became joint 
patentee of Drury Lane theatre with Mr. 
Lacy. On the opening of this theatre, 
in 1747, Garrick pronounced the admi- 
rable prologue written for the occasion 
by his friend Dr. Samuel Johnson. In 



GAR 



503 



GAS 



17G5, he took a journey into France 
and Italy. On the death of Mr. Lacy, 
in 1773, the whole management of 
Drury Lane theatre devolved on Mr. 
Garrick. But in 1776, being about 60 
years of age, he sold his share of the 
patent, and formed a resolution of quit- 
ting the stage. About a fortnight or 
three weeks previous to his taking his 
final leave, he presented the public with 
some of the most capital and trying cha- 
racters of Shakspeare — Hamlet, Richard, 
and Lear. He died Jan. 20, 1779. His 
remains were most magnificently interred 
in Westminster Abbey, under the monu- 
ment of Shakspeare. He was followed 
to the grave by persons of the first 
rank — by men, illustrious for genius, 
as well as most of the principal actors 
in both theatres. 

GARTER, Order of the, a military 
order of knighthood in England, insti- 
tuted by Edward HL, which is the most 
noble and ancient of any lay order in the 
world. The common account of its 
origin is, that the countess of Salisbury, 
at a ball, happening to drop her garter, 
the king took it up, and presented it to 
her with these words, "Honi soit qui 
mal y pense ; " " Evil to him that evil 
thinks ;" a motto still borne by those 
who receive the favour. Camden, Fern, 
&c., suj)pose it to have been instituted 
on occasion of the victory obtained by 
Edward over the French at the battle of 
Cressy. In 1551, Edward VL made 
some alterations in the ritual of his order : 
that prince composed it in Latin, the 
original of which is still extant in his 
own handwriting. 

The knights companions of this order 
are generally princes and peers ; and the 
king of England is the sovereign or chief 
of the order. The number of knights 
was originally 26 ; but six were added 
in 1786, on account of the increase of 
the royal family. Of this illustrious 
order there have been eight emperors 
of Germany, one emperor of Russia, 
five kings of France, three kings of 
Spain, one king of Arragon, seven 
kings of Portugal, one king of Po- 
land, two kings of Sweden, six kings 
of Denmark, two kings of Naples, 
one king of Sicily and Jerusalem, 
one king of Bohemia, two kings of 
Scotland, five princes of Orange, and 
34 foreign electors, dukes, margraves, 
and counts. 

GARTER, Principal King-at- 



Arms, an office instituted by Henry V. 
in 1420. 

GARTH, Sir Samuel, an English 
physician and poet, took his degree of 
doctor of medicine on July 7, I691. In 
1693, he was admitted into the col- 
lege of physicians. He died January, 
1719. 

GAS-LIGHT, artificial light obtained 
by the ignition of the gases, procured 
during the decomposition of pit-coal, or 
of vegetable or animal substances. That 
a permanently elastic and inflammable 
aeriform fluid is evolved from pit- coal, 
was first ascertained experimentally by 
the Rev. Dr. Clayton, about the year 
1739- About the same time Dr. Hales 
made various chemical experiments upon 
pit-coal. Dr. Watson, bishop of Llan- 
daflT, in 1767, examined the quantities of 
the gaseous products generated whilst 
distilling pit-coal ; and observed that the 
carburetted hydrogen gas would inflame, 
and that its inflammable quality was re- 
tained after passing it through water, and 
allowing it to ascend by means of curved 
tubes. 

But the application of coal-gas for 
illuminating purposes is a discovery 
claimed justly by Mr. Murdoch, who, 
in 1792, resided at Redruth, in Cornwall. 
He commenced a series of experiments 
upon the quantity and quality of the 
gases contained in different substances ; 
in the course of which, he remarked 
that the gas obtained by distillation from 
coal, peat, wood, and other inflammable 
substances, burnt with great brilliancy 
upon being set fire to. He repeated his 
experiments in 1797, and they were con- 
tinued with occasional interruptions until 
1802, when the illumination of the Soho 
manufactory aflforded an opportunity of 
making a public display of the new lights ; 
and they were made to constitute a prin- 
cipal feature in that exhibition. Mr. F. A. 
Winsor exhibited the general nature of 
gas-light illumination at the Lyceum 
theatre in London, in the years 1803 
and 1804 ; but he did not show the ap- 
])aratus by means of which he obtained 
the coal-gas, nor explain the mode of 
purification which he adopted. 

1805. Mr. Northern, of Leeds, called 
the public attention to the subject of ap- 
plying coal-gas for the purpose of pro- 
ducing light instead of candles. About 
the same time Mr. Samuel Clegg, of 
Manchester, engineer, commimicated to 
the Society of Arts an account of his 



GAS 



504 



GAS 



method of lighting up manufactories with 
gas, for which he received the silver 
medal. Mr. Murdoch, in 1808, pre- 
sented the Royal Society with his ac- 
count of the application of coal-gas, for 
Avhich the society complimented him with 
Count Rumford's medal, and the Ught 
was introduced at Manchester and other 
places, at the same time. 

In this country the gas used for illu- 
minating purposes was generated from 
pit-coal till the year 1815, when Mr. J. 
Taylor, of Stratford, in the county of 
Essex, obtained a patent for procuring 
it from oil, as well as from bones and 
animal matter. His specification is given 
in the I63d number of the second scries 
of the Repertory of Arts, for December, 
1815. 

1816. But it is the gas from coal that 
is most generally in use in this country, 
and after this period began to be gene- 
rally adopted. The success which at- 
tended its introduction is unparalleled in 
the history of the arts. 

1817 to 1820. Some important im- 
provements were occasionally made in 
the construction of gas-works, and lat- 
terly, some modifications in the mode of 
setting retorts, &c. 

1830. A great and most unnecessary 
expense was, till about this time, incurred 
in providing exterior scaffolding for the 
erection of chimneys to gas works. By 
recent practice, however, this expense has 
been rendered totally unnecessary. Spars 
are let into the interior course of the 
chimney, at the proper distances, for a 
man to mount up by, like the steps of a 
common ladder, llie bricks and mortar 
are hoisted by a projecting beam with a 
pulley at the end of it, to the top, where 
the bricklayers are at work ; and when 
the work is finished, the spars, being 
merely wedged into their j)laces with 
loose brick, are afterwards very easily 
disengaged. By this simple method, a 
saving is effected of from £20 to £30, 
on the former method of outside scaffold- 
ing in the erection of a chimney of only 
50 or 60 feet high. 

1839. Other improvements of a minor 
kind have also been made. Mr. Hegin- 
botham, of Stockport, has patented his 
self-acting gas apparatus. The retort, 
which is four feet long, produces up- 
wards of 8000 feet in 24 hours, being 
three times as much as can be made upon 
the present system, from one retort. The 
gas lias a superior illuminating power, 



and one-third more is extracted from a 
given quantity of coal. 

On March 27, Sir John Robinson sub- 
mitted to the Society of Arts, for Scot- 
land, a paper, pointing out the most eco- 
nomical mode of burning gas, by a pecu- 
liar construction of the burners, and the 
proper size and fitting of the chimneys, 
and the disuse of obscured shades. It 
is found to be more economical, with any 
burner, to burn the gas to the full height 
it can attain without smoking. If a 
small quantity of light be wanted, it is 
better to use a smaller burner than to re- 
duce the flame of a larger one. The best 
effect of an Argand burner is attained 
when the holes are all of one size, so 
that the flame should be of an equal 
height all round. The paper also de- 
scribes the method of burning gas in 
street lamps, pointed out by Sir John 
Robinson, and now very generally used 
in Edinburgh, so as to prevent the mois- 
ture from being condensed on the 
inside of the globes, and rendering the 
light obscure. The Bude Light, the 
invention of Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney, 
is produced by introducing oxygen into 
the interior of the flame. The oxygen 
strikes the nescent carbon and vapour 
of oil as it is distilled, and produces an 
intense light. The difference between 
that and an Argand lamp is, that one 
has oxygen in the interior, and the other 
has common air. See Bude Light. 

1840. The construction of gas works 
on a large scale, and the carrying of pipes 
through the streets and into houses, &c., 
is very expensive, and requires a large 
outlay of capital. Hence, most of the 
gas-hghts in the different towns are sup- 
plied by joint-stock companies. Many 
of them have turned out to he very pro- 
fitable concerns. There are, at the pre- 
sent time, nearly lOO principal gas com- 
panies in the kingdom with about 
200,000 shares. 

Cookery by Gas. Sir John Ro- 
binson in 1838, explained to the British 
Association a method of generating heat 
by burning gas through a tube of about 
six inches diameter, open at the lower 
end, the top end being covered with a 
wire gauze, shnilar to the Davy safety- 
lamp. This process he had used in his 
own house for upwards of 1 1 years, and 
had found it completely successful ; he 
introduced it as a substitute for coal. 
The wire-gauze is liable to be destroyed 
under a long-continued intense heat; 



GAU 



505 



GED 



but this may be obviated by sprinkling 
a small quantity of sand upon it. In a 
discussion which followed, Mr. Russell 
observed, that for cooking small joints, 
the application of gas was most econo- 
mical ; but for cooking large joints, the 
direct application of coal-fuel was found 
the cheapest. 

GASCOIGNE, Sir William, judge, 
who committed the prince of Wales for 
insulting him on the bench, died 1413. 

GASSENDI, Peter, an eminent 
French philosopher, was born at Chan- 
teisier, near Digne in Provence, in 1592. 
He was the first that observed a transit 
of Mercury over the sun's disk, on Nov. 
7, 1631. He was, in 1645, appointed 
royal professor of mathematics at Paris. 
In 1653, he published his lives of Peiresc, 
Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Purbachius, 
and Regiomontanus. He died in 1655, 
aged 63. His works were collected after 
his death, and, accompanied with the 
author's life, published by Sorbierre, in 
six volumes folio, in 1658. 

GATAKER, Thomas, English critic 
and divine, born 1574, died 1654. 

GATESIDE Monastery, Durham, 
founded 653. 

GATTON, town and parish, England, 
population, 145. It was a borough by 
prescription, and returned two members 
to parliament from the year 1451, in the 
reign of Henry VI., until 1832, when 
it was disfranchised by the reform bill. 

GAUDIN LIGHT. On October 19, 
1838, there were exhibited before the 
French Academy of Sciences some ex- 
periments on a new method of illumina- 
tion proposed by M. Gaudin, which is 
stated to be an improved modification of 
the splendid Drummond Light. While 
Drummond pours a stream of oxygen 
gas, through spirit of wine, upon un- 
slaked lime, Gaudin employs a more 
ethereal kind of oxygen, which he con- 
ducts through burning essence of turpen- 
tine. The Drummond Light is 1500 
times stronger than that of burning gas ; 
the Gaudin Light is, we are assured by 
the inventor, as strong as that of the 
sun, or 30,000 times stronger than gas, 
and, of course, ten times more so than 
the Drummond. 

GAUL, an ancient country of Europe, 
consisting of that part which now forms 
the kingdom of France. The original 
inhabitants were descended from the 
Celtes or Gomerians, by whom the 
greatest part of Europe was peopled. 



They muliiplied so rapidly, that their 
own country was insufficient to contain 
them ; and they poured forth in vast 
multitudes into other countries, which 
they generally subdued. 

The earliest excursion of these people 
was into Italy, under a celebrated leader 
named Bellovesus, about a.c. 622. The 
Romans having determined to invade 
the country of the Gauls, their first suc- 
cessful attempt was about A.c. 118, under 
the command of Quintus Marcius. After 
a series of successes on the part of the 
Romans, the Gauls at length ceased to 
be formidable to them. During his 
several expeditions into Gaul, Caesar is 
said to have taken 800 cities, and sub- 
dued 300 different nations. The coun- 
try from this period became a province 
of the Roman empire, till its conquest 
by the Franks, and the subsequent es- 
tablishment of the French monarchy 
under Clovis. See France. 

GAVESTON, Piers, the favourite of 
Edward II., beheaded June 19, 1312. 

GAY, John, an English poet and 
dramatist, born at Barnstaple, in 1688. 
In 1712 he became secretary to the 
duchess of Monmouth. In 1714 he 
accompanied the earl of Clarendon to 
Hanover. He published a collection of 
poems in 1720, by which he gained a 
thousand pounds. His next work was his 
Fables, written professedly for the in- 
struction of the duke of Cumberland, to 
whom it was dedicated. In the year 
1727-8, appeared his "Beggar's Opera;" 
the success of which was unprecedented. 
It was acted for 63 nights successively 
with unabated applause. After having 
undergone many vicissitudes of fortune, 
the duke of Q,ueensbury took him into 
his house, and treated him with the 
greatest kindness. He died December, 
1732, and was interred in Westminster 
Abbey. 

GAZETTES, of Venetian origin, and 
so called from the price being a gazetta, a 
small piece of money. The first pub- 
lished in England was at Oxford, Nov. 7, 
1665. The London Gazette was first 
published February 5, 1655-6. One was 
ingeniously forged for a stock-jobbing 
purpose, November, 1787. The first 
published at Paris was in 1723 ; at 
Leipsic in 1715. 

GED, William, an inventor of stereo, 
type, died 1749. 

GEDDES, Dr. Alexander, a 
learned Scots divine, born at Ruthven. 
3t 



GEM 



506 



GEN 



in the county of Banff, in 1/37. He 
went to the Scots university at Paris in 
1758 ; returned to Scotland in 1764 He 
began his new translation of the Bible 
in 1792, but it did not meet with the 
success it deser\-ed. He had corrected 
and prepared it for the press as far as the 
118th Psalm, when he was seized with 
a disorder, which put a period to his life 
February 26, 1802. 

GEDDES, James, a critical writer, 
died 1749, aged 38. 

GELDERS, or Guelders, town in 
Prussia, was taken in 1702 by the king 
of Prussia, and in 1713, with the district, 
ceded by France to that monarch, in 
exchange for the principality of Orange. 
In 1757 it was taken by the French, 
who, in 1764, restored it, after having 
demolished the fortifications. In 1794 
the French again became masters of G el- 
ders, and retained it until the general 
pacification of Europe in 1814, when it 
was finally assigned to Prussia. 

GELL, Sir William, M.A., F.R.S., 
and F.S.A., a member of the Society of 
Dilettanti, formerly a fellow of Emanuel 
College, Cambridge, where he graduated 
B.A., 1798 ; M.A., 1804. He published 
many learned and valuable works: "The 
Topography of Troy and its Vicinity," 
illustrated and explained by drawings 
and descriptions, 1804; "The Geography 
and Antiquities of Ithaca," 1808, 4to. ; 
" Pompeiana, or Observations upon the 
Topography, Edifices, and Ornaments 
of Pompeii, 1817—1819," &c. It was 
this work, equally beautiful and interest- 
ing, which made his name most exten- 
s'vely known. He received the honour 
of knighthood on a return from a mis- 
sion to the Ionian islands. May 14, 1803. 
In 1820, the late Queen Caroline ap- 
pointed him one of her chamberlains. He 
died at Naples, Feb. 3, 1836, aged 59. 

GEMAPPE, or Jamappes, town in 
Belgium, celebrated as the scene of the 
decisive victory obtained in the revolu- 
tionary war November 6, 1792, by the 
French army, under Dumouriez. An 
action also took place here June 17, 
1815, after the final defeat of the French, 
at Waterloo. 

GEMBLOURS, or Gembloux, town 
of Belgium. The Austrians, under Bu- 
leau, were defeated by the French, at 
this place, in 1794, and near to this 
the battle of Ligny was fought between 
the French and Prussians, June 16, 
1815. 



GENERAL Annuity Society, in- 
corporated 1827. 

GENEROSITY, order of knighthood, 
in Brandenburgh, began 1685. 

GENEVA, city of Switzerland, capital 
of the canton of the same name, in the 
middle ages was subject to a bishop and 
count. The count's rights fell afterwards 
to the duke of Savoy; but, in 1524, 
Geneva city extricated itself from the 
ducal government. The dukes made 
several unsuccessful attempts to recover 
their power, the last of which took place 
in 1602. In 1603, a permanent accom- 
modation was effected with the dukes of 
Savoy, and a free government guaranteed 
to Geneva by three mediators. 

1781. A violent rupture took place, 
in which the oligarchy (by the aid of the 
French,) prevailed. A later revolution, 
in 1789, terminated more favourably for 
the people. In 1792, Geneva was incor- 
porated with the republic of France ; the 
city was called the capital of the depart- 
ment of Leman, and in it were enacted 
some of the horrible scenes that at that 
time disgraced the name of France. 
December 30, 1813, Geneva capitulated 
to the allied armies. 

1835. The jubilee of the reformation 
was celebrated at Geneva, August 24, 
with appropriate solemnity and genuine 
popular joy, which was not a little pro- 
moted by the presence and participation 
of many distinguished clergymen from 
Switzerland, Germany, France, England, 
Scotland, and even North America. A 
mass of at least 30,000 citizens, country 
people, and strangers, thronged the 
streets, quays, and squares of the city, 
without the least disorder or confusion. 

GENEVA University, founded in 
1635. 

GENGHIS KHAN, or Jenghiz 
Khan, founderof the Mogul empire, at 
the beginning of the 1 3 th century, reduced 
under his subjection all the wandering 
tribes of Moguls and Tartars. He be- 
gan with the superior of Hya, whose 
dominions he invaded in 1209, and who 
at last submitted to become his tributary. 
In the year 1216 Jenghiz Khan carried 
his arms westward; in 1218, with the 
most dreadful devastations, he subdued 
Karazm. In 1225 returned to Hya, 
where he made war with the emperor 
for having sheltered some of his enemies. 
This most cruel conqueror died in 1227, 
as he marched to complete the destruc- 
tion of the Chinese. 



GEN 



507 



GEO 



GENLIS, Countess de, authoress 
of " LeTWatre d'Education," died 1834, 
aged 84. 

GENNET, order of knighthood, be- 
gan in France 726 ; in Spain 786. 

GENOA, state and city of North Italy, 
under the protection of the kingdom of 
Sardinia. The original inhabitants were 
the Ligurians, who were conquered by 
the Romans during the interval between 
the first and second Punic wars. After 
the decline of the Roman power it fell 
into the hands of the Lombards, and 
with them became subject to the Franks. 
After the downfall of the empire of 
Charlemagne, Genoa erected itself into a 
republic; and, until the 11th century, 
shared the fortunes of the cities of Lom- 
bardy. From the close of the 13th to 
the middle of the 15th century, the pros- 
perity of Genoa was at its height ; it 
then divided with Venice the commerce 
of Europe. These rivals becoming jea- 
lous of each other, engaged in a violent 
contest, which was not terminated until 
the peace of Turin. 

1475, Mahomet wrested from them 
their possessions on the Black Sea, and 
soon after, their commercial intercourse 
with the Tartars of the Crimea was inter- 
rupted by the Turks. At this time the 
city was convulsed by discord; but in 
1528 tranquillity was established, which 
continued until the end of the 18th cen- 
tury. By degrees Genoa lost her foreign 
possessions : Corsica last of all revolted 
in 1730, and in 1768 was formally ceded 
to France. In 1797 Buonaparte gave 
Genoa a new constitution, on the prin- 
ciples of the French representative sys- 
tem ; two years afterwards a portion of 
the Genoese territory fell into the hands 
of the Austrians, but after the battle of 
Marengo returned again under the do- 
minion of France. A provisional go- 
vernment was then established, and in 
1802 it received a new constitution, as 
the Ligurian republic. In 1815 Genoa 
and its territories were assigned to Sar- 
dinia, with which power it still remains. 
Genoa is the entrepot of a large extent 
of country, and her commerce, though 
inferior to what it once was, is very 
considerable, and has latterly been in- 
creasing. 

GENS D'ARMES, order began in 
France 360. 

GENSERIC, king of the Vandals, 
succeeded his brother Gonderic in his 
Spanish dominions in 428 ; put several 



bishops to death 437 ; took Carthage, 
and began the Vandal kingdom in Africa 
439; invaded Italy, and entered Rome 
455 ; concluded a peace with the em- 
peror Leo, 467 ; made a peace with Odo- 
acer, king of Italy, to whom he restored 
Sicily, 476. The emperor Zeno likewise 
relinquished to him arid his successors 
all claims to the African provinces. 
Genseric died in the year 477. 

GENTLEMEN, the first use of the 
distinction, 1430. 

GEOFFREY of Monmouth, an En- 
glish historian, who flourished in the 
13th century, made bishop of St. Asaph 
in 1151 or 1152, in the reign of King 
Stephen. The work by which he is 
principally known is entitled " Chroni- 
con sive Historia Britonum;" supposed 
to be translated from an ancient history 
in the Welsh language. 

GEOFFROY, Stephen Francis, 
an eminent French physician and philo- 
sopher, was born at Paris in 1672. He 
accompanied Count de TaUard to Eng- 
land, in 1698, where he was made a 
member of the Royal Society : he was, 
on his return, made bachelor of medicine 
in 1702, and, in two years after, he was 
created doctor of medicine. In 1709, 
he was appointed by Louis XIV. to the 
professorship of medicine, and in 1712, 
professor of chemistry. He died in Jan., 
1731. His greatest work was his " His- 
tory of the Materia Medica," which was 
published in 1741. 

GEOGRAPHICAL Society, Royal, 
a society for the promotion of geogra- 
phical discovery instituted May, 1831. 
It arose out of the African Association. 
See African Association. This so- 
ciety, which is under the patronage of 
the Queen's most excellent majesty and 
his royal highness the duke of Sus- 
sex, ever since its establishment has 
pursued its career of inquiry with in- 
creasing ardour to the present time. 
A series of reports published under 
its direction, commencing 1831, has 
continued annually, and contains an 
account of geographical discoveries 
throughout the world. 

GEOGRAPHY first reduced to a re- 
gular system by Eratosthenes, who suc- 
ceeded Euclid in the care of the Alexan- 
drian library, about a. c 220. This 
philospher introduced a regular parallel 
of latitude, which began at the strait of 
Gibraltar, passed eastward through the 
isle of Rhodes, and so on to the moun- 



GEO 



508 



GEO 



tains of India, and noted on it all the 
principal places through which it passed. 
The best maps which the ancients pos- 
sessed were those of Eratosthenes ; but 
these were necessarily very inaccurate. 
The first who marked the situation of 
places by means of their latitudes and 
longitudes was Ptolemy, who lived a.d. 
140. About IbO, he composed his 
" Geography," his great work, being the 
first and only one of the kind for several 
pges. 

Strabo has left us in his Geography an 
account of all the principal places in the 
world which were known to the ancients. 
He lived in the time of our Saviour, 
and had travelled over great part of the 
world. His work "De Rebus Geogra- 
phicis " is justly celebrated for its purity 
of style, and the amazing erudition and 
research it displays. 

We are indebted to King Alfred for 
the earliest accounts that can be relied 
on, of Denmark, Sweden, and Norwa)^, 
in 890. The Portuguese by the fame 
of their marine discoveries, began to 
attract attention about the commence- 
ment of the 15th century. Assisted by 
the mariner's compass, which had lately 
been brought into use, they discovered 
in 1420, the islands of Madeira. They 
also made many important discoveries in 
the 14th and 15th centuries, under Vas- 
co de Gama, and others. 

The new world was discovered by 
Columbus in 1492. See Columbus. 
The discovery of ]Sew Holland has been 
ascribed to Gonneville, in 1503 ; to Me- 
nezes, in 1527 ; and to Hartigh in I6l6, 
who seem to have been the first that 
landed on the coast. Other various dis- 
coveries were made in the course of the 
l7th century, both by sea and land ; the 
globe was circumnavigated, and various 
discoveries were made, by Spillenberger, 
Le Maire, Schooten, James the Hermit, 
Lord Anson, Byron, Bougainville, VVal- 
lis, Cartaret, Vancouver, and others. 
Among the numerous discoveries of 
Captain Cook, in his voyages round the 
globe, may be mentioned that of the 
whole eastern coast of New Holland, 
now called New South Wales. This 
na\dgator also examined New Zealand, 
(which was first visited by Tasman in 
1642). ^rhe north-west coast of America, 
from 37° to nearly 60° N. lat. was at- 
tentively explored by J. F. G. de la Pe- 
rouse, by order of the king of France, 
in 1785. 



At the beginning of the 18th century 
Park commenced his discoveries in Af- 
rica, which were followed by others. 
See Africa. Other modern geogra- 
phical discoveries will be found under 
the articles America, Polar Regions, 
&c. These were chiefly conducted un- 
der the direction of the Geographical 
Society, which see. 

GEOLOGICAL Society arose from 
a comparatively tri\'ial circumstance. A 
few individuals met about 1809 or 1810, 
in consequence of a desire of communi- 
cating to each other the result of their 
observations, and of examining how far 
the opinions maintained by the writers 
on geology were in conformity with the 
facts presented by nature. They drew 
up and distributed a series of inquiries, 
calculated to excite a greater degree of 
attention to this important study, and to 
serve as a guide to the geological tra- 
veller. The commencement of a collec- 
tion was made, which soon considerably 
increased. Maps, plans, and sections 
were liberally contributed by the various 
members. This store rapidly increased ; 
a library was formed; the transactions of 
various sittings were regularly noticed ; 
and, in general, a short extract of the 
papers given in the philosophical jour- 
nals. The society's first president was 
Mr. G. B. Greenough, whose extensive 
acquaintance with the phenomena of na- 
ture, both in Britain and abroad, joined 
with an unbounded liberality in com- 
municating his knowledge to the lovers 
of science, most eminently qualified him 
for the chair. The first Report was 
published in 1811. 

GEOLOGICAL Society, Dublin, 
instituted 1832. 

GEOLOGY was little known as a science 
till the time of Werner ; on the appear- 
ance of his classical work on the external 
characters of minerals, which was pub- 
lished at Leipsic in 1774, the vague ter- 
minology which had, till then, rendered 
description almost useless, gave way to 
a settled and determinate language. His 
theory of the earth, as opposed to Hut- 
ton's, agitated the scientific world during 
good part of the 18th century. The 
science continued to be studied chiefly 
in relation to cosmogony or theories of 
the earth till the beginning of the 1 9th 
century, and it might be considered as 
in its infancy, till the foundation of 
the Geological Society in 1811. See 
Geological Society. Since then 



GEO 



509 



GEO 



the cosmological schools have been fast 
waning away, and rapid improvements 
have been made in the science. The 
mineral super-positions of England 
have received admirable illustration, 
from the sagacity of Smith, Greenough, 
MaccuUoch, Conybeare, Phillips, Buck- 
land, De la Beche, Webster, Winch, and 
several other members of the London 
Society ; Brogniart, and Von Buch have 
revealed many wonders in French, Swiss, 
and Italian geology ; and the two Cu- 
viers, Blainville, Lamarcke, and De- 
franee, have thrown surprising light on 
the zoology of fossils. By directing his 
profound knowledge of comparative 
anatomy to antediluvian osteology, Sir 
Everard Home has gathered fresh 
laurels. The joint labours of all these 
philosophers have been embodied, with 
his own unrivalled studies, in the 
"Ossemans Fossiles" of Baron Cu- 
vier. 

1840. Geological researches are still 
proceeding under thepatronage of various 
learned bodies. The occurrence of se- 
condary fossils in rocks of the tertiary 
period, and the deposition of fossil 
shells in vast numbers over the bed of 
the present ocean, from the encroach- 
ment of the sea along many parts of 
the English coast, wei-e strongly urged 
at the Bristol meeting of the British 
Association, for 1838, in proof of the 
extreme caution which should be used 
in adopting the principles proposed 
by Mr. Lyell and the celebrated French 
conchologist, M. Deshayes, for deter- 
mining the relative ages of the supra- 
crustaceous deposits, witii a view to 
their arrangement in chronological order. 
The Academy of Sciences at Haarlem, 
therefore announced the following subject 
for a prize essay in 1840 : — "To determine 
the probable extent to which the fossils 
of certain deposits may have become 
imbedded in others of more recent 
origin, as a consequence of the distinc- 
tion of the more ancient rocks contri- 
buting to the formation of such as are 
of later date; also, to point out the 
best means for guarding against the 
erroneous conclusions which geologists 
might be led to form, from the re- 
mains of animals or plants belonging to 
two or more distinct periods being thus 
associated in the same formation." The 
reward offered for a satisfactory reply, 
written in Dutch, German, French, En- 
glish, or Latin, is a gold medal of the 



value of 1 50 florins, and the same amount 
in monev. 

GEOMETRY, first introduced into 
Greece by Thales, about A.c. 640. Eu- 
chd's Elements compiled, a. c. 280. 
Relation of the sphere and cylinder by 
Archimedes, about a.c. 240. Properties 
of the sphere, by Con on, about the same 
time. 

A.D. 1050. Trigonometry invented by 
Geber ben Alpha. See Trigonometry. 

Great improvements in the 15th cen- 
tury, under Purbach and Regiomontanus. 
Regiomontanus translated from the ori- 
ginal Greek, the Almagest of Ptolemy, 
the Spherics of Menelaus and Theodo- 
sius, the Conies of Apollonius, the Cy- 
linders of Serenus, and the works of 
other ancient mathematicians. 

In the latter part of the I6th century 
flourished the celebrated FranciscusVieta, 
a man profoundly skilled in the ancient 
geometry, and perhaps the best mathe- 
matician of the age. His Apollonius 
Gallus is considered as an excellent 
model of geometrical elegance. 

One of the most accomplished geo- 
metricians of the I7th century was 
Christian Huygens. He determined the 
surfaces of spheroids and conoids. A 
fine specimen of the application of geo- 
metry to mechanics is found in his work 
entitled " Horologium Oscillatorium, 
sive de Motu Pendularum," &c., pub- 
lished at the Hague in 1658. 

Sir Isaac Newton, though not con- 
fining his attention to this science, yet 
carried geometry to an extent hitherto 
unknown, and applied it successfully 
to other sciences. Many writings, 
highly beneficial to the progress of the 
science have been published since his 
time, but no new discovery has appeared. 

GEORGE, Prince, man-of-war, 
burnt off Lisbon, when 435 of her crew 
perished, Feb. 13, 1758. 

GEORGE, THE Royal, of 100 guns, 
overset at Portsmouth, by which misfor- 
tune Admiral Kempenfelt, with the crew, 
were lost : there were near 100 women 
and 200 Jews on board. An express ar- 
rived at the Admiralty with the news, 
Aug. 30, 1782. 

GEORGE, St., Island of, one of 
the Azores, captured by an expedition 
from Terceira, under the authority of the 
regency acting there for the daughter of 
Don Pedro, then claiming to be queen of 
Portugal, May 9, 1831. 

GEORGE, St., adopted by the En- 



GEO 



510 



GER 



fflish princes in their crusades to the Holy 
Land, as the patron saint of Enf^land, 
was a profligate fanatic of the fourth 
century. 

GEORGE,, St., Order of, began in 
Venice 1200; in Carinthia 1279; in 
Spain 1318; in England 1349; in Aus- 
tria 1470; at Rome 1496; in Genoa, 
time unknown. 

GEORGE, St., D'Alfama, order of 
knighthood, began 1201. 

GEORGE I., Elector of Hanover, 
duke of Brunswick Lunenburgh, born 
May 28, 1660. He was proclaimed king 
of England, Aug. I, 1714; crowned 
Oct. 20, 1714. Died on his journey to 
Hanover, at Osnaburgh, Sunday, June 
11, 1727, of a paralytic disorder, aged 67; 
was buried there, and succeeded by his 
eldest son. 

GEORGE n. born Oct. 30, 1683; 
created prince of Wales, Oct. 4, 1714. 
Married the Princess Wilhelmina Caro- 
line Dorothea, of Brandenburgh Ans- 
pach, 1704; ascended the throne June 
11, 1727; died suddenly at Kensington, 
Oct. 25, 1760, aged 77 ; buried at St. 
George's Chapel, Windsor, and was suc- 
ceeded by his grandson. 

GEORGE HI., eldest son of Frede- 
rick, prince of Wales, bom June 4, 1738 ; 
created prince of Wales, 1751 ; married 
Sophia Charlotte, princess of Mecklen- 
burgh Strelitz, Sept. 8, 1761 ; died at 
Windsor, Jan. 29, 1820, was buried 
there, and succeeded by his eldest 
son. 

His issue was, 1. George Augustus 
Frederick, prince of Wales, afterwards 
King George IV. 

2. Frederick, born Aug. 16, 1763, ap- 
pointed bishop of Osnaburgh, in Ger- 
many ; and created duke of York and 
Albany, Nov. 27, 1784; died Jan. 5, 1827. 

3. William Henry, duke of Clarence, 
his late majesty WiUiam IV. 

4. Edward, born Nov. 2, 1767, created 
April 23, 1799, duke of Kent and Stra- 
thern, in Great Britain, and earl of Dub- 
lin, in Ireland. Died Jan. 23, 1820. 

5. Ernest Augustus, duke of Cum- 
berland, now king of Hanover, born 
Junes, 1771 ; married Aug. 29, 1815, 
at Carlton House, Frederica Soi)hia 
Charlotte, daughter of Frederick V., 
grand duke of Mecklenburgh Strelitz. 
By her royal highness had Prince George 
Frederick, Alexander Charles Ernest Au- 
gustus, K.G., G.C.H., born at Berlin, 
May 27, ISI9. 



6. Augustus Frederick, duke of Sus- 
sex, earl of Inverness, and Baron Arklow 
(so created, Nov. 7, 1801); born Jan. 
27, 1773. 

7. Adolphus Frederick, duke of Cam- 
bridge, earl of Tipperary, and baron of 
CuUoden (so created Nov. 27, 1801); 
born Feb. 24, 1774. 

8. Octa\iu8, born Feb. 1779; died 
May 3, 1783. 

9. Alfred, born Sept. 22, 1780 ; died 
Aug. 26, 1782. 

10. Charlotte Augusta Matilda (Prin- 
cess Royal), born Sept. 29, 1766 ; mar- 
ried May 18, 1797, Frederick Charles 
William, duke of Wirtemburg; died 
Oct. 6, 1828. 

11. Augusta Sophia, born Nov. 8, 
1768, died Sept. 22, 1840. 

12. Elizabeth, born May 22, 1770; 
died April 2, 1829. 

13. Marj', born April 25, 1776; mar- 
ried July 22, 1816; died Nov. 30, 1834. 

14. Sophia, born Nov. 3, 1777- 

15. Amelia, born Aug. 7, 1783; died 
unmarried, Nov. 2, 1810. 

GEORGE IV., eldest son of George 
III., born Aug. 12, 1762, created prince 
of Wales. Married April 8, 1795, Ca- 
roline Elizabeth, second daughter of 
his serene highness Charles William, 
duke of Brunswick. By her he had an 
only daughter, Charlotte Augusta, born 
Jan. 7, 1796 ; married May 2, I8I6, 
H. R. H. Prince Leopold George Fre- 
derick, of Saxe Coburg Saalfield, (now 
king of the Belgians), and died in 
childbed of a still born son, Nov. 6, 
I8I7. George IV. was appointed regent 
1811 ; succeeded his father George III., 
Jan. 29, 1820 ; died at Windsor, June 
26, 1830, and was there buried. 

GEORGES, chief of the Chouans, 
executed at Paris for a conspiracy against 
Buonaparte, June 26, 1804. 

GEORGIA, stale of North America. 
The first English settlement commenced 
in 1733, at Savannah, by General Ogle- 
thorpe, accompanied by I60 persons. 
The first constitution was formed in 1777, 
the second in 1785, and the present one 
in 1798. 

GEORGIUM SiDUS planet, disco- 
vered March 13, 1781. 

GERA, near Leipsic, in Germany, 
totally destroyed by a fire, Sept. 18, 
1/80. 

GERBERT, afterwards Pope Sylves- 
ter II., introduced the Arabic figures 
into Europe about 1000. 



GER 



GERMANICUS C^sab, an illustrious 
Roman, grand nephew of Augustus, de- 
nominated the " delight of the Roman 
people," at an early age was raised to 
the most important offices of the state. 
He was poisoned by Piso, and died at 
Antioch, about the beginning of Decem- 
ber, in the year 19- 

GERMANY was divided anciently 
into several independent states, which 
made no figure in history till a.c. 25, 
when they withstood the attempts of the 
Romans to subdue them, who conquered 
some parts ; but by the repeated eflForts 
of the Germans, were entirely expelled 
about A. D. 290. 

A.D. 432, The Huns, driven from 
China, conquered the greatest part of 
this extensive country ; but it was not 
totally subdued till Charlemagne became 
master of the whole, 802. See Charle- 
magne. 

Germany was originally called Alle- 
mania, from Alleman, i. e. in German, 
" Every man," denoting that all nations 
were welcome there. Dukes being at 
this time made governors of those pro- 
vinces, they claimed a right to sove- 
reignty ; hence came most of the sove- 
reign princes of Germany. 

814. Louis I., Charlemagne's son, was 
the first king that made this empire in- 
dependent. 

841. Till this year it continued to be- 
long to the crown of France. 

879. Charles III. was the first that 
added the year of our Lord to the year 
of his reign. 

912. Conrade L was properly the first 
emperor ; he is deemed the first emperor 
of Germany freely chosen ; but we have 
no authentic account of the electors of 
the empire till 1273, when Rodolph of 
Hapsburgh was chosen emperor by the 
seven electors, after an interregnum of 
22 years. 

999. The electors, according to some, 
reduced to seven. 

1054. To bring in their sons succes- 
sors, the emperors, in their lifetime, 
procured them to be elected kings of the 
Romans, which was a part of the sove- 
reignty. The elective power originated 
by the emperors getting their last will, 
wherein they nominated their successors, 
confirmed, before their deaths, by the 
princes and great men. 

1208. The Emperor Phillip murdered. 

1258. Seven electors first appointed 
to choose an emperor. 



511 GER 

1338. Aug. 8, Louis V. made the em- 
pire independent of the holy sea. 

1356. Golden bulls relating to the 
election of the emperors established by 
Charles IV. 

1522 — 1555. The reformation took 
place in Germany under Luther. 

1689. The peace of Carlowitz, when 
the bounds of the German and Eastern 
empires were settled. 

1745. Rodolph was the first emperor 
of the house of Austria, in which family 
the German empire continued till it 
passed into the house of Lorraine, bv 
the marriage of the heiress of Austria, 
the celebrated queen of Hungary, to 
Francis, duke of Lorraine, who was 
elected emperor. 

1792. March 1st, the Emperor Leo- 
pold was poisoned. 

1804. The emperor of Germany as- 
sumed the title of emperor of Austria, 
Aug. 11th. See Austria. 

1805. All the princes of the southern 
German states formed a union, called 
the " Confederation of the Rhine," 
which has since been dissolved, and suc- 
ceeded by the " Germanic Confedera- 
tion," instituted in 1814. Each state is 
represented at the general diet of Frank- 
fort, according to its importance in the 
confederation ; and no separate state is 
permitted to make war or peace without 
the conse nt of the diet. 

The following is a list of the emperors 
of Germany, from Charlemagne, till the 
assumption of the title of emperor of 
Austria : — 

Charlemagne began 800 

Louis 1 814 

Lothario 1 840 

Louis II 855 

Charles the Bald 875 

Louis III 875 

Charles the Fat. ; 879 

Arnold 887 

Guy and Lambert 891 

Louis the Infant 899 

Conrad 1 91I 

Henry the Fowler 9I8 

Otho the Great 936 

Otho II 973 

Otho III 983 

Henry II 1002 

Conrad II 1024 

Henry III 1039 

Henry IV 1056 

Henry V II06 

Lothario II 1125 



GES 

Conrad III 1138 

Frederick 1 1152 

Henry VI 1190 

Philip and Otho IV 1198 

Otho V 1208 

Frederick II 1212 

Henry VII 1245 

William 1246 

Conrad IV 1250 

Rodolphus of Hapsburgh .. 1273 

Adolphus of Nassau 1292 

Albert I. of Austria 1298 

Henry VIII 1309 

Louis V 1314 

John and Philip the Long . . 1317 

Charles IV 1346 

Wenceslaus. . . 1378 

Frederick and Robt. Palatine 1400 
Joseph of Moravia, Sigismund 

of Luxemburgh 1411 

Albert of Austria 1437 

Frederick III 1440 

Maximilian 1 1493 

Charles V 1519 

Ferdinand 1 1558 

Maximilian II. of Hungary . . 1564 

RodolphusII 1576 

Matthias 1612 

Ferdinand II 1619 

Ferdinand III 1637 

Leopold 1 1658 

Joseph 1 1705 

Charles VI 1711 

Charles VII. of Bavaria 1742 

Francis I. of Lorraine 1745 

Joseph II 1765 

Leopold II 1790 

Francis 1792 

who took the title of Emperor 

of Austria, Aug. 1 1th 1804 

GERON, St., order of knighthood in 
Germany, began 1154. 

GERON A, town of Spain, famous for 
having stood several sieges, the last by 
the French in 1809, when it was taken 
after an obstinate resistance. 

GERVASE, of Canterbury, the his- 
torian, wrote in 1202. 

GERVIS Abbey, Yorkshire, founded 
1145. 

GESNER, Conrad, an eminent na- 
turalist and physician, born at Zurich 
in 1516, died December 13, 1565, 
aged 49. 

GESNER, Solomon, the well-known 
author of the ' ' Death of Abel," and several 
other works in the German language, 
was born at Zurich in 1730. He died 
March 2, 1787. 



512 



GIB 



GHENT, town of Belgium. Charles V., 
emperor of Germany, was born here, 
but he so oppressed the inhabitants that 
they went over to his rival Francis I. 
Francis betrayed them, and Charles, re- 
gaining possession of the city, executed 
30 of the principal citizens. In 1576, 
the famous treaty, called the pacification 
of Ghent, was concluded here. Ghent, 
was taken and retaken in the wars of 
1793 and 1815. 

GHERIAH, fortress, Hindoostan. 
It was taken possession of by the Mah- 
rattas, in the middle of the I7th century; 
and in 1707, a chief of that nation esta- 
blished an independent sovereignty here, 
and committed frequent acts of piracy. 
In l765, the British attacked this for- 
tress, dispersed the pirates, and destroyed 
their fleet. 

GHIZNE, or Ghizny, city, Afgha- 
nistan. A rebel governor of Khorassan, 
seized this city in 960, and declared him- 
self independent of Persia. Mahmoud, the 
second in succession, raised this empire to 
the height of its glory, and obtained the 
title of sultan. Ghizne was invaded by 
a Persian army, in 1116, and its capital 
taken. In 11 50, it was again attacked by 
the prince of Ghore, and the inhabitants 
massacred. Near this city the British 
army was concentrated previous to the 
conquest of Cabool, 1839. See Ca- 

BOOL. 

GIBBON, Edward, the historian of 
the Roman empire, wa.s born at Putney, 
in 1737. In 1752, he entered at Magdalen 
College, Oxford. In 1763, he went to 
Paris, where he resided a few months, 
and afterwards spent a year at Lausanne. 
He visited Italy in 1765. It was on this 
occasion that the idea of writing the 
decline and faU of the Roman empire 
first entered his mind. When the first 
volume made its appearance, in 1776, it 
was received with enthusiastic admira- 
tion. After a lapse of a considerable 
interval, the second and third volumes 
were published. The three last volumes, 
chiefly composed at Lausanne, were 
printed in England, and published in 
May, 1788. He was appointed one of 
the lords of trade, with a salary of £700 
or £800 a year ; but in three years the 
board was abolished, and he again went 
to Lausanne. He continued to reside 
there till 1793, when the horrors of the 
French revolution induced him to return 
to England. He died in London, Jan. 
16, 1794, aged 57. 



GIE 



513 



GIL 



GIBBS, James, architect, died 1754. 

GIBBS, Sir Vicary, an eminent 
English judge, was born 1752, died 
1820. 
GIBELINS, GiBBELLiNS, or Ghibe- 
LINS, a celebrated faction in Italy, which 
asserted the emperor's right of sove- 
reignty, in opposition to another power- 
ful faction called the Guelphs; these two 
contending parties agitated the Italian 
states during the space of 300 years. 
Most authors affirm that the excommu- 
nication of the Emperor Frederick II. by 
Pope Gregory IX., 1240, gave birth to 
these rival factions ; though some sup- 
pose that this event happened ten years 
earher. The Gibelins being expelled 
Italy about the middle of the 13th cen- 
tury, settled at Amsterdam, where they 
are said to have invented the mercantile 
practice of re-change or re-exchange, on 
bills of exchange. 

GIBRALTAR, an impregnable for- 
tress at the south of Spain, but belong- 
ing to the English. In 711, the Moors, 
under Tarif, obtained possession of this 
key to South Europe, whereby their con- 
quest of Spain was facilitated. The 
first regular fortifications here were con- 
structed by the Emperor Charles V. 
After the breaking out of the war of the 
Spanish succession, 1704, the English, 
under Sir George Rooke, seized upon 
this important position. It was besieged 
by the Spaniards in 1705, 1708, and 1727. 
In 1779 operations were again com- 
menced against this fortress, and con- 
ducted obstinately for three years; twice 
during this period the garrison was 
relieved by Admiral Rodney, and after- 
wards by Admiral Darby. On Sept. 13, 
the combined fleet and army of France 
and Spain (30,000) made their death 
grasp for the possession of this impor- 
tant fortress, but were repulsed by the 
genius and courage of the British under 
General Elliot. See Elliot. 

1804. The town was nearly depopu- 
lated by a malignant fever. The fever 
broke out again September 29, 1828 ; the 
numbers in the hospital amounted to 
533 : from 12 to 17 were dying daily. 
Out of 1135, since the commencement 
of the calamity, 191 deaths had occurred. 
January 12, 1829, the termination of this 
fatal epidemic was announced by the 
governor. 

GIESSEN, circle of the Upper Rhine, 
a piece of ground of 12 acres, gradually 
sunk, from August 13 to September 4, 



1812, 15 feet, and on September 19, pre- 
sented a level sheet of water. 

GIFFORD, Andrevvt, dissenting 
divine, died 1784, aged 84. 

GIFFORD, John, author of the 
"Life of Pitt," born 1758, died March 
6, 1818. 

GIFFORD, William, a well-known 
modern writer, and late editor of the 
" Quarterly Review," was born at Ash- 
burton, in Devonshire, 1756. Became 
Bible lecturer of Exeter College, Oxford, 
and in 1781, pubhshed a translation of 
"Juvenal." In 1794 appeared his first 
material work, a paraphrase of the first 
satire of Persius, which he called the 
" Baviad," and in 1795, the " Mseviad," 
in imitation of the tenth satire of the 
first book of Horace. He died in Fe- 
bruary, 1827. 

GILBERT, William, English che- 
mist, died 1603, aged 63. 

GILBERT, Davies, D.C.L., late 
president of the Royal Society from the 
resignation of Sir H. Davy, in 1821, 
to the election of the duke of Sussex in 
1830. He was also a fellow of the So- 
ciety of Antiquaries, and of the Royal 
Society of Edinburgh, and amemberof the 
Royal Irish Academy. He died in 1839. 

GIBERTINES, an order of religious, 
thus called from St. Gilbert of Sem- 
pringham, in the county of Lincoln, who 
founded it about 1148. At the dissolu- 
tion there were about 25 houses of this 
order in England and Wales. 

GILD AS, the earliest British writer 
now extant, was born in 520. He died at 
the abbey of Bangor, in 590. His chief 
work is entitled " Epistola de Excidio 
Britanniae, et Castigatione Ordinis Eccle- 
siastici." It was first printed by Poly- 
dore Virgil, in 1525. 

GILDING with leaf gold on bole am- 
moniac invented by Margaritone, 1 273 ; 
on wgod in 1680. 

GILES, Henry, an English painter 
on glass, flourished 1687. 

GILL, Dr. John, a learned non- 
conformist divine, was born at Ketter- 
ing, Northamptonshire, in 1697. About 
1716, he entered on the work of the 
ministry, and in 1719, took charge of the 
church in Horselydown, over which he 
was ordained pastor in the same year. 
In 1748, Dr. Gill published a commen- 
tary on the New Testament, in three 
volumes, folio. He died at Camberwell, 
October 14, 1771, aged 73 years. His 
other principal works are, " A Body of 
3 u 



GIL 



514 



GLA 



Divinity," in three volumes, quarto ; and 
" Cause of God and Truth," in four 
volumes, 8vo. ; " A Treatise concerning 
the Prophesies of the Old Testament, 
respecting the Messiah;'' " A Disserta- 
tion on the Antiquity of the Hebrew 
Language, Letters, Vowel Points, and 
Accents." 

GILLIES, Dr. John, author of the 
" History of Greece," born at Brechin, 
county of Forfar, Scotland, Jan. 18, 1747. 
He was educated at Glasgow, where he 
was chosen to teach Greek, when under 
20 years of age. Lord Hope (the late 
James, earl of Hopetown) invited him to 
travel with his sons, and induced him to 
relinquish some honourable and lucrative 
literary engagements, by settling upon 
him, in 1777, an annuity for life. Here- 
turned in 1784, when he resumed his 
literary labours, and took his degree of 
LL.D. previously to the publication of 
the first part of his Grecian History. He 
died at Clapham, Feb. 15, 1836, aged 90. 
The following is a list of his principal 
works : — " Orations of Isocrates, and 
those of Lysias," translated 1778, 4to. 
" History of Ancient Greece, its Colo- 
nies and Conquests, from the earliest 
times til] the division of the Macedonian 
Empire in the East ; including the His- 
tory of Philoso[)hy, Literature, and the 
Fine Arts," 1786, two vols. 4to, and four 
vols. 8vo. " View of the Reign of Fre- 
deric II., of Prussia, with a Parallel be- 
tween that Prince and Philip II. of Ma- 
cedon," 1789, 8vo. " Aristotle's Ethics 
and Politics," 1797, two vols. 4to. "Sup- 
plement to the Analysis of Aristotle's 
Speculative Works," 1804, 4to, " His- 
tory of the World, from Alexander to 
Augustus," 1807 — 10, two vols. 4to. 
"Translation of Aristotle's Rhetoric," 
1823 

GILLINGWOOD, Yorkshire, burnt 
down, Dec. 11, 1750. ^, 

GILPIN, Bernard, a zealous and 
learned reformer, born at Kentmire, in 
Westmoreland, in 1517. At 16 he was 
entered at Queen's College, O.xford. In 
1541 he took his degree of M. A., and 
about the same time was elected fellow 
of his college, and admitted into holy 
orders He continued his studies after- 
wards at Christchurch. In 1552 he was 
presented with a living in Durham, but 
soon after resigned it to spend some 
time abroad. He returned from the con- 
tinent in 1556, when he was presented 
with the archdeaconry of Durham, and 



the living of Easington. Upon Queen 
Elizabeth's recommending the establish- 
ment of free schools, Mr. Gilpin under- 
took to build and endow one. He died 
in 1583, aged 66 years. 

GIPSIES, or Egyptians, quitted 
Egypt when attacked by the Turks, 1515, 
and wandered over various parts of Eu- 
rope. An act passed against their itine- 
racy in England, 1530; expelled France, 
1560, and other European kingdoms 
shortly after; expelled England by act 
passed 1563. 

GIRALDUS, Sylves.Gamb., British 
historian, died 1220. 

GIRARDON, F., a French sculptor 
and architect, born 1628, died 1715. 

GIRDLERS' Company, London, in- 
corporated 1448. 

GIRDLENESS Lighthouse, near 
Aberdeen, erected 1833. 

GISBOROUGH Priory, Yorkshire, 
founded 1129- 

GLADIATORS, the first show of, 
was exhibited at Rome by M. and D. 
Brutus, A.u.c. 490. These sports be- 
came so common, and their consequences 
in a variety of respects so dangerous, 
that many laws were made to restrain 
and regulate them. Constantine the 
Great first prohibited the combats of gla- 
diators in the East. The practice was con- 
tinued in a degree in tlie West, till the 
time of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, 
who abolished them finally, a.d. 500, 

GLAUBER, J. K., German chemist, 
and inventor of the Glauber salts, died 
1660. 

GLASGOW, Scotland, originally a 
bishop's see, became an archbishopric in 
1484, to which the sees of Galloway, 
Argyll, and the Isles were subject. The 
university owes its origin to W. Turn- 
bull, bishop of Glasgow, who established 
here, in 1450, a professor of theology, 
and three of philosophy. At the request 
of James II., Pope Nicholas V. licensed 
this college as a school of theology ; a 
new charter took place in James VI.*8 
reign, since which period it has steadily 
improved its literary and scientific repu- 
tation. 

As a commercial place, Glasgow was 
known in 1420, when its chief export 
consisted of salmon. In 1546, Glasgow 
fitted out a fleet, and captured English 
vessels. In 1707, by the enactment of 
the legislative union, the trade of North 
America and the West Indies was thrown 
open to Scotland ; and in 1718, a vessel 



GLA 515 

first sailed direct from Glasgow to Ame- 
rica. The manufactures are of much im- 
portance. Linen was introduced in 1712, 
but almost superseded by cotton, the 
annual value of which now amounts to 
nearly three millions sterling. A cham- 
ber of commerce and manufactures was 
established here in 1783, under a royal 
charter. In 1812, the first steam vessel 
that successfully floated on any river in 
Europe, was launched on the Clyde, by 
Henry Bell, and called the Comet. In 
1835, 60 steam-vessels, many exceed- 
ing 300 tons burden, traded with this 
port. 

Glasgovt, dreadful fire at, by which 
200 families were reduced to destitution, 
Junes, 1749 ; theatre burned down, Jan. 
12, 1830 ; destructive fire, loss estimated 
at £150,000, Jan. 14, 1832. 

GLASS. Lucretius, a.c. 50, is the ear- 
liest among the Latin authors who takes 
notice of glass. Nero is said to have 
given a sum equivalent to £50,000, for 
two glass cups with handles, a.d. 60. 
The art of glass-making was practised 
fimong the Chinese about 200; but it 
^as unknown in Britain till towards the 
close of the seventh century. In 674 
Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, 
brought over from the continent several 
artificers skilled in the art of making 
glass, whom he employed in glazing the 
windows of his church and monastery. 
For a long time glass windows were a 
scarce and valuable luxury, and not 
brought into general use till near the 
conclusion of the 12th century: they 
were adopted first in Italy, theninFrance, 
and soon after in England. 

1557. Glass was manufactured in 
England ; was first carried on with 
wood ; but in or about the year 1635, 
great improvements were made, and sea- 
coal, or pit-coal was substituted. In 
J 670 the duke of Buckingham intro- 
duced some Venetian artists into this 
pountry, by whom the manufacture of 
fine glass underwent some eflfectual im- 
provements. Under the duke's patro- 
nage, in 1673, plates for looking-glasses 
and coach windows were first made, at 
the manufactory he had established at 
Lambeth. The British Plate Company 
was incorporated in 1773, when it erect- 
ed its extensive works at Ravenhead, 
near St. Helen's, in Lancashire. The 
value of glass annually produced in 
Great Britain has been estimated at 
£2,000,000 ; and the workmen employed 



GLE 



in the different departments of the ma- 
nufacture, at 50,000. 

The glass manufacture has been sub- 
jected to the excise since 1746, and the 
trade is regulated by sundry enactments. 
2 Victoria, c. 44, July 27, 1838, con- 
solidates and amends the laws for col- 
lecting and securing the duties of excise 
on glass, and makes a great number of 
provisions for collecting these duties, 
and imposes many obligations on glass- 
makers, which they must observe, under 
heavy penalties, with reference to the 
entry of their premises, &c., and the 
notices to be given, and periods allowed 
before the different processes of the 
manufacture. 

GLASSES, Musical, are of German 
origin, but revived by Dr. Franklin, 
1760 ; brought to a high state of accu- 
racy and harmony by the Cartwrights, 
in England, 1799. 

GLASS-SELLERS' Company, Lon- 
don, mcorporated 1664. 

GLASTONBURY, Somerset, derives 
its chief interest from its Benedictine 
abbey, ascribed either to David, a Bri- 
tish king, in the fifth century, or to Inna, 
king of Wessex, in 689. It was a noted 
abbey, and its revenues were estimated 
at £3508, at the dissolution of religious 
houses. Sixty-one abbots presided here 
during six centuries. The ruins of the 
abbey are still considerable. 

GLATZ, Prussia, was at one period a 
lordship in the ki»gdom of Bohemia, 
subject to Austria, until 1742, when it 
was taken by Frederick II. of Prussia ; 
by the Austrians in 1759, but restored 
in 1763 ; surrendered to the powers of 
Bavaria and Wirtemburg inl807j but 
now belongs to Prussia. 

GLAZIERS' Company, London, in- 
corporated 1637. 

GLENBERVIE, Lord, author of 
law reports and other works, bom 1743, 
died 1823. 

GLENCOE, ' vale, Scotland, Argyll- 
shire, celebrated in history for a cruel 
massacre of the Macdonalds, which took 
place here in 1695, by a detachment of 
King William's army. The laird and his 
followers having surrendered on the 
faith of a proclamation of pardon from 
King William III., and taken the oaths, 
returned home, in confidence they should 
have the advantage of the promised in- 
demnity. The earl of Argyll's regiment 
being quartered at Glencoe, February 12, 
the commanding officer received orders 



GLO 



516 



GNO 



that at five the next morning, he should 
fall upon the Glencoe rebels, and destroy 
them; accordingly, February 13, in the 
morning, before it was light, a dreadful 
slaughter was made of the inhabitants of 
Glencoe. This barbarous act made a 
great noise all over Europe, and was 
looked upon as a reflection on the king 
himself, and eommissioners were ordered 
to inquire into it ; but parliament were 
contented with voting it a barbarous 
murder, and that the secretary of state 
had exceeded the instructions he received 
from his majesty. 

GLENDALOUGH, Ireland, was cho- 
sen by St. Kevin, in the fifth cen- 
tury, as the site of an abbey, religious 
houses, &c., soon after erected into a see 
(now united with that of Dublin), and 
finally became a school of philosophy 
and divinity. 

GLEN DOWER, Owen, the last of 
the heroic patriots of Wales, died in 
1415. 

GLOBE OF Fire passed over the 
island of Funen, Denmark, in open day, 
September, 1807. A similar phenome- 
non was observed at the same time at 
Jutland. 

GLORIA Patri, the doxology of, 
first used 382. 

GLOUCESTER, a city of England. 
was the Caer Gloew (bright city) of the 
ancient Britons, surrendered to the 
Romans, a.d 44, and became the Gle- 
vum, a military station of that people. 
In the sixth century, after the battle of 
Dirham, this place was held by the 
toparchs of Wessex, but subsequently 
became united to Mercia. In 680, 
Wulpha, the first Christian Mercian 
king, founded St. Peter's monastery, and 
gave the name of Gloucester to the city. 
Gloucester was plundered and burned 
by the Danes in 997; in 1051 and 
1053, Edward the Confessor held his 
court here, and so did William the 
Conqueror in 1084-5. The city was 
almost destroyed by fire during the con- 
test between William II. and Robert of 
Gloucester; and in 1094, it was pillaged 
by the Welsh. Parliaments were held 
here in the reigns of Richard II. and 
Henry IV. ; in the rebellion in Charles 
I.'s reign, the citizens defeated the royal- 
ists several times, and openly declared 
for the parliament. Charles II. remem- 
bered this fatal opposition to the royal 
cause, and had the walls razed to the 
ground immediately after his restoration. 



In 1687, Gloucester was visited by James 
II., and in 1788, by George III. 

The cathedral, one of the noblest eccle- 
siastical buildings in England, was an- 
ciently a conventual church, the oldest 
parts of which were erected in 1058, by 
Alfred, bishop of Worcester. Abbot 
Serle, who died in 1104, built the tran- 
septs ; succeeding abbots made those 
additiens which have ultimately formed 
so complete and admirable a whole. 
The total length of the cathedral is 420 
feet, greatest breadth, 140; length of 
the lady chapel, 90 feet, breadth 30; 
height of the tower, 225 feet. 

GLOUCESTER, Humphrey, Duke 
OF, fourth son of Henry IV., murdered, 
and buried at St. Alban's, 1447. 

GLOUCESTER, Richard, Duke 
OF, brother to Edward IV., (afterwards 
Richard III.,) murdered Edward prince 
of Wales, and Richard duke of York, his 
two nephews, in 1483. 

GLOUCESTER, Duke of, the late, 
was born at Rome, January 15, 1776, 
and was the third child and only son of 
William Henry, duke of Gloucester, 
third son of Frederick prince of Wales. 
He entered the army, in 1789, was 
elected chancellor of the University of 
Cambridge on the death of the late duke 
of Grafton, March 26, 1811. He mar- 
ried the Princess Mary, the fourth daugh- 
ter of King George III., July 23, 1816. 
He died at Bagshot Park, Nov. 30, 1834, 
aged 59- 

GLOVER, Richard, the author of 
"Leonidas," born 1712, died 1785. 

GLOVERS' Company, London, in- 
corporated 1556. 

GLUKSTADT, capitulated to the al- 
lied Russians and Prussians, Jan. 6, 
1814. 

GLYN, CoTHi Lewis, a celebrated 
Welsh bard, who flourished in the reigns 
of Henry VI., Edward IV., Richard III., 
and Henry VII. 

GMELIN, J. F., editor of Linnaeus, 
born 1748, died 1805. 

GNOSTICS, a sect of ancient here- 
tics, famous from the first rise of Chris- 
tianity, principally in the east. Many 
persons were infected with the Gnostic 
heresy, in the first century ; though the 
sect did not render itself conspicuous, 
either for number or reputation, before 
the time of Adrian. They corrupted the 
doctrine of the gospel by a profane mix- 
ture of the tenets of the oriental phi- 
losophy, concerning the origin of evil 



GOD 



517 



GOE 



and the creation of the world, with its 
divine truths. 

GOA, city, Hindoostan, capital of the 
Portuguese possessions in India, was 
formerly splendid and populous, but is 
now almost a solitude. It was taken 
from the Hindoo rajahs of Bijanagur, by 
the sovereign of the Deccan, in 1469 ; 
and in 1510, was besieged and taken by 
the Portuguese general Albuquerque, 
who strengthened its fortifications. After 
the conquest of Portugal, by Philip II. 
of Spain, the city began to decline, and 
time and bad government have completed 
its dissolution. 

GOBELINS, a celebrated manufac- 
tory, established for making tapestry, 
&c. at Paris. The house in wliich it 
was first carried on was built by two 
brothers, Gilles and Jean Gobelin ; who, 
about 1520, introduced into that country 
the art of dying that beautiful scarlet 
colour which still goes by their name. 
The house was called Gobelin's Folly. 
In consequence of an edict published by 
Louis XIV. in 1667, Gobelin's Folly 
changed its name for that of Hotel Royal 
des Gobelins. The Gobelins has ever 
since been the first establishment of this • 
kind in the world, producing great quan- 
tities of the finest and noblest works, 
and vast numbers of superior workmen, 

GODDARD, Jonathan, first pro- 
moter of the Royal Society, died 1674. 

GODFREY OF Bouillon, a prince 
celebrated as one of the chief leaders 
of the first crusade. He set out in 
1096, and in June 1099 laid siege to 
the holy city, which, on the 15th, was 
taken by storm. The whole of Pales- 
tine was reduced under the power of 
Godfrey, who established the feudal in- 
stitution in his kingdom. He died 1160. 
He has been celebrated by Tasso in his 
" Jerusalem Delivered." 

GODSTOW Nunnery, Oxfordshire, 
consecrated 1138. 

GODWIN, earl of Kent, invaded 
England, 1052, in the reign of Edward 
the Confessor ; was tried for the murder 
of Alfred the same year, and bought his 
pardon ; was choked in protesting his 
innocence at table with the king, 1053. 

GODWIN, William, a celebrated 
writer, whose works, written during the 
French revolution, excited a lively in- 
terest all over Europe, was born at Wis- 
beach, in Cambridgeshire, March 3, 1756. 
He was sent in 1773 to the dissenting 
college, Hoxton. In 1782 he gave up 



the office and duties of a preacher, and 
repaired to London, resolving to gain a 
livelihood and subsistence by literature 
alone. After the breaking out of the 
revolution in 1793, he published an 
extraordinary work called " Political 
Justice." The next year he published 
the novel of '•' Caleb "Williams," written 
to exhibit " a general review of the modes 
of domestic despotism by which man 
becomes the destroyer of man." In 
1797 he was united to the well-known 
Mary Wolstonecraft, authoress of a 
" Vindication of the Rights of Woman," 
whose independent spirit of defiance 
to the authority of man he ardently ad- 
mired. A few months after her mar- 
riage, Mrs. Godwin died in giving birth 
to a daughter, widow of the poet Shelley, 
and authoress of "Frankenstein." The 
following year Mr. Godwin wrote and 
pubhshed the " Memoirs of Mary Wol- 
stonecraft." His other works, published 
between 1799 and 1824, were very nu- 
merous. His last few years were ren- 
dered comfortable by an appointment to 
the sinecure office of Yeoman Usher 
of the Exchequer. He died April 7, 
1836, in New Palace-yard, Westminster, 
aged 81. 

GOETHE, John Wolfgang von, 
the patriarch of German literature, was 
born at Frankfort, Aug. 28, 1749. At the 
age of 15, he was sent to the university 
of Leipsic. In 1775, he went to Weimar, 
on an invitation from the grand duke, 
whom he met travelling. Goethe's first 
appearance in print was in short articles 
in the annuals and literary journals. 
His " Gotz with the Iron Hand, " 
founded on an old romance, was pub- 
lished with his name in 1773; his 
" Sorrows of Werter," in the following 
year, excited great attention ; his two 
other most celebrated productions were, 
" Faust," and " Wilhelm Meister's Ap- 
prenticeship." He died at Weimar, in 
March, 1832, aged 82. 

" Goethe retained to advanced age all 
the powers of his comprehensive mind. 
He delighted to engage it with the ab- 
strusest problems in science. Compara- 
tive anatomy, geology, botany, the theory 
of colours, &c., were the subjects of his 
earnest study, and on most of them he 
wrote. Few men, in the walk where 
Goethe sh^w so conspicuously, enjoyed 
more happMess than he did. His su- 
periority no one attempted to dispute ; 
he maintained a tranquil empire over the 



GOL 518 

literature of his country, which was im- 
plicitly acquiesced in by every candidate 
for literary fame. In his intercourse 
with the world, Goethe acted as a man 
of practical good sense; his enthusiasm 
and romanticism he reserved entirely for 
his productions. During the last two 
years of his life, and particularly since 
the death of his son, his spirit lost its 
energy, and he was but the shadow of 
that which he once had been." 

GOGUET, A., author of the " Ori- 
gin of Laws," died 1758. 

GOLCONDA, a fortress of Hindoo- 
Stan, a considerable depot for diamonds, 
which are brought from other marts, to 
be polished and cut for sale by the Gol- 
conda merchants. It was formerly the 
capital of an extensive kingdom. In 
1690 it was surrendered by treachery to 
the Mogul army of Aurungzebe. The de- 
posed monarch died here in confinement 
in 1704. It was then governed by a 
Mogul officer, called the nizam, who 
made himself independent about the 
middle of the 18th century. 

GOLD discovered in mines by the 
Spaniards in America, 1492 ; from which 
time to 1731 they imported from thence 
into Euro])e above 6000 millions of 
pieces of eight, exclusive of what were un- 
registered. Gold was discovered in Ma- 
lacca, October 27,1731; in New An- 
dalusia, 1785 ; in Ireland, in the moun- 
tain called Croghaun, in Wicklow, in 
September, 1795; in Ceylon, 1800. 
From 1800 to 1810, the produce of the 
American mines was considerably in- 
creased ; but in the last-mentioned year 
the contest began, which terminated 
in the dissolution of the connexion be- 
tween Spain and the South American 
colonies, so that little information has 
been obtained. According to Mr. Jacob, 
the total average produce of the Ame- 
rican mines of gold and silver, inclu- 
sive of Brazil, during the 20 years end- 
ing with 1829, may be estimated at 
£4,036,838. 

Since 1822, the gold sand of the 
Urals, which formerly gave inconsider- 
able returns, has become so productive 
as to be an important object. In 1823, 
a commission of mines was deputed, 
who, in the summer, searched the whole 
eastern part of the Urals, and made im- 
portant discoveries ; so tha^, since that 
time, this production has yielded great 
returns. It is found in granite, quartz, 
and slate, dissolved by the operation of 



GOL 

the atmosphere. In 1823 and 1824 there 
was found in value, nearly 21,000,000 of 
rubles in banco assignations ; and since 
then it has continued to be productive. 

GOLDEN Bull, the German con- 
stitution known by this name sanctioned, 
and the mode of electing the emperor 
determined, 1356. 

GOLDEN Fleece, order of knight- 
hood, begun in Flanders, 1492. 

GOLDEN Shield and Thistle, 
order began 1 370. 

GOLDONI, Charles, an Italian 
writer of comedy, was born at Venice in 
1707 ; he died at Paris in the year of 
terror, 1793, at the age of 83. His 
whole works were printed at Leghorn, 
about the years 1768 and 1791, in 31 
vols. 8vo. 

GOLDSMITH, Oliver, an admired 
British poet, was born at Roscommon, 
in Ireland, in 1731; placed at Trinity 
College, Dublin, about 1749. After he 
left the college, he turned his thoughts 
to the study of medicine. For this pur- 
pose he was sent by his uncle to Edin- 
burgh in 1751 ; but he was obliged pre- 
cipitately to leave Scotland, in conse- 
quence of becoming surety for a fellow- 
student. After passing some time at 
Strashurg and Louvain, where he ob- 
tained the degree of bachelor of physic, 
he accompanied an English gentleman 
to Berne and Geneva. They disagreed 
in the south of France, and Goldsmith 
was left to contend with the hardships 
of indigence in a foreign country. His 
learning produced him an hospitable re- 
ception at most of the monasteries, and 
his flute made him welcome to the pea- 
sants of Flanders. Having determined 
to return to England, he travelled on 
foot, depending on his own talents for 
support, and arrived in London almost 
pennyless, Feb, 1756. 

In 1 765 he published his " Traveller, " 
by which his reputation was greatly 
increased. This was followed by his 
" Vicar of Wakefield," and his " His- 
tory of England;" and in 1768, his 
" Good-natured Man" was successfully 
performed at Covent Garden Theatre. 
He now derived large profits from his 
writings ; but he was extremely deficient 
in economy. In 1772 his comedy of 
" She Stoops to Conquer; or, the Mis- 
takes of a Night," was performed at 
Covent Garden Theatre with great ap- 
plause. His last publication was a " His- 
tory of the Earth and Animated Nature," 



GOO 



519 



GOT 



in 8 vols. 8vo. He was attacked by a 
nervous fever, which terminated in his 
dissolution, April 4, 1774.- "As a man 
and a poet, his prevailing characteristic 
was simplicity. He was a studious and 
correct observer of nature; happy in 
the selection of his images, in the 
choice of his subjects, and in the har- 
mony of his versification ; and his 
' Traveller * and ' Deserted Village' 
claim a place amongst the most finished 
pieces in the English language." 

GOLDSMITHS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1327. 

GOMORRAH destroyed a.c. 1897. 

GONNELLI, John, the sculptor, died 
blind 1673. 

GOOD, John Mason, M.D., author 
of the " Study of Medicine," &c., born 
1764, died 1827- 

GOODIER, Captain, hanged at 
Bristol for the murder of his brother. 
Sir John Goodier, January 20, 1741. 

GOODMAN'S-FIELDS Theatre, 
opened 1729- 

GOODWIN Sands, a range of sand 
banks off the coast of the county of Kent, 
extending about 10 miles from a point 
opposite Ramsgate, to Kingsdown, at 
about seven miles from the shore. The 
erection of a safety beacon on these 
sands undertaken by Captain Bullock, 
of her majesty's steamer Boxer, was ac- 
complished September 9, 1840, under 
his superintendence and that of Captain 
Boys, superintendent of the naval store 
department of Deal. The beacon con- 
sists of a column about 40 feet above the 
level of the sea, having elects and ropes 
attached to four of its sides, with holds 
for hands and feet. At the summit of 
the column is attached a gallery of hexa- 
gon form, made of trellis work, and 
capable of holding 20 persons at one 
time. Above the gallery, and in con- 
tinuation of the column, is a flagstaff 10 
feet long; thus making the entire beacon 
50 feet in height. The sides of the gal- 
lery are so constructed as to enable the 
persons in it to be covered in with sail- 
cloth, which is reefed in and round it, 
and can be used at pleasure, as also an 
awning to pass over it, which is fixed to 
the flagstaff; thus entirely protecting 
any unfortunate mariner who may seek 
shelter on the column from foul and 
tempestuous weather. The foundation 
of the column is several feet below the 
surface of the sand, and is secured in 
the centre by a stout oak platform, ex- 



tending from it on either side several 
yards. This is secured by upwards of 
two tons of pig-iron ballast being lashed 
to it. In addition to this, eight stout 
iron bars, each six feet long, are driven 
obliquely on each quarter of the column, 
and two also put at a distance of 12 feet 
on each quarter, and chains attached to 
them, communicating with the upper 
part of the column and the gallery.- 

GORCUM, town of Holland. It is 
fortified, and possesses extensive fisheries. 
It capitulated to the allied Russians and 
Prussians, February 4, 1814. 

GORDON, Lord George, tried as 
the instigator of "No Popery" riots, 
February 5, 1781, and committed to 
Newgate; died there, November 1, 1793. 
GORDON, Alexander, fourth duke 
of Gordon, keeper of the great seal of 
Scotland, chancellor of King's College, 
Aberdeen, hereditary keeper of Inver- 
ness castle, and F.R.S., was born June 18, 
1743, and succeeded his father Aug. 5, 
1752. His grace was appointed keeper 
of the great seal of Scotland, July 1 1, 
1794, which office he resigned on the 
change of the ministry, in 1806 ; but he 
was restored April 11, 1807, and con- 
tinued in it till his decease, which took 
place June 17, 1827, at his mansion in 
Mount-street, Berkeley-square, aged 84. 
GO REE, island. North Atlantic ocean, 
off the west coast of Africa. In 1617 
it was occupied by the Dutch, to whom 
it was ceded by Birar, king of Cape 
Verd. It was then fortified, yet taken 
in 1663, by the British, and re-taken by 
the Dutch two years afterwards. In 
1677, it was taken by the French; sur- 
rendered to the English in 1800; re- 
covered by the French in 1804, but again 
seized by the British on the following 
March, and finally restored to the French 
in 1814. 

GOTHARD, Mount St., Switzer- 
land, forms a remarkable point in the 
Alps, and unites the Lepontine chain 
and that of Berne. Its highest points 
are covered with perpetual snow, as the 
Fiendo, 10,150 feet high. This group 
of mountains received its name from a 
bishop of Hildesheim, who flourished in 
the 12th century. It was, in 1799, the 
scene of several combats between the 
French and the united armies of Austria 
and Russia. 

GOTHLAND, island, Sweden, in the 
Baltic, belonging originally to Sweden, 
but was taken by the Danes in 1449, 



GOT 



520 



GOW 



and remained in their possession until 
1645, when it was restored to Sweden. 

GOTHS, generally allowed to be of 
Scandinavian origin, and consisted of 
many tribes, of which the two principal 
were the Westrogoths, or Visigoths, and 
the Eastern, or Ostrogoths ; the former 
inhabited that part of Scandinavia which 
borders on Denmark, the latter the more 
eastern parts, on the shores of the Baltic. 
They were not known by this name till 
the period of their quarrel with Caracalla, 
about the year 215. 

222. Alexander Severus thought it 
expedient to promise them an annual 
subsidy, to prevent their disturbing the 
peace of the empire ; notwithstanding 
which they broke into Moesia, laid waste 
the whole province, totally destroyed the 
city of Istria, on the southern mouth 
of the Danube, and carried off a great 
booty. 

267. The Goths ravaged Cizicum, 
Asia, and Achaia ; but being repulsed 
by Athenaeus, they retired into Epirus, 
Acarnania, and Boeotia. 

376. The Goths expelled by the 
Huns from their settlements beyond the 
Danube, were permitted by Valens to 
settle in Thrace, whence they spread, in 
about two years, into Scythia and McBsia, 
and advanced to the very gate of Con- 
stantinople. 

436. Under Theodoric, they made 
war upon the Franks, took all the strong 
places in their neighbourhood, and be- 
sieged Narbonne. 

437. Ravaged several islands, and 
pillaged Sicily : Aetius defeated 8000 of 
them. 

After the destruction of the Roman em- 
pire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under 
their king Theodoric, became masters 
of the greater part of Italy, having over- 
come and put to death Odoacer, king of 
the Heruli, in 494. They retained their 
dominion in this country till the year 553; 
when they were finally conquered by 
Narses, the emperor Justinian's general. 
The Visigoths settled in Spain in the 
time of the Emperor Honorius, where 
they founded a kingdom, which con- 
tinued till the country was subdued by 
the Saracens about 712. 

GOTTENBURG, city, Sweden, was 
founded by Charles IX. of Sweden, when 
duke of Gothland, in 1607, on the is- 
land of Hisingen, but the Danes, in 
1611, destroyed it. Gustavus Adolphus 
subsecjuently built the town on its pre- 



sent site. It has been almost consumed I 
by fire at different times ; one of which 
destroyed 120 houses, Feb. 4, 1794; 
again, Dec. 22, 1802, which destroyed 
the catliedral, palace, post-office, and 
several public buildings, together with a 
fourth part of the city, to the value of 
about 2,000,000 dollars. Again, 1813, 
which consumed a great part of the 
town. 

From the year 1808 to 1813, when 
British goods were excluded from the 
ports of the continent, Gottenburg be- 
came the depot of English as well as 
Baltic articles of commerce, and rose in 
consequence, to considerable importance. 
In 1831, 529 ships, of the burden of 
63,075 tons, entered Gottenburg. Of 
these, 68 ships, carrying 16,770 tons, 
were American ; and 41 ships, carrying 
5,131 tons, British. The rest belonged, 
for the most part, to Sweden, Norway, 
and Denmark. About 80 vessels, of the 
burden of 14,000 tons, belong to the ' 
port ; but the native shipping is decreas- 
ing. 

GOTTINGEN, city of the kingdom 
of Hanover. King George II., of Great 
Britain, founded here, in 1734, the uni- 
versity of Georgia Augusta, which was 
opened in 1735, and dedicated Sept. 17, 
1737 ; it is at present also the national 
university of Brunswick and Nassau. 
In 1751, a royal society of sciences was 
established here, and remodelled in 1770. 
In 1829, there were 1264 students at 
Gottingen. 

GOUGH, RiCHAKD, author of " Anec- 
dotes of British Topography," &c., born 
1735, died 1809. 

GOUR, ancient citj', Hindoostan, for- 
merly the capital of the kingdom of 
Bengal. When Mahomed Bukhtyar 
Khillijee conquered Bengal, a.d. 1204, 
Gour was a place of vast extent. In 
1535, the emperor Humayoon took it; 
since that time, it has progressively 
declined to its present state of desola- 
tion. 

GOUTIER, John and Louis, pain- 
ters on glass, flourished in the I7th cen- 
tury. 

GOWER, J., earliest English poet, 
died 1404. 

GOWER, Richard Hall, author 
of " A Treatise on the Theory and Prac- 
tice of Seamanship," &c., and nume- 
rous inventions and improvements in 
naval tactics. He turned his attention 
to the improvement of the log, about the 



GRA 



521 



GRA 



year 1788, which effected the object with 
much accuracy. He published a work 
in 1810, entitled "A Narrative of a 
Mode pursued by the British Govern- 
ment to effect Improvements in Naval 
Architecture." He died in 1833. 

GOZZO, or Gozo, island, Mediter- 
ranean Sea, adjoining Malta, was taken 
by the Turks in 1551, and attacked by 
them in I6l3 and 1709 without success; 
surrendered to the English 1798. 

GRABE, John Ernest, Russian 
writer, born 1666, died 1711. 

GRACCHUS, Tiberius and Caius, 
the Roman patriots, died in the second 
century before Christ. 

GRADUATING Engine, invented 
by Hindley of York, about 1740. Rams- 
den's dividing machine received a pre- 
mium from the Board of Longitude, 
1774. 

GRiEME, Colonel, one of the few 
surviving heroic defenders of Gibraltar, 
under General Elliot, where he was 
wounded ; died at Inchbrakie, Septem- 
ber 7, 1840, aged 87- 

GRAHAM, James, author of a poem 
called the Sabbath, bom at Glasgow, in 
April, 1765, died in 1811. 

GRAHAM'S Town, South Africa, 
Cape of Good Hope, of recent origin. 
In 1833 it contained 700 houses, with 
about 3000 inhabitants, and several 
excellent public buildings and institu- 
tions, two public libraries, a printing 
office, whence was issued a well-con- 
ducted weekly newspaper. It suffered 
severely in the Caffre war, in 1834. The 
Caffres fell upon the scattered settlers, 
murdering them, burning their houses, 
destroying their crops, and carrying away 
their cattle. It was at one time in danger 
of being destroyed ; but the activity of the 
colonial authorities ultimately suppressed 
this unlooked-for invasion. 

GRAINGER, Dr. James, a physi- 
cian and poet, was born at Dunse, Scot- 
land, about 1723. He died in 1767. 

GRAMMAR, or the art of speaking 
or writing any language with propriety, 
began to be studied two or three centu- 
ries before the christian era. The clas- 
sical remains of Grecian and Roman 
hterature prove that these languages 
had at one time attained a state of per- 
fection which could be the result only 
of ages of civilization and literary cul- 
ture ; and it is probable that on these 
models the grammars of the modern 
European languages have been gradually 



formed. About 1150, the Saxon began 
to take a form in which the beginning 
of the present English may be plainly 
discovered. From the time of Chaucer, 
who died in 1400, a rapid improvement 
in the grammar of the English language 
seems to have taken place, and particu- 
larly in the last and present centuries. 
During this period it has been enriched 
from the treasures of Greek and Roman 
literature ; and the ingenious have im- 
ported supplies of French, Spanish, Ita- 
lian, and German words, gleaned during 
their foreign excursions. When John- 
son published his dictionary in 1755, 
however, our language, as to its regular 
grammatical construction, was still very 
defective. Since the time of Johnson 
others have ably followed in the same 
department, and chiefly that distinguish- 
ed grammarian Murray, who in the pre- 
sent century has greatly enlarged and 
improved the grammar of Johnson. 

GRAM MONT, Count de, author 
of the " Memoirs of the Court of 
Charles II.," died 1707. 

GRAMPOUND first returned mem- 
bers to parliament in the reign of Ed- 
ward VI. ; disfranchised in 1832, by the 
reform bill. 

GRAN, palatinate, Austrian empire, 
has a citadel which has been several 
times in the possession of the Turks, 
but was wrested from them in 1683. 

GRANADA, a city and province of 
Spain, the seat of a university founded 
in 1537. Here is the Alhambra, or 
palace of the ancient Moorish kings. 
See Alhambra. 

Granada fell into the hands of the 
Moors immediately after their first in- 
vasion of Spain in 711, and became their 
royal residence in 1013. It attained its 
greatest prosperity during the 12th and 
13th centuries, and was finally recovered 
by the Spaniards in 1492. On the 
surrender of the Moors, religious liberty 
was promised to them; but in 1500, 
a persecution was commenced against 
them, and they were finally obliged to 
quit the kingdom, or embrace Christi- 
anity. The city surrendered to the 
French in 1810. 

GRAND Alliance signed at Vienna, 
between England, the emperor of Ger- 
many, and the states general ; to which 
Spain and the duke of Savoy afterwards 
acceded in 1689- 

GRANGE, Joseph de Chancel 
DE LA, a celebrated French dramatic 
3 X 



GRA 



522 



GRA 



writer, was born in 1676, at Antoniat in 
Perigord. He was educated among the 
Jesuits at Bourdeaux, and when he was 
only nine years old, he compoaed a 
comedy in three acts. Before he was 
16, his tragedy of " Jugartha" was repre- 
sented in the capital. The work which 
rendered him famous, though it exposed 
him to much mortification and suffering, 
was entitled " Phillippiques," a satire 
in verse, directed against Philip, the 
regent duke of Orleans, which appeared 
in 1718, He died at his family seat of 
Antoniat in 1758. 

GRANGER, Rev. James, author 
of the "Biographical History of Eng- 
land," died suddenly as he was ad- 
ministering the sacrament on Easter 
Sunday, 1776. 

GRANITE, an immense erratic block 
of, was floated on the ice during the 
winter of 1837-8, from Finland to the 
island of Hochland. It weighed about 
1,000,000 pounds, according to the esti- 
mate of M. de Baer. 

GRANITE, Artificial. M. D'Har- 
court's patent artificial granite blocks 
of Scotch asphalte have been laid 
down on the Southampton Railway, 
1839. The sleeper was put in while the 
block was formed. It was usual to bore 
holes and to fix the chains by bolts ; but 
the above method has been equally suc- 
cessful. 

GRANT, Mrs. Anne, an eminent 
modern authoress, widow of the Rev. 
James Grant, of Laggan in Inverness- 
shire, was born at Glasgow in 1755. 
M'Vicar, her father, who was an officer 
in the British army, brought her, with 
the rest of his family, to America, when 
she was about three years old. In 1768 
she returned to Scotland, and was mar- 
ried, in 1779. to the Rev. James Grant, 
who died in 1801. In 1803 she re- 
moved to Stirhng. A volume of poems 
was published, the same year ; her 
" Letters from the Mountains," in 1806; 
and afterwards her " Memoirs of an 
American Lady," and her "Essays on the 
Superstitions of the Highlanders of 
Scotland ; " all of which were favourably 
received. She removed to Edinburgh 
in 1806, where she lived much respected 
till her death, November 7, 1838, in her 
84th year. Sir Walter Scott says, 
" The character and talents of Mrs. 
Grant have long rendered her not only a 
useful and estimable member of society, 
but one eminent for the services she 



has rendered to the cause of religion, 
morality, knowledge, and taste." 

GRANT, Sir Robert, governor of 
Bombay, a man greatly respected for his 
talents, his public services, his excellent 
and religious character, was the brother 
of Lord Glenelg, second son of Sir Wil- 
liam Grant, many years M.P. for Inver- 
ness-shire, and director of the East India 
Company. He was called to the bar at 
Lincoln's Inn, January 30, 1807. He 
published " A Sketch of the History of 
the East India Company from its first 
Foundation to the passing of the Regula- 
tion Act of 1773," 8vo. In 1826, he 
was returned to parliament for the In- 
verness district of burghs j in 1830, for 
Norwich, and again in 1831. When his 
brother became president of the Board 
of Control, he was appointed one of the 
commissioners; in 1831, he was sworn 
a privy-councillor, and in 1832, appoint- 
ed judge-advocate general. At the first 
election of the new borough of Finsbury, 
in 1831, he was returned as one of its 
members. In June, 1834, he was ap- 
pointed governor of Bombay. He left 
the presidency in good health for the 
hills, June 19, 1838; was attacked by 
fever, and sunk under its effects, at Da- 
poorie, June 9, in his 53d year. 

GRANTHAM, Lincolnshire, a place 
of high antiquity, was a Roman station, 
and built by Gorbomannns, a.c. 300 : 
it was incorporated by charter, by Ed- 
ward IV. in 1463. In 1642, Charles I. 
was here taken prisoner by the parlia- 
mentary forces, under Colonel Charles 
Cavendish. At the south entrance of 
the town is a cross, erected by Edward 
I., in memory of his queen, Eleanor. 
Here were anciently several monastic in- 
stitutions; an old commandery of Knights 
Templars is now occupied as an inn. 

GRAPES cultivated in Flanders. 1276; 
brought to England, and planted at 
Blackball, in Suffolk, 1552. 

GRASSHOPPER, sloop, driven into 
the Texel by the dreadful gale of De- 
cember 24, 1811, and the crew made 
prisoners. 

GRATIAN, the Roman emperor, was 
the son of Valentinian I., born in 359. 
succeeded his father in 367. Influenced 
by the counsel and instructions of the 
celebrated Ambrose, he continued for 
some length of time to attend to the de- 
fence and concerns of the empire. He 
was put to death in 383, in the 24th year 
of his age, and the eighth of his reign. 



I 



GRE 



523 



GRE 



GRATTAN, Henry, celebrated Irish 
orator and statesman, born 1750, died 
1820, and was interred in Westminster 
Abbey. 

GRAVELINES, town, France. A 
French army was defeated near this 
place in 1556, by the Spaniards; but in 
1658 the French took forcible posses- 
sion of it, and have retained it ever since. 

GRAVES, Rev. Richard, author of 
the " Spiritual Quixote," &c., died Nov. 
23, 1804, aged 90. 

GRAVESANDE, the Dutch mathe- 
matician, bom 1688, died 1742. 

GRAVESEND, town of Kent, on the 
banks of the Thames, was plundered and 
burned by the French and Spaniards, in 
the reign of Richard II. To compen- 
sate in some measure for this loss, the 
king, at the request of the abbot of St. 
Mary le Grace, vested it with the exclu- 
sive privilege of carrying passengers by 
water to London ; which was confirmed 
by Henry VIII. In August, 1727, the 
greater part of the town was destroyed 
by fire. The new pier was injured by a 
mob, Jan. 22, 1833, opened to the pub- 
lic, July 30, 1834. 

GRAY, Thomas, admired British 
poet, born at London, in I7l6. He ac- 
companied Mr. Walpole in his travels ; 
and about 1750, finished his celebrated 
" Elegy, written in a Country Church- 
yard," and communicated it to Mr. Wal- 
pole, who promoted its immediate publi- 
cation. From the year 1759 to 1762, 
Mr. Gray resided in London, for the pur- 
pose of consulting the curious MSS. in 
the British Museum. On the death of 
Gibber, in 1757, he was offered the post 
of poet laureate, which he declined. The 
professorship of modern history at Cam- 
bridge, worth £400 per annum,was con- 
ferred on him in 1768, by the Duke of 
Grafton. Gray returned the favour by 
an Ode to Music, for the installation of 
that nobleman, as Chancellor of the 
University, in 1769. He died July 30, 
1770, in the 55th year of his age. 

GREAT Britain. See Britain. 

GREAT Seal of England first used 
1050; stolen from the Lord Chancellor 
and destroyed, March 24, 1784. 

GREAT Western, large steam 
ship, arrived at New York, from Bristol, 
after a passage of 15 days, June 17, 1838. 
It was the first steamer which has crossed 
the Atlantic by the power of steam only ; 
but it was followed on the 18 th by the 
" Sirius," which left Cork June 1, and 



performed the passage in 17 days. Both 
were welcomed with much enthusiasm, 
and on their departure were saluted with 
guns from the shipping and the shore. 

GREAVES, John, English mathe- 
matician, born 1602, died 1652. 

GREECE, one of the most celebrated 
countries of antiquity, was anciently 
bounded on the north by Macedonia 
and Epirus, and by the sea on the south, 
east, and west. Its ancient history has 
been divided into four periods : 

The first, commencing with the foun- 
dation of Sicyon, a.c. 2089, extends to 
the siege of Troy, A.c. 1184, a period of 
905 years. This was properly the in- 
fancy of Greece. 

The second, beginning with the siege 
of Troy, terminates with the battle of 
Marathon, a.c. 490, including a period 
of 694 years. 

The third period comprehends an inJR 
terval of 167 years, between the battle of 
Marathon and the death of Alexander, 
A.c. 323. 

The fourth period, commencing with 
the death of Alexander, terminates A.c. 
146, when the Achaean league was dis- 
solved, and Greece became a Roman 
province, under the name of Achaia, an 
interval of 177 years. Its history from 
this period is connected with that of 
Rome. 

The Greeks, now unhappily under a 
foreign yoke, and consequently deprived 
of their national charter, yet retained, 
amidst all their calamities the strength 
of genius and delicacy of taste for which 
they had ever been remarkable ; and they 
helped to polish their haughty and as yet 
but half civilized conquerors. Upon 
the destruction of the western empire, 
476, they successfully cultivated the arts 
and sciences, while all the rest of the 
world was sunk in the grossest igno- 
rance and barbarism. Greece remained 
under the eastern emperors until the 
establishment of the Ottoman power in 
Europe, in 1458, when it became a pro- 
vince of Turkey, and for four centuries 
writhed beneath the miseries of Maho- 
metan misrule. 

1821. Commencement of the Greek 
revolt, when the Greeks rose en masse, 
and asserted their independence. This 
declaration was succeeded by one of the 
most cruel and bloody conflicts recorded 
in history. The revolt began in Wallachia 
and Moldavia, and was followed by the 
occupation of Thebes, and the surrender 



GRE 



524 



GRE 



of Malvasia, Navarino, and Tripolizza, to 1825. Expedition against the Morea, 

the Greeks, Oct. 7. On this latter occa- from the shores of Africa, under Ibrahim 

sion, that animosity which generally in- Pacha, the son of Mohammed Ali, landed 

flames the victorious assailant, was aggra- at Modon. On May 17, the Greek fleet, 

vated by the accumulated oppressions of under Miaouli, obtained a victory over 

centuries, and by recent atrocities on the the Egyptian fleet, near the isles of Sa- 

part of the infidels, of so dreadful a cast, pienza.^ Six fire-ships, directed by arti 



that they seemed to cry aloud for retribu 
tion and vengeance. The Arcadian pea 
sants showed themselves both cruel and 
relentless towards their fallen oppressors. 
About 6000 Turks are said to have 



ficers, fell on part of the enemy's fleet 
which was at anchor under the walls of 
Modon. One frigate of fifty-four guns, 
one of 36, two corvettes of 26, and 20 
transports, were completely burnt. In- 



perished, and some thousands were made vestment of Messolunghi. 

prisoners, while numbers escaped to the "" 

mountains. 

1822. A provisional government hav- 
ing been formed the assembUige of a 

congress at Epidaurus took place, and a 

declaration of independence was sent 

forth on the 1 st January. The draft of a 
constitution was presented at the same 
"ime ; yet, as the various articles required 

examination and discussion, it was not 



1826. Fall of Messolunghi, April 22. 
See Messolunghi. The Greek loan, 
to the extent of £2,000,000, negotiated 
in London through the agency of the 
Messrs. Ricardo, owing to the mis- 
management of those who had assumed 
the control of it, proved of little use. 
Nine-tenths of this sum never came 
into the hands of the Greeks ; but they 
were told it was expended, and all 



promulgated till the 27th, when the code they had received in return were a sixty 



passed into a law, and was solemnly pro 
claimed amidst the acclamations of the 
deputies, soldiery, and people. The prin- 
cipal events of this campaign were the 
capture of Corinth, Feb. 26th, the 
desolation of Scio, and the massacre 
of its ill-fated inhabitants, in April, by 
the Turks. See Scio. 

1823. Capture of Napoli di Romania 
January 11th. In this second campaign 
in the Morea, the loss of the Turks by 
famine or sword, could not be less than 
25,000 men in the Peloponnesus alone. 
Meeting of congress commenced April 
10th, when the following oath was ad- 
ministered to each member : " I swear 
in the name of God and my country to 
act with a pure and unshaken patriotism; 
to promote a sincere union, and abjure 



gun frigate, and a miserable steam boat, 
both of which arrived too late to be use- 
ful, when punctuality in point of time 
was essential to their value. 

1827. Success of the Greeks in Liva- 
dia. Arrival of Lord Cochrane at Paris. 
General national assembly convened, in 
the beginning of April. I3y one of their 
first acts, they appointed the Count Capo 
D'Istria president of Greece for seven 
years, with the power and prerogatives 
of the president of the United States. 
Lord Cochrane was named commander 
in chief of the Greek fleet. Unsuccessful 
attempt to relieve Athens, under General 
Church and Lord Cochrane, in May. 
In this battle was dispersed the most 
promising army that Greece had yet 
brought into the field. No command 



every thought of personal interest in all could keep the remaining troops toge- 

the discussions which shall take place in ther. Most of them left the camp, and 

this second national congress." The fled to Eleusis, Megara, and Salamis. 

congress then proceeded to nominate a This was followed by the evacuation of 

president in the person of Mavromichalis the Acropolis. 

and revised the constitution. The seat of 1827. Interference of the European 

government was established atTripolizza. cabinets. In pursuance of their_agree- 



1824. The most disastrous event which 
took place in this campaign was the cap- 
ture of Ipsara by the Turks, under the 
command of the captain pacha, July 2. 
Although the operations of this cam- 
paign were not on the same scale of 



ment, the ministers of Britain, France, 
and Russia, at Constantinople, laid be- 
fore the Porte the proposals of these 
powers for the pacification of Greece. 
Armistice of fifteen days. Arrival of 
the Egyptian Fleet at Navarino in the 



magnitude with the former ones, yet the end of August. The British squadron, 
results were, on the whole, greatly in under the command of Admiral Cod- 
favour of Greece, and extremely dis- rington, was oflP that harbour when it 
couraging to the Ottoman Porte. appeared. The French squadron joined 



GRE 



525 



GRE 



on the 22(1 under Admiral De Rigny. 
Armistice of twenty days. Battle of 
Navarino 20th October. See Nava- 

RINO. 

1828. February. The national as- 
sembly convoked by the senate. The 
existing legislative power dissolved. The 
Panhellenion, or grand council of state 
for the government of Greece, estab- 
lished by decree. Convention for the 
departure of the Egyptian army from 
the Morea. French expedition to reduce 
NaVarino, &c. The fortresses surrender- 
ed by the Turks. Capo D'Istria's return 
as president. See Capo D'Istria. 

1829. Negotiations relative to Greece 
between the ambassadors at the Porte 
and the Reis Effendi. Surrender of 
Vonizza, and of the Turks at Carvassara, 
Lepanto, &c. Conference and declara- 
tion on the part of the allies. Capo 
D'Istria objects to the suspension of 
hostilities. 

1830. The sovereignty of Greece of- 
fered, first to Prince John of Saxony, 
afterwards to Prince Leopold of Co- 
bourg. Leopold ultimately declined the 
offer. 

1831. Unpopularity of the president 
Capo D'Istria, and insurrection. The 
provisional government attempted to 
seize the fleet at Poros. Poros attacked 
by the Russian troops ; Hydra destroyed 
by Capo D'Istria's troops ; the Russian 
fleet attacked by the Hydriots. Capo 
D'Istria assassinated, and his brother 
Augustine placed at the head of a com- 
mittee of government. 

1832. Schism in the national assem- 
bly. Augustine Capo D'Istria was im- 
peached. The seceding members formed 
a counter assembly and overturned the 
government. Prince Otho of Bavaria 
was chosen king. 

1833. At the beginning of this year, 
Prince Otho landed at Nauplia, attended 
bya body of troops. He was received with 
all due marks of respect and obedience, 
announced himself to his subjects by pro- 
clamation, in which, after eulogising the 
mighty sacrifices they had made in the 
cause of independence, and painting the 
anarchy which immediately followed, to 
prevent the fruits of that independence 
from being reaped, he called upon them 
to combine their efforts with his, to the 
sole end of promoting the public good. 
The government occupied itself in dis- 
banding the irregular troops, which threw 
loose numbers of men, ready to join any 



mal-content chief, or form themselves 
into bands for purposes of plunder. 
They entered the Turkish town of Arta, 
during the night of May 25, and imme- 
diately began slaughtering the inha- 
bitants, setting their houses on fire, or 
plundering them. The massacre lasted 
three days, after which the band, laden 
with booty, returned to the mountains. 
The government of Napoli immediately 
marched troops for the tranquillity and 
protection of the frontier. The kingdom 
was divided into 10 departments, and 
each department into districts. The de- 
partments were, 1. Argolis and Corinth; 
2. Achaia and Elis; 3. Messene ; 4. Arca- 
dia; 5. Laconia; 6. Acarnania and Eto- 
lia ; 7- Locris and Phocia; 8. Attica and 
Boeotia; 9. Eubcea ; 10. the Cyclades. 
The local government of each depart- 
ment was vested in a nomarch, assisted 
by a council ; and at the head of each 
circle or district into which they were 
subdivided, was placed an eparch, with 
a distinct board. An application for re- 
payment of the Greek loans was rejected. 

1834. Greece suffered the evils both 
of civil war and of political intrigue. By 
the 10th article of the convention rela- 
tive to the sovereignty of Greece, it was 
provided that the rights of the sove- 
reignty of King Otho, should, during 
his minority, " be exercised in their full 
extent by a regency, composed of three 
councillors, appointed by the king of 
Bavaria." Count Armansperg, a Bava- 
rian nobleman, was appointed president. 
This occasioned disputes in the regency, 
and intrigues against the president. In- 
surrections in the Morea; trial of Colo- 
cotroni and Coliopolas for high-trea- 
son ; their sentence commuted for impri- 
sonment. Mavrocordati sent to Ber- 
lin ; Coletti appointed president of the 
council. 

1835. State of government transferred 
from Napoli to Athens. Operations 
against the disaffected in Messenia. The 
regency terminated by King Otho's com- 
ing of age. Armansperg made arch- 
secretary of state. Discontents among 
the Greeks, and hostility towards the 
Bavarian soldiery. 

1836. Greek loan guaranteed by 
Great Britain, France, and Russia. The 
Greek language to be used for public 
documents. King Otho married the 
princess of Oldenburgh, 

1837- Establishment of departmental 
councils. Dismissal of Count Arman- 



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526 



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sperg; appointment of M. Rudhart; dis- 
pute between Sir E. Lyons and M. Rud- 
hart. Restoration of the city of Athens. 

1838. Hitherto King Otho's govern- 
ment had been maintained by a large 
body of German employees, civil as well 
as military. But this year to the great 
satisfaction of the people, the administra- 
tion of strangers, or the xenocracy, as 
the Greeks termed it, ceased, for the pre- 
sent, to exist. At the beginning of this 
year the principal departments of the 
government stood as follows. In the 
first place, came the cabinet, divided into 
six departments. There were besides, a 
council of state of 38 members ; an ec- 
clesiastical synod ; the royal household ; 
the high administrative commission, or 
board of control, which seems to exercise 
a superintendence over the entire ad- 
ministration of the state ; 1 courts of 
first instance ; two superior courts at 
Athens and Napoli, besides the Areopa- 
gus, or supreme court; three tribunals 
of commerce at Napoli, Syra, and Pa- 
tras ; the mint ; 25 colleges ; 1 11 secon- 
dary schools ; five gymnasia ; a normal 
school, and a university. 

Changes have also taken place in the 
geographical divisions of Greece. The 
kingdom was after various alterations 
at length divided into 30 departments, 
which were again subdivided into dis- 
tricts, and demi, or communes, which 
were furnished with a large staflf of 
municipal officers. The navy of Greece 
consisted of one 20-gun corvette, and 
about 20 smaller vessels, mounting, in 
the whole, 170 guns. The army was 
composed of 2744 officers of all ranks, 
and 9099 non-commissioned officers and 
soldiers. The revenue by which these 
expensive establishments are to be 
supported, amounted to 14,911,910 
drachmas, about 13,400,000 francs. 

Greece, considered as a free state, has 
been contracted in extent since its an- 
cient boundaries, in consequence of the 
reverses sustained by the national arms, 
and the treaty concluded by the Euro- 
pean powers , and includes only a small 
portion of what was formerly considered 
as Greece. Bounded on the south by a 
line nearly from the gulf of Volo to 
that of Arta, it excludes the extensive 
and populous territories of Thessaly, 
Macedonia, and Albania. The popula- 
tion is estimated at about 700,000. Com- 
merce is pursued with activity ; from a 
report presented to the congress at 



Napoli, in January, 1832, Greece was 
at that time possessed of 2941 vessels of 
all sorts, of which 614 were of the first 
class, that is, of more than 150 tons 
burden. 

The number of vessels, their tonnage, 
and the invoice value of their cargoes, 
which entered inwards and cleared out- 
wards, at the principal ports within the 
consulate of the Morea, viz., Patras 
and Napoh, in the year 1834, were as 
follows : — Port of Napoli, inwards, 233 
ships; tons, 2515; value, £63,543: — 
outwards, 7l6 ships ; tons, 1222; value, 
£25,296. Port of Patras, inwards, 426 
ships ; tons, 18,842 ; value, £92,225 : — 
outwards, 404 ships; tons, 17,911; value, 
£130,816. The number and tonnage of 
British vessels which entered and cleared 
at the port of Syra, in 1835, were: — 
Entered, ships, 58 ; tons, 8392 ; cleared, 
ships. 58 ; tons, 8339. 

GREENACRE, James, and Sarah 
Gale, tried for the murder of Hannah 
Brown, at the Central Criminal Court, 
April 10, 1837. Greenacre was sen- 
tenced to be executed, and Gale, who 
was convicted, not of the murder, but 
of felony, or of being an accessory after 
the fact, to be transported for life. This 
case was productive of considerable ex- 
citement on the part of the public, from 
the singular atrocity of the circumstances 
connected with it. In the early part of 
the year, the head and mutilated remains 
of a female having been discovered in 
the Regent's Canal, and in different parts 
of London, great efforts were made, for 
some time without success, to discover 
the supposed murderer. The mutilated 
body was at last identified as that of a 
female whom Greenacre had intended to 
marry ; and on his apprehension, he con- 
fessed that he had killed her, by what he 
termed an accidental blow, given in pas- 
sion, and had disposed of the body in 
fragments to conceal the murder. Green- 
acre was executed May 2. 

GREEN Castle, Ireland, province of 
Ulster, was anciently a stronghold, and 
fortified by the De Burgos, earls of Ul- 
ster, and lords of Connaught, In 1343, 
this castle was plundered by the Irish, 
but soon afterwards repaired. In the 
first year of Henry IV. it was governed 
by a constable, with a salary of £20 per 
annum, to secure the intercourse with 
the English in Lecale. In 1495, an act 
of parliament was passed, declaring 
none but an Enghshman by birth eligi- 



GRE 



527 



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ble to the governorship ; and in the re- 
belUon of 1641 it was garrisoned, and 
found of much importance. 

GREEN Dye, for cotton, invented by 
Dr. R. Williams, 1777. 

GREEN Saxon Dye, invented 1744. 

GREENE, Dr. Maurice, English 
musician, died 1755. 

GREENFIELD Monastery, built 
1131. 

GREENLAND, country. North Ame- 
rica, belonging to Denmark. It is not 
yet perfectly ascertained whether it be 
an island, or connected with the conti- 
nent of North America, but from Cap- 
tain Parry's expedition in 1819, its dis- 
junction from the continent is strongly 
inferred. Greenland was settled about 
1015, by two colonies from Norway and 
Denmark, of which the one occupied the 
east and the other the west coast. 

EAST Greenland was neglectd by 
the mother country, from the year 1408, 
and being engaged in continual hostili- 
ties with the Esquimaux, it is supposed 
to have been gradually extirpated. It 
consisted in 1406, of 190 villages, and 
had a bishop, 12 parishes, and two mo- 
nasteries ; and up to that time 16 bishops 
had been sent out in regular succession 
from Norway. Attempts made in the 
16th and 17th centuries to land on the 
east coast proved abortive, as did a similar 
effort in 1786, by the Danes. Captain 
Scoresby, in 1822, found the east coast 
free from ice; he sailed along, and 
carefully examiiied it from lat. 75'' N. 
to 69'' N.; he found no inhabitants, but 
several houses remained, containing 
household utensils and hunting appara- 
tus, and one wooden coffin. In March, 
1829, an expedition was sent by the 
Danish government, consisting of M. 
Graah, who, accompanied by two Green- 
land men and four Greenland women, 
explored the coast in one of their frail 
boats. On July 28, he had advanced 
as far as an island situated in lat. 65" 
18' and long. 38° 27' W. from Green- 
land. On Oct. 1, he arrived at Nugar- 
bik, lat. 63° 22' where he took up his 
winter quarters, and sent home a detail 
of his enterprise, dated April 2, 1830. 
Having advanced beyond the latitude 
ascribed to this ancient colony without 
discovering the least trace of it, it is con- 
cluded that the former colonists must 
be extinct. 

West Greenland was cut off in 
the middle of the 14 th century from its 



usual intercourse with Norway and Ice- 
land by a dreadful plague, called the 
Black Death. In the reign of Elizabeth 
this coast was again discovered, but no- 
thing was done to explore it until the 
Danish government, in 1721, assisted a 
clergyman, Hans Egede, to effect a set- 
tlement. Good Hope (Godhaab), on the 
river Baal : he found the people to re- 
semble the Esquimaux of Labrador in 
customs and language. In 1733, the 
Moravians established settlements and 
missions on these inhospitable shores ; 
and these continue there to the present 
day. 

GREENLAND Company was in- 
corporated for 14 years from Oct. 1, 
1693, 4 and 5 Will. III. cap. 17, and fur- 
ther encouraged by parliament, in 1696; 
but partly by unskilful management, 
and partly by real losses, it was under 
the necessity of entirely breaking up, 
before the expiration of the term as- 
signed to it, ending in 1707. 

GREENOCK, seaport, Scotland, on 
the south shore of the estuary of the 
river Clyde, was erected into a burgh of 
barony by Charles I., in 1642. The old 
harbour, begun to be built in 1707, con- 
tains about 10 acres. These are inclosed 
within two circular quays, in the middle 
of which is another quay built in 1712, 
projecting like a tongue. In 1801 and 
1803, acts of parliament were obtained 
for enlarging and improving the har- 
bour. In 1827, " Shaw's Water Com- 
pany " was established with a capital of 
£31,000, the object of which was to col- 
lect the water from numerous mountain 
streams into a spacious reservoir or ar- 
tificial lake on the heights above the 
town. This design succeeded admirably. 
In 1835, the dam of the reservoir burst 
and the disruption was attended with 
the loss of 30 lives, and the destruction 
of houses and other property to a con- 
siderable amount. 

GREENOCK Bank, robbery of pro- 
perty to the value of £30,000, May 9, 
1828. 

GREENWICH, town, Kent. There 
was a royal residence here in the time 
of Edward I., and in 1433 Henry VI. 
granted the manor of East Greenwich 
to his uncle Humphrey, duke of Glou- 
cester, who built himself a palace called 
Placentia, and commenced the erection 
of a tower on Greenwich hill, which was 
completed by Henry VII., the site of 
which is now occupied by the royal 



GRE 



528 



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observatory. Henry VIII. was born here, 
and also his daughters Mary and EUza- 
beth. Here also occurred the death of 
Edward VI. At this palace Elizabeth 
frequently held her court, and also James 
I. and Charles I. Charles II. enlarged 
and planted the park, and gave direc- 
tions for building a magnificent palace 
from a design of Inigo Jones. This 
edifice was not finished until the reign 
of Anne, and was then converted by 
grant from William III. into a royal 
hospital for disabled seamen. 

GREENWICH Hospital was com- 
pleted by Sir Christopher Wren, and 
stands on an elevated terrace, about 865 
feet in length, fronting the Thames. In 
the centre of the grand square stands a 
statue of George II., erected in 1735. 
Since the year 1712, a contribution of 
sixpence a month has been levied on the 
wages of every British mariner, towards 
the support of the hospital. The govern- 
ment is vested in seven commissioners, 
incorporated by royal charter in 1775. 
The principal officers are a governor and 
lieutenant-governor, four captains, eight 
lieutenants, a treasurer, a secretary, an 
auditor, two chaplains, a physician, a 
surgeon, &c. The number of pensioners 
is 2360. In 1763 a detached hospital 
was erected for the sick pensioners, and 
in 1783, a school-house was founded. 
This hospital was visited October 11, 
1835, by his late majesty William IV. 
and his queen, this being the anniver- 
sary of the great naval victory achieved 
Oct. 11, 1797, off Camperdown. They 
proceeded in state to the chapel for the 
purpose of hearing prayers, accompanied 
by Prince George of Cumberland, and 
attended by the royal suite. Those pen- 
sioners who had served under Admiral 
Duncan, Oct. 11, 1797, were conspicu- 
ously placed by themselves in a situation 
opposite to the royal pew. 

GREENWICH Royal Observa- 
tory was founded by Charles II., and 
completed in 1676; it is amply furnished 
with mathematical, chronometrical, and 
optical instruments, and is under the 
direction of the astronomer royal. The 
first who held this office was Flamsteed, 
and he has been succeeded by Halley, 
Bliss, Bradley, Maskelyne, Pond, &c. 

GREENWICH Railway, opened 
throughout its entire length December 
26, 1838. 

GREGORY, Nazianzen, one of the 
most illustrious fathers of the Greek 



church in the fourth age. About 378, he 
was deputed, on account of his great 
learning, to go to Constantinople to 
assist in defending the Catholic cause 
against the Arians. Upon his return to 
his native country, he was importuned to 
undertake the charge of the see of Nazi- 
anzen, but he could not be prevailed 
upon to quit his retirement, where he 
died in the year 389. His works consist 
of Sermons, Letters, and Poems; the best 
edition of them was published by Morel, 
in two volumes, folio, at Paris, 1609. 

GREGORY, Nyssen, a saint and 
father of the church, was born in Cappa- 
docia about 331. He was chosen bishop 
of Nyssa in 372, and banished by the 
Emperor Valens for adhering to the 
council of Nice. In 378, he was pre- 
sent at the synod held at Antioch. In 
381, he was summoned to the council 
that met at Constantinople, and to him 
was confided the task of drawing up a 
creed, which was adopted, and is now 
called the Nicene Creed. He was also 
present at the synod held at Constanti- 
nople in the year 394. He died in 396. 
His chief works are, "Commentaries on 
the Scriptures ;" " Sermons on the Mys- 
teries;" " Moral Discourses;" "Panegy- 
rics on the Saints;" and "Letters on 
Church Discipline." 

GREGORY, George Florence, 
commonly called Gregory of Tours, was 
born about the year 544. He was elected 
bishop of Tours, in 573. In 594, he 
took a journey to Rome, to visit the 
tombs of the apostles, and to pay his 
respects to Pope Gregory the Great, 
who received him with extraordinary 
marks of esteem. He died soon after 
his return to his diocese, in 595, in his 
52d year. He was author of " The His- 
tory of France ;" " The Lives of the 
Saints ;" " Fragments of a Commentary 
on the Psalms," and other pieces. The 
best edition of his works is that pub- 
lished at Paris in 1699- 

GREGORY VII., Pope, by his talents, 
raised the Roman see to the highest 
pitch of power. His original name was 
Hildebrand. By Leo IX. he was created 
sub-deacon, and by Nicholas II., arch- 
deacon of the Roman church ; by these 
pontiffs, and by some others, he was 
successfully employed in several nego- 
tiations. He was elected pope in 1073, 
upon the death of Alexander. While 
they were performing the obsequies of 
Alexander in the Lateran church, on the 



GRE 



52 9 



GRE 



(lay after his death, the assembled people 
tumultuously cried out with one voice, 
" Hildebrand is pope ; St. Peter has chosen 
him :" upon which he was immediately 
laid hold of, and placed by force upon 
the pontifical throne. In his pontificate 
he assumed great authority over the 
crowned heads of Europe, and claimed 
the exclusive right of creating kings ; 
these pretensions he particularly enforced 
in the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohe- 
mia, the latter of which he obliged to 
})ay a tribute to the holy see. He died 
at Salerno, in 1085, having held the see 
of Rome little more than 12 years, and 
leaving Europe involved in complicated 
calamities to which his ambition gave rise. 
" He was," says Mosheim, " a man of 
uncommon genius, whose ambition in 
forming the most arduous projects, was 
equalled by his dexterity in bringing 
them into execution; sagacious, crafty, 
and intrepid, nothing could escape his 
penetration, defeat his stratagems, or 
daunt his courage; haughty and arrogant 
beyond all measure, obstinate, impetuous, 
and untractable, he looked up to the 
summit of universal empire with a wist- 
ful eye, and laboxired up the steep ascent 
with uninterrupted ardour and invincible 
perseverance : void of all principle, and 
destitute of every pious and virtuous 
feeling, he suffered little restraint in his 
audacious pursuits from the dictates of 
rehgion, or the remonstrances of con- 

SC16nC6 

GREGORY XVI., a title assumed by 
the present pope. Cardinal Mauro Ca- 
pellari, elected to the papal throne, Feb. 2, 
1831. 

GREGORY, James, an eminent ma- 
thematician, was born at Aberdeen, in 
1638. He published, in 1663, a trea- 
tise entitled, " Optica Promota," &c., in 
which he presented to the world one of 
the most valuable of the modern disco- 
veries, the construction of the reflecting 
telescope. His works engaged the no- 
tice, and procured Mr. Gregory the cor- 
respondence, of the greatest mathema- 
ticians of the age — Newton, Huygens, 
Halley, and Wallis. About 1669 he was 
chosen a fellow of the Royal Society of 
London. In October, 1675, being em- 
ployed in showing the satellites of Jupi- 
ter, through a telescope, to some of his 
pupils, he \vas suddenly struck with 
blindness, and died a few days after, at 
the early age of 37. 
■ GREGORY, David, nephewof James 



Gregory, was born at Aberdeen, in 1661. 
He saw very early the excellence of the 
Newtonian philosophy, and had the merit 
of being the first who introduced it into 
the schools by his public lectures at 
Edinburgh. He died in 1710, in the 
49th year of his age. 

GREGORY, Dr. John, an eminent 
physician, was born at Aberdeen, in 1724. 
In 1743 he went to Edinburgh, where 
the school of medicine was then rising 
to celerity. He removed to the metro- 
polis in 1754; and being already known 
by reputation as a man of genius, he found 
an easy introduction to many persons of 
distinction. In 1754 he was chosen fel- 
low of the Royal Society; in 1755 he 
obtained the professorship of medicine, 
in King's College, Aberdeen ; and in 1766, 
on the resignation of Dr. Rutherford, 
was called to the professional chair, in 
Edinburgh, where he gave lectures on the 
practice of physic,during the yearsl767, 
1768, and 1769. He died Feb. 9, 1773. 

GRENADA, or Granada, island. 
West Indies, the last of the Windward 
Caribbees, was discovered by Columbus 
in 1498 ; seized and settled by the French 
in 1650, who exterminated the natives. 
It fell into the possession of the British in 
1762, and was confirmed to them by 
treaty, in 1763. The French, in 1779, 
wrested it from its owners, but restored 
it at the peace in 1783; and it has re- 
mained since then in British possession. 

GRENOBLE, city, France, depart- 
ment Isere, of Gallic origin. In the 
time of the AUobroges it was called Ca- 
laro, which name it retained under the 
Romans, until Gratian changed it into 
Gratianopolis. It has been the see of a 
bishop since the fourth century. Greno- 
ble was the first city of importance that 
opened its gates to Napoleon, on his re- 
turn to France fromElba, inMarch, 1815. 

GRENVILLE, the Right Hon. 
WilliamWyndham,Baron, was born 
Oct. 25, 1759, and was the third son of 
the Right Hon. George Grenville, prime 
minister in 1763. He received his 
early education at Eton, and then re- 
moved to Christchurch, Oxford. In 
Feb. 1782, he was first returned to Par- 
liament ; he was elected Speaker of the 
House of Commons, Jan. 5, 1789, and 
was removed to the House of Lords by 
a patent of peerage, dated Nov. 25, 1790, 
and thenceforward became the repre- 
sentative and echo of Mr. Pitt, in the 
upper house. In 1791 he was appointed 
3 Y 



GRE 



530 



GRE 



ranger of St. James's and Hyde Parks, 
which post he exchanged, m 1795, for 
the office of auditor of the exchequer. 
He filled the important situation of 
foreign secretary during one of the most 
arduous and gloomy periods of our his- 
tory. 

1804. Mr. Pitt took his seat as First 
Lord of the Treasury, without having 
stipulated for Catholic emancipation. 
Lord Grenville, with Mr. Wyndham, re- 
fused to join him ; and from that time 
until the death of Mr. Pitt, in Jan. 1806, 
Lord Grenville took a prominent part 
in the ranks of the o})position. On 
Mr. Pitt's death, the administration was 
formed which was known by the name of 
" All the Talents," and Lord Grenville 
was the prime minister. He suffered in 
his popularity by obtaining an Act of 
Parliament enabling him to hold, toge- 
ther with the premiership, the office of 
fiuditor of the exchequer, and which he 
retained until his death. In 1809 his 
lordship was chosen Chancellor of the 
University of Oxford. He continued in 
opposition to the government during the 
war; but on the final defeat of the 
French, in 1814, he heartily congratu- 
lated the country on the prospect of an 
immediate peace ; and in the following 
year supported ministers in their resolu- 
tion to depose Napoleon. From that 
time he ceased to take a prominent 
part in parliamentary discussions, except 
during the debates on Catholic emanci- 
pation. He died Jan. 12, 1834, at his seat, 
Dropmore, Buckinghamshire, aged 74. 

GRESHAM, Sir Thomas, an opu- 
lent citizen of London, born in 1519; 
was made free of the Mercers' Company 
in 1543 ; appointed king's agent in Ant- 
werp, for taking up money of the mer- 
chants; and in 1551, he removed to that 
city with his family. He built a large 
house on the west side of Bishopsgate- 
street, which was after his death con- 
verted into a college, and known by the 
name of Gresham College. He built a 
house at his own expense, on the plan of 
the Exchange, at Antwerp, and the queen 
came and dined with the founder, and 
caused a herald with a trumpet to pro- 
claim it by the name of the Royal Ex- 
change. He left one moiety of the Royal 
Exchange to the Corporation of London, 
and the other to the Mercers' Company, 
for the salaries of seven lecturers, in 
divinity, law, physic, astronomy, geo- 
metry, music, and rhetoric, at £50 each 



per annum. He left several other con- 
siderable benefactions, and died in 1579- 

GREVILLE, Lord Broke Fulke, 
born 1554 ; killed by his servant, Sept. 
30, 1628, aged 74. 

GREW, Dr., a celebrated vegetable 
anatomist and physiologist, was born at 
Coventry about 1628. In 1672 he be- 
came a fellow of the Royal Society. He 
lived to see various changes of opinions 
and profefisions, and died in 1711. He 
drew up a catalogue of the natural and 
artificial varieties belonging to the Royal 
Society, and preserved at Gresham Col- 
lege, which was published in 1681. 

GREY, Lady Jane, was the eldest 
daughter of Henry Grey, Marquis of 
Dorset, and Frances, the daughter of 
Charles Brandon, Lord Suffolk, by 
Mary, dowager queen of France, who 
was the youngest sister of Henry VII., 
king of England. She was born in the 
year 1537, at Broadgate, her father's 
seat in Leicestershire. She discovered 
an early propensity to all kinds of litera- 
ture ; and was instructed in the princi- 
ples of the reformed religion, for which 
she became extremely zealous. Her al- 
liance with the crown necessarily brought 
her sometimes to court, where she re- 
ceived particular marks of the esteem of 
the young king, Edward VI. She could 
express herself very properly in the 
Latin and Greek tongues ; and was well 
versed in Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, 
French, and Italian ; she also made 
great proficiency in music. In 1553, 
the dukes of Suffolk and Northumber- 
land formed the plan of transferring the 
crown into their own families, by ren- 
dering Lady Jane Grey queen. Upon 
this account she was married to Lord 
Guildford Dudley, fourth son of the duke 
of Northumberland, without discovering 
to her the real design of the match. 

On the death of the king, July 6, 
Lady Jane allowed herself to be pro- 
claimed queen of England. Her royalty, 
however, continued but a few days ; 
Mary's undoubted right prevailed ; and 
on the 19th of the same month she was 
proclaimed queen. On November 3, 
Lady Jane and her husband were carried 
from the Tower to Guildhall, with archbi- 
shop Cranmer and others; and were there 
arraigned and convicted of high treason, 
by Judge Morgan, who pronounced 
sentence of death upon them. Her exe- 
cution, as well as that of Lord Dudley, 
took place February 12, 1554. She ex- 



GRO 

pressed great tenderness when she saw 
her husband led out to execution, but 
soon overcame it, when she considered 
how closely she was to follow him. The 
executioners kneeling down, requested her 
forgiveness, which she most willingly 
gave him ; he then at one stroke severed 
her head from her body. Thus fell this 
accomplished lady, resigning her life in 
a manner worthy of her christian faith. 
" With what triumph," says an elegant 
writer, " did it trample on the sting of 
cjeath, and spread a glory round the Lady 
Jane, that eclipsed the faint lustre of the 
superstitious and cruel Queen Mary on 
her throne. " 

GREY, Zachariah, an English di- 
vine and historian, died 1766. 

GREYHOUND Packet-Boat, from 
Cork to Bristol, lost on the Culner 
Sands, when all on board perished, Dec. 
29, 1815. 

GRIFFITH, Mrs., author of " Let- 
ters to Young Married Women," born 
1731, died Jan. 5, 1793. 

GRIFFITHS, Ralph, LL.D., book- 
seller, the projector of the " Monthly 
Review," in May, 1749, at the sign of 
the Dunciad, in St. Paul's Churchyard, 
born l720, died at Turnham-green, Sept. 
28, 1803. 

GRIMALDI, the celebrated clown, 
and a great favourite of the public, took 
his leave of the stage, in Drury-Lane 
Theatre, June 27, 1828. The entertain- 
ments included a selection of popular 
scenes from the most approved comic 
pantomimes. 

GRIMSTON, Sir HARBOTTLE,law 
writer, died 1683. 

GRISONS, a canton of Switzerland, 
formerly independent, until subdued by 
the Romans, and subsequently by the 
Goths and Franks. Their country 
was annexed to Germany, and re- 
mained in its possession until the 15th 
centuiy, when the Grisons asserted their 
independence, and formed themselves 
into a confederacy known by the name 
of the Leagues. In 1798, the Grisons 
were converted into a Swiss canton. 
Two difficult roads lead through this 
canton to Italy, one over the Splugen, 
and the other over the St. Bernard 
mountain ; the latter was passed by the 
French army in 1797 ; and the former in 
1800. 

GRiEVIUS, author of " Roman An- 
tiquities," born 1632, died 1703. 

GROAT, first struck in Englandi by 



531 GRO 

Edward III., about the year 1351. This 
continued to be the chief silver currency 
till the reign of Henry VIII., who, in 
1504, first coined shillings. 

GROCERS' Company, London, in- 
corporated 1429. 

GRODNO, city, European Russia, 
was formerly one of the principal cities 
of Poland. In 1673, the Polish diet re- 
solved that its sittings should be- held 
every third year in this city. At the 
meeting in 1793, the diet was compelled, 
at the point of the bayonet, to consent to 
the second partition of Poland. Here 
Stanislaus found a retreat in 1795, and 
here, in the same year, he formally re- 
signed his crown. After his resignation, 
this city was made the capital, first, of 
the province of Lithuania, afterwards of 
Slonin, and finally of Grodno. 

GRONOVIUS, J. F., the phUologist, 
born 1611, died 1671. 

GRONOVIUS, James, author of 
•' Greek Antiquities," born 1645, died 
1716. 

GROS, Jean Antoine, a French 
historical painter, was born in 1771. 
Early in life he enlisted and went to 
serve in the French army in Italy ; there 
he soon obtained the rank of officer, and 
also recommended himself to Buona- 
parte's notice, by whom, after the battle 
of Arcole, he was appointed one of the 
commission for selecting the paintings 
stipulated to be given up to the con- 
queror by various Italian cities. In 
1802 he produced his picture of "Buona- 
parte on the Bridge of Arcole," a work 
that immediately stamped his reputation. 
This was succeeded, in 1804, by another 
chef d'ceuvre, " The Plague in the Hos- 
pital of Jaffa." During the four next 
years he was employed on the " Battle of 
Aboukir," a large sketch of the " Battle 
of Nazareth," and " Buonaparte on the 
Field of Eylau ;" which last-mentioned, 
and his Jaffa, may be considered the 
finest works of his pencil. Besides these, 
may be mentioned, "The Taking of 
Madrid," "Buonaparte at the Pyramids," 
" Charles V. and Francis I. in the Chapel 
of St. Denis," and "Napoleon and the 
Emperor Francis of Austria." He com- 
mitted suicide at Paris, June 1835, by 
throwing himself into the Seine. 

GROSE, Francis, a celebrated anti- 
quarian, was born about 1731 ; he pos- 
sessed an excellent taste for drawing, 
which induced him to commence his 
"Views of Antiquities in England and 



GRO 



532 



GUA 



Wales." He began this work in num- 
bers, in 1773, and completed it in 1776 ; 
he obtained by it both profit and re- 
putation ; and in 1777 he added two 
Yolumes, which included the islands 
of Guernsey and Jersey, and finished 
it in 1778. In 1789 he paid a visit to 
Scotland, and in 1790 began to publish, 
in numbers, his views taken in that coun- 
try. He next proceeded to Ireland, with 
the design to give a similar description 
of that country ; but on the 6th of May, 
1791, while at Dublin, he was suddenly 
seized at table with an apoplectic fit, and 
immediately expired. Besides the works 
before mentioned, he wrote a treatise 
on " Ancient Armour and Weapons," a 
" Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar 
Tongue,"," Military Antiquities; being 
a History of the English Army from the 
Conquest to the present Time," &c. 

GROSVENOR Square, the centre 
house in, raffled for, (tickets one guinea 
each,) valued at £10,000, June lU, 
1739. 

GROTIUS, Hugo, an admired writer 
of the 16th century, was born at Delft, 
in 1583. In 1598 he accompanied Bame- 
veldt, the Dutch ambassador, into France, 
and was honoured with many marks of 
esteem by Henry V. While in France, 
be took his degree of doctor of laws, and 
at his return to his native country, de- 
voted himself to the bar. He now pub- 
lished his " Capella." His edition of 
the " Phenomena of Aratus," which he 
published in 1600, obtained for him a 
high reputation. His next work was a 
treatise " De Antiquitate Reipublicse Ba- 
tavise." In 1613, he settled in Rotterdam, 
and was nominated pensioner of that 
city ; he became deeply involved in the 
political disputes of the day, and was, by 
order of Prince Maurice, arrested, to- 
gether with Barneveldt ; he effected his 
escape by the advice and contrivance of 
his wife. Grotius retired into France, 
where he met with a gracious reception 
from that court; and Louis XIII. settled 
a pension upon him. In France he com- 
posed his celebrated work " De Jure 
Belli et Pacis." In 1634 Queen Chris- 
tina of Sweden made him her counsellor, 
i^nd sent him ambassador to France. On 
his return to Holland, having stopped to 
rest at Rostock, he was suddenly taken 
ill, and died, Aug. 28, 1645. Besides 
those works already mentioned are, a 
" Treatise on the Truth of the Christian 
Religion," " Commentaries on the Holy 



Scriptures," and the " History and An- 
nals of Holland." i 

GROUND, a spot of, at Caplow- I 
wood, parish of Fawnhope, Hereford, 
four acres in extent, removed and filled 
up the adjoining road to 12 feet in 
height, April 4, 1795. A yew tree was 
also removed 40 yards without being 
changed from its upright position. 

GROUND, FRozEN,or GroundIce. 
Professor Baer, of St. Petersburg, com- 
menced to the Royal Geographical So- 
ciety, J 838, a paper on the *' Ground Ice 
of Siberia," which has been followed by 
a letter on the same subject, from Pro- 
fessor Adolph Erman, of Berlin, in which 
the fact of frozen ground extending to 
the depth of nearly 400 feet at Yakutsk, 
is clearly established. Perpetual ground 
ice extends much farther in a southerly 
direction in Siberia than in Europe ; and 
the whole of the south-east angle of Si- 
beria has perpetual ground ice. 

GROVE, Henry, a dissenting mi- 
nister, born at Taunton, in Somerset- 
shire, in 1683, author of Nos. 558, 60I, 
626, and 635, of the " Spectator," died 
1738. 

GROVE, Joseph, historical and cri- 
tical writer, died 1764. 

GUITER, James, the philologer, 
born 1560, died 1627. 

GUADALOUPE, island. West Indies, 
the largest and most valuable of the Ca- 
ribbees, first discovered by Christopher 
Columbus, who gave it the appellation it 
still bears, from its resemblance to a 
mountain of the same name in Spain. 
Taken possession of by the French in 
1635, who compelled the natives to seek 
refuge in the mountains. In 1759 it was 
captured by a British squadron, but 
restored to the French in 1763 ; again 
taken by the British in 1794 ; recovered 
by the French in l795 ; and, in 1810, 
once more taken by a British armament, 
and ceded to the king of Sweden ; but 
at the general pacification, in 1814, it was 
restored to France. 

GUAIRA, town. South America, re- 
public Columbia, was altaciced by the 
British without success, in 1739, and 
again in 1743, with a hke result. This 
town suffered from a terrific shock of an 
earthquake, March 26, 1812, which de- 
stroyed numbers of the inhabitants. 

GUALIOR, fortress, Hindoostan,was 
first captured by the Mahomedans, in 
1197. The Hindoos afterwards regained 
possession; but in 1519 it surrendered 



GUA 



533 



GUE 



to the last emperor of Delhi. After the 
dismemberment of the Mogul empire, 
Gualior came into the possession of the 
ranah of Gohud, from whom it was 
taken by the Mahrattas. In 1780 the 
British became masters, and made it over 
to the ranah of Gohud ; but in 1784, 
Dowlet Row Sindia obtained it by bribery. 
In 1804 it capitulated to the British to 
avoid being stormed ; but on the conclu- 
sion of peace with the Mahrattas, it was 
restored to them, and still continues in 
their possession. 

GUAM, chief of the Sadrone islands, 
was first discovered by Magalhaen, in 
1521, and was formerly a provisioning 
station for the Spanish galleons, on their 
voyage to the Phillippine islands. 

GUAMANGA, or Huamanga, the 
chief town of the province of the same 
name, in Peru, was originally founded 
by Pizarro, in 1539- 

GUARDIAN Frigate, miraculously 
preserved from shipwreck on an island 
of ice, Dec. 1789 ; arrived at the Cape of 
Good Hope, Feb. 24, 1790. 

GUARDS for the king's person, first 
appointed Oct. 30, 1435 ; had an increase 
of pay, 1797. 

GUATIMALA,orGuATEMALA, called 
also Central America, one of the new re- 
publics, was a dependency of the Spanish 
crown until 1821, when it united with 
Mexico in disengaging itself from Spa- 
nish tyranny and misiiile. In 1823 it 
asserted its own independence ; it has 
been ever since in a very unsettled state, 
and continual discords have arisen be- 
tween the new government and the 
people. It contains the provinces of 
Costa- rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Vera- 
Faz, Chiapa, Guatimala Proper, and San 
Salvador. 

1827. The province of St. Salvador 
openly armed itself against the central 
government, under the guidance of a 
chief of the name of Pierson, assisted by 
some French officers. In the beginning 
of the year they assembled in great force, 
and advanced, in the month of March, 
to the very walls of the capital itself, of 
which they threatened to form the siege. 
The inhabitants of Guatimala took up 
arms in aid of the garrison. An action 
was fought under the walls of the city, 
March 23. 

1829. April. The city of Guatimala 
was taken by assault by the troops of 
San Salvador, under General Francisco 
Morazan, who assumed the government. 



In 1832 the president-general, Morazan; 
was elected to a second term of four 
years. The internal troubles were very 
ruinous to the advance of Nicaragua 
and Salvador; but the other states 
were rapidly progressing in the ca- 
reer of good government, industry, and 
wealth : that of Guatimala, from the 
tranquillity it had for many years enjoyed, 
was the most forward in the race of im- 
provement. In this state the Spanish 
laws were entirely abohshed, and the 
code of Mr. Livingston, of the United 
States, substituted in their stead. 

1838. The republic relapsed into a 
state of anarchy. In May a bloody in- 
surrection broke out ; the president re- 
signed his office, and fled to a place of 
concealment ; and, to add to the miser- 
able circumstances of the time, the neigh- 
bouring Indians had taken up arms, and 
were committing frightful ravages in the 
country. 

GUELDERLAND, formerly one of 
the provinces of the Netherlands. In 
1079 it was raised to a county by the 
emperor Henry IV., and in 1339 to a 
duchy, by the emperor Louis, of Ba- 
varia. It had dukes of its own till 1528, 
when it was yielded up to the emperor 
Charles V. In 1 576 it acceded to the 
union of Utrecht. By the peace of 
Luneville, the Prussian and Austrian 
parts of Guelderland were ceded to 
France, and constituted a portion of the 
department of Roer. In 1814 part of 
Upper Gueldres was included in the 
Prusian province of the Rhme, but the 
greater portion was assigned to the king- 
dom of the Netherlands, and is now in- 
cluded in the kingdom of Holland. 

GUERICKE, Otto de, a philoso- 
pher of considerable eminence, was born 
in 1602. His celebrity was chiefly ob- 
tained by his philosophical discoveries, 
especially the invention of the air-pump. 
He was also the inventor of an instru- 
ment for determining the changes in the 
state of the atmosphere, which was gene- 
rally used till the invention of the baro- 
meter. He died 1654. He composed 
several treatises in natural philosophy, 
the principal of which is entitled " Ex- 
perimenta Magdeburgica," 1672, folio. 

GUERIN, Peter, the celebrated 
French artist, born about 1774. Among 
the more noted works of his pencil may 
be mentioned his large picture, repre- 
senting Buonaparte pardoning the insur- 
gents at Grand Cairo; also his Andro- 



GUI 



534 



GUI 



mache, Aurora and Cephalus, Dido, and 
Clytemnestra. His last production was 
an historical piece of Pyrrhus slaying 
Priam in the presence of Hecuba and her 
daughters. He died at Rome, July 1833, 
aged 59. 

GUERNSEY, island, English chan- 
nel, anciently called Sarnia, together 
with Alderney, Sark, Herm, and Jethou, 
constituted a bail in the duchy of Nor- 
mandy. When Henry I. wrested that 
duchy from his brother, Robert, he at- 
tached Guernsey to the British diadem, 
and it has ever since continued in that 
position. Castle Cornet is of Roman 
origin, but re-edified by Duke Robert, 
father of the conqueror. This strong- 
hold was taken by the French in the 
reign of Edward I., and held for Charles I. 
by Sir Peter Osi)orne, in the Cromwelian 
wars. It was injured by the blowing up 
of the magazine in a thunder storm, in 
1672. It was the residence of the gover- 
nor, but now accommodates a small gar- 
rison. 

GUIANA, or Guayana, country of 
South America ; bounded on the north 
and east by the Atlantic Ocean, south by 
Brazil, and west, by Colombia and Bra- 
zil. The name was formerly applied to the 
district included between the Oronoco 
on the north, and the Amazons river on 
the south. Spanish Guiana now forms 
an intendency of Colombia. Portuguese 
Guiana is a province of Brazil ; and the 
remainder of the territory, named Guiana, 
is partitioned amongst the English, 
Dutch, and French. Guiana was first 
discovered by the Spaniards, afterwards 
by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1595, in search 
of El Dorado. In 1640 the French, 
who had settled here, having treated the 
natives with cruelty, were totally driven 
out. In 1650 Lord Willoughby, by per- 
mission of Charles II., sent out a colony 
to take possession, and followed them in 
two years after, having obtained a grant 
of the settlement for himself and Law- 
rence Hyde, second son of Lord Claren- 
don. In 1667 the settlement was in- 
vaded and conquered by the Dutch ; re- 
conquered by the English, and ceded to 
the Dutch at the peace of Breda. After 
the conquest of Holland by the French, 
in 1796, Great Britain seized on her co- 
lonies in the west; but restored them at 
the peace of Amiens : the British again 
took possession during the long war, 
and were confirmed in then: right by the 
treaty of Paris in 1814. 



GUIANA, British. This rising co- 
lony of South America, which compre- 
hends the three settlements of Essequibo, 
Demerara, and Berbice, on rivers of the 
same name, is becoming daily of in- 
creasing importance since its coming 
under British influence. In 1818 was 
the first introduction of trial by jury, 
and the commission of oyer and termi- 
ner. A series of insurrections of the 
slaves took place on the coast of the 
Demerara river in 1823, which was 
finally suppressed, and Mr. Smith, a 
missionary of the London Society, un- 
justly condemned to death on the charge 
of inciting the negroes to rebellion. In 
1831 the colonies of Demerara, Esse- 
quibo, and Berbice, were united into 
one government, and called British 
Guiana, the forms of the courts altered, 
&c. The population of this colony thus 
united, and according to the most recent 
returns is as follows : — whites, 3529 ; 
free, black and coloured, 7521 ; slaves, 
89,786 : total, 100,836. 

The native Indians of this coast have 
long engaged the attention of Europeans, 
and imperatively call for the protection 
of the British government. The prin- 
cipal tribes in and round British Guiana 
are : — 1 . Arrawaks, 2. Accavvai, 3.Carib- 
bisce, 4. Warrows, 5. Macoosies, and 6. 
Parawano. Mr. R. H. Schomburgh 
has lately exhibited in the metropolis a 
very interesting assemblage of objects in 
illustration of ethnography and natural 
history, collected by him during three 
expeditions into the interior of British 
Guiana. He brought with him three 
Indians, who were part of his boat's 
crew on his last expedition, and who are 
the first of their tribes ever brought to 
Europe. They belong to three ditFerent 
tribes ; and, although there exists a great 
similarity in their manners and customs, 
they differ in their language. Their 
respective names are, 1. Corrienow, 2. 
Saramang, 3. Sororeng. Corrienow 
belongs to the Warrows, who inhabit the 
coast along the rivers Oronoco, Pome- 
roon, and Corentyn, and are the Gua- 
ranos of the Spaniards. Saramang is a 
Macoosi: histribe inhabitthe vast plains 
which extend between the river Rupu- 
nuny, a tributary of the Essequibo and 
the Rio Branco, which falls into the 
Rio Negro and Amazons. Sororeng is 
a Paravilhano or Parawano : his tribe 
was formerly powerful, and occupied 
that part o£ Rio Branco which lies 



GUI 



535 



GUI 



southward of Fort San Joaquim. Each 
Indian is habited in what are teclinically 
termed "fleshings ;" that is,akind of knit 
shirt, fitting closely to the figure, and of 
the precise complexion of the individual, 
who wears the perizoma, or waistcoat, 
which forms the only garment of the 
savage Indian. 

The form of government in Guiana 
has recently undergone considerable 
changes, which have greatly aflfected its 
present state. At the capture of Deme- 
rara and Essequibo, in 1803, it consisted 
of the Court of Policy of eight members; 
the College of Kiezers for each district, 
elected by the inhabitants ; and the Col- 
lege of Financial Representatives, nomi- 
nated by the inhabitants, the same as 
the kiezers, and consisting of six. Each 
district had a court of civil and criminal 
justice, which consisted of six members 
and a president. In July, 1831, the an- 
cient court of justice was abolishei and 
a new court constituted by order in 
council, and the Court of Policy forilied 
of ten members, five official and five co- 
lonial. The College of Kiezers and 
Financial Representatives were separated; 
the members of the College of Kiezers 
are now for life, and consist of seven 
members. The Financial Representatives 
of six members ; term of service, two 
years : one college each of Kiezers and 
Financial Representatives for the colony 
of British Guiana being Demerara, Es- 
sequibo, and Berbice. In criminal cases, 
three assessors, quahfied by certain regu- 
lations, and open to challenge as jurors, 
are associated with the judges ; and pu- 
nishment can only be inflicted by sen- 
tence of the majority delivered in open 
court. 

1837. Sir J. C. Smyth, late governor, 
expressed his strongest conviction that, 
even during the comparatively short 
period which had hitherto elapsed, since 
the operation of the newlaw, benefits ofno 
ordinary character, and fully equal to any 
reasonable anticipation, had been real- 
ized in the colony under his government, 

1838. Sir J. C. Smyth died, after a 
short illness, on March 4. Upon his 
decease, the administration of the co- 
lony devolved upon Mr. Light. On 
June 20, a motion was made in the court 
of policy (the legislative assembly of the 
colony), for the abolition of the appren- 
ticeship on the ensuing 1st of August. 
Governor Light arrived while this im- 
portant quetition was under discussion. 



On July 12, an ordinance was accord- 
ingly passed for the complete liberation 
of the slaves on the 1st of the follow- 
ing month, throughout the colony of 
British Guiana, not, however, without 
encountering considerable opposition in 
its progress through the various stages 
of discussion. 

1840. The transition from a state of 
slavery to that of freedom has been at- 
tended by some instances of oppression 
on the part of the planters who feel a 
difficulty in relinquishing their hold on 
the labourers. The following is taken 
from the Guiana Times : " Some la- 
bourers on Tuschen de Vrienden, think- 
ing they received too little money for 
too much work, exercised their unques- 
tionable right as free men, and complained 
to the proprietor or representative, Mr. 
W. R. Sandbach. The manager, Mr. 
C. Ross, flew into the most ungovernable 
rage, ordered the people off the planta- 
tion, and when they were about to quit 
for town in the schooner of a neighbour- 
ing proprietor, went on board of her, 
and threw into the water, and de- 
stroyed live stock and other property 
belonging to the labourers to no incon- 
siderable amount. Not content with 
this act of madness, he seems to have 
done all in his power to induce the ma- 
nager of that and a neighbouring pro- 
perty to aid and abet him in his male- 
volence. But a court of magistrates, 
composed of men quite unconnected 
with agriculture, met, and saw ample 
reparation made to the outraged peasan- 
try. The misguided young man at 
once lost his management, was mulcted 
in a sum not exceeding 150 dollars, and 
it is very doubtful whether he will not 
be forced to withdraw from the country." 

GUICCIARDINI, an Italian histo- 
rian born 1482, died 1540, aged 58. 

GUIDO, Aeetino. See Aretino. 

GUIDO, Rheni, an Italian painter 
of considerable eminence, born at Bo- 
logna in 1574. He imitated with cor- 
rectness the style of many celebrated 
artists, but fixed at last on one peculiar 
to himself, and which secured him the 
applause of his own timft and the admi- 
ration of posterity. An unhappy attach- 
ment to gaming ruined his fortune ; 
the reflection of which brought on a 
languishing disorder that put an end to 
his life in 1642. 

GUILDFORD, a town in Surrey. 
Queen Eleanor, consort of Henry III., 



GUI 



536 



GUL 



founded a Dominican convent here, and 
a second, of which the founder is un- 
known, may still be traced. Here stood 
also a noble castle, built before 1036, 
the tower of which fell down, 1700. 

GUILDHALL, LoNDON,built, 1416; 
council-chamber, 1425 ; the front and 
porch, 1431; burnt down, 1666; re- 
built, 1669; beautified, 1762; front re- 
built, 1789- Banquet here for the allied 
sovereigns of Russia, Prussia, and many 
illustrious guests, June 18, 1814. Pub- 
lic concert at, for the benefit of the 
Spanish and Italian refugees, Feb. 13, 
1828. The nett profits exceeded £1000. 

GUILLOTINE, the name of an in- 
strument introduced, in 1792, by the 
authors of the French revolution, for 
beheading those who were condemned 
to death. It was invented by Dr. Guil- 
lotine, a physician of Lyons, who was 
said to have himself suffered death by 
his own instrument in the reign of Ro- 
bespierre. 

GUINEA, the coast of, discovered by 
some seamen of Dieppe, about 1364. 
The first voyage to, made by an English 
ship for elephants' teeth, 1530. The 
first slave-ti"ade on this coast by the 
English was opened by John Hawkins 
in 1563. See Slave-Trade. 

GUINEA, New. See Papua. 

GUINEAS were first coined in 1673, 
from gold brought from the coast of 
Guinea; worth 30s. 1696; reduced by 
parliament from 22a-. to 21s., 17 17; 
called in, 1776. 

GUINEGATE, orENGUiNEGATTE, a 
town of France. The battle of the Spurs 
was fought here in 1513, between the 
French and English, when the latter 
came off victorious. Another was fought 
here in 1479, between the French and the 
ImperiaHsts. 

GUINES, a town of France, depart- 
ment Pas de Calais. In 1 520 the cele- 
brated interview between Henry VIII., 
of England, and Francis I., of France, 
took place here. 

GUISE, Francis de Lorraine, 
Duke of, memorable in the history of 
France as an enemy to the protestants, 
was born at the castle of Bar, in 1519, 
and early distinguished himself in arms. 
He acquired great glory in the defence 
of Metz in 1553, against the emperor 
Charles V. He was afterwards declared 
by Henry II. heutenant-general of the 
kingdom. In 1558 he took Calais, which 
had long been in the hands of the Ea^ 



glish, and which had served as an en- 
trance into France, in the wars lietween 
the two countries. The victory of Dreux, 
in 1562, is chiefly ascribed to Guise ; 
in wliich the pi'ince de Conde was taken 
prisoner. He died Feb. 24, 1563, at the 
age of 44. 

GUISE, Henry de Lorraine, 
Duke of, eldest son of the preceding, 
born in 1550. He aspired to supreme 
authority ; caused the revocation of every 
privilege granted to the protestants, de- 
manded the publication of the decrees 
of the council of Trent, and the establish- 
ment of the inquisition. He placed 
himself at the head of an armed force, 
and called his rebel band the League. 
The plan was formed by the cardinal, his 
younger brother ; and, under the pretext 
of defending the Roman Catholic reli- 
gion, they carried on a civil war, mas- 
sacred the Huguenots, and endeavoured 
to govern the king, who forbad his ap- 
pearance at Paris. Henry convened an as- 
sembly of the states at Blcis in 1588, and 
the duke of Guise had the boldness to 
appear to a summons sent him for that 
purpose ; but it being discovered that he 
had formed a design to dethrone the 
king, he ordered him to be assassinated, 
Dec. 23, 1588, in the 38th year of his 
age. His brother, the cardinal, shared 
the same fate the next day. 

GUJERAT. or Guzerat, a province 
of Hindoostan, first invaded from the 
west by Sultan Mahmoud of Ghizni, 
1035. It is mentioned by Marco Polo, 
1295 ; was subordinate for a time to the 
Patan emperors, but in the 15th century 
returned to independence under Rajpoot 
dynasty. In the reign of Acbar, 1572, 
this race of princes was overthrown, and 
the province reduced. In 1707, on the 
death of Aurungzebe, this province was 
invaded and overrun by Mahratta rob- 
bers, and in 1724, finally severed from 
the Mogul's authority. The Mahratta 
Guicowar still retains a large district, 
which, since 1807, has enjoyed British 
protection; and in 1818, on the fall of 
the peishwa, the government of this per- 
versely turbulent peninsula devolved on 
the British. 

GUJUNDERGHUR, a district of 
Hindoostan province Bejapoor, was 
taken by Hyder Ali, in 1778 ; restored 
afterwards to the Mahrattas, and in 
1804 was held, independently of the 
peishwa, by Bishen-Row-Gorpara. 

GULEN river, in Norway, buried 



GUN 537 

itself under ground, 1384, but burst out 
soon after, and destroyed 250 persons, 
with several churches, houses, &c. 

GUN. See Cannon. 1839. A new 
breech-loading gun, invented in Paris, 
by M. M. Lepage, has been patented in 
England. The breech part of the barrel 
opens by raising a lever in the situation 
of the breech-pin, which carries a part 
of the breech. When this lever, which 
turns upon joints in side-plates, is raised, 
the breech end of the barrel is removed, 
and the cartridge may be introduced : 
which, being done, the lever is shut 
down upon the small of the gun, which 
closes the end of the barrel, and it is 
made fast by a spring catch in the end 
of the butt. The cartridge is made up 
in the usual form, and the copper cap, 
containing thedetonatingcomposition, is 
inserted into the back end of it. On shut- 
ting down the breech-pin lever, a solid 
piece of steel, as a small anvil, is brought 
close against the side of the detonating 
cap ; an up-striking hammer, impelled 
by a strong spring, placed against the 
guard, when let off by the trigger, strikes 
the side of the detonating cap with 
sufficient force to crush it against the 
anvil, and thereby discharge the piece. 

1840. An e.Kperiment was made in 
September at the Royal Arsenal, Wool- 
wich, for the purpose of trying a plan, 
on a somewhat similar principle to the 
above, which has been some time in 
operation in France. Sir John May, 
Colonel Dundas, and Colonel Dancey 
attended to witness the experiment. The 
gun selected was a 32 pounder, and the 
charge each time was 10 lb. of powder in 
a flannel cartridge, with a 32 lb. ball 
fitted in a wooden cup, made flat at the 
end next the powder. In this case the 
action was given by pulling a piece of 
cord six feet long, when the hammer falls 
on the vent charged with detonating 
powder with such force as to cause in- 
stant and certain ignition. There is a 
piece of steel to cover the detonating 
powder, that it may not become wet in 
rainy weather, and this is so contrived 
that it falls back the moment the hammer 
begins to descend. Forty rounds 
were fired, and the simplicity and cer- 
tainty with which they were discharged 
gave great satisfaction. The invention 
is so simple, and might be so easily ap- 
plied, that there is every reason to be- 
lieve it will be universally adopted in the 
Ordnance department. 



GUN 



GUNDWANA, a province of Hindoo- 
stan, in the Deccan, transferred to the 
British since 1818. 

GUNNERY, First Treatise on, 
by Tartaglia, Venice, 1537. Path of a 
projectile determined by Galileo, l638. 
Path in a resisting medium determined 
by Bernouilli ; theory perfected by 
Robins, 1742. A vast number of expe- 
riments were made by him by means of 
a machine constructed by him, with 
musket barrels of different lengths, with 
balls of various weights, and with various 
quantities of powder, the result of which 
is given in his Tracts, vol. i. 1761. 

Dr. Hutton, in 1775, commenced an 
elaborate course of experiments with 
the ballistic ])endulum, assisted by seve- 
ral able officers of the Royal Artillery. 
These experiments were not, like the 
foregoing, confined to musketry, but 
were extended to cannon shot of one, two, 
and three pounds weight. An account 
of their results, was published in the 
Philosophical Transactions for 1778, and 
for which the Royal Society honoured 
the doctor with the gold medal. 

1808. November. An essay was read 
by Mr. Robertson, before the Glasgow 
Philosophical Society, on the different 
forms of shot; patterns of different 
shapes were exhibited, but that most ap- 
proved by the exhibitor was the long 
egg-shaped ball. Egg-shaped balls were 
used by the Russian guards in 1811. Sir 
William Congreve took out a patent for 
a conical ball, which is a great improve- 
ment on every former invention. Other 
improvements of a minor kind have been 
more recently^ made, but no material al- 
teration of the principle of the art. See 
the article Cannon, p. 198. 

GUNNING, Peter, an English pre- 
late who distinguished himself in the 
civil wars by his zeal in defence of King 
Charles 1. In 1669 he was promoted 
to the see of Chichester; and in 1674, 
was translated to the see of Ely, where 
he continued till his death, which took 
place in 1684, in the 7 1st year of his age. 

GUNPOWDER, a well known inflam- 
mable powder, composed of nitre, sul- 
phur, and charcoal, reduced to powder, 
and mixed intimately with each other. 
The discoverer of this compound, and 
the person who first thought of applying 
it to the purposes of war are unknown. 
Roger Bacon, who died in 1292, knew 
the properties of gunpowder; but it is 
probable he was not acquainted with 

3 z 



GUN 



535 



GUS 



its application to fire-arms. It is cer- 
tain, however, that gunpowder was used 
in the 14th century. According to Du 
Cange, it is mentioned in the registers of 
the Chambers of Accounts in France, 
as early as the year 1338. Peter Mexia 
says, that in 1343 the Moors being at- 
tacked by Alphonsus, king of Castile, 
discharged a kind of iron mortars u|)on 
the forces, accompanied with a noise 
like thunder. The Venetians also em- 
ployed gunpowder, in the year 1380, in 
their contests with the Genoese. 

The manufacture and sale of gun- 
powder is regulated by several statutes. 
By the 12 Geo. III. 3. c. 61, it is enact- 
ed, that no pei'son shall use mills or 
other engines for making gunpowder, 
or manufacture the same in any way, 
excej)t in mills or other places which 
were actually in existence at the time of 
passing the act, or which, if erected 
afterwards, have been sanctioned by a 
licence, under pain of forfeiting the gun- 
powder, and two shillings a pound. The 
places of deposit for gunpowder are re- 
gulated by the 54 Geo. III.c. 159- The 
exportation of gunpowder may be pro- 
hibited by order in council. Its im- 
portation is prohibited on pain of forfei- 
ture, except by licence from his majesty; 
such licence to be granted for furnishing 
his majesty's stores only. The act of 
1 Will. IV. c. 44, prohibits the manufac- 
ture and keepmg of gunpowder in Ire- 
land by any person who has not obtain- 
ed a licence from the lord-lieutenant ; 
such licences may be suspended on notice 
from the chief secretary ; and any one 
selling gunpowder during the suspen- 
sion of such licence, shall forfeit £500. 
Gunpowder makers under this act are to 
return monthly accounts of their stock, 
&c., to the chief secretary. This act, 
which contains a variety of restrictive 
clauses, was limited to one year's dura- 
tion, but has been prolonged. 

GUNPOWDER Mills, one at Fe- 
versham blown up, by which five men 
and two horses were killed, January 16, 
1810; one at Dartford blew up, by 
which two persons lost their lives, Sep- 
tember24, 1810; oneatWaltham Abbey, 
by which seven men lost their lives, Nov. 
27, 1811; one at Hounslow, by which 
two men were severely hurt, July 4, 
1812 ; two at Hounslow, by which three 
men were killed, August 21, 1813 ; one 
at Battle, by which three men were blown 
to atoms, Sept. 1814. 



GUNPOWDER Plot, discovered 

Nov. 5, 1605. See Britain, p. 134. 

GUNSMITI S' Company, London, 
incorporated 1638. 

GUNTER, Rev. Edmund, the ma- 
thematician, inventor of Gunter's chain, 
born 1581, died 1626. 

GURNEY, William, the inventor of 
the short-hand which bears his name, 
died 1770. 

GUSTAVUS I., surnamed Ericson, 
or Vasa, king of Sweden, was born in 
1490. On the invasion of Sweden by 
Christiern II. in 1518, he was one of the 
six hostages whom Christiern took back 
with him to Denmark. Making his escape, 
he wandered a long time in the forests 
in disguise, penetrated the mountains of 
Dalecarlia,and entered himself as a com- 
mon labourer at a mine, till the cruelties 
of the tyrant, aided by his own exertions 
among his countrymen, having occa- 
sioned a ievolution.he was first declared 
governor of Sweden; and, in 1523, 
elected king. In 1542 he had suffi- 
cient address to render the crown of 
Sweden hereditary in his own family. 
He died in the 70th year of his age. 

GUSTAVUS Adolphus, common- 
ly called the Great, king of Sweden, was 
born at Stockholm in 1594. In 1611 
he ascended the throne. He was at 
this period involved in a war with the 
Russians, Danes, and Poles, which he 
terminated very advantageously. He 
was afterwards invited by the German 
protestants to join the league against the 
emperor. On September 7, 1631, he 
led the united Swedish and Saxon army 
into the field, where he gained a com- 
plete victory. After this, he reduced 
many places in that part of Germany; 
and, in 1632, prepared to enter Bava- 
ria. He fell at Lutzen, near Weissen- 
fels, where a sanguinary battle took 
place, Nov. 6, 1632. 

Few sovereigns have possessed more 
of the qualities of a truly great prince. 
" He was eminently pious without 
bigotry or fanaticism ; humane without 
weakness ; firm without obstinacy ; and 
far more careful of the lives of his sol- 
diers than attentive to his own preserva- 
tion. In the moment of victory he was 
just and compassionate, never forgetting 
the weakness and imperfection of man's 
brightest endowments, and most exten- 
sive power, when compared with the 
wisdom and omnipotence of the Al- 
mighty. And, though he unquestionably 



HAB 



a39 



HAI3 



ranks high among the most enlightened 
statesmen of modern Europe, he enjoys 
the singular, and perhaps unexampled 
glory, of having never subjected his un- 
blemished reputation to the suspicion of 
treachery or deceit." 

GUSl'AVUS III., king of Sweden, 
shot at a masquerade, by a discontented 
officer, March 16, 1792. 

GUSTAVUS IV., of Sweden, was 
deposed, March 13, 1809, and his uncle, 
the duke of Sudermania, placed at the 
head of public affairs, as regent, till 
May 5, when he was proclaimed king, 
under the title of Charles XIII. 

GUTCH, Rev. John, an English an- 
tiquarv, born 1745, died 1831. 

GUTHRIE, M^iLLiAM, author of the 
"Geographical Grammar," &c., born 
1708, died 1770. 

GUTTENBURG, John, one of the 
candidates for the invention of printing, 
at Mentz, in Germany, died in 1467. 

GUY, Thomas, the founder of the 
hospital in Southwark, that bears his 
name, was the son of a lighterman and 
coal-dealer in Horselydown. He was 
apprenticed to a bookseller in 1660, and 
began trade with only £200 ; but the bulk 
of his fortune was acquired by purchas- 
ing seamen's tickets during the wars in 
Queen Anne's reign, and by fortunate 
speculations in the South-Sea stock, in 
the year 1720. Besides Guy's hospital, 
he erected a wing to St. Thomas's hos- 
pital, and also an almshouse at Tara- 
worth. He died in 1724, aged 81, leav- 
ing behind him the vast sum of £300,000, 

GUYANA. See Guiana. 

GUYON, Mary Johanna Bou- 
KIERS DE LA MoTHE, a French lady, 
celebrated as a mystic and enthusiast, 
was born at Montargis in 1648. At 16 
she was married to the son of the cele- 
brated Guyon, and at 28 years old she 
was left a widow with three children. In 
1687, Madame Guyon returned to Paris, 
after an absence of six years, which were 
occupied in conferences and preachings, 
in company with Father Lacombe, who 



was influenced by the same turnof mindi 
She died in 1717. 

GUY'S Hospital, Southwark, built 
1721. 

GUYTON DE MoRVEAu, L. B., a 
French philosopher, celebrated for his 
experiments in aerostation, &c., born 
1737, died 1815. 

GYPSIES, or Gipsies. The origin 
of this singular tribe is, notwithstanding 
much diligent in^juiry, involved in ob- 
scurity. It is, indeed, pretty clearly 
proved, that they are descended from 
some eastern tribe, and it is generally 
believed that they migrated from Egypt ; 
but of this there does not appear to be 
sufficient proof. It is established by his- 
torical authority, that they were origi- 
nally of the lowest class of Hindoos, 
having emigrated, it is supposed, from 
Hindoostan about 1408. They made 
their first appearance in Germany about 
1417. In the course of a few years 
they gained such a number of proselytes, 
that they became troublesome, and even 
formidable, to most of the states of Eu- 
rope. They were expelled from England 
in 1530, and ordered to quit the realm, 
and not to return under pain of impri- 
sonment, and forfeiture of their goods 
and chattels ; from France in 1560 ; from 
Spain in 1591. But such statutes have 
always been found insufficient to exclude 
them permanently from any of the coun- 
tries of Europe. Spain is supposed to 
contain 40,000 of these vagrants. They 
are scattered, though not in great num- 
bers, through Germany, Denmark, Swe- 
den, and Russia ; but their chief popu- 
lation is in the south-east parts of Europe. 
At a moderate computation Europe con- 
tains more than 700,000. For nearly 
four centuries they have wandered 
through the world ; and in every region, 
and among every people, they have con- 
tinued unchanged by the lapse of time, 
the variation of climate, or the force of 
example. 

GYS BURGH Priory, Yorkshire, 
founded in 1119. 



H. 



HAARLEM, H aerlem, or Harlem, HABEAS CORPUS, a writ, which a 

city, Holland, was taken by the Spa- man indicted and imprisoned for any 

niards in 1573, after eight months' siege, crime, &c., may have out of the king's 

HABAKKUK, the prophet, flourished bench, thereby to remove himself thither, 

A.c. 731. at his own costs, to answer the cause at 



HAC 



540 



HAC 



the bar thereof. The writ of habeas 
corpus was originally ordained, as a re- 
medy for such as were unjustly impri- 
soned, to procure their liberty. By 16 
Car. I. cap. 10, 1641, if any person be 
restrained of his liberty by order or de- 
cree of any illegal court, or by command 
of the king's majesty in jjerson, or by 
warrant of the council-board, or of any 
of the privy council, he shall upon de- 
mand of his counsel/ have a writ of 
habeas corpus, to bring his body before 
the court of king's bench or common 
pleas ; who shall deternnine whether the 
cause of his commitment be just, and 
thereupon do as to justice shall apper- 
tain. The methods of obtaining this are 
farther pointed out and enforced by 31 
Car. II. cap 2, 1679. These statutes 
have been called the second Magna 
Charta, and bulwark of English liberty. 
In consequence of this act, it is now ex- 
pected by the court, that, upon writs of 
habeas corpus at the common law, the 
writ should be immediately obeyed, with- 
out waiting for any alias or pluries, other- 
wise an attachment will issue. The 
preservation of personal liberty by such 
means, is of great importance to the 
public, and it is the happiness of our 
constitution, that it is not left to the 
executive power to determine when the 
danger of the state is so great, as to ren- 
der a suspension of this act expedient; 
for it is the parliament only, or legisla- 
tive power, that, whenever it sees proper, 
can authorise the crown, for a short and 
limited time, to imprison suspected 
persons without giving any reason for 
so doing. 

This expedient has been had recourse 
to as follows. Suspended in 1715, for 
six months — l7l6,for sixmonths — 1722, 
for 12 months — 1744, for six months — 
1779, for six months— 1794, 1795, 1798, 
1799, and 1800, for nine months; in 
1801, for six weeks ; again, in 1803, in 
consequence of the Irish rebellion. Sus- 
pended in consequence of the report, in 
each house of j)arliament, of the com- 
mittee on the London riots, March 3, 
1817, the suspension to continue to 
July 1 ; suspension renewed a few days 
previous to the expiration of that period 
to the 20th. 

HABERDASHERS' Company, Lon- 
don, incorporated 1407. 

HACKNEY, village, Middlesex. The 
duke of Gloucester here assembled his 
adherents in arms against Richard II., 



and here awaited the return of a deputa- 
tion sent to lay their grievances before 
the king. The knights-templars and 
the hospitallers had estates here; Tem- 
ple Mills, south from Lea Bridge, be- 
longed to the former, and in Wells- 
street stood St. John's palace, the resi- 
dence of the prior of the knights-hospi- 
tallers, or knights of St. John. It is 
supposed that hackney coaches derived 
their name from this place, having been 
first established to facilitate the commu- 
nication between this suburb and the 
metropolis. 
HACKNEY Coaches. See Coaches, 

1831. The statute 1 and 2 Will IV, 
c. 22, September 22, entitled " An act 
to amend the laws relating to hackney 
carriages, &c., and to place the collection 
of the duties on hackney carriages, &c., 
under the commissioners of stamps," 
enacts as follows : Every carriage, with 
two or more wheels, used for plying for 
hire in any public street at any place 
within five miles from the general post- 
office in London, shall be deemed a 
hackney carriage. Two commissioners 
of stamps, or any person duly authorised 
by them, shall grant licences under their 
hands, and the said commissioners, or 
the person so authorised, shall, at the 
time of granting every such licence, and 
at all other times when necessary, de- 
liver to the persons applying for such 
licences respectively a numbered plate, 
to be fixed upon every such hackney 
carriage. Before Jan. 5, 1833, licences 
not to exceed 1200, and preference to be 
given to the holders of former licences. 
After Jan. 5, 1833, licences to be granted 
without limitation of number. Penalty 
for concealing plates, or preventing per- 
sons inspecting and taking the number 
thereof, and giving a wrong number, 
five pounds. Penalty for using, &c., 
a hackney carriage without licence, or 
without plates, or for not delivering up 
recalled plates, 10 pounds. The court 
of aldermen authorised to make orders 
for regulating hackney carriages in the 
city of London and in the borough of 
South wark, and all such rules and orders 
are to be advertised in the London 
Gazette. Penalty on persons oflfending 
against such orders, if known, and i£ 
not known, the owners, five pounds to 
the chamberlain for the commissioners 
of sewers. 

1838. 1 and 2 Victoria, c. 79, Aug. 
1 0, entitled " An act for the better re- 



HAG 



541 



hai 



gulation of hackney carriages, and of 
metropolitan stage- carriages," among 
other regulations enacts, that every per- 
son to whom any licence shall have 
been granted, shall, within one calendar 
month before the commencement of this 
act, deliver up to the registrar the licence 
and badge, and shall thereupon be en- 
titled to a new licence and ticket ; and 
the words " Metropolitan Stage Car- 
riage" shall include every stage carriage, 
except such as shall on every journey 
go to, and come from, some town or 
place beyond the limits of this act, and 
the words "Limits of this act" shall 
include every place within the distance 
of 10 miles from the general post-office 
in the city of London, and the whole 
of every town, village, or hamlet, any 
part of which shall be within the said 

HADDINGTON, town, Scotland, 
was anciently a place of considerable 
strength and importance, and here for 
ages the court of "The four Burghs" 
used to assemble, under the presidency 
of a chamberlain, to decide all disputes 
regarding traffic. Here formerly stood 
the magnificent abbey and nunnery, 
founded in 1173 by Ada, mother of Mai- 
colm IV., of Scotland. This abbey 
was, during the siege of Haddington, in 
1548, the hall in which the parhament 
sat that resolved upon giving Queen 
Mary in marriage to the dauphin of 
France. Haddington suffered from fire 
in 1598, and in 1775 one of the suburbs 
was totally inundated by the swelling of 
the river. 

HADLEIGH, town in Suffolk. The 
Danish chief Guthrum, who, a fter his 
defeat by King Alfred in 875, embraced 
Christianity, and governed the East 
Angles, was buried here. 

HAERLEM. See Haarlem. 

HAFIZ, the Persian poet, died in 
1395. 

HAFOD, a township, Cardiganshire. 
The splendid house and valuable library 
of Hafod Hall were destroyed by fire 
on March 13, 1807. 

HAGGAI, the prophet, flourished, 
A. c. 520. 

HAGUE, towm, Holland, became in 
1250 the residence of the governors or 
counts of Holland ; it was stripped of its 
importance on the erection of Holland 
into a kingdom by Napoleon, 1806, but 
previous to the Belgic revolution, it was, 
alternately with Brussels, the residence 



of the king, and place of meeting of the 
States. It is now the residence of the 
king of Holland. 

Treaty of the Hague, between 
England, France, and Holland, to main- 
tain the equilibrium of the north. May 
21, 1659. 

HAIL consists of rain frozen in its 
descent to the earth. Philosophers in 
different ages have hazarded various 
conjectures to account for the phenomena 
of hail. The most probable one appears 
to be that which supposes it to arise from 
the influence of vapour occasionally 
formed in the higher regions of the 
atmosphere, from which rain is precipi- 
tated into a colder stratum of air be- 
neath, and thus frozen in its descent. 
Natural historians furnish us with va- 
rious accounts of surprising showers of 
hail, in some of which the hailstones 
were of extraordinary magnitude. The 
following are some of the most remark- 
able. 

1613. May. So great a quantity of 
hail fell in France, that in some places it 
lay on the ground to the depth of 12 
feet, and destroyed the corn and the 
vines. 

1697. In Cheshire, Lancashire, &c., 
April 29, a cloud of hail about the 
breadth of two miles, did inconceivable 
damage ; killing all sorts of fowls 
and other small animals, splitting trees, 
knocking down houses and men, 
and even ploughing up the earth; 
some of the hailstones weighed five 
ounces, and others half a pound, and 
were five or six inches in circumference. 
In Hertfordshire, May 4, the same year, 
after a severe storm of thunder and light- 
ning, a shower of hail succeeded, which 
far exceeded the former : some persons 
were killed by it; vast oaks were split, and 
fields of rye cut down as with a scythe. 
The stones measured from 10 to 13 or 
14 inches in circumference. 

1766. Hailstones of an inch and a half 
in circumference fell at Greenwich, 
July 14. 

1782. July 17, hailstones fell in France 
which weighed eight ounces. 

1803. A dreadful hailstorm in the 
Haymarket, and two or three adjoining 
streets without the least appearance of 
hail in the rest of London ; a fire-ball 
feU in Oxford-street, which tore up the 
pavement. 

1813. Extraordinary hail-storm in the 
Pyrenees, in August. 



HAL 



i42 



HAL 



1814. Another at Cincinnati, in North 
America, June 4. 

1840. At Milan, Sept. 10, when the 
hailstones broke the tiles of the houses ; 
two men were killed, and the cathedral 
damafjed. 

HAINES, J., the comedian, flourished 
in 1700, died in 1701. 

HAITL See Hayti. 

HAKLUYT, Richard, historian and 
geographer, born 1553, died I6l6. 

HALBERSTADT, city of Prussia, 
supposed to be of great antiquity. A 
remarkable diet of the German empire 
was held here in 1134. 

. HALE, Sir Matthew, the cele- 
brated lord chief justice, was born in 
1609, and educated at Oxford, where he 
made a considerable progress in learning. 
In 1658, he was made serjeant-at-law, 
and soon after appointed one of the jus- 
tices of the common-i leas. He was re- 
turned one of the knights of Gloucester- 
shire in the parliament which called 
home Charles IL ; and when the courts 
of law were resettled, he was, in 1660, 
made chief baron of the exchequer, and 
was knighted. He held that station 11 
years, witli the universal character of one 
of the ablest and most upright judges 
that ever adorned the English bench. 
In 1671 he was appointed lord chief jus- 
tice of the king's bench. But he held 
this important post only four years and a 
half, for he died in December, 1676. His 
fame, as an author, is chieHy founded 
upon an elaborate work entitled, " His- 
toria PlacitorumCoronae," first published 
in 1736, from his original manuscript, 
by Emyln, in two vols, folio. 

HALES, Judge, committed to the 
Marshalsea, 1^53; he was afterwards 
removed to the Compter and the Fleet, 
where he attempted suicide. On being 
set at hberty some time after, he drowned 
himself. 

HALES Abbey, Gloucestershire, 
built 1246. 

HALF-PENCE and Farthings first 
coined 1692. 

HALHED, Nathaniel Brassey, 
commenced life as a civil servant of the 
East India Company at Bengal, and 
published the following works relative 
to the East : " A Code of Gentoo Laws, 
or Ordinations of the Pundits, from a 
Persian translation," 1776, 4to. ; 1777, 
8vo.; "A Grammar of the Bengal Lan- 
guage," printed at Hoogly, in Bengal, 
4to., 1778 ; "A Narrative of the Events 



which have happened in Bombay and 
Bengal relative to the Mahratta Empire 
since July, 1777," 8vo., 1779- He re- 
turned to England, in 1790, and in May, 
1791, obtained a seat in parliament for 
Lymington. In 1795 he became the 
avowed champion of the pretended pro- 
phet, Richard Brothers. In this charac- 
ter he put forth several publications in 
favour of that fanatic. After the disso- 
lution in 1796, Mr. Halhed lived in retire- 
ment. He died Feb. 18, 1830, in West- 
square, Surrey, aged 79- 

HALIFAX, Yorkshire, in 1443 con- 
tained no more than 30 houses. Henry 
VII. introduced the woollen manufacture 
here, to which may be mainly attributed 
its subsequent prosperity. The magis- 
trates were formerly invested with a 
power to inflict capital punishment in a 
summary manner, on all persons con- 
victed of stealing property valued at 
more than I3hd. within the hberties or 
precincts of the forest of Hardwick. 
Those convicted of this offence were car- 
ried within a week to the scaffold in the 
market place, and there beheaded by a 
machine, resembling a guillotine, called 
a maiden. The date of this singular 
usage is not accurately ascertained ; but 
it continued to be practised until 1650, 
when the baihff relinquished the custom, 
and the scaffold was taken down. 

HALIFAX, the capital of NovaScotia, 
was founded upon the first permanent set- 
tlement of the English in this province, 
by governor Cornwallis, in 1749. Dal- 
housie College was established in 1820. 
The manufactures carried on are still in an 
imperfect state, but the trade is very con- 
siderable. In 1828 the exports amounted 
to £246,852, in 553 vessels; and the 
imports to £733,392, in 544 vessels; and 
is rapidly increasing. 

HALL, Sidney, a map engraver, 
published his "General Atlas," 1830 j 
died 1832. 

HALL, a learned English prelate, bom 
1574, at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, in Leicester- 
shire, went to Emanuel College, Cam- 
bridge, of which he was chosen scholar. 
In 1597, after taking his degrees, he 
published a collection of satires in verse, 
entitled " Virgidemiarum." In 1605 he 
went with Sir Edmund Bacon to the 
Spa. Upon his return he was nominated 
one of Prince Henry's chaplains, obtained 
the donative of Waltham Abbey, in Es- 
sex, whither he removed, and about the 
same time took the degree of D.D. He, 



HAL 



543 



HAL 



was, in 1618, appointed to be one of the 
divines to attend the synod of Dort. He 
accepted tiie bishopric of Exeter in 1627, 
and was translated to the see of Nor- 
wich, 1641 ; and, at the close of the 
same year, he was sufficiently obnoxious 
to the ruhng powers to be noticed and 
imprisoned in the Tower. He was li- 
berated in 1642. At length he was de- 
prived of his property, and died in his 
82d year, leaving behind him a truly 
meritorious character. He ranks high 
among the English poets of that age, 
being the first who gave a specimen of 
regular satires in our language. On ac- 
count of his moral writings he has some- 
times obtained the title of the English 
Seneca. The collection of his works 
amounts to five volumes, of which three 
were printed before his death. 

HALL, Rev. Robert, one of the 
most celebrated preachers of his age, was 
son of the Rev. Robert Hall, of Arnsby, 
in Leicestershire, and was born there in 
17C4. He was first placed under the care 
of the Rev. Dr. Ryland, at Northampton, 
and then sent to the Baptist academy at 
Bristol,whence he proceeded, in 1781, to 
the King's College at Aberdeen. In 1785 
he returned to the academy at Bristol, to 
become assistant to Dr. Caleb Evans, in 
which situation he continued until 1791, 
when he succeeded the Rev. Robert 
Robinson, as minister at Cambridge. 
AVhilst resident there he became known 
to, and admired by, some of the most 
distinguished scholars of the age. From 
Cambridge, about 1804, he removed to 
Leicester, where he was pastor of the 
church in Harvey-lane, until invited to 
succeed Dr. Ryland at Broadmead, Bris- 
tol, in 1826. Here he continued till his 
death, which took place February 21, 
1831. 

The following were Mr. Hall's princi- 
pal publications : — " Christianity con- 
sistent with the Love of Freedom ; being 
an Answer to a Sermon by the Rev. 
John Clayton," 1791, 8vo. ,- "Apology 
for the Freedom of the Press, and for 
general Liberty, with Remarks on 
Bishop Horsley's Sermon preached Ja- 
nuary 13, 1793," 8vo. ; "Modern Infi- 
delity considered with respect to its In- 
fluence on Society ; a Sermon preached 
at Cambridge, 1800," 8vo.; "Reflections 
on War, a Sermon, on June 1, 1802, 
being the Day of Thanksgiving for a 
General Peace;" "The Sentiments pro- 
per to the present Crisis, a Fast Sermon, 



at Bristol, October 19, J 803 ;" "The 
Effects of Civilization on the People in 
European States, 1805 ;" "The advan- 
tajj^e of Knowledge to the Lower Classes, 
a Sermon, at Leicester, 1810;" "The 
Discouragements and Supports of the 
Christian Minister, an Ordination Ser- 
mon, 1812;" "A Sermon occasioned 
by the Death of the Princess Charlotte 
of Wales," preached at Leicester, 1817- 
Mr. Hall was for some time one of the 
conductors of the " Eclectic Review." 
Dr. Parr said of him, " Mr. Hall has, 
like Bishop Taylor, the eloquence of an 
orator, the fancy of a poet, the acute- 
ness of a schoolman, the profoundness 
of a philosopher, and the piety of a saint." 
HALLE, a city of Prussia, derived its 
name from its salt works, which are 
amongst the most ancient in Germany, 
and are called die Halle. The treaty of 
Halle, between the Protestant princes of 
the empire took place in 1610. The uni- 
versity, founded by Frederic I., king of 
Prussia, was opened in 1694, and is 
called Frederic University. Napoleon 
suppressed the university after the battle 
of Jena, in 1806. After the treaty of Til- 
sit, 1807, it was re-established under the 
kingdom of Westphalia. In 1813, many 
students having left Halle to join the 
Prussians, Buonaparte again ordered its 
extinction ; but the measures in progress 
for that object were interrupted by the 
battle of Leipsic. By a Prussian ordi- 
nance of April 15, 1815, it was united to 
the university of Wittemberg, and as- 
sumed the style of " The United Fre- 
deric University of Halle Wittemberg." 
In 1836 it contained 1385 students. 

HALLER, Albert de, a German 
physician, and one of the most eminent 
literary characters of his age, was born 
at Berne, in 1708. The reputation of 
Boerhaave drew him to Leyden, where, 
at the age of 19, he obtained the degree 
of doctor in medicine. He visited Eng- 
land in 1727, and formed connexions 
with some of the most eminent charac- 
ters. He returned to the place of his 
nativity about 1734, when in the 24th 
year of his age, and was soon after no- 
minated professor in the university of 
Gottingen, newly founded by George II. 
After 17 years' labour in that university, 
on account of ill health, he obtained 
permission from the regency of Hanover 
to return to his native city of Berne, 
where he died, December 12, 1777. His 
" Elementa Physiologiae," and " Biblio- 



HAL 



544 



HAM 



theca Medicinse," &c., will afford to 
latest posterity undeniable proofs of his 
indefatigable industry, penetrating ge- 
nius, and solid judgment, 

HALLEY, Dr. Edmund, an eminent 
astronomer, philosopher, and mathema- 
tician, and discoverer of the orbits of the 
comets, was born at London in 1656. 
In 1673 he entered as gentleman com- 
moner of Queen's College, Oxford. In 
1676 he published his " Direct and Geo- 
metrical Method of findingthe Aphelia and 
Eccentricity of the Planets." He was sent 
the same year to the island of St. Helena, 
where he made a catalogue of the stars 
in the southern hemisphere, and returned 
to England in 1678. He was elected 
fellow of the Royal Society ; and in 1679 
he went to Dantzic to confer with He- 
velius on the dispute between him and 
Dr. Hooke, respecting the preference of 
plain or glass sights in astronomical in- 
struments. 

In 1680 Mr. Halley commenced a 
tour ; and on his passage from Dover to 
Calais he had a sight of a remarkable 
comet, since called by his name, and 
hastened to complete his observations 
upon it from the royal observatory of 
France. See Comet. About 1686 he 
published the " History and Physical 
Cause of the Trade Winds and Mon- 
soons," together with a chart respecting 
their duration, &c. He next publish- 
ed in 1691, his paper " On the Circu- 
lation of the Watery Vapours of the 
Sea, and the Origin of Springs." In 
1696, upon the estabhshment of five 
different mints for the re-coinage of sil- 
ver specie, he was constituted comptrol- 
ler of the office of Chester. 

In 1699 he traversed the Atlantic 
Ocean from one hemisphere to the other, 
as far as the ice would permit him ; and 
having nnade his observations at St. He- 
lena, Bazil, Cape Verd, Barbadoes, the 
Madeiras, the Canaries, the Coast of 
Barbary, &c., he returned to Britain, and 
arrived in September 1700. In 1701 
he was sent by the king to observe 
the course of the tides, with the 
longitude and latitude of the principal 
head-lands in the British Channel. Hav- 
ing executed this with his usual expedi- 
tion and accurac)"^, he published a large 
map of the British Channel. In 170.3 he 
was made professor of geometry in the 
imiversity of Oxford ; and in 1713 secre- 
tary of the Royal Society: and seven 
years afterwards he was appointed the 



king's astronomer at the royal observa- 
tory at Greenwich, in the room of Mr. 
Fiamsteed. At Greenwich he exerted 
all his powers in completing the theory 
of the moon's motion, and in other obser- 
vations on the heavens. In 1729 he was 
chosen a foreign member of the Academy 
of Sciences at Paris. He lived to the 
very advanced age of 86, and died in 
1742, in consequence of repeated attacks 
of paralysis. We are indebted to Dr. 
Halley for the publication of several of 
the works of the great Sir Isaac Newton, 
who had a particular friendship for him, 
and to whom he frequently communi- 
cated his discoveries. 

HALLO RAN, Rev. Hynes, an emi- 
nent Irish scholar, poet, and divine, 
chaplain in the Britannia at the battle of 
Trafalgar, transported for seven years 
for forging a frank value 10c?. ; died in 
Wales, March 8, 1831. 

HALSEWELL, East Indiaman, lost 
at Seacombe, in the isle of Purbeck, near 
St. Aldhelm's-head, and not an atom of 
the wreck has ever been discoverable. 
1786. 

H AMAH, town of Syria, was founded 
by Seleucus Nicanor, and is famous for 
having been the place where the Ro- 
mans, under Aurelius, defeated Zenobia, 
queen of Palmyra. Hamah was destroyed 
in 1157, by a dreadful earthquake, but 
was afterwards rebuilt. Abulfeda, the 
celebrated Arabian historian, was prince 
of this city. 

HAMAKER, Professor, a distin- 
guished oriental scholar, was born at 
Amsterdam in 1789. In his 26th year 
he was appointed professor of oriental 
literature at the Athenaeum of Franaker, 
where he soon after published his notes 
on Philostratus, and a Latin dissertatiou 
" On the Necessity of illustrating the 
Greek and Latin Histories of the Middle 
Ages, by reference to the Oriental Writ- 
ers." In I8I7 he was chosen honorary 
professor at the university of Leyden, 
where he died in 1836. 

HAMBURGH, independent city of 
North Germany, became important as a 
trading city in the 12th century, and in 
the 13th was one of the founders of the 
Hanseatic league. Until 1500 the city 
occupied only the strip of land between 
the Kibe and the east bank of the Alster. 
In 1535 it adopted the Lutheran rehgion, 
and acceded to the Protestant league in 
the north of Germany. In 16 18 it was 
acknowledged a free city of the German 



HAM 545 

empire. In 1768 its rights were fully 
confirmed as an independent city. Dur- 
ing the 30 years' war, in which the rest 
of Europe suftered so much, Hamburgh 
was spared. At the beginning of the 19th 
century it was one of the richest and 
most prosperous of the free cities of Ger- 
many ; but in 1803, when the French en- 
tered Hanover, they crippled the com- 
merce of Hamburgh, and drained it by 
exactions. Buonaparte seized part of the 
public funds, and with the whole of the 
north-west part of Germany it was incor- 
porated into the French empire, Decem- 
ber 13, 1810, and became the capital of 
a new department, called the Mouths of 
the Elbe. In March, 1813, the French 
were obliged to retire, and the citizens of 
Hamburgh joined the Allies ; but the 
French drove them back, and retook the 
city May 30. The French, however, 
finally evacuated it in May 1814. Since 
that time it has recovered in a great de- 
gree its former wealth and prosperity. 
Hamburgh is now the greatest com- 
mercial city of Germany, and, perhaps, 
of the continent. The present annual 
value of the import and export trade 
of the port has been estimated at 
£14,380,000. 

HAMBURGH Company is the old- 
est trading establishment in the king- 
dom, incorporated 1296. It was first 
called the company of merchauts trading 
to Calais, Holland, Zealand, Brabant, 
and Flanders. But the revolutions which 
happened in the Low Countries, towards 
the end of the l6th century, obliged 
them to turn their attention almost 
wholly to the side of Hamburgh, and it 
was called the Hamburgh Company. 

HAMEL, Du MoNCEAU, naturalist, 
born 1700, died 1782. 

HAMEL, John Baptist Du, a 
French writer, born 1624, died 1706. 

HAMILTON, town, Scotland, was 
erected into a burgh of barony in 1456. 
In 1548, by charter of queen Mary, it 
became a royal burgh, but soon after the 
restoration it surrendered its rights to 
the duke of Hamilton, who, in 1760, re- 
stored its possessions, and made it de- 
pendent upon himself and his successors. 

HAMILTON, Mrs. Elizabeth, a 
distinguished modem female writer, was 
born in Scotland 1758. "The Hindoo 
Rajah," her first publication, appeared in 
1796, and its success encouraged her 
soon to engage in a second work, enti- 
tled " The Modern Philosophers," which 



HAM 



was published early in 1800. "Letters 
on Education," which appeared in 1801, 
procured the author the acquaintance 
of many celebrated individuals. la 
1804 a pension from the crown was con- 
ferred upon her, as an acknowledgment 
of her literary talents. Soon after this 
she published " The Cottagers of Glen- 
burnie." "Popular Essays on the Ele- 
mentary Principles of the Human Mind," 
appeared in 1812. The last work which 
she lived to finish was published in 
1815, entitled "Hints addressed to the 
Patrons and Directors of Schools." She 
died July 23, 1816, aged 60. 

HAMILTON, Robert, LL.D., au- 
thor of the " Inquiry into the Rise 
and Progress of the National Debt," 
and the first person who pointed o\it the 
fallacious scheme of the sinking fund, 
died 1829. 

HAMILTON, Sir William, K.B., 
ambassador to the court of Naples, died 
April 6, 1803. 

HAMMERSMITH Suspension 
Bridge. See Bridge. 

HAMMET, Sir Benj., fined £1000 
by the court of Common Council, for re- 
fusing to serve the office of Lord Mayor 
of London, Oct. 13, 1797. 

HAMMOND, James, author of 
elegies, born 1710, died 1742. 

HAMPDEN, John, a celebrated 
British patriot, was born in London in 
1594, was chosen to serve in the parlia- 
ment which began at Westminster, Feb. 
5, 1626 ; and served in all the succeed- 
ing parliaments in the reign of Charles I. 
In 1636 his patriotic sentiments began 
to attract public attention by his re- 
fusal to pay ship-money, as being an 
illegal tax; upon which he was pro- 
secuted. On January 3, 1642, the king 
ordered articles of high treason and other 
misdemeanors to be prepared against 
him. In the beginning of the civil war 
he commanded a regiment of foot, and 
did great service to parliament at the 
battle of Edghill. He received a mortal 
wound in an engagement with Prince 
Rupert, in Charlgrove-field, in Oxford- 
shire, and died in 1643. 

HAMPDEN, Rev. Dr., was gazetted 
as Regius Professor of Divinity at Ox- 
ford, in the room of Dr. Burton, de- 
ceased, Feb. 1836. This appointment 
created considerable excitement at Ox- 
ford for some time, his theological opi- 
nions having been affirmed by his oppo- 
nents not to be orthodox. 

4 A 



HAN 



546 



HAN 



HAMPSHIRE, county, England, 
under the Romans formed part of the 
province called Britannia Prima, and 
contained one of the most important of 
the Roman settlements, Venta Belgarum, 
now the city of Winchester. The Sax- 
ons made some descents on this county 
in the 6th century, and one of their 
chiefs. Porta, made some conquests. In 
519 Cerdic, the Sa.x;on monarch, after 
repeated contests with the Britons, es- 
tablished the kingdom of Wessex. On 
the Norman conquest, Hampshire suf- 
fered peculiar devastations, in conse- 
quence of the formation of the New 
Forest hy William I. 1081. 

HAMPSHIRE, New, state. United 
States. The first English settlement was 
made near the mouth of the Piscataqua 
in 1628: it was formed into a separate 
government in 1679, before which time 
it was under the jurisdiction of Massa 
chusetts. A constitution was established 
in 1784; and in 1792 this constitution 
was altered and amended by a convo- 
cation of delegates held at Concord, and 
modelled according to its present'form. 

HAMPTON, the translator of " Po- 
lybius," died 1778. 

HAMPTON Court Palace built 
before the time of Cardinal Wolsey; 
greatly enlarged by him, and presented 
to King Henry VIII. in 1526, who 
again extended the buildings, and added 
much to their embellishment. The pre- 
sent edifice consists of three quadrangle 
courts, and occupies an area of about 
700 feet. It is decorated with paintings ; 
among which the mosc celebrated are 
the seven Cartoons of Raphael. 

HANAU, district, Germany, in the 
electorate of Hesse Cassel, was formerly 
a separate government under the counts 
of Hanau, but was annexed on the ex- 
tinction of that family in 1736, to the 
dominion of Hesse Cassel. The capital, 
Hanau, is famous as the scene of a battle 
fought near it, Oct. 30, 1813, between 
the Bavarians and Austrians, under 
general Wrede and Napoleon, on the 
retreat of the latter to Leipsic. The 
French are said to have lost 15,000 
men killed and wounded, and 10,000 
prisoners. 

HANDEL, George Frederick, 
the celebrated composer of music, was 
born at Halle, Upper Saxony, in 1684. 
At nine years of age he began to com- 
pose church services for voices and in- 
struments, and continued to compose 



one every week for three years succes- 
sively. At the age of fourteen he was 
sent to Berlin, where his abilities soon 
recommended him to the king, who fre- 
quently made him presents. He after- 
wards removed to Hamburgh, where, 
though yet but in his 15th year, he be- 
came composer to the Opera-house. 
"Almeira," his first opera, was received 
with uncommon applause. 

In his 19th year he took a journey to 
Italy, where he spent six years, improv- 
ing himself in the science of music, and 
formed an acquaintance with some of 
the most celebrated masters of the age. 
He was introduced at the court of Ha- 
nover, and his electoral highness (after- 
wards George I) granted him a pension 
of 1500 crowns. Soon after, Handel 
set out for England, where he arrived in 
]710. The tempting offers made him 
m London induced him to settle there, 
in spite of his engagement to the elector, 
who chose to resent this neglect when 
he became king of England in 1714. 
Handel, however, contrived, by a little 
artifice, to be restored to favour. A royal 
party of pleasure upon the Thames had 
been announced, and directions given at 
court to have a barge of musicians in 
attendance. Handel got notice of this; 
and composed for the occasion those 
celebrated pieces, which, from the cir- 
cumstance, have been called " Water 
Music," He conducted the performance 
himself, disguised, so as not to be de- 
tected. The king was very much de- 
lighted, and begged to know who the 
composer was. A German baron, who 
was a friend to Handel, told him that it 
was written by a countryman and faith- 
ful servant of his majesty ; but who, 
fearing he had incurred his displeasure, 
dared not, in a more open manner, con- 
tribute to the amusement of his sove- 
reign. Upon which the king declared, 
that if Handel was the culprit, he had 
his entire forgiveness; and, moi'eover, 
substantiated his gracious pardon by the 
donation of £200 a year. 

About 1720, a project was formed by 
the nobility for erecting an academy at 
the Hay market, with a view to secure a 
constant supply of operas to be com- 
posed by Handel, and performed under 
his direction. Handel conducted the 
academy for nine years with great suc- 
cess ; but about that period an irre- 
concileable enmity took place between 
hira and Senesino, one of the Italian 




.©11®? FmiimJimiKD tbtawitoiitt,. 




t(rv^ e ^rt^e^iC JiQ/rU-c/- 



Xiondan.: J.'utOiahed.-'by Xhamas - 



HAN 



547 



HAN 



singers whom he brouj3;ht over, which 
ended in the total dissolution of the 
academy. 

In 1732 Handel began the perform- 
ance of oratorios in the theatre."Esther," 
composed in 1720, was the first ; " De- 
borah," the second; and "Athahah," 
the third ; the latter was performed in 
the pubhc theatre at Oxford in 1733, 
when he opened the organ in such a 
manner as astonished every hearer. In 
1740, the oratorio of "Saul" was per- 
formed for the first time at the theatre 
in Lincoln's-inn-fields. From 1740 to 
1751, he produced fifteen original orato- 
rios. In 1742 "Samson" was first per- 
formed, which was not only much 
applauded by crowded houses in the 
capital, but soon disseminated in single 
songs through the kingdom. The same 
year the " Messiah " was received with 
universal admiration and applause, and 
Handel, actuated by motives of bene- 
volence and humanty, formed a resolu- 
tion of performing it annually for the 
benefit of the Foundling Hospital, which 
resolution was constantly put in practice 
to the end of his life, under his own di- 
rection. The last oratorio at which he 
attended and performed, was on the 6th 
of April, and he expired onthel3th,1759. 

Commemoration op Handel, 
the most extraordinary musical perform- 
ance which any age or any country has 
produced, Avas presented to the public 
as a tribute to his memory in West- 
minster Abbey, in 1784, in which up- 
wards of a thousand vocal and instru- 
mental performers were engaged. A 
similar commemoration took place in 
"Westminster Abbey, June 24, 26, 28, 
and July 1, 1834. 

HAND-IN-HAND Fiee-officb, 
London, incorporated I696. 

HANDKERCHIEFS first manufac- 
tured at Paisley, in Scotland, 1743, when 
£15,886 worth were made; in 1784 the 
manufacture yielded £164,385. 

HANNIBAL, the celebrated Cartha- 
ginian general, was born about a.c. 246. 
His father, Hamilcar, having made him 
vow eternal enmity to the Roman people, 
took him, when only nine years of age, 
to his camp in Spain. When only 26 
years of age, he was chosen general by 
the whole army. See Carthage. 

After the battle of Cannae, having 
threatened Rome itself with a siege, he 
was obliged, on account of the scarcity 
of provisions and the diminished num- 



bers of his troops, to retire to Bruttium. 
He was recalled to Africa to protect Car- 
thage from the assaults of the Roman 
ai'my, under Scipio, a.c. 203. Hannibal 
having spent 36 years in arms, took up 
his residence at Carthage, where he ren- 
dered himself as celebrated a statesman 
as he had been a warrior. His enemies 
accused him t_, the Romans of aiding 
Antiochus the Great in his designs 
against the empire. The Romans im- 
mediately demanding that he should be 
delivered up to them, he took refuge 
with Prusias, king of Bithynia, who, in 
order to ingratiate himself with the Ro- 
mans, sent a party of soldiers to sur- 
round Hannibal's house. The Cartha- 
ginian general, perceiving that there was 
no possibility of escape, had recourse 
to poison, and died a.c. 183, aged 63. 
With his last breath he is said to have 
exclaimed, " Let us deliver the Romans 
fromthe disquietude with which they have 
long been tortured, since they have no 
patience to wait for an old man's death." 

HANNO, a Carthaginian commander, 
celebrated for his voyage of discovery, is 
said to have undertaken the circumnavi- 
gation of Africa, by order of the state, 
which he completed from the Straits of 
Gibraltar to the extremity of Arabia, 
about a.c. 453. 

HANOVER, kingdom of Germany, 
consisting of the duchy of Bremen, the 
principality of Luneburg, and several 
other countries, formerly an electorate. 
In the beginning of the 12th century, 
Henry the Black, duke of Bavaria, bro- 
ther of Welf, or Guelf, (a prince of the 
north of Italy), acquired by marriage 
and conquest the duchies of Luneburg, 
Brunswick, and Gottingen ; his son also 
made large conquests north from the 
Elbe. His family, however, though nu- 
merous, all became extinct, except Bruns- 
wick Wolfenbuttel, and Brunswick Lune- 
burg. A member of the latter family 
having married Sophia, grand-daughter of 
James I., of England, his son proved the 
nearest Protestant heir to the crown of 
Great Britain. 

Hanover co-operated with Great Bri- 
tain in the wars which took place from 
1741 to 1756, during which period she 
lost 80,000 men. During the first 
French revolutionary war, the neutrality 
of Hanover was maintained ; but in 
1801 it was seized by Prussia. It 
was overrun by the French in 1803, 
and was ceded to Prussia by them ia 



HAN 



548 



HAN 



1806 ; but shortly afterwarJs resumed, 
and one part of it annexed to West- 
phalia, the other] retained by France. 
At the end of 1810, Buonaparte declared 
a further portion to belong to France. 
At length, in 1813, the whole electorate 
was restored to the king of Great Bri- 
tain, and in 1815, he assumed the title of 
king of Hanover. George IV. of Eng- 
land, when prince regent, gave Hanover 
a modified charter, under which the 
chambers exercised the same privileges 
as the former provincial deputies. By 
an edict of Oct. 12, 1822, the govern- 
ment received a new organisation, by 
which the kingdom was divided into 
seven districts. At the head of the go- 
vernment was the viceroy, the duke of 
Cambridge, and under him a ministry. 

1837. The death of William IV. pro- 
duced an immediate change in relation 
to the continental dominions of the house 
of Hanover. The crown of that state de- 
scended only in the male line ; and there- 
fore, on the accession of our present 
sovereign, it became entirely separated 
from the British empire. Ernest Augus- 
tus, late duke of Cumberland, therefore 
immediately became king of Hanover, 
and was proclaimed June 24. One of 
the first acts of his reign was to prorogue 
the general assembly of the states of the 
kingdom ; and the letters patent, by 
which, in conformity with the constitu- 
tional practice, the king announced his 
accession to the throne, appeared July 8, 
and afforded his majesty an opportunity 
of communicating to his subjects his 
intention of superseding the existing 
constitution. The letters patent then 
went on to establish the legality of all 
laws and ordinances, promulgated under 
the repealed constitution, " till they 
should be abolished in a legal way." 
They announced his majesty's resolu- 
tion immediately to convoke, and to com- 
municate his proposals to, the general 
assembly of the estates, according to the 
letters patent of Dec. 7, 1819; and pre- 
sented the public with an outline of such 
proposals, which were, in effect, as fol- 
lows : — 1. The crown revenues were to 
contribute to the public expenditure. 
2. The estates were to meet but once in 
three years, and the session not to exceed 
three months. 3. The crown might 
convene extraordinary meetings of the 
estates. 4. The functions of the pro- 
vincial assemblies were to be enlarged. 
S. An abatement of the tax on persons 



and trades, to the amount of 100,000 
dollars annually, was promised. At the 
same time that these letters patent were 
issued, others appeared which informed 
the public of the dissolution of the cabi- 
net ministry. These proceedings gave 
great disquietude to some of the legis- 
latures of the minor states in Germany, 
who were conscious on how frail a foun- 
dation their own representative privi- 
leges were erected. The states of Baden 
voted that the abrogation of the Hano- 
verian constitution was in violation of 
the federal act of the Germanic league, 
and their example was followed by Ba- 
varia and Saxony. 

1838. According to a proclamation, 
dated Jan. 7, the general assembly of the 
states was summoned to meet, Feb. 20. 
When the second chamber met for the 
discussion of the new constitution, the 
following motion of M. Conradi, June 25, 
was carried by a majority of 34 to 24 : 
" The estates will discuss the constitu- 
tion which has been submitted to them 
by his majesty ; they must, however, 
hold the opinion, that the constitution, 
which legally existed before his majesty's 
accession to the government cannot be 
satisfactorily abolished, or altered, unless 
the representation established according 
to the constitution, (agreeing with the 
proposal of the estates, regarding the 
new constitution), as well as the provin- 
cial assemblies, have given their con- 
sent." This was followed by the rejec- 
tion of the proposed constitution, by a 
majority of 37 to 23 votes. In June 29, 
an ordinance appeared, proroguing the 
states general. 

HANSARD, Thomas Curson, a 
very ingenious practical printer, and au- 
thor of " Typographia'; or. Historical 
Sketches of the Origin and Progress of 
the Art of Printing; with practical Direc- 
tions for conducting every Department in 
an Office," born 1776, died 1833. 

HANSE Towns, or Hanseatic 
League, certain Germanic towns. ITiis 
league originated with Hamburgh and 
Lubeck, which formed a confederacy in 
1241 for mutual protection. The Han- 
seatic confederacy was at its highest 
degree of power and splendour during 
the 14th and 15th centuries. It then 
comprised from 60 to 80 cities, which 
were distributed into four classes or cir- 
cles. Lubeck was at the head of the 
first ; Cologne the second ; Brunswick 
the third ; and Dantzic the fourth. In 



HAN 



549 



HAR 



order to facilitate and extend their com- 
mercial transactions, the League esta- 
blished various factories in foreign cities ; 
the principal of which were Novogorod 
in Russia, London, Bruges in the 
Netherlands, and Bergen in Norway. 
The merchants of the Hanse towns, or 
Hansards, were established in London 
at a very early period, and their factory 
situate in Thames-street, was of con- 
siderable magnitude and importance; but 
disputes arising with the English mer- 
chants, it was frequently attacked. The 
League exerted themselves vigorously in 
defence of their privileges ; and having 
declared war against England, they suc- 
ceeded in excluding our vessels from 
the Baltic, and acted with such energy, 
that Edward IV. was glad to come to 
an accommodation with them. In 1474, 
the privileges were renewed, but were 
considerably modified in the reigns of 
Henry VII. and Henry VIII., and were, 
at length, wholly abolished in 1597. 
Hamburgh, Bremen, Lubeck, and Frank- 
fort, preserve only the shadow of power ; 
being acknowledged in the act for the 
establishment of the Germanic confe- 
deracy, signed at Vienna, June 8, 1815, 
as free Hanseatic cities. 

HANWAY, Jonas, remarkable for 
his benevolent exertions for the benefit 
of his poor countrymen, was born at 
Portsmouth in 1712. He connected 
himself as a partner in Mr. Dingley's 
house in Petersburgh, where he arrived 
June 10, 1743. The mercantile transac- 
tions of that house brought him ac- 
quainted with the trade lately commenced 
on the Caspian Sea. In 1753 he pub- 
lished an " Historical Account of the 
British Trade over the Caspian Sea ; 
with a Journal of Travels from London, 
through Russia into Persia," in 4 vols. 
4to. He was the principal founder of 
the Marine Society, intended to train 
young and destitute lads to the service 
of the navy. His attention was parti- 
cularly directed towards alleviating the 
miseries of young chimne}'-sweepers. 
He promoted by every means in his 
power the establishment of Sunday- 
schools ; and was very active in procur- 
ing subscriptions for the relief of the 
black people who wandered about the 
metropolis in distress. He died Septem- 
ber 5, 1786. Besides his travels and se- 
veral miscellaneous productions, he also 
published a number of small pieces, cal- 
culated to convey useful, moral, and re- 



ligious instruction to the lower classes 
of mankind. 

HAN WORTH Park House, the 
seat of the duke of St. Alban's, burnt 
down March 16, 1797- 

HARBOTTLE, Northumberland. Its 
castle was besieged unavailingly by a 
powerful Scotch army in 1296. Its 
ruins still possess much interest: Mar- 
garet, queen dowager of Scotland, and 
sister of Henry Vlll., resided here after 
her union, in 1515. 

HARDERWICH, town, Holland, is 
strongly fortified, and has a university, 
founded in 1648, but reduced to the 
rank of an academy in 1808. 

HARDICANUTE, king of Denmark, 
succeeded Harold I. as king of England, 
April 14, 1039; died at Lambeth, 1041. 

HARDY, Thomas, the reformer, ac- 
cused of high-treason by the Pitt mi- 
nistry, Oct. 28, 1794, died Oct. 11, 1832, 
aged 82. 

HARDY, Sir Thomas, a distin- 
guished naval commander, and the friend 
of Nelson, took a conspicuous part at 
the battle of Trafalgar in 1805, was 
made governor of the Royal Hospital at 
Greenwich. March 1834 ; died at Green- 
wich Sept. 20, 1839. 

HARFLEUR, town in Normandy, 
taken by the English in 1415 and 1440. 

HARGRAVE, Francis, the editor of 
the " State Trials," &c., died 1821. 

HARGREAVE, James, the inventor 
of the spinning-jenny, and other impor- 
tant parts of cotton-machinery. He died 
in 1788. 

HARLECH Castle, Merionethshire, 
built by the ancient Britons ; rebuilt in 
876 ; re-edified by Edward I. 

HARLEY, Robert, earl of Oxford 
and Mortimer, was born in 1661. In 
1702 he was chosen speaker of the house 
of commons; in 1704 he was sworn of 
Queen Anne's privy council, and the 
same j^ear made secretary of state ; in 
1706 he acted as one of the commis- 
sioners for the treaty of union ; and in 
1710 was appointed a commissioner of 
the Treasury, and chancellor and under- 
treasurer of the Exchequer. In 1711 
he was raised to the dignity of lord 
high treasurer, and created earl of Ox- 
ford and earl of Mortimer. On the ac- 
cession of George L, the earl of Oxford 
was nominated one of the persons to be 
added to the seven great offices of state, 
to compose a regency. He was im- 
peached by the commons, June 10, 1715, 



HAR 



550 



HAR 



for high treason, and other crimes and 
misdemeanors, and, on July 6, the house 
of lords committed him to the Tower, 
but he was acquitted. His death took 
place in 1727. 

HARMONIC Institution, Royal, 
incorporated 1823. 

HARMONICA, or musical glasses, 
improved by Dr. Franklin, from a hint 
previously given him in 1760 ; introduced 
into France in 1765. 

HARMONIPHON, a new musical in- 
strument, introduced into England about 
1839, is the invention of M. Paris, of 
Dijon. The sound is produced by the 
vibration of thin metallic plates; and it 
is played by keys resembling those of 
the piano-forte ; but the air which acts 
upon the vibrating plates, instead of pro- 
ceeding from bellows within the instru- 
ment, is blown by the mouth through an 
elastic tube. Thus, while the fingers on 
the keys merely mark the different notes 
of the scale, the expression lies in the 
mouth, as in the oboe, or clarionet. The 
Harmoniphon is made in three varieties: 
the first is the compass of the oboe, the 
second of the corne Inglese, and the 
third of a larger size than the others, 
combines both these instruments, and 
has a compass of three octaves. It is 
calculated to be of great utility in provin- 
cial orchestras, where it will be an ex- 
cellent substitute for the oboe. 

HARMONY, town, United States, 
Arkansas territory, and a missionary sta- 
tion amongst the Osage Indians, formed 
in 1821, by the United Foreign Mission 
Society. 

HARMONY, town, Pennsylvania, 
founded by a number of German fami- 
lies, styling themselves the Harmony So- 
ciety, who emigrated in Dec. 1804. 

HARMONY, New, in Indiana, pur- 
chased by Robert Owen, in 1825, for 
the establishment of a " social system," 
broken up in 1826. 

HAROLD I., king of England, began 
his reign 1036, died April 14, 1039. 

HAROLD II., son of the earl of 
Kent, began his reign in 1066 ; defeated 
by his brother Tosti and the king of 
Norway, who had invaded his dominions 
at Stamford, Sept. 25, 1066; was killed 
by the Normans, at the battle of Hast- 
ings, Oct. 14, following. 

HAROUN, Al Raschid, a cele- 
brated caliph, or Mahometan sovereign 
of the Saracen empire, one of the best 
and wisest princes that ever sat on the 



throne of Bagdad, died a.h. 193, having 
reigned 23 years. 

HARPE, De La, the French critic, 
died April 18, 1803. 

HARPOONER, transport, from Que- 
bec, with invalids and other troops, 
foundered, and more than half the per- 
sons on board perished, Nov. 10, 1816. 

HARRINGTON, Sir John, English 
poet, translator of "Ariosto," and author 
of " Oceana," died 1620. 

HARRIOT, Thomas, an eminent 
mathematician, was born at Oxford, in 
1560, educated at St. Mary Hall, and 
took his bachelor's degree in 1579. In 
1585, went mth the colony, under Sir 
Richard Granville, to Virginia. He pub- 
lished, on his return, a topographical 
description of that country. About 1588, 
Mr. Harriot was introduced by his 
patron. Sir Walter Raleigh, to Percy, 
earl of Northumberland, who granted 
him a pension of £300 per annum. He 
died in July, 1621, at Sion College. He 
was one of the first mathematicians of 
the age in which he lived, and will al- 
ways be remembered as the inventor of 
the present improved method of alge- 
braical calculation. He was the first 
who observed the spots in the sun ; and 
it is a matter of doubt whether he or 
Galileo first saw the satellites of Jupiter. 

HARRIS, James, a celebrated philo- 
logist, was born at Salisbury, in 1709, 
and educated at the grammar school 
there. In 1726 he was removed to Wad- 
ham College, Oxford. His first literary 
production was a volume containing three 
treatises, on Music, Painting, and Hap- 
piness. In 1751 he pubhshed his ce- 
lebrated work, entitled, " Hermes ; or, a 
Philosophical Inquiry concerning Uni- 
versal Grammar." In 1761 he obtained 
a seat in parliament for the borough of 
Christchurch, and three years afterwards 
was appointed one of the lords commis- 
sioners of the Admiralty. He was next 
removed to the Board of Treasury, and 
in 1774 was made secretary and comp- 
troller to the queen ; this post he held 
till his death, which took place in 1780, 
in his 72d year, 

HARRISON, John, inventor of the 
time-keeper for discovering the longi- 
tude, and for which he received the 
parliamentaiy reward of £20,000, died 
March 24, 1776, aged 84. See Chrono- 
meter. 

HARROWGATE, Yorkshire, is in- 
debted for its importance to the mineral 



HAR 



551 



HAR 



springs in the vicinity, impregnated with 
sulplmr. The old Spa, in Knaresbo- 
rough forest was discovered in 1620 by 
Capt. SHngsby, and covered over by a 
handsome dome in 1786, at the expense 
of the earl of Rosslyn. The sulphureous 
well, the latest discovered, is distin- 
guished by its hepatic colour, arising 
from the presence of hydro-sulphu- 
reous gas. The season for bathing com- 
mences in May, and ends in Sep- 
tember. 

HARROW-ON-THE-HILL, Middle- 
sex, remarkable for its richly-endowed 
Free Grammar-school, founded for cha- 
ritable purposes by Mr. Lyon, who died 
in 1592, and bequeathed estates worth 
about £1000 per annum for its mainte- 
nance. He particularlyenjoined the prac- 
tice of archery ; and it was customary, 
until very lately, to shoot for a silver 
prize-arrow on Aug. 4. A fire broke out 
here, Oct. 22, 1838, which destroyed 
a great part of the building. 

HART, Sir Anthony, late lord 
chancellor of Ireland, was born in 1759, 
in the island of St. Christopher. In 
1776 he was admitted a student of the 
Middle Temple, and called to the bar in 
1781. He practised first in the East Indies, 
and afterwards at the Chancery bar here. 
In 1807 he was made king's counsel, 
and in the same year elected a bencher 
in the Middle Teniple. In 1813 he was 
selected to fill the office of solicitor- 
general to her majesty, Queen Charlotte. 
In 1827 Mr. Hart was appointed vice- 
chancellor, received the honour of 
knighthood, and was sworn in as one of 
his majesty's most honourable privy- 
council. On the retirement of Lord 
Manners he was raised to the chacellor- 
ship of Ireland, which office he filled 
until the resignation of the duke of Wel- 
lington in 1830, when he was recalled. 
He died Dec. 6, 1831, aged 72. 

HARTLEBURY Castle, Worces- 
tershire, built in 1268. 

HARTLEY, David, senior, author 
of " Observations on Man," died in 
1757, aged 53. 

HARTLEY, David, junior, son of 
the preceding, first mover in the house 
of commons of the abolition of the slave- 
trade, died Dec. 19, 1813. 

H ARTZ, or H arz, a mountain in Ger- 
many, abounds in mineral productions. 
Charlemagne first colonised this moun- 
tain district, but a new company of set- 
tlers was introduced in the 11th century 



to work the mines at Rammelsberg. 
Their descendants were recognised by 
black uniforms and red feathers. 

HARVEY, Admiral, Sir Eliab, 
entered the naval service in 1771, as a 
midshipman. He served in the same 
capacity with Lord Howe in the Eagle 
74, whom he joined in 1775 on the coast 
of North America. He returned to Eng- 
land with Lord Howe, Oct. 25, 1778, and 
was soon after pi-omoted to the rank of 
lieutenant. In 1790 he obtained the 
command of the Hussar of 28 guns. In 
1796 he sailed for the West Indies, in 
company with Vice-admiral Sir Hyde 
Parker. He served with the channel 
fleet during the remainder of the war ; 
and on the renewal of hostilities in 1803, 
he assumed the command of the Teme- 
raire, a second rate, in which ship he 
greatly distinguished himself at the battle 
of Trafalgar, Oct. 21, 1805. At the ge- 
neral promotion that took place. Captain. 
Harvey was advanced to the rank of rear- 
admiral; he continued to serve in the 
channel fleet until the spring of 1809, at 
which period a serious misunderstandings 
took place between him and Lord Gam- 
bier. However, Rear-admiral Harvey 
was duly promoted to the rank of vice- 
admiral in 1810, nominated a K.C.B. in 
1815, and made a full admiral in 1819, 
and a G.C.B. in 1825. He sat in parlia- 
ment with some interruptions, from 1780* 
to 1826. He died February 20, 1830,. 
aged 71. 

HARVEY, Dr. William, an emi- 
nent physician and anatomist, was bora 
at Folkstone, in Kent, in 1578. He be- 
came a fellow of the College of Physicians 
in 1603, and a short time afterwards was 
appointed physician to St. Bartholomew's 
Hospital. In I6l5 he was nominated 
lecturer on anatomy and surgery to the 
college. In these lectures he opened his 
grand discovery relating to the circida/- 
tion of the blood. In 1651 he published 
his " Exercitationes de Generatione Ani- 
malium." In 1654 he was chosen pre- 
sident of the College of Physicians. He 
lived to complete his 80th year, and died 
June 3, 1658. His modesty, candour,, 
and piety, were equal to his knowledge 
and attainments ; and the farther he 
penetrated into the wonders of nature,, 
the more he was inclined to venerate the 
author of it. 

HARWICH, Essex, is believed to be 
of Roman foundation. The vicinity is 
much frequented for sea-bathing in sum- 



HAT 



552 



HAV 



mer. An engagement took place here 
in 884, between the Danish and Anglo- 
Saxon fleets. 

HARWOOD, Dr., author of the "In- 
troduction to the Study of the New Tes- 
tament," died in 1804. 

HARWOOD NuNNEKY, Bedford- 
shire, built in 1150. 

HASLEWOOD, Joseph, laborious 
editor and antiquary, born Nov. 5, 1769, 
died, Sept. 21, 1833. 

HASSELQUIST, Frederick, one 
of the favourite pupils of Linnaeus, and 
eminently distinguished by his illustra- 
tions of the natural history and medicine 
of the Levant, was born at Toernvalla, 
in East Gothland, Jan. 3, 1772. He 
died Feb. 9, 1752, aged 31. 

HASTINGS, town, Sussex, member 
of the cinque ports. Supposed to have 
been founded by a Danish naval officer, 
whose name it bears, in the reign of 
Alfred the Great. In Athelstan's time 
it was the residence of a mint-master, 
was strongly fortified, and walled round. 
Near this place Harold II. was defeated 
and slain by William the Norman, Oct. 
15, 1066 ; 1070, the castle built ; 1377, 
town destroyed by fire. 

HASTINGS, Lord, put to death in 
the Tower, June 13, 1483. 

HASTINGS, Warren, governor- 
general of India, tried by the peers ot 
Great Britain for high crimes and misde- 
meanors ; his trial lasted seven years 
and three months, and ended in his ac- 
quittal, April 25, 1795; born 1733, 
died 1818. 

HATBAND Makers' Company, 
London, incorporated 1638. 

HATCHING Chickens by Heat. 

See ECCALEOBION. 

HATS OF Fur, Wool, &c. This 
description of hats was first noticed as 
belonging to England in the 14th cen- 
tury. About a century afterwards, 1463, 
the importation of hats was prohibited. 
A duty of 10*. Qd. a hat was substituted 
for this prohibition in 1816, and long 
since taken off. 

StrawHats. In 1611 the most delicate 
straw hats were worn by both men and 
womenin many parts of Piedmont, many 
of them having at least a hundred seams. 
The manufacture does not appear to 
have been followed in England for more 
than 60 or 70 years. With the view of 
improving the condition of the straw 
plaiters in England, the Society of Arts, 
from the year 1822 to 1827, held out pre- 



miums for the successful application of 
some of our native grasses or straw, 
other than the wheat straw in general 
use, and for improvements in plaiting, 
finishing, and bleaching. Many speci- 
mens were sent to the Society, and 
amongst other candidates, Mr. Parry, of 
London, in 1822, received a large silver 
medal for an imitation and description 
of the mode of plaiting the Leghorn 
bats. 

Messrs. J. and A. Muir. of Greenock, 
who received two medals in 1823, es- 
tablished straw plaiting, in imitation of 
Leghorn, in the Orkney Islands, with 
singular success, adopting rye straw, 
dwarfed by being grown on poor land, 
as a material best suited for the pur- 
pose. 

HATTON, Sir Christopher, 
made lord chancellor, 1583; being the 
first that was neither priest nor lawyer 
that had held that office ; he died in 
1591. 

HAUFF, WiLHELM,a German writer, 
author of " Lichtenstein," an historical 
romance in 3 vols. ; born at Stuttgart, 
November 28, 1802, died November 18, 
1827. 

HAUY, Abbe', the discoverer of the 
true system of chrystallography, born 
1743, died 1822. 

HAVANNAH, or Havanna, sea- 
port, island of Cuba, formerly the ren- 
dezvoxxs of the Spanish fleets in the 
West Indies, was taken by a French 
pirate in 1536, but ransomed soon after. 
It was taken successively by the English, 
French, and Buccaneers, and assaulted 
vigorously again by the English in 1762. 
It was restored to Spain in 1763. For 
a long period Havannah engrossed 
almost the whole foreign trade of Cuba. 
There has been, since 1827, a great in- 
crease of the exports of sugar, the quan- 
tity shipped from the- various licensed 
ports of the island of Cuba having 
amounted, in 1833, to 190,613,825 lbs. 

HAVARD College, New England, 
built 1650, burnt down and rebuilt, 
1764. 

HAVERFORDWEST, market town, 
Pembrokeshire, was the ancient capital of 
the Flemings in South Wales, and was 
defended by a castle founded by Gilbert 
de Clare, first Earl of Pembroke. It 
was garrisoned for Edward IV. during 
Glendwr's wars, and for Charles I. in 
the rebellion. 
HAVRE Db Grace, town, Normandy, 



HAW 



553 



HAY 



was founded by Louis XH., fortified 
strongly by Cardinal Richelieu, still fur- 
ther defended by order of Napoleon, who 
caused docks to be constructed, and two 
light-houses to be erected. In 1794 and 
1795, this place was bombarded by the 
British. 

HA WARD EN, or Harden, town, 
Flintshire, had an ancient castle founded 
soon after the conquest. It was occupied 
severally by the royalists and parliamen- 
tarians during the rebellion, but sur- 
rendered finally to general Mytton, on 
March 17, 1645, and was demolished. 

HAWES, Dr. W., inventor of the 
method of restoring suspended anima- 
tion, adopted by the Humane Society, 
died J 808. 

HAWII. See Owyhib. 

HAWKE,LoRD, admiral, born 1713, 
died 1781. 

HAWKERS AND Pedlers. By 
the 50 Geo. 3. c. 41., hawkers and ped- 
lers are to pay an annual duty of £4 ; 
and if they travel with a horse, ass, or 
other beast, bearing or drawing burden, 
they are subject to an additional duty of 
£4 for each beast so employed. The 
granting of licences, and management of 
the duties are, by a late act, placed under 
the control of the commissioners of 
stamps. The hawkers' and pedlers' 
duty produced in 1832, £28,542 gross 
revenue ; the charges of collection 
amounted to between £5000 and £6000. 

HAWKESWORTH, Dr. John, au- 
thor of the "Adventurer," &c. died 
Nov. 17, 1773, aged 50. 

HAWKINS, Sir John, a successful 
naval commander, was born at Ply- 
mouth in 1520. While very young he 
made several voyages to Spain, Portugal, 
and the Canaries. He is said to have 
been the first person who set on foot the 
infamous traffic in slaves. He fitted out 
a small squadron, assisted by several 
merchants, with whom he sailed to the 
coast of Guinea, where, partly by money, 
but chiefly by force, he obtained a cargo 
of three hundred blacks, whom he car- 
ried to Hispaniola and sold. Success 
in one instance induced him to continue 
the same piratical trade, which, to the 
honour of our country, has been now 
abolished with all the indignation it 
merited. 

In 1573 he was appointed treasurer of 
the navy; in 1588, rear-admiral onboard 
the Victory, to confront the famous Ar- 
mada. His conduct on this occasion 



obtained for him the high commenda- 
tions of his sovereign, the honour of 
knighthood, and other important com- 
mands in the navy. He died, in 1595, 
it is said of vexation, on account of an 
unsuccessful attempt on the enemy's, 
possessions in the West Indies, and in 
the Canaries. He sat twice in parlia- 
ment as burgess for Plymouth, and once 
for some other borough. He erected an 
hospital at Chatham, for the relief of dis- 
abled and diseased seamen, and is highly 
applauded by his contemporaries, and by 
historians who lived after him. 

HAWKINS, Sir Richard, son of 
the preceding, and a naval commander, 
died in 1622. 

HAWORTH, Adrian Hardy, fellow 
of the Linnaean and Horticultural So- 
cieties, &c., and a distinguished entomo- 
logist and botanist, was born at Hull ; 
died Aug. 24, 1833. His most impor- 
tant works are the following : — " Obser- 
vations on the Genus Mesembryanthe- 
mum," 8vo. 1794 ; the first part of the 
" Lepidoptera Britannica," 1803, and 
finished in the fourth part in 1828, 8vo. ; 
" Synopsis Plantarum Succulentarum," 
8vo., 1812; " Supplementarum Planta- 
rum Succulentarum," 8vo., 181 9. 

HAY, William, Englishpoet and mis- 
cellaneous writer, born 1700, died 1755. 

HAYDN, Joseph, a celebrated mo- 
dern composer of music, was born at 
Rhorau, in Lower Austria, in 1732. In 
1759 he was received into the service of 
Count Marzin, as director of his music ; 
and three years afterwards removed to 
the palace of Prince Esterhazi, to whose 
service he was afterwards constantly at- 
tached. In 1790 Haydn visited London, 
where he met with a most gratifying re- 
ception; and after a stay of 18 months, 
he returned to Germany. During his 
stay in England, several literary societies 
conferred on him the honours to which 
his extraordinary genius entitled him. 
The University of Oxford presented him 
with a doctor's diploma, an honour which 
Handel himself had not obtained. On 
this occasion, custom requiring that 
Haydn should send the University a 
specimen of musical science, he ad- 
dressed to them a sheet of music so 
composed, that whether it was read back- 
wards or forwards, beginning at the top 
or bottom, or middle of the page, it 
always presented an air and an original 
accompaniment. On his return to Ger- 
many he composed his oratorio of the 
4 B 



HAY 



554 



HAY 



Creation, which is considered one of 
his finest works. At length, however, 
he bent under the weight of years ; ha 
ceased entirely to compose about 1803, 
and died, May 31, 1808. He was mild, 
modest, and unassuming, and free from 
that envious spirit which is too com- 
monly displayed by men of science to- 
wards others, who are supposed to rival 
them. 

HAYES, Catherine, hanged for the 
murder of her husband, April 20, 1726. 

HAYES, Charles, English mathe- 
matician, born 1678, died 1760. 

HAYES, William, doctor in music, 
began his career early in life, as organist 
of St. Mary's, in Shrewsbury ; was or- 
ganist at Christchurch, Oxford, where 
he settled, and was sole director of the 
choral meetings, concerts, and encaenia, 
and every musical exhibition in that 
University to the time of his death, 
about 1779. 

HAYLEY, William, an eminent 
modern writer, the friend and biographer 
of Cowper, born at Chichester, Oct. 29, 
1745. In his 12th year he was placed at 
Eton, and afterwards went to Trinity 
Hall, Cambridge. He left college in 
1767, without taking a degree, having 
entered himself at the Middle Temple. 
It was not till 1777, when in his 33d 
year, that Hayley fairly took the field as 
an author, and published his "Essay on 
Painting." In this poem, and in the 
" Essays on History and on Epic Poetry," 
Hayley's intention was, that the compo- 
sition should be historical rather than 
preceptive, presenting a general view of 
the art in question, with a just and ani- 
mating character of its most eminent 
professors. These Essays, with his " Tri- 
umphs of Temper," published soon after, 
made him the popular poet of the day ; 
and they were followed by his " Philoso- 
phical, Historical, and Moral Essay on 
Old Maids." 

In 1790, Hayley visited Paris. It 
was about this time that his acquaint- 
ance with Cowper commenced. A cor- 
respondence which had been begun, 
produced a visit from Hayley ; and so 
cordially did they soon learn to esteem 
each other, that Cowper, who had not 
left his abode before for 20 years, made 
a journey that autumn to see him. After 
the death of his son, in 1800, which deeply 
affected his mind, Hayley retired to a 
small cottage hehadbuilt, where hepassed 
the remainder of his life,anddiedinl820. 



HAYMARKET, St. James's. The 
hay and straw market fortaerly carried on 
in this street, was removed to Paddington, 
in 1830. Under the Act for its removal, 
the Commissioners of Woods and Fo- 
rests announced that, from Jan. 1, 1831, 
a market would be held for the sale of 
hay and straw every Tuesday, Thursday, 
and Saturday, in an area near the Re- 
gent's Park and the Canal basin, to be 
called Cumberland Market. 

HAYTI, or Haiti, caUed also St. 
Domingo, a large island in the West 
Indies, now forming an independent 
negro republic, which may be considered 
one of the most interesting portions of 
the New World. This was the first large 
island discovered by Columbus, who 
landed there Dec. 5, 1492, and made it, 
under the name of Hispaniola, the seat 
of his first colony. About the middle of 
the l6thcentury, a daring band of French 
buccaneers established themselves in the 
western districts ; they were owned and 
supported by the French government, 
which ultimately became possessed of 
this part of the island. The settlement 
was at first checked by the injudicious 
restraints of an exclusive company ; but 
a more liberal policy being adopted in 
1722, it rapidly advanced to a degree of 
prosperity unprecedented. In 1789 the 
imports were valued at upwards of 
£5,000,000 sterling. The French Revo- 
lution caused an extraordinary change in 
the state of Hayti. 

1791. The convention caused to be 
proclaimed throughout the island their 
favourite doctrine, that all men were free 
and equal. This proclamation gave rise 
to a contest between the white and free 
coloured population ; and St. Domingo 
became the scene of the most dreadful 
ravages, and of massacres as horrid as 
the world has ever witnessed. At this 
critical juncture the English, then at war 
with France, invaded St. Domingo, and 
the French commissioners, to whom the 
government of the island had been in- 
trusted, issued a proclamation of free- 
dom, with a view to insure the assistance 
of the negroes, under Touissaint I'Ouver- 
ture and Christophe, to which they were 
principally indebted for the expulsion of 
the English, and their continued posses- 
sion of the island. 

1802. During the short interval of 
peace between England and France, an 
expedition was fitted out by the govern- 
ment of the latter country, and sent to 



HAY 



555 



HAZ 



St. Domingo, to reduce the negroes to 
slavery a second time. For this purpose 
an 5irmy was transported across the At- 
lantic, under the command of General 
Lg Clerc. The negro leaders flew to 
arms, and, after a doubtful and desperate 
struggle, they expelled their foes, se- 
cured their rights, and took possession 
of the island. The French general, Le 
Clerc, enraged at having failed to ac- 
complish the conquest of the island, and 
considering Touissaint the main support 
of the negro cause, seized him while 
alone and unprotected, bound him in 
chains, and sent him to France as a pri- 
soner, where he ended his days in the 
gloomy dungeon of Besangon. Dessa- 
lines succeeded to his authority, but his 
government was marked by arrogance 
and folly ; and, after a miserable reign of 
six years, his principal officers resolved 
on cutting him off, which was eftected 
in October, 1806. 

1806—1814. The sovereignty of Hayti 
was now contended by two rival chief- 
tains ; Christophe, who had been the 
most distinguished in his opposition to 
the French, and Petion, a mulatto, cele- 
brated for his abilities, and for the in- 
fluence he had acquired over the troops 
under his command. Numerous battles, 
during a period of several years, were 
fought between these rivals, till, finding 
their resources greatly diminished, they 
suspended hostilities, and retired to their 
head-quarters to commence their plans 
of improvement and civilization. Chris- 
tophe selected Cape Francois for the seat 
of his government, and was crowned 
king. The seat of the republican go- 
vernment under Petion was Port-au- 
Prince, a place next in magnitude and 
importance to Cape Fran9ois. Although 
there were many points in which the 
parties of the two chiefs differed, they 
agreed in cherishing a violent and uncon- 
querable hatred towards France, and in 
avowing their determination never to be 
induced, by any considerations whatever, 
to submit to her authority, or to admit 
the validity of her claims. The sin- 
cerity of these declai'ations was put to the 
test when, on the return of Louis XVIII. 
to the throne of France in 1814, an at- 
tempt was made by the government of 
that country to recover possession of the 
colony, but without success. 

1815—1820. The government of Chris- 
tophe, which, during the first years of 
his reign, was equally mild and judicious 



had gradually grown so arbitrary, as 
to become insupportable to the people. 
The troops stationed at St. Marc's, a 
town on the west coast, mutinied against 
their officers ; Christophe despatched a 
messenger to the cape, with orders for 
the garrison at that place to march with- 
out delay to St. Marc's, and put to death 
the ringleaders ; the whole garrison 
flew to arms with the determination of 
destroying their sovereign. When news 
of this revolt reached the ears of Chris- 
tophe, he seized one of the pistols, with 
which he was always provided, and shot 
himself through the head, October 9, 
1820. 

1821—1825. With Christophe ended 
what has been denominated the Haytian 
monarchy. Boyer, who had succeeded 
Petion, proceeded to Cape Frangois, and 
entering it at the head of 20,000 men, 
was immediately proclaimed the sole au- 
thorised chief of the whole island of 
Hayti. After the union of both parties 
into one republic, attempts were made to 
conciliate France. Boyer, the president, 
had thrice, viz., in 1814, 1816, and 1823, 
oflfered to compensate the former pro- 
prietors for their losses ; but France 
wished to stipulate for sovereignty, and 
to this the Haytians would not consent. 

1826. Acknowledgment of the inde- 
pendence of Hayti by France. The in- 
habitants, as might naturally be expected, 
have experienced some revolutionary 
struggles ; but, although they have been 
in the midst of slave colonies ^belonging 
to several European nations, they are 
an independent negro state, and are daily 
increasing in population. 

1827 — 1840. During the years which 
have elapsed since the acknowledgment of 
the independence of the Haytians by the 
French, that important circumstance has 
been the means of promoting their agri- 
culture, extending their commerce, in- 
creasing their wealth and influence, and 
of introducing among them more efficient 
plans for the communication of know- 
ledge than any which could have been 
previously established. 

HAYWARD, Sir John, in 1599, 
published the first part of the " Life and 
Reign of King Henry IV. ; " for which, on 
account of some things advanced in it, 
he was imprisoned by order of Queen 
Elizabeth. He died in 1627. 

HAYWOOD, Mr. Justice, stabbed 
in Westminster Hall, by a papist, 1640. 

HAZLITT, William, a well-known 



HEB 



556 



HEB 



critical and miscellaneous writer,\vas edu- 
cated at the Unitarian College, at Hack- 
ney ; he was engaged as parliamentary 
reporter for some of the daily papers, 
particularly about 1809 and 1810, for 
the Morning Chronicle. His largest and 
most elaborate performance is " The Life 
of Napoleon," in four volumes. He 
was one of the writers in the Supple- 
ment to the Encyclopaedia Britannica; 
he also published, " Political Essays and 
Sketches of Public Characters," &c. He 
died, Sept. 18, 1830. 

HEALTHS, the custom of drinking 
them was in fashion so early as A.c. 
1134. Some say they arose in England 
from Rowena, the daughter of Hengist, 
drinking Prince Vortigern's health in 
a gold cup, at an entertainment, about 
460, in conformity to the Scripture com- 
pliment, " O King, live for ever I" 

HEARNE, Thomas, the antiquary, 
born 1678, died 1735. 

HEART (a human), found at Wa- 
verley, in Surrey, preserved 700 years in 
spirits, 1731. 

HEARTH Money, a tax on every 
hearth or chimney-place, levied on 
every house in England, by the 13th 
Charles H. 1662; abolished by William 
and Mary, 1689. 

HEATH, James, an English chrono- 
logical historian, died 1 664. 

HEATHFIELD, Lord. See Elliot. 

HEBE, French ship of war, captured 
by the British ship, Loire, Feb. 10, 1809- 

HEBER, Reginald, a late distin- 
guished prelate, was born April 21, 
1783, at Malpas, in Cheshire. In 
1800 he was admitted of Brazen-nose 
College, Oxford, where he applied his 
mind to Latin hexameters ; and, on 
his first attempt, in 1802, obtained the 
university prize ; the subject was " Car- 
men Seculare." In 1803, the subject 
given for English verse was Palestine. 
Upon this theme Mr. Heber wrote, and 
with signal success. In 1805 he took 
his degree of B.A., and immediately 
after tried his powers in English 
composition, and gained the prize for 
the English Essay : the subject, " The 
Sense of Honour." From Brazen-nose 
College he was elected to a fellowship at 
All Soul's, and soon after went abroad. 
He travelled through Germany, Russia, 
and the Crimea, in company with Dr. 
Clarke, whose travels in the latter coun- 
tries were enriched with notes extracted 
from Mr. Heber's MS. Journal. In 1 808 



Mr. Heber took his degree of A.M. at 
Oxford. The next year appeared from 
the press his poem, " Europe : Lines on 
the present War." Having been pre- 
sented to the family-living of Hodnet, at 
his parsonage, he applied his vigorous 
intellect to the study of divinity ; and, in 
1815, preached the Bampton Lectures : 
the subject selected for him was " The 
Personality and Office of the Christian 
Comforter asserted and explained, in a 
Course of Sermons on John xvi. 7. 

In 1822 Mr. Heber was elected by 
the benchers of Lincoln's Inn preacher 
to their society, an office which had been 
filled by Warburton, Hurd, and nume- 
rous dignitaries of the church. On the 
death of Dr. Middleton, the bishopric of 
Calcutta was offered to Mr. Heber, which, 
after much deliberation, he accepted, bade 
farewell to a parish where he had toiled 
for 15 years, and on June 16, 1823, em- 
barked for the land which was to be his 
grave. On Ascension-day, 1824, Bishop 
Heber held his primary visitation in the 
cathedral at Calcutta. During the re- 
mainder of the year 1824, the whole of 
the year 1825, and part of 1826, Bishop 
Heber was engaged in travelUng over 
the whole extent of his immense diocese. 
He preached at Combaconum, on Good 
Friday, March 24, 1826, and arrived the 
next day at Tanjore, where he preached 
on Easter Sunday. The following day 
he held a confirmation at the latter 
place,and in the evening addressed the as- 
sembled missionaries. At Trinchinopoly, 
on Sunday, April 2, he preached and 
confirmed ; a rite which he repeated early 
the next morning in the Fort church, April 
3 ; on his return from the Fort church, he 
proceeded to the bath, from which he 
never rose. His body was opened ; and it 
was the opinion of the surgeons that he 
died of apoplexy. He was the day fol- 
lowing entombed in St. John's church, 
on the plain at the right side of the 
altar. 

" To a superior and highly cultivated 
mind, he added all the qualities of heart 
that can render the man an object of love 
and veneration. He possessed the eye 
of a painter, and the pen of a poet ; a 
mind richly stored with the literature of 
Europe, both ancient and modern ; great 
natural shrewdness and sagacity; and a 
temper as amiable and candid as ever 
accompanied and adorned the energies 
of a fine genius. Religion was the pre- 
siding influence ; but his religion graced 



HEC 



557 



HEL 



as well as heightened his admirable facul- 
ties — it employed and ennobled them all." 

HEBER, Richard, half-brother of 
Reginald Heber, and the celebrated col- 
lector of books on old English literature, 
born 1773, died 1833. 

HEBERDEN, Dr. William, died 
May 17, 1801, aged 91. 

HEBRIDES, or Western Islands, 
off the western coast of Scotland. They 
are 300 in number, of which 86 are in- 
habited. The first authentic record of 
this archipelago is, that in the year 900, 
Harold Harfager, king of Denmark and 
Norway, after many previous descents, 
obtained firm possession of the greater 
number, and placed a viceroy over them. 
One of his successors declared himself 
independent, assumed the style of king of 
the isles, and fixed his seat of govern- 
ment in the Isle of Man, where he and 
his descendants were sometimes tribu- 
tary, and at others independent, until the 
commencement of the 12th century. 
About this time Somerled became con- 
nected by marriage with the king of the 
isles, separated this part of his domi- 
nions from that of Man, made himself 
master of the greater portion of Argyll, 
and declared himself an independent 
prince. A descendant of Somerled, bear- 
ing the title of earl of Ross, held the 
lordship of the isles, in 1335, but, hav- 
ing incurred the displeasure of his sove- 
reign, was reduced to the degree of baron, 
a title which descends to the present 
Lord Macdonald. The princes of these 
isles were long lawless and turbulent, 
but an act of parliament, passed in 1748, 
abolishing all heritable jurisdictions, has 
destroyed the influence of the indepen- 
dent chieftains of the western islands. 

HEBRIDES,New, agroup of islands. 
South Pacific ocean, originally discovered 
by Quiros in 1506, and visited by Bou- 
gainville in ] 763, who called them the 
Great Cyclades. In 1773 Captain Cook 
surveyed them, and gave the whole the 
appellation of the New Hebrides, from 
his considering them the most western 
islands of the Pacific ocean. 

HECLA, a volcanic mountain, Iceland, 
has three summits, of which the central 
is the highest, rising 5000 feet above the 
level of the sea. Twenty-four eruptions 
are said to have taken place since 1004, 
of which the latest were those of 1766, 
1818, and 1823. Sir Joseph Banks 
visited this mountain in 1772, and Sir 
George Mackenzie in 1810. 



HECTOR, the Trojan general, died 
A.c. 1184. 

HEDWIG, John, a celebrated bota- 
nist, was born at Cronstadt in Transyl- 
vania, in October, 1730. In 1756 he 
entered into the family of Bosc, professor 
of botany, for whom he prepared plants 
for demonstration, and in 1759, took the 
degree of doctor of medicine. In 1781 
he published his great work, entitled, 
"FundamentumHistorise Naturalis Mus- 
corum Frondosorum," in which he gave 
an accurate history of mosses from his 
own observations, and illustrated the 
whole with appropriate plates. He died 
Feb., 1799, aged 69. 

HEGIRA, or Flight, an epoch or 
point of time from whence the Mahome- 
dans date their events. The circum- 
stance which gave rise to this epoch was 
the escape of the false prophet Mahomet, 
from an insurrection at Mecca, on Fri- 
day, June 16, A.D. 622 ; from which 
day and year all events in Mahomedan 
countries are dated. The years of the 
hegira are lunar years of 354 days, which, 
in order to find any date, must be re- 
duced to those of the Julian calendar. 

HEIDDEGGER, J. J., the famous 
humourist, died 1749, aged 90. 

HEIDELBURG, city of the grand 
duchy of Baden, chiefly celebrated for 
its university, called the Rupert Caroline 
University, founded in 1386 ; the oldest 
in Germany, after those of Prague and 
Vienna. It early adopted the Calvinistic 
doctrines, and took a prominent part in 
the Reformation. The town was taken 
in 1622, by the Roman Cathohc general 
Tilly, who carried off the library. It 
was ceded, in 1802, to Baden, since 
which time it has greatly revived. 

HEILBRON, treaty of, between Swe- 
den and the northern protestant states of 
Germany, after the death of Gustavus 
Adolphus, 1633. 

HEINETKIN, Christopher, the 
learned prodigy of Lubeck, who was 
master of several languages at four years 
old, when he died, 1725. 

HELDER, a fortress in Holland, op- 
posite to the mouth of the Texel. The 
dutch admiral. Van Tromp, was killed 
near this place in 1653. The fort was 
taken by the English in September, 1799, 
under Sir Ralph Abercromby, and the 
whole Dutch fleet surrendered to them 
for the service of the prince of Orange; 
but the fort was abandoned in the No- 
vember following. 



HEL 



558 



HEN 



HELEN, rape of, by Paris, a.c. 1 198. 

HELENA, ST.,island,Atlantic Ocean, 
between Africa and South America, ce- 
lebrated as the scene of the exile of Na- 
poleon. It was discovered by the Por- 
tuguese in J 501, afterwards possessed by 
the Dutch, and finally came into the 
hands of the British about the year 1651. 
Buonaparte arrived here in November, 
1815, and died here May 5, 1821. Dur- 
ing his residence on this island, in order 
to prevent his escape, a large garrison of 
king's troops, and a considerable squa- 
dron was maintained at the island, which 
the East India Company placed under 
the government of the crown. In 1822 
the whole of the king's troops were re- 
moved, and St. Helena reverted to the 
possession of the East India Company. 
In 1823 Brigadier-general Walker ar- 
rived from England as governor. Under 
his administration many judicious plans 
for the improvement of the settlement 
were persevered in, particularly the abo- 
lition of slavery, previously begun, the 
establishment of schools, &c. St. He- 
lena remained as the property of the 
East India Company until the non-re- 
newal of the Company's commercial 
charter in 1833, when it became one of 
the crown colonies. 

HELIGOLAND, anciently Foste- 
L AND, a group of islands in the NorthSea, 
said to have been formerly of considerable 
e.\tent, the residence of a chief of the 
Sicambri, or north Frieslanders, and the 
seat of worship of the Saxon deity Fo- 
seta ; from which last circumstance it 
derived its name. The chief island was 
taken in 1807 from the Danes by the 
English admiral, Russel, and since the 
peace of Kiel has contmued in the pos- 
session of the British. During the 
general war of Europe magazines of 
goods were formed here in order to be 
smuggled into the continent. The Bri- 
tish ceased to occupy it as a military 
post in 1821. 

HELIODORUS, born at Emessa, in 
Phoenicia, flourished under the emperors 
Theodosius and Arcadius, at the close of 
the 4th century. 

HELIODORUS of Larissa, a Greek 
mathematician, who flourished soon after 
the reign of Tiberius, about a.d. 40, was 
author of a treatise on Optics, of which 
a fragment only was published at Flo- 
rence, in Greek and Latin, in 1573. 

HELIOGABALUS, a Roman em- 
peror, of infamous character, was son 



of Varius Marcellus, «nd called Helioga- 
balus because he had been priest of the 
sun in Phoenicia. He was proclaimed 
emperor May 16, 218, when he was only 
about 15 years of age. He was mur- 
dered by his own soldiers in 222, after a 
reign of three years and three quarters. 

HELIOSCOPE, a telescope which re- 
flects the image of the sun on a plain 
surface, invented 1625. 

HELL-FIRE Clubs suppressed by 
order of council, April 29, 1729. 

HELMONT, J. Baptist Van, phi- 
losopher and chemist, died 1644. 

HELMSTADT, or Jula, Brunswick 
Wolfenbuttle, university of, founded in 
1576. 

HELVETIC Republic, established 
in 1803. 

HELVETIUS, Claud Adrian, a 
celebrated French philosopher, was born 
at Paris in 1715. In 1758 his great 
work, " De TEsprit," made its appear- 
ance ; but it was condemned by the par- 
liament of Paris. To avoid the malice 
of his enemies, Helvetius came over to 
England in 1762, and in the following 
year visited Prussia, where he was re- 
ceived by the king with every mark of 
respect. He died December 1771, aged 
56. 

HELVOETSLUYS, a town in Hol- 
land. William III., of England, sailed 
from this port in 1688. A ship canal, 
completed in 1830, connects this town 
with Rotterdam. 

HEMANS, Mrs., a distinguished mo- 
dern authoress, whose name before her 
marriage was Felicia Dorothea Brown, 
was born at Liverpool. She was married 
at an early age, and after the birth of five 
sons, retired into Wales. In conse- 
quence of ill health she removed to 
Dublin in March 1831, to be nearer to 
her physicians ; but her disorder con- 
tinued, and though not wholly confined 
to her bed, she was scarcely equal to the 
exertion of reading. On the 26th of April, 
1825, she closed her poetical career by 
dictating the " Sabbath Sonnet," which 
will be read and remembered as long as 
her name is loved and cherished. From 
this time she sunk away gently but 
steadily. She died May 16 following. 
After her death was published a volume 
of* Poetical Remains." 

HENAULT, a French historian,' born 
1685, died 1774. 

HENDERSON, John, an eminent 
English actor, died 1785, aged 38. 



HEN 



559 



HEN 



HENGIST, first Saxon monarch of 
Britain, born at Angria, in Westphalia ; 
reigned 34 years, and died in 484. 

HENLEY, John, an itinerant orator, 
died October 14, 1756, 

HENNIS, Peter, M.D., killed in a 
duel, by Sir John Jephcott, at Exeter, 
May 18, 1833. 

HENRY I., king of England, born 
1068, crowned August 5, 1100; married 
Matilda, daughter of Malcolm, king of 
Scots, November 1 1 following. Surfeited 
himself with eating lampreys, at Lyons, 
near Rouen, in Normandy, and died De- 
cember 1, 1135, aged 68. 

HENRY H., king of England, grand- 
son of Henry L, born 1133; married 
Eleanor, heiress of Guienne and Poitou, 
on Whit Sunday, 1152, the divorced 
wife of Louis VH., king of France. Be- 
gan his reign October 24, 1154 ; crown- 
ed at Lincoln, 1158; again at Worces- 
ter, 1159. Died with grief at the altar, 
cursing his sons, July 6, 1183, aged 61, 
and was buried at Eonteverard, in France. 

HENRY IIL, king of England, born 
October 1, 1207, crowned at Gloucester, 
October 28, 1216 ; married Eleanor, 
daughter of the count of Provence, Ja- 
nuary 14, 1236. Died at St. Edmunds- 
bury, November 26, 1272. 

HENRY IV., grandson of Edward 
HL, born 1367; married Mary, the 
daughter of the earl of Herefor^d, who 
died in 1394, before he obtained the 
crown. Crowned October 13, 1399; 
married a second queen, Joan of Na- 
varre, widow of the duke of Bretagne, 
1403. She was crowned with great 
magnificence, January 26 following, and 
died in 1437. He died of an apoplexy, 
in Westminster, March 20, 1413, and 
was buried at Canterbury. 

HENRY V. king of England, was 
born in 1388, crowned at Westminster, 
April 9, 1413. Married Catherine of 
France, on May 30, 1420. She was 
crowned at Westminster Feb. 22, follow- 
ing. Henry died of pleurisy, at Rouen, 
Aug. 31, 1422, aged 34, and was buried 
at Westminster. 

HENRY VL king of England, born 
at Windsor, Dec. 6, 1421, ascended the 
throne Aug. 31, 1422, crowned at West- 
minster, Nov. 6, 1429, crowned at Paris 
Dec. 17, 1430. Married to Margaret, 
daughter of the duke of Anjou, at South- 
wick, Hampshire, April 22, 1445, and 
was crowned at Westminster, May 30 
following. Taken prisoner at St. Al- 



ban's, 1455, but regained his liberty 
1461; and deposed March 5 following, 
by his fourth cousin Edward IV. Henry 
was murdered in the Tower, June 20, 
and buried at Chertsey, aged 49, 1471. 

HENRY VII. king of England, born 
1455, defeated Richard III. in Bosworth- 
field, and was elected king 1485, crowned 
Oct. 30, the same year. Married Eliza- 
beth, daughter of Edward IV. Jan. 18, 
1486, who was crowned Nov. 25, 1487, 
following. Died of a consumption, at 
Richmond, April 22, 1509, aged 54. 
Was buried at Westminster. 

HENRY VIII. king of England, 
born June 28, 1491. Married Catherine, 
Infanta of Spain, widow of his brother 
Arthur, June 3, 1509. Crowned June 
24, following. Divorced queen Cathe- 
rine, and married Anne Boleyn, Nov. 
14, 1532. Anne crowned, June 1, 1533. 
Put Anne, his second queen, to death. 
May 19, and married Jane Seymour, 
May 20, 1536, who died in child-bed, 
Oct. 12, 1537. Married Anne of Cleves, 
Jan. 6. 1540, divorced her, July 10, 
1540. Married Catherine Howard, his 
fifth wife, Aug. 8, following, 'and be- 
headed her on Tower-hill, with Lady 
Rochford,Feb. 12, 1542. Married Cathe- 
rine Parr, his sixth wife, July 12, 1543. 
Died of a fever at Westminster, Jan. 28, 
1547, in the 56th year of his age. Was 
buried at Windsor. 

HENRY III. king of France, mur- 
dered by a monk, Aug. 1, 1589. 

HENRY IV. king of France, killed 
by Ravaillac, May 14, 1610. 

HENRY, Dr. Robert, historian, 
died Nov. 24, 1790, aged 72. 

HENRY, Dr. Charles, one of the 
greatest scientific ornaments of Man- 
chester, and a chemist of the highest re- 
putation. He finished his education in 
the University of Edinburgh, where he 
attended the lectures of the illustrious 
Dr. Black, and was the associate and 
friend of Brougham, Jeffrey, and Mack- 
intosh. Soon after the termination of 
his collegiate education, he delivered, in 
Manchester, several courses of lectures 
on chemistry. The notes of these courses 
ultimately led to the publication, in 1799, 
of a small volume on the science, which 
in successive editions in the early part 
of this century, gradually became a de- 
tailed and excellent treatise on the sub- 
ject. In 1836, he attended the meeting 
of the" Bristol Scientific Association at 
Bristol, where he was appointed one of 



HEP 



560 



HER 



the secretaries for the next year'8 meet- 
ing at Liverpool. He had just returned, 
when under the influence of great ner- 
vous irritability, he shot himself with a 
pistol, Aug. 30, aged 61. 

HENRY, Matthew, an eminent 
non-conformist divine, was the son of 
Mr. Philip Henry, one of the ejected 
ministers, and was bom in 1662, at 
Broad Oak, in Flintshire. He completed 
his education at an academy at Islington, 
under the care of Mr. Doolittle, and 
afterwards entered at Gray's Inn for the 
study of the law. But having deter- 
mined to devote his life to the study of 
divinity, he soon after retired into the 
country, and was chosen pastor of a con- 
gregation at Chester. From thence he 
removed to Hackney, where he laboured 
constantly and with great acceptance. 
He died at Nantwich in 1714, in the 
52d year of his age, and was intered at 
Trinity Church in Chester. His great 
work as an author was his well known 
*' Exposition of the Bible," in five vols. 
folio. He had proceeded only as far as 
the Acts of the Apostles, when death 
arrested his progress, and the remainder 
was afterwards finished by Dr. Evans. 
He was author of many other smaller 
works, of which his Catechisms and 
Method of Prayer are the most popular. 

HENRY Vll.'s chapel, Westminster 
Abbey, began to be built, Jan. 11, 1502 ; 
finished 1504. 

HENRYSOUN, Robert, author of 
" The Testament of Creseide," died in 
the reign of Henry VIII. 

HEPH^STION, the Macedonian ge- 
neral, died A.c. 325. 

HEPTARCHY, the Saxon, in- 
cluded all England, which was cantoned 
out into seven independent petty king- 
doms, peopled and governed by different 
clans and colonies, viz. those of Kent, 
the South Saxons, West Saxons, East 
Saxons, Northumberland, the East An- 
gles, and Mercia. The heptarchy was 
formed by degrees from the year 455, 
when first the kingdom of Kent was 
erected, and Hengist assumed, the title 
of King of Kent immediately after the 
battle of Eglesford ; and it terminated in 
827, when King Egbert re-united them 
into one, made the heptarchy into a 
monarchy, and assumed the title of king 
of England. The government of the 
heptarchy, reckoning from the founding 
of the kingdom of Mercia, the last of the 
seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, lasted 



243 years ; if the time spent by the Sax- 
ons in their conquests from the arrival of 
Hengist in 449 be added, the heptarchy 
will be found to have lasted 378 years 
from its commencement to its dissolu- 
tion. See England. 

HERACLIDiE, the descendants of 
Hercules, were expelled from Pelopon- 
nesus by Euristheus, king of Mycenae, 
after the death of Hercules. After va- 
rious unsuccessful attempts they regained 
possession of their native country, whi- 
ther they returned about a.c. 1 104. This 
event, according to some writers, forms 
the epocha of the beginning of profane 
history. Ephorus, Cumanus, Calisthe- 
nes, and Theopompus, only begin their 
histories from thence. 

HERACLIUS, an eastern emperor, 
and son of Heraclius the governor of 
Africa. He vanquished the tyrant Pho- 
cas in 610. In his expedition against 
the Tigris he fought a battle near the 
site of the ancient Nineveh in 627, and 
gained a complete victory over the Per- 
sians. In 628 he obliged the Persian 
king to put an end to the persecution 
of the christians. He died Feb., 641, 
aged 31. 

HERALD, an officer of arms, anci- 
ently in great repute. The Romans had 
a college of heralds. The office of he- 
ralds was first introduced into England 
about the time of Edward I. Richard 
III. was the first who formed them into 
a college ; and afterwards great privileges 
were granted them by Edward VI., and 
Philip and Mary. Modern heralds have 
lost a good deal of the distinction and 
office of the ancient. The society of 
heralds in England consists of four 
kings at arms, who are called Garter 
King at Arms, Clarencieux, Norroy, and 
Bath ; six heralds, viz., Somerset, Ches- 
ter, Windsor, Richmond, Lancaster, and 
York ; four poursuivants, who may be 
considered as the apprentices of heraldry, 
viz., Rougedragon, Portcullis, Blue- 
mantle, Rouge-croix. 

HERBELOT, Bartholomew De, 
a French writer, born 1625, died 1695. 

HERBERT, Lord Edward, of 
Cherbury, author of the " History of 
Henry VIII.," born 1581, died 1648. 

HERBERT, Rev. George, the poet, 
born 1593, died 1635. 

HERCULANEUM, an ancient city 
of Campania in Italy, supposed to have 
been founded about a.c. 1342. Destroyed 
by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius, a.d. 



HER 



561 



HER 



79. Celebrated for the curious monu- 
ments of antiquity discovered in its ruins. 
It was destroyed in the same eruption 
with that of Pompeii, and which proved 
fatal to the elder Pliny. The situation 
of this subterraneous city was not exactly 
known till 1713, when it was accidentally 
discovered by some labourers, who, in 
digging a well, struck a statue on the 
benches of the theatre. Others were 
afterwards dug out and sent out to 
France. Since then, the excavations 
have been continued at different periods. 
By a letter communicated to the French 
Academy of Inscriptions, and the Aca- 
demy of the Fine Arts, in January, 1829, 
it appears that the most brilliant disco- 
veries were daily making both at Hercu- 
laneum and Pompeii. A magnificent 
mansion was then gradually appearhig 
at Herculaneum, the garden of which, 
surrounded by colonnades, was the 
grandest which had hitherto been found. 

HERDER, Gottfried, author of 
" Ideas of a Philosophic History of Man- 
kind," born in Prussia, 1741, died 1804. 

HEREDITARY Peerage, abolished 
in France, 1832. 

HEREFORD, capital of Herefordshire. 
A bishop's see was founded here about 
680. Offa, king of Mercia, held his 
court here, and having invited Ethelbert, 
king of East Anglia, to his court, mur- 
dered him, and, as an atonement, built a 
church, which is now the cathedral. In 
1055 the city was attacked and burnt 
by the Welsh, but rebuilt and fortified 
by William the Conqueror. In the wars 
between the Empress Maud and King 
Stephen, and, during the subsequent con- 
tests between Henry and his barons, and 
also in the strife between the houses of 
York and Lancaster, this city was fre- 
quently the scene of hostilities, and was 
several times besieged and taken. It 
was also twice besieged and once taken 
during the civil wars between Charles I. 
and his parliament. 

HEREFORD Cathedral, built, 
1107 ; nearly destroyed by the falling of 
the tower, Sept. 10, 1786. 

HERIOT, John, an English writer 
of some eminence, born in 1760, died in 
1833. 

HERITABLE jurisdictions in Scot- 
land abolished in the year 1747 ; valued 
at £164,232 l6s. 

HERMIONE, Spanish ship, taken 
March 21, 1762, which, with the cargo, 
sold for £544,648 clear of expenses. 



HERMIPPUS. of Smyrna, the peri- 
patetic philosopher and grammarian, 
tiourished a.c. 208. 

HERO, of 74 guns, lost off the Texel, 
with the whole crew, Dec. 24, 1811. 

HEROD the Great, king of the 
Jews, born about A.c. 71, succeeded to 
the regal dignity, a.c. 37 ; put his wife, 
Mariamne, to death, and his mother-in- 
law, Alexandria, a.c. 28. His two sons 
were put to death by order of the Jewish 
council, A.c. 6. The birth of Christ 
happened in the 33d year of his reign : 
this was followed by the massacre of the 
children of Bethlehem. He died Nov, 25, 
A.D. 4. 

HEROD, Antipas, created tetrarch 
of Galilee and Perea, 4. 

HEROD, Archelaus, made king of 
Judea, &c. 4. 

HERODIAN, an eminent Greek his- 
torian, who flourished in the third cen- 
tury, in the reign of Severus, Caracalla, 
Heliogabalus, Alexander, and Maximin. 
He wrote the history of Rome, in eight 
books. 

HERODOTUS, the most ancient 
Greek writer whose works are preserved, 
was born in the first year of the 74th 
Olympiad, or about a.c. 484, at Halicar- 
nassus. His history is divided into nine 
books, which, according to the compu- 
tation of Dionysius Halicarnassensis, 
contain tbe most remarkable occur- 
rences within a period of 240 years, 
from the reign of Cyrus, the first king 
of Persia, to that of Xerxes, when the 
historian was living. 

HERRERA, Hernando De, El 
DiviNO, a celebrated Spanish poet, flou- 
rished in the l6th century. 

HERREROS-GARCIA, minister of 
grace and justice in the Spanish govern- 
ment, condemned by the arbitrary will 
of Ferdinand VII. to serve eight years 
in chains in the garrison of Gomere, 
1815. 

HERRINGS, or Herring Fish- 
ery. The Dutch are said to have en- 
gaged in the fishery in 1164. The in- 
vention of pickling, or salting herrings, 
is ascribed to one Beukels, or Beukelson, 
of Biervliet, near Sluys, who died in 
1397. Since this early period the Dutch 
have uniformly maintained their ascend- 
ency in the herring fishery. 

Various attempts have been made in 

England at different periods to encourage 

the herring fi.sheiy. In 1749 £500,000 

was subscribed for carrying on the fish- 

4 c 



HER 



562 



HES 



eries under the corporation called " The 
Society of the Free British Fishery." 
This having failed, a new company was 
formed for nearly the same objects, in 
1786, of which George III. was patron : 
it had nearly the same fate. In 1808 a 
fresh attempt was made for the improve- 
ment and extension of the fishery. The 
act 48 Geo. III., established a distinct set 
of commissioners for the superintendence 
of all matters connected with the fishery. 
In 1820 a bounty of 2s. a barrel was 
allowed on all herrings cured and gutted 
during the six years, ending April 5, 
1825, and a bounty of 2s. 8rf. a barrel 
on their exportation, whether cured gut- 
ted, or ungutted. During the 1 1 years, 
ending April 5, 1826, the bounty on her- 
rings cured gutted was 4s. a barrel. By 
an act passed in 1825, the bounty of 
2s. 8d. on exported herrings was made 
to cease in 1826, and Is. was annually 
deducted from the bounty of 4s. a bar- 
rel paid on gutted herrings, till it ceased 
in 1830. In 1838, the quantity of her- 
rings exported from Great Britain was 
128,931 barrels, at the declared value of 
£135,916. 

HERSCHELL, Sir W., LL.D. F.R.S., 
distinguished for his discoveries in astro- 
nomy, was born in Hanover, in 1738, 
and brought up as a musician. In 1759 
he left his native country and repaired to 
London. He afterwards obtained the 
situation of organist at Halifax, in York- 
shire. In 1766 Herschel removed with 
his brother to Bath, where they were en- 
gaged for the pump-room band, by the 
late Mr. Lindley. A few years after he 
turned his attention to astronomy, and 
in 1774, had the inexpressible pleasure 
of \dewing the stars through a Newto- 
nian reflector of five feet, of his own con- 
struction. In 1781 he discovered a new 
planet, which, in compliment to the king 
of England, he named the Georgium 
Sidus, but which astronomers call, in 
honourof the discoverer, Herschel. This 
discovery was announced to the Royal 
Society, who decreed him their annual 
gold medal, and unanimously elected 
him a fellow. In 1782 he quitted Bath 
with his instruments, and took up his 
residence at Wough, near Windsor, in a 
house provided for him by the king, who 
appointed him his professor of astro- 
nomy, with a pension. His telescope, 
of 40 feet, was completed in 1789, and 
he then rendered an account of it to the 
Royal Society, who soon pubhshed it in 



their transactions. After a long life of 
active pursuit of his favourite discoveries, 
he died at Slough, Sept. 1822, in the 
84th year of his age. 

HERSCHELL, Sir John, son of the 
preceding, proceeded to the Cape of Good 
Hope to make observations on the stars 
of the southern hemisphere, Nov. 18, 
1833. Festival, onFriday, June 15, 1838, 
in honour of Sir John Herschell, and 
in commemoration of his return from 
southern Africa, after having executed 
a minute astronomical survey of the 
southern hemisphere, in accordance with 
the intention, and in furtherance of the 
design of his illustrious father. The 
sum of £1000, placed by the duke of 
Northumberland at the disposal of Sir 
John Herschel, for carrying on the as- 
trcmomical observations at the Cape, not 
being required, was to be appropriated to 
the publication of his work on the subject. 

HERTFORD, chiefly remarkable for 
its castle, founded by Edward the Elder, 
about A.D. 905, but re-built and probably 
enlarged after the Conquest. In the reign 
of Edward III., John, king of France, 
taken prisoner at the battle of Poictiers, 
was an occasional resident in this for- 
tress ; as also David, king of Scotland, 
when a prisoner in England. The lord- 
ship and castle of Hertford belong to the 
crown ; and during the war between 
King John and his barons, the latter 
was taken by the forces of the barons, 
but restored in the reign of Henry III. 

HERULI, a tribe of Goths, began to 
invade the Roman empire in 356, formed 
the kingdom of Italy under Odoacer 
476. See Odoacer. 

HERVEY, James, a divine, and po- 
pular writer in the church of England, 
was born at Hardingstone, in I7l4. Being 
intended for the church, he was sent to 
the university of Oxford, and in 1740 
made curate of Biddeford, in Devonshire. 
In 1734 he became curate to his father, 
who held the living of Weston -Favell, in 
Northamptonshire, and afterwards suc- 
ceeded him. His exertions in this situ- 
ation brought on a decline, of which he 
died in December, 1758, being only 44 
years of age. His most popular works 
are " Meditations among the Tombs," 
and " Reflections in a Flower Garden," 
published in 1746. 

HESIOD, an ancient Greek poet, 
said by some to have been contemporary 
with Homer, but by others his age is 
fi.xed about a.c. 944. 



HEX 



563 



HIL 



HESSE-CASSEL, electorate, Central 
Germany. The Hessians were conquered 
under Augustus by Germanicus, son of 
Drusus. At a later period they belonged 
to the empire of the Franks. The Ger- 
man king, Adolphus of Nassau, made 
Hesse an imperial principality in 1292. 
It was often separated and reunited ; 
and in 1500 William HI. was in pos- 
session of the whole of it,* He died in 
1509, and was succeeded by his son, 
Philip; who died in 1562, and divided 
his dominions among his four sons, two 
of whom died without heirs, and from 
the other two have sprung up the two 
lines of Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darm- 
stadt. In 1806 the elector of Hesse- 
Cassel was driven from his territories by 
Napoleon, and Hesse then formed the 
main part of the kingdom of Westpha- 
lia. He resided in England until 1813, 
when the general pacification of Europe 
again restored him to his dominions. 

HESSE-DARMSTADT, or The 
Grand Duchy of Hesse, was early a 
member of the Confederation of the 
Rhine; and having united with France 
in the revolutionary war, received con- 
siderable accession of territory from 
Buonaparte in 1813. The grand duke 
at first took part with the French against 
the allies ; but after the battle of Leipsic 
joined the allies, on condition of being 
allowed to retain his possessions. This 
was agreed to, and the treaty subse- 
quently confirmed by the congress of 
Vienna in 1815, when some territory on 
the left bank of the Rhine was exchanged 
with him for a portion on the right, ren- 
dering Hesse-Darmstadt more compact, 
and adding also to its extent and popu- 
lation. 

HESSE-HOMBURG, landgraviate. 
Central Germany, by a singular com- 
pact became a fief of Edward I., of Eng- 
land, in 1294. The eldest son of the 
landgravine espoused, in 1818, the prin- 
cess Elizabeth, daughter of George III. 
of England. 

HEWSON, William, an eminent 
anatomist, born 1739, died 1774. 

HEXHAM, Northumberland, was 
formerly a place of importance, and the 
see of a bishop, founded in 674, but 
subsequently removed to Durham. Near 
this town, in 1463, was fought the san- 
guinary battle of Hexham, in which 
Lord Montacute, brother of the earlj^of 
Warwick, at the head of an army of 
Yorkists, utterly defeated the Lancas- 



terians. In 1761 Hexham was much 
disturbed by a combination amongst the 
miners. 

HEY, Dr. John, author of "Theolo- 
gical Lectures," died March 17, 1815. 

HEYWOOD, John, a dramatic poet, 
died 1572. 

HIBERNIA, Captain Brend, from 
Liverpool to New South Wales, with 
232 persons on board, of whom 208 were 
passengers going out as settlers, de- 
stroyed at sea by fire, kindled through 
the negligence of the second mate, in 
west longitude 20" and south latitude 
4° ; 150 lives lost, February 5, 1833. 

HICKS'S Hall, formerly at the 
bottom of St. John's-street, near Smith- 
field, London, built 1612, pulled down 
1782. 

HIERONYMUS of Rhodes, the peri- 
patetic philosopher, flourished a.c. 255. 

HIGGINS, Godfrey, author of Cel- 
tic Druids, born 1771, died 1833. 

HIGGONS, Bevil, an English dra- 
matic poet and historian, died 1755. 

HIGHGATE Archvvtay, first stone 
of, laid October 31, 1812; completed 
1813; opened August 20, 1813. 

HIGHLANDS, northern district of 
Scotland, were peopled first about a.c. 
200, by the Cimbri from the Cimbric 
Chersonesus, who subsequently gave 
way to the Caledonians, or Picts, from 
Norway; and these, according to the 
Romans, to the Attacotti, who, in the 
middle of the 3d century, passed from 
Ireland into Argyll, drove the former 
southward, and became the germ of the 
Highlanders, as the preceding tribes had 
already become of the Lowlanders. The 
Highlanders were a pastoral people until 
845, when Kenneth II. conquered the 
Picts, and the country became the scene 
of rapine and bloodshed, which led to 
the corruption of their peaceful charac- 
ter, and for several centuries they were 
engaged in warfare. The Highlanders, 
from the rough, inaccessible nature of 
their country, had but little intercourse 
with their neighbours until 1762, when, 
by a commission of George I., General 
Wade constructed 250 miles of road 
through the country, in various direc- 
tions, which has tended greatly to its 
improvement. See Scotland. 

HIGHLAND SOCIETY for Agri- 
culture, instituted February 1785. 

HILDESHAM, a principality, king- 
dom of Hanover, was for a long time an 
independent ecclesiastical state. Louis 



HIM 



564 



HIN 



le Debonnalre founded the bishopric in 
822. It was in 1520 placed under a ban 
of the empire, and seized by the dukes 
of Hanover and Brunswick, and not re- 
stored until 1643. The bishopric was 
from that time under the protection of 
Hanover, until 1802, when it was seized 
by Russia. In 1807 it was annexed to 
the kingdom of Westphaha, and in 1814 
added to the kingdom of Hanover. 

HILL, Aaron, EngUsh poet, born 
1685, died Feb. 8, 1750. 

HILL, Rev. Rowland, M.A., the 
celebrated minister of Surrey chapel, 
Blackfriars-road, was born Aug. 12, 
1744; educated at Eton-college and at 
St. John's-college, Cambridge, where he 
graduated B.A. 1769, as seventh junior 
optime; M.A. 1771. Before he was of age 
to take orders, he occasionally preached 
at the Tabernacle, and at the Tottenham- 
court-road chapel, which threw some 
impediment in the way of his receiving 
ordination. The bishop of Bath and 
Wells (Dr. Wills) was at length induced 
to admit him to deacon's orders, which 
was the highest step he was permitted to 
attain in the hierarchy. In 1783 Mr. 
Hill laid the first stone of Surrey chapel, 
which was opened in 1784, and where he 
frequently preached. He died April 11, 
1833,aged88. Hismost popular work was 
entitled, " Village Dialogues," in 2 vols. 
12mo in 1801. It possesses great ori- 
ginality, and sound and beautiful mo- 
rality. 

''The independent and ambiguous ec- 
clesiastical position which Mr. Hill assum- 
ed, as theoretically a churchman and prac- 
tically a dissenter — a dissenter within the 
church, a churchman among dissenters 
— necessarily involved him, especially 
in the earlier part of his career, in conti- 
nual polemic skirmishing. As a preacher, 
Mr. Hill was extremely unequal, as well 
as systematically unmethodical ; gene- 
rally rambling, but pithy, often throwing 
out the most striking remarks, and some- 
times interspersing touches of genuine 
pathos amid much that bordered upon 
the ludicrous. In the devotional part of 
the service, he was uniformly chaste, 
solemn, and fervent." 

HILL, Sir John, the botanist, died 
Nov. 22, 1775. 

HIMALAY, or Himalaya Moun- 
tains, Hindoostan. The great chain ex- 
tends in a direction from north-west to 
south-east for about 2000 British miles. 
Its continuation to the west, called in 



modern times the Hindoo Coosh or In- 
dian mountains, by De Humboldt con 
sidered as the prolongation of the Kuen 
lun,was theEmodus of the Macedonians 
and the Imaus of Pliny. The Himaleh 
mountains have been visited during the 
present century, successively within a 
few years by captains Webb, Gerard, 
Johnson, and Burnes, Baron Hiigel, Mr. 
Royle, and 'others. Twenty thousand 
feet have been barometrically measured 
and trigonometrically confirmed, llie 
highest points are estimated at 28 ,000 feet. 
Much information has been received re- 
specting their geology, botany, natural 
history, &c. A severe earthquake, arising 
on the north of the great Himaleh range, 
was experienced throughout the greater 
part of Western India on Aug. 26, 1833 : 
the vibration was from north-east to 
south-west. AtKatmandu 19personswere 
buried under the ruins of their houses. 

HINCHINBROOK Priory, Hunt- 
ingdonshire, built 1074. 

HINDOOSTAN (Hindust'han), a re- 
gion of Asia, comprehended between lat. 
8'= and 35'^ N.,and long. 68" and 92" E. 
Ancient India included the stupendous 
mountains of Thibet, the valley of Cash- 
mere, the domains of the Indo-Scythians, 
the countries of Nepaul, Bootan, Cam- 
roop, Assam, Siam, Ava, Arracan, the 
kingdoms as far as China of the Hindoos, 
and the Sin of the Arabian geographers, 
the whole west peninsula, and the island 
of Ceylon. The modern term includes 
most of those countries. See India. 

Mohammed, of Ghizni, estabhshed 
the Mohammedan power in Hindoostan, 
in the 11th century. The Mogul fixed 
his residence at Delhi in 1525; the coun- 
try was almost wholly conquered by his 
descendant, Aunmgzebe, in 1707; over- 
run by Nadir-Shah in 1738 ; and the 
south infested by the Mahrattas. But, 
since the middle of the last century, the 
dominion of the British has been ex- 
tended over the greater part of that 
country. The acquisition of territory by 
the British may be ascribed to the fate 
of nations : many people, and tribes, and 
principalities, differing in religion, man- 
ners, and language, allhough agreeing in 
the absence of civihzation, were succes- 
sively making destructive inroads upon 
each other's possessions. The hard mea- 
sure of justice dealt out by the new set- 
tlers to the native Hindoos, prepared 
them for the reception of any new in- 
vader, and, obtaining from a British 



HOA 



565 



HOG 



government that protection they sought 
for in vain from previous intruders, they 
have gradually submitted their differ- 
ences to British arbitration, and placed 
themselves, in some instances, wholly 
under British control. The government 
of the British possessions is partly ad- 
ministered by the East India Company, 
a body that originated in an association 
of wealthy persons for commercial pur- 
poses solely, in the year 1600. See East 
India Company. 

HIPPARCHUS, an ancient astrono- 
mer, was born at Nice, in Bithynia, and 
flourished between the 154th and I63d 
Olympiads. He was the first person 
who attempted to count the number of 
the fixed stars ; and his catalogue is still 
preserved in Ptolemy's " Almagest," 
where they are set down with their lon- 
gitudes and apparent magnitudes. He is 
thought to have died about a.c. 125, and 
statues were erected to his memory. 

HIPPOCRATES, the most eminent 
physician of antiquity, usually called the 
Father of Medicine, was born in the is- 
land of Cos, A.c. 458. After a long hfe 
spent in the successful practice of this 
art, and in forming disciples worthy to 
supply his place, Hippocrates died at 
Larissa, in Thessaly, at the age of 85, or, 
as others affirm, of*104 years. 

HIPPODROME. The, at Notting- 
hill, opened June 3, 1837, when the first 
race meeting took place, 30,000 re- 
spectable persons attending. 

HIRAM, of Tyre, died a.c. 900. 

HISPANIOLA. See Hayti. 

HOADLEY, Benjamin, an eminent 
prelate of the church of England, was 
born at Westerham, in Kent, in 1676, 
and in 1691, was entered a pensioner of 
Catharine Hall, Cambridge. Here he 
took his degrees, and became a tutor in 
the college. As a divine, he was first 
settled as lecturer of St. Mildred, in the 
Poultry, London, where he continued 10 
years. In 1703 he published "The Rea- 
sonableness of Conformity to the Church 
of England," &c., which was the occa- 
sion of a controversy between Mr. Hoad- 
ley and Mr. Calamy. Soon after the 
accession of King George I., Mr.Hoadley 
was created doctor of divinity, and conse- 
crated to the see of Bangor. In 1721 he 
was translated to Hereford, and from 
thence, in 1723, to Salisbury. After 
continuing in this see 11 years, he was 
promoted to Winchester; and shortly 
after pubhshed a very useful treatise. 



entitled " A Plain Account of the Na- 
ture and End of the Sacrament of the 
Lord's Supper," &c. Dr. Hoadley at- 
tained to the advanced age of 85, when 
he died in l76l at his palace at Chelsea. 

HOARE, Prince, secretary to [the 
Royal Academy, F.S.A. and M.R.S.L., 
was born at Bath, in 1755. He directed 
his attention to dramatic composition, 
and with such success, especially in small 
after-pieces, that many of his productions 
still retain their popularity. He was the 
author of the popular comic ojjera, " No 
Song, no Supper ;" " The Prize ;" "My 
Grandmother ;" " Lock and Key," a mu- 
sical farce ; " Sighs, or the Daughter," 
from Kotzebue ; " Indiscretion," a co- 
medy, &c. He died at Brighton, Dec. 22, 
1834, aged 80. 

HOBBES, Thomas, a celebrated En- 
glish writer, who was born at Malmes- 
bury, in Wiltshire, in 1588. He was 
taken into the service and protection of 
the earl of Devonshire, which continued 
with little interruption as long as he 
lived, and which gave him an opportu- 
nity of pursuing his studies, and of form- 
ing connections with persons of the first 
reputation for learning and science, both 
at home and abroad. He died at the 
house of his patron, in 1679. His reli- 
gious and political sentiments are chiefly 
contained in his book " De Cive," pub- 
lished in 1647, and his " Leviathan," 
1651. 

HOBHOUSE, Sir Benjamin. In 
1802 he was returned for Grampound ; 
came into office in 1803, as secretary to 
the Board of Control, during the ministry 
of Mr. Addington ; he resigned that post 
in May, 1804, and in 1805 was made 
chairman of the committees for supplies. 
In 1807 he was appointed first commis- 
sioner for investigating the debts of the 
Nabobs of Carnatic. He was created a 
baronet by patent, dated Dec. 22, 1812. 
He died, Aug: 14, 183], aged 74. 

HOFER, Andreus, the brave Ty- 
rolese patriot, shot for his gallant resist- 
ance to the French, Feb. 20, 1810. 

HOGARTH, William, a celebrated 
painter and engraver. He was born in 
1698, in the parish of St. Martin, Lud- 
gate. In 1730 he began his "Harlot's 
Progress." In 1733 his genius became 
conspicuously known; the third scene 
of his Harlot's Progress introduced him 
to the notice of the great, and Hogarth 
rose completely into fame. In 1745, 
appeared six prints of " Marriage i la 



HOL 



566 



HOL 



Mode." In 1753 he published a quarto 
volume, entitled " The Analysis of 
Beauty." He died at his house in Lei- 
cester Fields, Oct. 26, 1764, aged 67. 

HOGG, James, "TheEttrick Shep- 
herd," died Nov. 21, 1835, aged 59- 

HOGUE, orHouGUE,LA,tovvn, Nor- 
mandy. A sea fight took place off this 
place, between the French and English 
fleet, in May, 1692, in which the latter 
were completely victorious. 

HOHENLOHE, district, kingdom of 
Wirtemberg. The princes of Hohenlohe 
are descended from Eberhard, duke of 
the Franks, and brother to the German 
king, Conrad L, who died in 918 ; but at 
present they have no political power, and 
no seat in the Germanic diet. 

HOLBEIN, Hans, a celebrated pain- 
ter, was born at Basil, in Switzerland, in 
1498. After spending some years at his 
native city, he visited London at the re- 
quest of Erasmus, who recommended 
him to Sir Thomas More ; he imme- 
diately employed him, and introduced 
him to Henry VHL, and the king took 
him under his patronage. He died at 
Whitehall, in 1554. He had this singu- 
larity, that he painted with his left hand. 
HOLBORN, first paved 1417. Hol- 
born bars first set up in the city of Lon- 
don 1346. 

HOLCROI-T, Thomas, born Dec. 
22, 1744, died March 23, 1809; having, 
without education, arrived at considera- 
ble eminence as a dramatic writer and 
novelist. 

HOLDSWORTH, Edward, English 
poet and critic, born 1688, died 1747. 

HOLIDAY, Barten, English poet 
and philosophic author, died 1661. 

HOLINSHED, the historian, died 
1580. 

HOLLAND, kingdom, Europe. A 
part of this territory was occupied by the 
Battse, a barbarous tribe, about a.c. 100. 
It was conquered and incorporated with 
the Roman empire, and in the ninth 
century became part of the great Ger- 
man empire. In the 15th century the 
Netherlands, (Holland and Belgium), 
were held by the duke of Burgundy, 
from whom the sovereignty passed to the 
Spanish branch of the house of Austria. 
Phillip II. of Spain, who received these 
provinces from his father, Charles V., by 
attempting to stifle the Protestant reli- 
gion, kindled a rebellion in the Nether- 
lands, which terminated in the indepen- 
dence of Holland, in the year 1 609. This 



country was ne.xt organised as a repub- 
lic, under the name of the " Seven 
United Provinces." 

During the French revolutionary wars. 
Napoleon elevated this little maritime 
territory to the dignity of a kingdom, 
over which he placed his brother Louis, 
in 1806. This form of government lasted 
until 1810, when Louis abdicated, and 
Holland lapsed again to the French em- 
pire. Upon the fall of Napoleon, and 
general restoration of peace to Europe, 
Holland and Belgium were formed into 
the kingdom of the Netherlands, under 
the prince of Orange, by the title of 
William I. ; and so continued until 1830, 
when the Belgians disengaged them- 
selves from the yoke of Holland, which 
they had always borne with uneasiness. 
See Belgium. 

1840. The solemn abdication of the 
king of Holland and transfer of the throne 
to his son the prince of Orange, took 
place, by proclamation, dated Oct. 7- The 
new king received the oaths of allegiance 
of the civil and military authorities on. 
the 8th. 

HOLLAND, New. This name was 
formerly applied to a large island, or 
continent, in the South Pacific Ocean, 
discovered by the Dutch in 1605. Since 
its occupancy, colonization, and inland 
investigation by the English, the name. 
New Holland, has been by some geogra- 
phers limited in its application to the 
western portion only of the island ; the 
eastern part is called New South Wales. 
The British colonies which have been 
established in Australia are daily rising 
in importance. They consist chiefly of 
three principal stations. Besides the 
old colony of New South Wales on the 
east, there are the more modern settle- 
ments at Swan River and King George's 
Sound on the west, and the very recent 
establishment of South Australia on the 
south. Besides these, the neighbouring' 
island of Van Diemen's Land may be 
considered as intimately connected with 
Australia. See Australia, South ;. 
Wales, New South; Swan River; 
and Van Diemen's Land. 

HOLLAND, Lord, only son of the 
second Lord Holland, the elder brother 
of Charles James Fox, was born in No- 
vember 1773. He married, in 1797, 
Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of Rich- 
ard Vassal, Esq. He was a privy coun- 
cillor, and chancellor of the duchy of 
Lancaster during the administration of 



HOL 



Earl Grey, from December 1830 to July 
1834, and subsequently in Lord Mel- 
bourne's administration of July 1834 and 
April 1835. In addition, his lordship was 
commissioner for the duchy of Cornwall, 
a commissioner for building churches, 
recorder of Nottingham, and a fellow of 
the Royal Society and Society of Arts. 
He died October 21, 1840, in his 67th 
year. His first speech in the house of 
lords was delivered January 9, 1798, in 
the debate on the Assessed Taxes Bill. 
From the year 1807, down to a few years 
back, when bodily infirmities pressed 
heavily on him, he took a most active 
part in the proceedings of the house of 
lords. There was hardly a question on 
which he did not deliver his sentiments ; 
and his speeches bore evidence of exten- 
sive reading and profound thinking, 
while they were enlivened with flashes 
of wit, which, like that of Charles Fox, 
was perfectly free from ill-nature. His 
efforts in the cause of religious liberty 
were not confined to the house of lords ; 
and it is well known that the Emancipa- 
tion Act was not a little promoted by the 
exertions of his lord-ship at difierent 
meetings. His funeral took place Oct. 28, 
1840, and was attended by every possible 
demonstration of respect to his memory. 

HOLLIS, Mr.Thomas, the editor of 
Algernon Sydney's " Discourses on Go- 
vernment," and the writings of other 
immortal British patriots, born 1720, 
died 1774. 

HOLLOWAY, Thomas, an histori- 
cal engraver, was born in London, in 
1748. He was little known until he 
executed the plates in the English trans- 
lation of Lavater's Physiognomy. Be- 
sides these, he executed many for the 
splendid publications of Boydell, Mack- 
lin, and Bowyer. But those which have 
immortalized his name, are his engrav- 
ings from the cartoons of Raphael, the 
labour of about 30 years of unremitted 
application. He died March 28, 1827- 

HOLM-CULTRUM Abbey, Cum- 
berland, built by David, king of the 
Scots, 1150. 

HOLMES, Dr. Robert, dean of 
Winchester, editor of the Pentateuch, 
born 1749, died November 12, 1805. 

HOLSTEIN, duchy, Denmark. Char- 
lemagne conquered the Saxons who in- 
habited this country, and transported 
more than 10,000 families from hence 
across the Rhine into Flanders, Brabant, 
and Holland. The emperor Lothaire 



567 HOL 

erected Holstein and Storman into a 
county. In 1773 Holstein was ceded by 
the grand prince, afterwards emperor 
Paul 1. of Russia, to the king of Den- 
mark, when the constitution of the Ger- 
man empire was abolished. The king 
of Denmark, in 1806, united the whole 
duchy with Denmark, and took away its 
existing constitution. In 1813 this coun- 
try was the seat of war, and occupied by 
the combined Swedish and Russian ar- 
mies. 

HOLT, Lord Chief Justice, died 
March 6, 1710, aged 67- 

HOLT, mineral springs first discover- 
ed 1728. 

HOLY Alliance, convention so 
called between the emperor of Russia, 
the emperor of Austria, and the king of 
Prussia, by which they professed them- 
selves to be bound to govern by Chris- 
tian principles and the precepts of the 
Gospel in their political transactions 
with others, signed at Paris, September 
26, 1815. The king of the Netherlands 
agreed to the convention, June 21, 1816. 
Great Britain refused to join in this con- 
vention. The real object was to suppress 
all liberal and enlightened principles 
throughout Europe, as appears from 
their circular issued from Troppau, De- 
cember 8, 1820. 

HOLY-CROSS Abbey, Tipperary, 
Ireland, built 1169- 

HOLY Ghost, order of knighthood, 
begun in France, 1468 ; restored Jan. 1, 
1559; abolished 1791; at Rome, 1798. 

HOLY Island, Durham. On the 
conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to 
Christianity by St. Aidan, a native of 
Scotland, this island was given to him 
by Oswald, king of Northumberland, in 
635, when he founded the bishopric of 
Lindisfarne. The cathedral was after- 
wards demolished, and the see united 
with Durham. On the establishment of 
the monastery at Durham, in 1082, the 
episcopal church was made a part of the 
endowment, and thus became a cell to 
the Benedictine priory of Durham. 

HOLYHEAD, town, Anglesea, North 
Wales. St. Gybi founded a monastery 
here in 380. In 1821 George IV. em- 
barked from this place for Ireland, and a 
triumphal colonnade on the pier com- 
memorates the event. This has long 
been the station for the transmission and 
receipt of the mails between Dublin and 
London, and has an asylum harbour 
formed by a pier 900 feet in length, run- 



HOM 



368 



HOO 



ning in a direction from west to east. 
The land extremity of the pier is con- 
nected to the main land by a cast-iron 
bridge across Salt Island Sound, and the 
New Road is continued thence to the 
Menai Bridge. 

1832. The ninth report of the commis- 
sioners for the improvement of the road 
from London to Holyhead states that 
the condition of the roads throughout 
was good. The beautiful suspension- 
bridge over the Menai is, in all respects, 
in a perfect state, and that experience 
has proved it to answer the purpose for 
which it was intended. 

HOLY War. See Crusades. 

HOLY Water, used in churches, 120. 

HOLYOAKE, Francis, lexicogra- 
pher, died in 1653. 

HOLYROOD House, Edinburgh, 
built 1128; repaired 1753. 

HOMBERG, William, an eminent 
physician and chemist, was born in Ba- 
tavia, in the East Indies, in 1652. Prose- 
cuted his studies at Jena, and afterwards 
at Leipsic; was received into the academy 
of sciences in 1691, died in 1714. 

HOME, or Hume, village and parish, 
Berwickshire, Scotland. Its castle stands 
on an eminence 900 feet above the sea ; 
it surrendered to the duke of Somerset 
in 1547 ; in 1549, the Scots entered by 
stratagem, and put the garrison to the 
sword. During the siege of Roxburgh, 
the queen consort resided in this castle, 
and, accidentally meeting with the bearer 
of the tidings that James II. was killed, 
was prematurely delivered of a child on 
a neighbouring hill, still called the 
Queen's Cairn. 

HOME, Henry. See Kaimes. 

HOME, John, author of the tragedy 
of "Douglas," &c., died Sept. 1808. 

HOME, Sir Everard, professor of 
anatomy and surgery to the Royal Col- 
lege of Surgeons, born in 1756. He 
studied under the celebrated John Hun- 
ter, who was his brother-in-law ; and 
practised with great success in the me- 
tropolis, for more than forty years. He 
died Aug. 31, 1832, aged 76. 

HOMER, the father of Greek poets, 
according to Dr. Blair, flourished about 
A. c. 900; according to the Arunde- 
lian marbles, 300. years after the taking 
of Troy, or about 884. Seven cities dis- 
puted the glory of having given him 
birth : Smyrna, Rhodes, Colophon, Sa- 
lamis, Chios, Argos, and Athens. But 
the opinion of antiquity seems generally 



to lean towards either Chios or Smyrna. 
The only incontestable works which 
Homer has left behind him are the Iliad 
and Odyssey. The " Batrachomyoma- 
chia, or Battle of the Frogs and Mice," 
has been disputed. Didymus was the 
first who wrote notes on Homer; and 
Eustathius, archbishop of Thessalonica, 
in the 12th century, is the most cele- 
brated of his commentators. 

HOMILIES of the Established Church 
of England are contained in two books ; 
the former of which was published in 
the reign of Edward VI., and the latter 
in the beginning of the reign of Queen 
Elizabeth. They were composed by the 
great reformers Cranmer, Ridley, Lati- 
mer, and Jewel. 

HONDURAS, British settlement in 
North America, on the peninsula, ex- 
tending from the west side of the bay of 
Honduras to the sea. The Honduras 
coast was discovered by Columbus on 
August 14, 1502, and was occasionally 
resorted to by mahoganyand other wood- 
cutters. The first regular establishment 
of British log-wood cutters was made at 
Cape Cartoche by some Jamaica adven- 
turers. This right was often contended 
by the Spaniards ; at length, by the 
treaty of peace in 1763, they were com- 
pelled to give a formal permission of oc- 
cupancy to the British colonists ; and 
Honduras thus became a territorial de- 
pendency of the British crown. 

HONITON, in Devonshire, nearly 
destroyed by a fire, July 19, 1747; 140 
houses burnt, 1765; 37 houses destroyed. 
May, ] 790 ; 47 houses burnt in August, 
1797, valued at £10,000. 

HONITON Bridge carried away by 
a flood, Nov. 10, 1807. 

HOOD, Robin, and Little John, 
noted highwaymen, flourished in 1189. 

HOOD, Viscount Admiral, born 
1724, died 1816. 

HOOD'S Isle, one of the Gallapagos 
in the Pacific Ocean, explored June, 1793. 

HOOGEVEEN, the Dutch philolo- 
gist, born 1712, died 1794. 

HOOGHLY,town, Bengal, above Cal- 
cutta, on the river Hooghly. The Dutch 
in 1625, and the British in 1640, were 
permitted to build factories at this place. 
In 1686 the British were involved in 
hostilities with the Moguls by the im- 
prudence of their soldiers. On the con- 
clusion of peace in the following year, 
the nabob wished the English to return 
to Hooghly, but they preferred estab- 



HOP 



569 



H OR 



lishing themselves at Calcutta. Hooghly 
was afterwards taken in Jan, 1757, by 
the British, but shortly after retaken by 
the nabob Seraje-ab-Dowleh; in the June 
following it was again seized by the 
British. They, however, permitted the 
nabob, until 1765, to nominate the fouj- 
dars of Hooghly, but they then trans- 
ferred the collection of the port duties to 
Calcutta, since which time the town has 
much declined. A dreadful hurricane on 
the river Hooghly, May 21, 1833. The 
whole country, so far as could be disco- 
vered, both up and down the river on 
both banks, was strewed with corpses. 

HOOKE, Robert, inventor of the 
scapement for watches, born 1635, died 
1702. 

HOOKE, Nathaniel, author of the 
" History of Rome," died 1764. 

HOOKER, Rev. Richard, author 
of " Ecclesiastical Polity," born about 
1553, died 1600. 

HOOLE, C, EngUsh divine, died 
1666. 

HOOLE, John, the translator of 
"Tasso," died August 2, 1803. 

HOOPER, John, bishop of Glouces- 
ter, and martyr in the protestant cause, 
was born in Somersetshire, in 1495, and 
educated at Merton College, Oxford. In 
1518 he took the degree of bachelor of 
arts, and afterwards became a Cistercian 
monk. On the accession of Edward VI. 
he was made bishop of Gloucester, to 
which was added the bishopric of Wor- 
cester in commendam. On the acces- 
sion of Queen Mary he was imprisoned, 
tried, and, not choosing to recant, con- 
demned to the flames. He suffered this 
terrible death with unexampled Christian 
fortitude at Gloucester, Feb. 9, 1554, 
being then nearly 60 years of age. 

HOPE, Thomas, one of the Hopes 
of Amsterdam, whose names were pro- 
verbial for wealth, author of " Anasta- 
sius," and "Household Furniture and 
Decorations," which last work effected a 
complete revolution in the upholstery and 
interior decoration of houses, died 1831. 

HOPKINS, Bishop of Londonderry, 
bom 1633, died 1690. 

HOPPNER, John, an English por- 
trait painter, born 1759, died 1810. 

HOPS introduced into this country 
from Flanders in the reign of Henry 
VIII., first mentioned in the statute 
book in 1552, in an act 5 and 6 Edward 
VI. c. 5, and at that time extensively 
cultivated in England. The duty on 



hops of the growth of Great Britain pro- 
duced in 1832, £241,771. The number 
of acres occupied by hop plantations in 
that year were 47,101. During the same 
year there were 703,153 lbs. of British 
hops exported; of foreign hops 11,1 67 lbs. 
were imported, and 50,113 lbs. exported. 
The quantity of hops charged with duties 
of excise in England, during the year 
ending Jan. 5, 1839, was 35,801,224 lbs., 
duty £298,343. 

HORACE, QuiNTUs Flaccus Hora- 
Tius, the most celebrated of Latin lyric 
poets, was the son of a freedman, and 
born at Venusium, a.c. 64. Completed 
his education at Athens. At the battle 
of Philippi, his property was lost, but 
he escaped with his life. His talents 
soon made him known to Augustus and 
Mecaenas ; he also contracted a friend- 
ship with Agrippa, Pollio, Virgil, and all 
the other great men of his time. He 
died at the age of 57- There are still 
extant his Odes, Epistles, Satires, and 
Art of Poetry; of which there have been 
many editions. The best are those of the 
Louvre, in 1642, folio; of Paris, 1691, 
quarto; of Cambridge, 1699; and that 
with Bentley's emendations, printed at 
Cambridge in 1711- 

HORATIO, brig, blew up at St. 
Helena, when all hands perished except 
the captain, who was ashore; September, 
1825. 

HORNE, George, an eminent En- 
glish prelate, was born at Oatham, near 
Maidstone, in Kent, in 1730. He went 
to Oxford in his 15th year. In 1749 he 
took his degree of bachelor of arts, and 
next year was elected to a fellowship in 
Magdalen College. He obtained the 
degree of master of arts in 1752. In 
1753 Mr. Home entered into holy orders, 
and acquired high reputation as a public 
speaker. In 1764 he was created doctor 
of divinity. In 1768 he was elected 
president of Magdalen College, and in 
1771 he was appointed chaplain in ordi- 
nary to his majesty. In 1776 he was 
chosen vice-chancellor of the university, 
which he held till the latter end of the 
year 1780. In 1779 Dr. Home pub- 
lished " Discourses on various Subjects 
and Occasions," in two volumes octavo. 
In 1781 he obtained the deanery of Can- 
terbury, and in 1790 was advanced to the 
episcopal see, by being nominated to the 
bishopric of Norwich, soon after which he 
resigned his presidentship of Magdalen 
College. He died at Bath January 17, 
4d 



HOS 



570 



HOU 



] 792, of a stroke of the palsjs aged 62. 
His works are numerous. His principal 
production was a " Commentary on the 
Book of Psalms,&c.," which made its ap- 
pearance in 1776, in two volumes, quarto. 

HORNE TooKE, John, author of 
*' Epea Pteroenta, or Diversions of Pur- 
ley," born 1736; tried for high treason 
and acquitted 1794; died 1827. 

HORNERS' Company, London, in- 
corporated 1638. 

HORRIE, Captain David, R.N., 
who was instrumental in suppressing 
the mutiny at the Nore in 1797, while 
on board the flag-ship Sandwich, died 
at Peterhead, Sept. 30, 1840. 

HORSA, the Saxon general, slain by 
Vortimer in 455. 

HORSE-GUARDS instituted 1553; 
house built 1758. 

HORSE-SHOES introduced into 
general use in England in the 9th cen- 
tury; first made of iron 481. 

HORSE-TAX levied 1784; increased 
1796 and 1805. 

HORSLEY, Dr. Samuel, bishop of 
St. Asaph and a theologian, born 1737, 
died 1803. 

HORTICULTURAL Society, Lon- 
don, incorporated April 17, 1808. 

HOSPITALS, buildings erected for 
the reception and relief of the poor, sick, 
&c., usually endowed or supported by 
voluntary contributions. In the early 
ages of the church, it was decreed that 
at least one-fourth should be appro- 
priated to the relief of the poor ; and to 
provide for them, houses of charity were 
built, which are since denominated hos- 
pitals. They were governed wholly by 
the priests and deacons, under the in- 
spection of the bishop. By statute 39 
Eliz. cap. 5, " Any person seized of an 
estate in fee, may, by deed enrolled in 
chancery, erect and found an hospital 
for the relief of the poor to continue for 
ever, and may nominate such heads and 
governors therein as he shall think fit ; 
and this charitable foundation shall be 
incorporated, and subject to the inspec- 
tion and guidance of the heads and visi- 
tors nominated by the founder." 

The principal hospitals in England are 
those in the metropolis and its vicinity. 
Of these the most conspicuous are the 
following: — for the army and navy, those 
of Greenwich and Chelsea, (see Green- 
wich and Chelsea): for the sick, those 
of Guy, Southwark, 1721 ; St. Thomas, 
Southwark, 1553 ; St. Bartholomew, 



West Smithfield, 1102; and the London, 
Whitechapel-road, founded 1740: for 
the education of youth, Christ's hospital, 
1552, (see Christ's Hospilal); Bride- 
well hospital, 1558, &c.: for insane per- 
sons, those of Bethlehem, Lambeth, 
1 546 ; and St. Luke's, Old-street-road, 
1732 : and for lying-in- women, those 
of the Queen's, Manor-house, Lisson- 
grove, 1752 ; the British, Brownlow- 
street. Long Acre, 1749; and Westmin- 
ster, Queen-square, 1801. 

Irish Hospitals : Smith's school, 
incorporated 1669; Blue coat school, 
1670 ; Royal, near Kilmainham, ditto, 
1683 ; Dublin workhouse established 
1728; Charitable infirmary opened 1728; 
Stephen's hospital incorporated 1730; 
St. Patrick's founded 1745, incorporated 
1746; Lying-in-hospital established 1745, 
incorporated 1757; Mercers' incorpo- 
rated 175O; St. Nicholas's opened 1753; 
Lock instituted, 1755 ; Charitable loan, 
ditto, 1757; Venereal opened 1758; Dub- 
lin hospital, ditto, 1762. 

HOSPITALLERS, order of knight- 
hood, began 1097. 

HOTSPUR, Henry Percy, killed 
July 22, 1403. 

HOTSPUR, British ship, attacked a 
number of French vessels near Cher- 
bourg, sunk one brig, drove two on 
shore, and battered a small village to the 
ground, Sept. 8, 1811. 

HOUGHTON Gallery of paintings, 
sold to the empress of Russia, 1779. 

HOUGHTON, Edward, of Dublin, 
one of the founders and munificent bene- 
factors of the Royal Hibernian Academy, 
died 1833. 

HOUNSLOW, town of Middlesex, 
anciently called Hundeslawe and Hun- 
deslowe. In 1650 it comprised only 
120 houses, chiefly inns and ale-houses 
for the accommodation of travellers. It 
was the scene of a tournament, held 
during the reign of King John ; and in 
the first year of Henry III. a conference 
took place at Hounslow, between the 
partisans of that prince and those of 
the French Dauphin, who had invaded 
England, On Hounslow Heath both 
the royal and parliamentary armies were 
encamped at different periods during 
the civil war. It was formerly noted 
for highway robberies, but almost every 
part capable of cultivation has been 
enclosed. 

HOUSE OF Parliament. See 
Parliament House. 



HOW 



571 



HUB 



HOUSE Tax commenced 1778; in- 
creased 1808; abolished 1834. 

HOUSTON, Rev. George, mur- 
dered in his potato field, county, Kil- 
dare, Ireland, Oct. 1832. 

HOVENDEN, Roger De, author of 
the "Chronicles of England," written 
in 1192. 

HOWARD, Thomas, Duke of Nor- 
folk, a celebrated general in the reign of 
Heniy VHL, was born in 1473. The 
victory of Flodden Field, in which the 
king of Scotland was slain, was chiefly 
owing to his valour and good conduct. 
He died Aug. 1554. 

^ HOWARD, Henry, earl of Surrey, 
son of the preceding, one of the early 
British poets, was bom about 1520, and 
educated in Windsor Castle, With his 
father the duke of Norfolk, he was com- 
mitted to the Tower, in Dec. 1546; and 
on Jan. 13 following, Surrey was tried 
at Guildhall by a common jury, and be- 
headed on Tower-hill. 

HOWARD, Charles, Lord Ef- 
fingham, statesman and naval com- 
mander, born 1536. He served under 
bis father, who was lord high admiral of 
England, till the accession of Queen 
Elizabeth. In Jan. 1573 he succeeded 
his father in his titles and estates ; after 
which he successively became chamber- 
lain of the household and knight of the 
garter; and in 1585 was made lord high 
admiral, at the critical juncture when the 
Spaniards were sending their armada to 
attempt the conquest of this kingdom. 
See Armada. He died in 1624, aged 87. 
HOWARD, John, the well-known 
great philanthropist of his age, was the 
son of a tradesman, and born at Enfield, 
1727. Being named in 1773 to the oflSce 
of high sheriff of Bedfordshire, which 
brought the distress of prisoners more 
immediately under his notice, it being 
his duty to visit personally the county 
gaol, when he observed abuses and scenes 
of calamity of which he had before no 
conception. He soon exerted himself to 
effect a reform ; he visited the principal 
prisons in England, and was examined in 
the house of commons in March 1774, 
on this subject, when he had the 
honour of their thanks. With the same 
object he travelled into France, Flan- 
ders, Holland, Germany, and Switzer- 
land, and afterwards through the Prus- 
sian dominions ; also Denmark, Sweden, 
Russia, Poland, and some cities in Por- 
tugal and Spain, and returned in 1777. 



He began a new tour in 1778, and tra- 
velled through the Prussian and Austrian 
dominions. During the spring and sum- 
mer of the year 1779, he made another 
complete tour of England and Wales. 
Wishing to acquire further knowledge 
on the subject, he revisited Holland and 
some German cities, in 1780. He visited 
also the capitals of Denmark, Sweden, 
Russia, and Poland, and in 1783, some 
cities in Portugal and Spain, and re- 
turned through France, Flanders, and 
Holland. He afterwards proceeded to 
Smyrna, Constantinople, and Venice, 
and at the close of the year 1786, re- 
turned through Germany and Holland, 
arrived safe in England in the beginning 
of 1787. In 1788 he made several 
visits to the prisons of Scotland and 
Ireland. Upon his return home, having 
again inspected the prisons in England, 
and the Hulks on the Thames, in pur- 
suance of a similar benevolent design, 
he set out in the summer of 1789, for 
the purpose of re-visiting Russia, Tur- 
key, and some other countries, and ex- 
tending his tour in the east. Arriv- 
ing in Holland in July, he proceeded 
through the north of Germany, Prussia, 
Courland and Livonia, to Petersburgh, 
thence to Moscow, and finally to the 
extremity of European Russia on the 
shores of the Black Sea, where he fell a 
victim to one of those infectious diseases, 
the ravages of which he was exerting 
every effort to restrain. At different pe- 
riods he published the results of his la- 
bours as regarded the state of the prisons 
and lazarettos in various parts. 

HOWEL, James, English writer, 
born 1594, died I666. 

HOWTH, situated on a peninsula 
called the Hill of Howth, on the north 
side of Dublin bay. The harbour was 
constructed as a station for packets pass- 
ing between Dublin and Holyhead, after 
a design of Mr. Rennie. The entrance 
to the harbour and the packet berths 
were deepened in 1830, by taking up 
5963 tons of rock by means of diving 
bells, and 19,967 tons of sand and mud 
by dredging machines ; thereby affording 
1 1 feet of water at low-water of ordinary 
spring tides, where there was formerly 
only 8 feet. 

HUBERT, St., in JuHers, order of 
knighthood, began in Germany, 473. 

HUBERTSBERG, peace of, between 
Prussia, Austria, and Saxony. End of 
the seven years' war, Feb, 15, 1763. 



HUL 



572 



HUM 



HUDSON'S Bay was discovered in 
1610, by Henry Hudson, wlio command- 
ed a vessel fitted out by the English 
Russian Campany, for the purpose of 
exploring a north-west passage round 
the continent of America. He was left 
by his mutinous crew, with his son and 
seven other persons, to perish in that 
inhospitable region. The same company 
subsequently fitted out several expedi- 
tions for exploring those seas, particu- 
larly by Button, Fo.x, James, and others. 

Hudson's Bay Company, in- 
corporated by charter of Charles H. 
who in 1670 granted to Prince Rupert 
and the company associated with him 
all the trade and commerce within the 
entrance of Hudson's Straits. Under 
this grant the company have held 
possession to the present day. In 1837 
an expedition was sent out by the com- 
pany to explore the unknown portions 
of their territory. 

HUET, Peter Daniel, author of 
"Philosophy," &c.,born 1630, died 1721. 

HUFELAND, author of a "Treatise 
on Longevity," died 1836, aged 74 

HUGUENOTS, or Hugonots, an 
appellation given by way of contempt to 
the reformed or protestant Calvinists of 
France. This term is to be traced as 
far back as the year 1560. The perse- 
cution which the Huguenots underwent 
has scarcely its parallel in the history of 
religion. Though they obtained a peace 
from Henry HI., in 1576, it was only of 
short continuance ; and their sufferings 
were but partially mitigated by the fa- 
mous edict of Nantes, granted to them 
in 1598, by Henry IV. In I62I severe 
contests arose, and subsisted long, be- 
tween LouisXlII. and his protestant sub- 
jects. In 1628 Rochelle, the chief bul- 
wark of the reformed interest in France, 
was taken, after a long and difficult siege, 
and annexed to the crown. From this 
fatal event the Huguenot party in 
France dates its decline. Louis XIV., in 
1685, revoked the edict of Nantes, and 
thereby deprived the protestants of the 
liberty of serving God according to their 
consciences : they were exposed to the 
brutal rage of an unrelenting soldiery, 
and emigrated in great numbers. Many 
found an asylum in England. 

HULL, Yorkshire, was included in 
the manor of Myton, at the time of the 
Norman survey ; consisted of the towns 
of Wyke and Myton in the 12th century, 
the former of which obtained a grant for 



a market in 1274. Edward I. purchased 
the lordship of Myton and town of 
Wyke in 1293, and changed its name to 
Kingston, (or Kingston-upon-HuU. In 
1299 it obtained a royal charter, and was 
made a free borough, with many privi- 
leges and immunities, and in the follow- 
ing year a mint was established here. In 
1205 the duties of the port of Hull ex- 
ceeded those of most other ports of Eng- 
land. Henry VII. built a citadel and 
blockhouse on the east bank of the 
Hull ; Charles II. strengthened the for- 
tifications in 1681. In 1774 the old dock 
was constructed, and afterwards en- 
larged. See Docks. 

HUMANE Society, London, insti- 
tuted in 1774. Societies of a similar 
nature are instituted in other parts of 
the kingdom. 

1839. At the annual meeting of the 
Bristol Humane Society, the silver 
medal was presented to Dr. Fairbrother, 
of Clifton, for his exertions in recovering 
a boy who had been under the water in 
the floating harbour about half an hour, 
another quarter of an hour having elapsed 
before the doctor could operate on the 
body. The new mode adopted was by 
closing the boy's mouth with his finger, 
sucking off the foul air from his lungs 
through the nostrils, and promoting 
respiration by pressing on the abdomi- 
nal muscles on the side. The usual me- 
thod is to inflate the lungs ; but it is 
very seldom that persons are recovered 
by this method if ihey have been longer 
than a few minutes under the water. 

HUMBOLDT, Baron William 
Von, minister of state to the king of 
Prussia, brother of Alexander Von Hum- 
boldt, the celebrated traveller. He died 
April 7, 1835. 

HUME, David, an eminent historian 
and literary character, was born at Edin- 
burgh in 1711. Having passed through 
his academical pursuits at Edinburgh, 
he published, in 1739, his " Treatise on 
Human Nature." In 1742 he pubhshed 
two volumes of Essays; and, in 1747, 
received an invitation from General St. 
Clair to attend him in his military em- 
bassy to the courts of Vienna and Turin. 
In 1749 he composed the second part of 
his essays, called " Political Discourses." 
In 1652 he published his "Inquiry con- 
cerning the Principles of Morals," and 
formed the plan of writing his history of 
Britain imder the house of Stuart. In 
1756 the second volume of the " History 



HUN 



573 



HUN 



of the Stuarts" was published. Three 
years after his "History of the House of 
Tudor" made its appearance; and in 1761 
the remaining part" of his History was 
pubhshed. He died August 25, 1776. 

HUNGARY, kingdom of, a portion 
of the Austrian empire, ancient Panno- 
nia, was overrun by the Magiars, a Cau- 
casian people, towards the close of the 
ninth century, when Christianity also 
was introduced. Stephen the son of 
King Gheysa was baptized in 983, as- 
cended the throne of Hungary in 1000, 
and was ranked amongst the saints after 
his death. Twenty princes, descendants 
of this monarch, were successively kings. 
The reigning family became extinct in 
1301, and 12 kings of different lines sub- 
sequently ruled over Hungary. Of these 
Sigismund, defeated by the Turks at 
Nicopolis, in 1396, ceded to Poland the 
provinces east of the Carpathians. 

At length Hungary invaded on every 
side by the Turks, became a common 
field of battle, when Christian and Mus- 
sulman armies massacred each other 
during an entire century. The pretext 
for these sanguinary conflicts was the 
recovery of Transylvania, which had 
been separated from Hungary, after the 
death of Louis H. in 1526. The pro- 
vinces then wrested from Hungary con- 
tinued annexed to Turkey, until the 
peace of Carlowitz, in 1699. The Turks 
always supported the Transylvanian prin- 
ces against the Austro-Hungarian kings. 
But the slow and methodical policy of 
Austria ultimately triumphed, and in 
1713, the hereditary rights of the em- 
perors were fully acknowledged, and 
Hungary was finally annexed to the 
Austrian empire. 

HUNGERFORD Market, Old, 
London, opened 1699 ; New, erected by 
a company, July 2, 1833. 

HUNS, their empire in Tartary de- 
stroyed by the Chinese, 93. They over- 
ran Mesopotamia, 383 ; conquered the 
Burgundians, 435 ; ravaged Thrace, 422. 
Their empire in Europe was ruined, 
454, at the death of Attilla. See At- 

TILA. 

HUNT, Henry, late M. P. for Pres- 
ton, was born at Widdington Farm, 
Wiltshire. In 1812 he made his first 
unsuccessful attempt to gain a seat in 
parliament. His exhibitions at Man- 
chester and Spafields, and his^imprison- 
ment in 1820, are well known. During 
the excitement of the Reform Bill in 



1830, he defeated Lord Stanley at Pres- 
ton, and entered the house of com- 
mons. He was re-elected in 1831; 
but in the following year, the Derby in- 
terest resumed its sway at Preston. He 
left London, on a journey of business to 
the West of England, when he was 
seized with a fit of paralysis, which 
proved fatal, Feb. 15. 1835. 

HUNTER, Dr. Henry, a popular 
preacher and writer; born at Culross, in 
Perthshire, 1741. He died at the Hot- 
Wells, Bristol, Oct. 27, 1802. 

HUNTER, Dr. William, a cele- 
brated physician and writer, was born at 
Kilbride, in Lanark, Scotland, in 1718. 
In 1767 he was elected a fellow of the 
Royal Society. In 1768 he became a 
fellow of the Society of Antiquaries ; and 
the same year, at the institution of a Royal 
Academy of Arts, he was appointed by 
his majesty to the office of professor of 
anatomy. In Jan. 1781 he was elected 
to succeed Dr. John Fothergill, as pre- 
sident of the Medical Society. The 
most splendid of Dr. Hunter's publica- 
tions was the " Anatomy of the Human 
Gravid Uterus." The appearance of this 
work, which had been begun so early as 
1751, was retarded till 1775, only by the 
author's desire of sending it into the 
world as perfect as possible. He died 
March 30, 1783. 

HUNTER, Dr. John, an eminent 
surgeon, and brother of the preceding, 
was born at Long Calderwood, in Scot- 
land, 1728. On Feb, 5, 1767, he was 
chosen fellow of the Royal Society, and 
in the following year was elected one of 
the surgeons of St. George's Hospital. 
He was appointed surgeon extraordinary 
to his majesty, in 1776. He was chosen 
fellow of the Royal Society of Science 
and Belle Lettres at Gottenburg"; and in 
1783 he became a member of the Royal 
Society of Medicine, and the Royal Aca- 
demy of Surgery, in Paris. In 1792 
he was appointed inspector- general of 
hospitals, and surgeon- general to the 
army. He died Oct. 16, 1793, in his 
65th year. He published a great number 
of works on anatomy, surgery, and me- 
dicine. 

HUNTINGDON, was early celebrated 
as a place well adapted for the chase. 
Edward the elder erected a castle here 
in 917, which was enlarged in the reign 
of Stephen, by David, king of Scotland 
and earl of Huntingdon, but razed to 
the ground by order of Henry II. 



HUS 



574 



HUY 



HUNTINGDON, William, styling 
himself " the sinner saved," the popular 
antinomian preacher, died July 1, 1813. 

HURD, Bishop, author of "Dia- 
logues in Chivalry and Romance," &c., 
died 1808, aged 88. 

HURDIS, Rev. J., poet, born 1763, 
died 1801. 

HURD WAR, town and place of pil- 
grimage, Hindoostan, province Delhi, 
situated at the base of a steep mountain, 
adorned with numerous pagodas and 
stone buildings, \vith flights of steps de- 
scending to the river, for the accommo- 
dation of pilgrims near the Ganges. In 
1819 the rush made by the infatuated 
pilgrims to obtain precedence in gaining 
the waters was so desperate, that 430 
persons were crushed to death in the 
confined passage, and amongst them the 
sepoy guards who were stationed there 
to j)revent the very catastrophe. 

HURST Castle, Hampshire, built 
1539. 

HUSBANDRY. See Agriculture. 

HUSKISSOiV, William, was born 
at Birch-Moreton, in Worcestershire, 
March 11, 1770. In early life he resided 
in France, and became a perfect master 
of the French language. He also turned 
his attention to the study of international 
policy and commerce ; his thorough 
knowledge of which afterwards enabled 
him to take so distinguished and active 
a part in the aflfairs of his own country. 
Under Mr. Dundas in 1793 he assisted 
in the arrangement of an office for the 
affairs of the emigrants who had taken 
refuge in England. This introduced him 
to public life, and he was for some years 
an efficient member of the cabinet. His 
death was sudden and melancholy, Sep- 
tember 15, 1830, at the public opening 
of the Liverpool and Manchester rail- 
road, at which were present the duke of 
Wellington and a great number of other 
public characters. Mr. Huskisson having 
alighted on the road during a stoppage, 
he was knocked down by one of the 
steam-carriages, which went over his 
thigh, and bruised and lacerated him so 
dreadfully as to occasion his death in the 
course of the following night. 

HUSS, John, the celebrated reformer, 
from whom the Hussites take their name, 
was born at Hussinez, in Bohemia. He 
received his education at the university 
of Prague, and afterwards became mini- 
ster of a church in that city. In 1407 
he began openly to oppose and preach 



agamst errors in the doctrine as well as 
the discipline of the reigning church. 
In 1409 he was elected rector of the 
university of Leipsic. He now began 
to inveigh against the vices and corrup- 
tions of the clergy, and to recommend, 
in a public manner, the writings and 
opinions of Wicklifie. In consequence of 
this, an accusation was brought against 
him in 1410, before the tribunal of John 
XXIII., by whom he was solemnly ex- 
pelled from the communion of the church. 
He continued, however, to expose the 
Romish religion with a fortitude and zeal 
that were almost universally applauded. 
He was summoned before the council 
of Constance. Huss obeyed the order 
of the council, and appeared before 
it to demonstrate his innocence. But 
his enemies so far prevailed, that he was 
cast into prison, declared an heretic, and 
brought to the stake. He endured his 
fall with unparalleled magnanimity and 
resignation, and was burned alive July 6, 
1415. 

HUSTINGS, THE Court of, in the 
city of London, is the supreme court of 
judicature, as the court of common coun- 
cil is of legislature, in that city. The 
court of hustings was granted to the city, 
to be holden and kept weekly, by Ed- 
ward the Confessor, 1052. 

HUTCHESON, Dr. Francis, author 
of "Moral Philosophy," born 1694, died 
1748. 

HUTCHESON, Dr. John, philo- 
sophical writer, born 1674, died 1737. 

HUTTON, Dr. James, an eminent 
physician and naturalist, but chiefly 
known as the author of a celebrated 
Theory of the Earth, was born in 1726. 
During a period of 30 years, his attention 
was turned towards geological studies. 
He died in 1797. 

HUITON, Dr. Charles, the ma- 
thematician, died 1823. 

HUTTON, William, the author of 
" The History of Birmingham/' died 
1815. 

HUYGENS, Christian, a distin- 
guished mathematician and astronomer of 
the 17th century, was born at the Hague 
in 1629, and in 1663 made a mem- 
ber of the Royal Society. Having visited 
France, M. Colbert settled a considerable 
pension upon him to fix at Paris, and he 
remained there till 1681, and was ad- 
mitted a member of the Academy of 
Sciences. Huygens was the first who 
discovered Saturn's ring, and a third 



HYD 



575 



HYD 



satellite belonging to that planet. He 
discovered also the means of rendering 
clocks exact, by applying the pendulum, 
as well as of rendering their vibration 
equal by the cycloidal cheeks, and made 
many improvements in the telescope. He 
died in 1695. Huygens was the author 
of several excellent works. The prin- 
cipal of these are contained in two col- 
lections ; the first of which was printed 
at Leyden in 1682, and the second at 
Amsterdam in 1728. 

HYDE, near Manchester, floor of a 
public-house, where 250 workmen were 
assembled, gave way, when 30 were 
killed and many wounded, April 1, 1829. 
HYDE Abbey, near Winchester, 
founded 1130. 

HYDE, Dr. Thomas, the first libra- 
rian of the Bodleian Library, born 1686, 
.died February 18, 1702. 

HYDE, Edw^ard, earl of Clarendon, 
See Clarendon. 

HYDERABAD, city and province, 
Hindoostan, in the Deccan, formerly be- 
longed to the sovereignty of Telingana, 
was conquered by the Mahommedans, and 
became part of the great Bhamanee em- 
pire of the Deccan. Telingana next be- 
came independent under the name of 
Golconda sovereignty, subject to Cooly- 
Cuttub Shah, who began to reign in 
1512, and was assassinated in 1551. In 
1690 Golconda was taken byAurungzebe, 
and Abou-Hossein, its sovereign, con- 
fined in the fortress of Dowlatabad, until 
his death in 1704. On Aurungzebe's 
decease, Nizam ul Mulk succeeded to 
the Mahommedan possessions in the 
Deccan, and his son Nassir Jung, making 
himself master of the throne, was assas- 
sinated in 1750, and his grandson shared 
a similar fate in 1751. French influence 
placed Salabut Jung on the throne, but 
he was imprisoned and put to death in 
1763, by his brother Nizam Ah. The 
fratricide was defeated and despoiled of 
part of his territory by Dovvlet Row 
Sindia in 1795. In 1798 the vigorous 
measures of the Marquis Wellesley re- 
stored British influence at the court of 
Hyderabad, at a period when France in- 
terfered, and seemed to threaten its ex- 
tinction. The Nizam admitted a large 
subsidiary British force, ceded all the 
territories acquired in 1792, by the 
treaty of Seringapatam, and also by the 
treaty of Mysore in 1799, in considera- 
tion of which the Nizam was liberated 
from all further tribute on account of 



British subsidiary forces. Nizam Ali 
terminated his reign in 1803, and was 
succeeded by his eldest legitimate son, 
Secunder Jah. His courtiers occasioned 
misunderstandings between their master 
and the British Indian government, 
which only ended in a more rigid exaction 
of the terms of treaties by the British. ) 
HYDRODYNAMICS, including 
Hydrostatics and Hydraulics, the science 
probably first studied in the Alexandrian 
school about a.c. 300 ; pressure of 
fluids discovered by Archimedes about 
a.c. 250 ; forcing-pump and air-fountain 
invented by Hero about a.c. 120; water- 
mills known about the time of the birth of 
Christ ; experiments on running water, 
and the quantities discharged from dif- 
ferent sized orifices at various depths, by 
Julius Frontinus 110. The science re- 
vived by Galileo about I60O ; effect of 
atmospheric pressure on fluids, Torricelli, 
Viviani, and Pascal, 1643 to 1647 ; ca- 
pillary attraction discovered by Rohault 
about 1659> and by Boyle about the same 
time ; hydrostatical press (since brought 
into use by Braraah) discovered by Pas- 
cal 1664. In 1697, theory and pheno- 
mena of rivers, by Guglielmini; in 1714, 
correct theory of fluids, and oscillation 
of waves by Newton; 1734, equilibrium 
of fluids, D'Alembert. 

1738. Scientific form given to Hy- 
drodynamics by Daniel Bernouili. In 
the course of the year he published a 
new and improved theory of the motion 
of fluids, in a treatise entitled " Hydro- 
dynamica, seu de viribus et motibus 
Fluidorum Commentarii ;" a work ex- 
tolled by Bossut, as one of the finest 
productions of mathematical genius ; 
but as it had never been demonstrated 
in a general manner, the results were ac- 
companied with a degree of uncertainty. 

1742. A more direct solution was 
given by Mr. Maclaurin in his " System 
of Fluxions," published at Edinburgh. 
In 1743 M. D'Alembert discovered a 
principle of dynamics, so simple and 
general, that it reduced the laws of the 
motion of bodies to that of their equili- 
brium. A specimen of his successful 
apphcation of this principle to the motion, 
of fluids was given in his Dynamics. 
The method of expressing by equations 
the motion of a particle of fluid in any 
given direction, was attained about the 
year 1751, by the skill and address of 
M. D'Alembert. His Method was first 
pubhshed in his " Essai sur la Resist- 



ICH 



576 



ICH 



ances des Fluides " in 1752, and after- 
wards in a more complete state, in his 
" Opuscules Matheraatiques." The la- 
bours of M. Bossut in this branch of 
science, though performed on a smaller 
scale, afford in all similar cases the same 
results. 

1786. A satisfactory theory of the 
motion of fluids, founded solely on 
experiments, is given in a work en- 
titled "Principes d'Hydraulique," by 
Le Chevalier de Buat, who was engineer 
to Louis XVI. The discoveries since 
that time are of a minor kind, and chiefly 
respect hydraulic machines. 

HYDROGEN Lamp discovered by 
Lieutenant Drummond, which produces 
a light of so dazzling a brightness as to 
cause any object to cast a shadow on a 
dark-coloured wall at the distance of ten 
miles. 1832. 



HYDROSTATIC Bed, invented by 
Dr. Arnott 1827. 

HYRCANUS I., John, high priest 
and prince of the Jews, was the son of 
Simon Maccabeus. On the invasion of 
Judea by the Syrian governor a.c. 139, 
he and his brother Judas led a body of 
troops, who entirely defeated the in- 
vaders. He died a.c. 107. 

HYRCANUS II., high-priest and 
king of the Jews, was eldest son of Alex- 
ander JannEeus ; being of a quiet and un- 
enterprising disposition, he was quickly 
dispossessed of his dignities, and re- 
duced to a private station, a.c. 63, 
he was restored to his pontifical office 
with the title of prince, but he was di- 
vested of royalty, and made tributary to 
Pompey. He was beheaded in the 80th 
year of his age. 



I. 



IAMBIC Verse, invented by Antio- 
lochus, who flourished a.c. 686. 

lAMBLICUS, author of Rhodes and 
Sinonides, flourished a.c. 100. 

ICELAND, island, Atlantic Ocean, 
subject to Denmark. About 860, Nad- 
dodr, a Norwegian pirate, was driven on 
the coast; Gordar, a Swede, circumna- 
vigated it in 864 ; Floke, a Norwegian, 
remained here for two years, and gave it 
the name it still bears. The first Nor- 
wegian colony arrived here in 874. 
Christianity was introduced in 981, and 
finally adopted in 1000. In 1261 the 
Icelanders submitted to the king of Nor- 
way ; in 1387, it was transferred, with 
Norway, to Denmark. In 1530 the re- 
formed religion was introduced, and in 
1813 it was placed at the disposal of the 
British ; it is again, however, a depen- 
dency of Denmark. 

ICH DIEN, the Bohemian motto, 
meaning, " I serve," firet adopted by 
the prince of Wales after the battle of 
Cressy, 1346. 

ICHTHOLOGY, that part of natural 
history which treats of the classification, 
anatomy, &c., of fishes. Pierre Belon, 
a French physician, born in 1518, was 
the earliest systematic writer on ichtho- 
logy. He laid the foundation of many 



natural families or genera. His coun- 
tryman, Rondelet, three years afterwards 
exhibited more accurate descriptions and 
figures. The next work worthy of no- 
tice, is " Willoughby's De Historia Pis- 
cium," 1686. Ray published in 1707 his 
" Synopsis Methodica Piscium," which 
may be regarded as a corrected view of 
Willoughby's work. Artedi, the coun- 
tryman and friend of Linnaeus, adopted 
bis principles. Linnaeus published his 
papers, under the title of " Bibliotheca 
Ichthyologia," and " Philosophia Ich. 
thyologia ;" Walbaum, a physician at 
Lubeck, re-published them in four vo- 
lumes, in 1792. To Artedi belongs the 
merit of having first traced the outlines 
of that classification of fishes which has 
now become so popular in Europe. In 
his first edition of the " System of Na- 
ture," Linnaeus adopted the Artedian 
method. La Cepede, the friend of Buf- 
fon, produced an elaborate and exten- 
sive work on the " Natural History of 
Fishes." 

The British fishes found an able and 
entertaining expositor in Mr. Pennant, 
in the third volume of his British Zo- 
ology, 1777- From the time of Pennant 
considerable improvements have been 
made in the arrangement of fishes, par- 



IGN 



577 



ILL 



ticularly within the last few years, which 
may be found in the recent communica- 
tions to the Zoological Society, British 
Association, &c. On May 26, 1838, Dr. 
Cantor read to the Asiatic Society some 
notes on the fishes from the estuaries of 
the Ganges ; in which he stated that not 
more than one- half of the species, he 
had seen between Calcutta, and 21° N. 
lat., had been described by previous ich- 
thyologists. 

ICOLMKILL, anciently lona, island, 
county of Argyll, Scotland. St. Colum- 
bia, in the middle of the sixth century, 
landed here, and converted the inhabit- 
ants to Christianity. He founded a 
magnificent monastery called Columb- 
kill, famed during the dark ages as 
the only seat of learning and piety in 
western Europe : it was first occupied 
by canons regular, who vi^ere in 807 dis- 
lodged by the Danes. This island is 
celebrated as the burial place of 48 Scot- 
tish, four Irish, one French, and eight 
Norwegian kings. 

ICTHYOSAURUS. See Fossil 
Remains. 

ICY Cape, western coast of North 
America, discovered by Captain 'Cook, 
in April 1778 ; examined about 1826, by 
Captain Beechey in the Blossom. The 
farthest tongue of land which was reach- 
ed in the Blossom's barge was named 
Point Barrow. 

IDES, in the the Roman calendar, a 
denomination anciently given to eight 
days in each month ; the first of which 
fell on the 15th March, May, July, and 
October; and on the 13th day of the 
other months. The Ides came between 
the calends and the nones, and were 
reckoned backwards. See Calends. 
This method of reckoning time is still 
retained in the chancery of Rome. 

IDRIA, town, Austrian empire, king- 
dom lUyria, celebrated for its mines of 
quicksilver, in which 900 persons are 
constantly engaged, exclusively of 300 
labourers. In 1803 the wood work in 
the galleries took fire, and the flames 
were not extinguished until the river 
Idrizza was made to discharge itself into 
the mines. 

IFFLAND, Augustus William, 
German actor and dramatic writer, died 
at Berlin, Sept. 22, 1814. 

IGNATIUS, St., one of the earliest 
fathers of the church, was born in Syria, 
and is said to have been acquainted with 
several of the apostles, especially Peter 



and Paul, and to have been made, about 
67, Bishop of Antioch. In this city he 
continued more than 40 years, the honour 
and safeguard of the Christian religion, 
till Trajan, the emperor, commenced a 
persecution against the Christians. He 
was cast into prison, and condemned to 
be carried, bound, by soldiers to Rome, 
and there thrown as a prey to wild- beasts. 
The time of his martyrdom has been 
placed by Eusebius in the tenth year of 
Trajan, a.d. 107- His epistles are ex- 
tant in Greek, and in an ancient Latin 
version, which latter was pubhshed by 
Archbishop Usher, in 1 664. 

IGNATIUS Loyala. See Loyala. 

ILANZ, or Ilantz, town, Switzer- 
land, sufferered severely in 1799, on the 
retreat of Suwarrow before Massena, 
and subsequently, in 1801, from fire. 

ILCHESTER, Somersetshire, was an 
important place at the time of the Nor- 
man conquest, and had then fl07 bur- 
gesses. In the reign of William Rufus, 
it was besieged by and successfully de- 
fended against Robert de Mowbray, the 
leader of an insurrection. An hospital, 
dedicated to the Holy Trinity, was 
founded here about 1220. 

ILFRACOMBE, Devonshire, much 
frequented on account of its convenience 
for sea-bathing. It contributed six 
ships and 82 mariners towards the ex- 
pedition fitted out against Calais in 1346. 
During the civil wars it was garrisoned 
by the parliament, but taken in 1644 by 
the royalists. The parish church was 
built by government in memory of 
Captain Richard Bowen, who fell in 
July, 1797, in the attack on Teneriffe, 
under Lord Nelson. 

ILLINOIS, a state of North America, 
United States, first colonized by a few 
families, who emigrated from Canada 
about 1720, and settled at Kaskaskia 
and Cohakia, where their descendants 
still remain. In 1810 the territory 
which now forms the state contained 
only a population of 12,282. The popu- 
lation having increased to 35,220, was 
formed into a state, and admitted into 
the union in 1818. At Galena on Fever 
river, near the north-west corner of 
the state, are very rich and productive 
lead mines ; in 1830, these mines yielded 
8,323,998 lbs. 

ILLUMINATI, a sect of heretics, 

who sprung up in Spain about the year 

1575 ; were revived in France in 1634, 

but they were so hotly pursued by 

4e 



INC 



578 



INC 



Louis XIII.. that they were soon de- 
stroyed. 

ILLUMINATI, a secret society which 
existed in Germany previous to the 
French revolution. Its real views were 
to subvert every established government 
and religion ; about the year 1787 it 
was entirely suppressed. 

ILLYRIA, a kingdom of the Austrian 
empire. The inhabitants were subdued 
by the Acmans, a.c. 228. At the di- 
vision of the empire Illyria fell to the 
empire of the west ; but in 476 was 
transferred to that of the east. In the 
sixth century, the kingdoms of Dal- 
matia and Croatia established their in- 
dependence. During the 11th and 1 2th 
centuries, the Hungarians and Venetians 
obtained the mastery over part of this 
country ; and subsequently the Turks 
deprived these of the greater part of 
their possessions. In the 18th century, 
Austria regained considerable part of 
those provinces which she had lost. In 
1809 the emperor of the French decreed 
that the circles of Villach, Carinthia, 
Austrian Istria, Fiume, and Trieste, the 
Littorale, &c., should bear the name of 
the Illyrian provinces. In 1815 Illyria 
was assigned to Austria, and is the chief 
support of the Austrian navy. 

IMPALEMENT, in heraldry, intro- 
duced 1206. 

IMPEACHMENT, the first of a chan- 
cellor, and the first by the commons 
1386. 



IMPORTS AND Exports. During 

the first half of the last century, and 
previously, woollen goods formed the 
principal article of native produce ex- 
ported from Great Britain ; and next to 
it were hardware, cutlery, leather ma- 
nufactures, linen, tin, and lead, copper 
and brass manufactures, coal, earthen- 
ware, provisions, slops, &c. Corn 
formed a considerable article in the list 
of exports down to 1770; since which 
period the balance of the corn trade has 
been, with a few exceptions, very de- 
cidedly on the side of importation. 

Cotton first became of importance as 
an article of export about 177*' ; since 
then the extension and improvement of 
the manufacture have been so astonish- 
ingly great, that the exports of cotton stuffs 
and yarn amount to about a half of the 
entire exports of British produce and 
manufactures. The exports of woollen 
goods hasV)een comparatively stationary. 
The principal articles of import during 
the last half century have consisted of 
sugar,tea, corn, timber, and naval stores, 
cotton-wool, woods and drugs for dying, 
wines and spirits, tobacco, silk, tailow, 
hides-and skins, coffee, spices, bullion, 
&c. Of the colonial and other foreign 
products imported into England, con- 
siderable quantities have always been re- 
exported. 

The following table exhibits the im- 
ports and exports of Great Britan for 
the three years ending 1840 : — 



, 


V.-ilue of Im- 
ports into the 
United King-- 
dom calculat- 
ed at Official 
Rates of Va- 
luation. 


Value of Exports from the Uiiitcrl Kingdom 
calculated at tht Official Kates uf Valuation. 


Value of the 

Produce of 

Manufactures 

of the United 

Kingdom 

theiefroDi, 

according totlie 

real or declared 

Value thereof. 


Years 
ending 

.Van. 


Produce and 

Manufactures 

of the 

United 

Kingdom. 


Foreign and 

Colonirl 
Merchandise. 


Total 
Exports. 


1838 
1839 
1840 


£54,737,301 
61,268,320 
62,004,000 


£72,548,047 
92,459,231 
97,402,726 


£13,233,622 
12,711,318 
12,795,990 


£85,781,669 
105,170,549 
110,198,716 


£42,069,245 
50,060,970 
53,233,580 



INA, king of Wessex, published the INCHCOLM, island, Scotland, re- 

Sa^on code of laws, 709. nowned for the remains of a magnificent 

INACHUS began the kingdom of Ar- Augustinian monastery,founded in 1123 

gos, A c. 1856. by Alexander I., and dedicated to St. 

INCHBALD, Mrs., the (^ramatic Columba. Itwas plundered by a British 

writer, died 1821. fleet in the reign of Edward III. 



IND 



579 



IND 



INCH-KEITH, island, Scotland, was 
taken by the English, in 1549, but re- 
covered b)' the Scots. 

LNCOMBUSTIBLE Fire-Dress, or 
armour, consisting of vvii-e gauze, lined 
with asbestos cloth, which will enable 
the wearer to traverse a sheet of tlame 
during 15 or 20 seconds without injury, 
invented by Aldini, of Bologna, 1830. 

INCOME Tax, laid on, 1799; re- 
pealed, 1802; renewed, 1803; increased 
1806; renewed for a year, April, 1815 ; 
repealed, March 18, 1816. 

INCREMENTS, Method of, in- 
vented by Dr. Booke Taylor, secretary 
to the Royal Society. His " Methodus 
Incrementorum " appeared in 1715. 
Emerson's Method of Increments, was 
published in 1763. 

INDIA has usually been divided into 
Hindoostan, or India within the Ganges; 
and India beyond the Ganges, including 
the Birman Empire,and Pegu,Siam, Cam- 
bodia, Cochin China, Tonquin, Malacca, 
&c. See these articles respectively. 

The following is a chronological list of 
the principal events in the general his- 
tory of India, in its connexion with Eng- 
land : — 

1528. Attempts made by England to 
reach India by the north-east and north- 
west passages. 

1599 A society of 101 adventurers 
petitioned Queen Elizabeth for a trading 
Charter to India, the origin of the East 
India Company. See East India Com- 
pany. 

1612. Jan. 11, a firman granted by 
the Mogul, allowing the English to es- 
tablish factories at Surat, Ahmedabad, 
Cambaya, and Goga. 

1613. English established a factory 
at Firando, in Japan. 

1614. The Portuguese who were at 
war with the Mogul, defeated by the 
English on the Bombay coast ; the En- 
glish in consequence obtained a firman, 
grantingthem perpetual liberty of trading. 

1746. War being declared between 
England and France, a French fleet was 
dispatched to attack Madras, which ca- 
pitulated, but was restored to the Enghsh, 
in pursuance of the peace of Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle. 

1749. A deposed rajah of Tanjore 
obtained the aid of the English, by a 
promise of the territory of Devicottah. 
The English took Tanjore, but abandoned 
the cause of the deposed rajah, on con- 
dition of receiving the territory of Devi- 



cottah from the reigning prince. This 
was the beginning of the Enghsh mili- 
tary power in India. War in the Car- 
natic for the succession of the nabob- 
ship of the province, occasioned by the 
death of the subahdar of the Deccan ; 
French and English engaged on different 
sides. 

1751. French party triumphant. The 
protege of the English, Mohammed Ali, 
took refuge in Trinchino poly, where hewas 
besieged by the French, and defended by 
the English. Captain Clive (afterwards 
Lord Clive) besieged Arcot, the capital 
of the Carnatic, reduced it, and defended 
it with success against very superior 
forces. 

1752 — 1753. Hostilities continued, the 
advantage being generally on the English 
side. 

1754. Aug. 2. Commissioners arrived 
from France and England to put an 
end to the war. Dec. 26, treaty of peace 
signed at Pondichevy. Both nations to 
withdraw from interference in the affairs 
of the native princes. 

1756. June 18. Calcutta attacked 
by Sxiraja Dowla. See Calcutta. 

1757. June 23. Battle of Plassy, in 
which Colonel Clive, with about 3000 
men, vanquished the subahdar at the 
head of nearly 70,000, and laid the foun- 
dation of the British permanent dominion 
in India. 

1759. April 6. English took Masuli- 
patam, and concluded a treaty with the 
subahdar of the Deccan, by which that 
prince ceded much territory, and engaged 
to suffer no French settlement in his 
dominions. The French forts fell suc- 
cessively into the power of the English j 
Nov. 29, Wandewash ; Dec. 10, Caran- 
goly; Feb. 9, 1760, Arcot fell; Jan. 
14,1761, Pondichery surrendered; and by 
the middle of April not a vestige of the 
power of the French remained in the 
Peninsula. 

1765. May 3. Lord Clive arrived at 
Calcutta, with the titles of governor and 
commander-in-chief. 

1766. Important treaty with Nizam 
Ali, sovereign of the Deccan, by which 
the Northern Circars were granted to the 
English. March 11. Warren Hastings 
accused by Rajah Nundcomar, the Fouj- 
dar of Hooghly, of receiving bribes to a 
vast amount. See Hastings. 

1780. June. InteUigence received at 
Madras, of the warlike preparations of 
Hyder Ali, who, exasperated at the de* 



I ND 



580 



IND 



molition of Mahe (a post in possession 
of the French, within his dominions, 
taken March 19, 1779) had made an 
alhance with the Mahrattas, and assem- 
bled a large army.officered by Frenchmen, 
and provided with arms from Europe. 

1782. Feb. Successes of Hyder Ali's 
army under his son Tippoo Saib. Death 
of Hyder Ali, Dec. Tippoo Saib, estab- 
lished himself on the throne of Mysore, 
evacuated Arcot, and retired from the 
Carnatic, to settle the affairs of his king- 
dom, and to resist an invasion of the 
Malabar coast by General Matthews. 

1784. March 11. Treaty of peace 
signed with Tippoo, stipulating a restitu- 
tion of conquests on both sides. 

] 792. Peace with Tippoo in which he 
agreed to cede one half of Mysore, to 
pay 33,000,000 rupees, and to give up 
two of his eldest sons as hostages. 

1799- May 4. War renewed with Tip- 
poo. Seringapatarn stormed by Major- 
General Baird ; Tippoo killed. June 22, 
partition treaty of Mysore, between the Ni- 
zam of the Deccan and the English. Mysore 
divided. The English took the southern 
portion, and the city of Seringapatam, 
by which accession their territory reached 
from sea to sea. The Nizam took an 
equal portion on the north-east. Some 
districts on the north-west, equal in value 
to more than half of each of their own por- 
tionswere offered by theAlliesto the Mah- 
rattas, and the remainder was given to 
Kistna Raj Oudawar, a descendant of 
the ancient Rajahs of Mysore, under 
whom it formed a little kingdom, depen- 
dent on the English. 

1801. July 15. On the death of the 
nabob of Arcot, the English resolved to 
take the functions of government into 
their own hands. The English, in con- 
sequence, raised Azim ad Dowla, the 
nephew of the deceased nabob, to the 
nominal throne, on condition of his re- 
nouncing the powers of government in 
their favour. In 1801, the English were 
involved in disputes between Jeswunt 
Rao Holkar and Dowlut Rao Scindia, 
two powerful Mahratta chiefs. Holkar 
defeated. 

1803. Augusts. After many fruitless 
negotiations with Dowlut Rao Scindia, 
the British resident quitted Scindia's 
camp, and war commenced against him, 
and his ally, the rajah of Berar. The 
Bame year, the army, under General Ar- 
thur Wellesley, entered the Mahratta 
states on the south, took the fort of 



Ahmednuggur, August 12. Defeated 
Scindia and the rajah of Berar at Assye, 
on the river Kaitna, Sept. 23. Boorhan- 
pore taken on October 15, and Asseer- 
ghuron the 21st. Scindia again defeated 
at Argaum, Nov. 28. Gawilghur taken 
Dec. 15. Dec. 29, treaty of peace with 
Scindia, who agreed to give up Baroach, 
Ahmednuggur, and his forts on the 
Dooab, and to exclude all Europeans 
except the British. 

1805. Sept. Holkar ravaged the British 
territories ; the commander-in-chief pro- 
ceeded against him, and put him to flight. 

1817. Dec. 21. Battle of Mehudpore, 
in which Holkar was beaten by Sir T. 
Hislop. Jan. 6, 1818, peace with Holkar. 

1824. Breaking out of , war with 
Burmah. See Burman Empire. 

1826. Feb. 24. Treaty of Yandaboo 
finally signed ; the British to retain Ar- 
racan, Tavoy, Mergui, and Tenasserim ; 
the Burmese to pay one crore of rupees. 

1829- Dec. Decrees issued for the 
abolition of suttees, or the burning of 
Hindoo widows. See Suttee. 

1837. A dreadful famine spread itself 
through the various parts of the British 
territories, especially in the upper pro- 
vinces. The number of deaths from 
exposure and starvation, which had come 
under the cognisance ,of the Cawnpoor 
Relief Society, in five months, at that 
station only, was upwards of 1200. 

1838 — 1840. War in India, in conse- 
quence of the disputed sovereignty of 
Cabool. SeeCABOOL. November,^1840. 
Further successes in China and Cabool. 
Defeat of Dort Mahomet near Bamean. 
Capture of Chusan. 

1838. The benefits of overland com- 
munication with India were experienced 
early in the past year : one mail having 
arrived in 49 and the other in 50 days. 
The former left Bombay on March 2, 
and brought answers to letters from Lon- 
don, date Jan. 6 ; thus completing the 
time out and home in three months, 
12 days. In the year 1838, 300 Euro- 
peans croesed the Desert. 

INDIA-RUBBER. See.CAouTCHouc. 
INDIANA, one of the United States. 
The first settlement was peopled about 
the beginning of the last century by the 
French emigrants from Canada. In 
1801, Indiana was erected into a terri- 
torial government, and in 1816 into a 
state. 

INDIGO drug obtained from legu- 
minous plants of the genus Indigofera. 



INK 



581 



INQ 



The culture of the plant, and the prepa- 
ration of the drug have been practised 
in India from a very remote epoch. It 
was imported into modern Europe, by- 
way of Alexandria, previously to the dis- 
covery of the route to India, by the Cape 
of Good Hope. In Germany, an impe- 
rial edict was published in 1654, prohi- 
biting the use of indigo ; and it was not 
till 1737, that the dyers of France were 
left at liberty to dye with such articles. 
In 1783 the attention of the English 
began to be directed to this business, 
and the preparation of indigo has become 
the most important employment. During 
the nine years which preceded the open- 
ing of the trade with India, in 1814, the 
annual average produce of indigo in 
Bengal, for exportation, was nearly 
5,600,000 lbs.; but it is much increased 
since that period. 

INDULGENCES, in the Romish 
church, first invented in the 11th cen- 
tury, by Urban II., as a recompense for 
those who went in person upon the en- 
terprise of conquering the Holy Land. 
See Crusade. 

INDUS, river, Asia, rises in the^moun- 
tains of Tartary, about lat. 39° N., 
takes a south-west course, passes the 
Hindoo Koosh, mountains of Hindoo- 
stan, and enters that territory about lat. 
35° N. The navigation of this river has, 
for some time, become the subject of 
inquiry ; and the attempt attended by 
many discouragements; it has, however, 
been effected. The Asiatic Journal for 
1838 states, that the navigation has 
already given an impulse to the trade, 
and promises to open new markets for 
British goods in Candahar, Cabul, and 
Bokhara, as well as Sinde. 

INFERNAL Machine. SeeFiESCHi. 

INFLUENZA, an epiden3.ic disease 
which has, at different times, spread 
more rapidly and extensively than any 
other. Very little was known of it till 
it made its appearance in England in 
1782, when it excited great alarm. It 
again prevailed in England in 1833 and 
1837. 

INGOLSTADT, Bavaria, university 
of, founded in 1573. 

INGULPHUS, the historian, Uved in 
1100, 

INK-FILTER, invented in 1839, by 
Mr. Perry, the steel- pen manufacturer. 
It is an inkstand, in which is a strainer of 
very fine material, for purifying the ink, 
which is propelled into a receiving funnel 



by means of an air-pump. The whole 
occupies little more space than a common 
ink-glass. It also possesses the advan- 
tage, from being air-tight, of preserving 
ink for almost any period of time. 

INN-HOLDERS' Company, Lon- 
don, incorporated in 1515. 

INOCULATION, the art of trans- 
ferring certain infectious diseases from 
one subject to another. The first ac- 
counts of it as a science appeared in the 
. " Philosophical Transactions," about 
*1701. In 1717 Lady Mary Wortley 
Montague, having experienced the bene- 
ficial effects of it on her son, at Pera, 
near Constantinople, on her return to 
England, in 1722, had a daughter of six 
years old inoculated. The art was intro- 
duced by Mr. Maitland into Scotland 
in 1726. Mr. Daniel Sutton, of Ingate- 
stone, in Essex, in 1763, made several 
improvements in the methods of inocu- 
lation, which were so popular that he 
received, during the first year, 2000 gui- 
neas, and above 6OOO the second. The 
practice of inoculation made a similar 
progress in France. Sweden soon fol- 
lowed the example of the British; Russia 
engaged one of our principal promoters 
and improvers of this art; and there* 
were few countries which did not more 
or less continue, from this period, to 
practise it till the introduction of the vac- 
cine inoculation. See Vaccination. 

INQUISITION first established by 
Pope Innocent III. in Toulouse, in 1229. 
Afterwards, under the patronage of In- 
nocent IV,, it was extended to all Italy, 
with the exception of Naples, where its 
introduction was always resisted. From 
the south of France, where it existed in 
its greatest activity and vigour, the in- 
quisition extended itself during the 13th 
century to the northern provincesof Spain. 

Inquisition in Spain first estab- 
lished by the influence of Ferdinand V,, 
and the celebrated Torquemada was 
made inquisitor-general. In 1484 the 
first code of regulations was drawn up. 
The total of his victims, during the 18 
years of his administration, is estimated 
as follows: more than 10,000 committed 
to the flames; nearly 7000 burnt in 
effigy ; and upwards of 97,000 sentenced 
to confiscation, perpetual imprisonment, 
or infamy. 

Deza, the successor of Torquemada, in 
1498, kindled a warm persecution against 
the Moors. His reign lasted eight years, 
during which terra he caused 2592 in- 



INS 



582 



INS 



dividuals to be burnt; 896 to be exe- 
cuted in effigy; and sentenced 34,952 to 
penance, more or less severe. 

In 1507 the celebrated Ximenes de 
Cisneros was appointed the third inqui- 
sitor-general. His authority lasted 11 
years, during which 3564 individuals 
were burnt in person, 1232 in effigy, 
and nearly 50,000 persons visited with 
different degrees of punishment. 

In 1539, Juan Pardo de Tabera, arch- 
bishop of Toledo, was nominated to the < 
office, and he proved a resolute main- 
tainer of the power and privileges of his 
tribunal. The reign of Philip II. was the 
most flourishing period of inquisitorial 
domination. The principal event in the 
reign of Philip III. was the expulsion of 
the Moriscoes, in which the chiefs of the 
Inquisition took an active share, and 
succeeded in depriving Spain of not less 
than a million of her most useful and in- 
dustrious inhabitants. 

On Feb. 22, 1813, the decree was is- 
sued by the Cortes, that "The tribu- 
nal of the Inquisition is incompatible 
with the constitution. " Nevertheless, 
no sooner had Ferdinand VIII. re- 
sumed the reins of government, than 
he dispersed the Cortes, annulled their 
acts, and by a decree, dated July 23, 
1814, re-established the Inquisition in 
full powers. In 1820 a revolution was 
effected in Spain, through the influence 
of the more enlightened of his subjects ; 
in consequence of which a free constitu- 
tion was established, and the Inquisition 
with all its horrors finally abolished. 

INSECTS. See Entomology. 

INSOLVENCY. Under the bank- 
rupt laws, the creditors have a compul- 
sory authority to sequestrate the entire 
possessions of their debtor ; under the 
insolvent laws, the debtor himself may 
make a voluntary surrender of his pro- 
perty for the benefit of all his cteditors. 
See Bankrupts. 

1813. A special tribunal, called the 
" Court for Relief of Insolvent Debtors," 
was appointed for the purpose of receiv- 
ing the surrender of property and effects 
for the benefit of the creditors of in- 
solvents. The court sits twice a week 
in Portugal Street ; and no fees are taken 
except those established by the court. 
The Commissioners also make circuits, 
and attend at the towns and places ap- 
pointed for insolvents in the country to 
appear. 

1838. 1 and 2 Victoria, c. 110, Aug.l6, 



s. 23 to 34, continues the present court for 
the relief of insolvent debtors; and directs 
the circuit of the commissioners, &c. 

INSTITUTE, National, of France; 
or, as it is now called, the Institute of 
France, was founded by a decree of the 
new constitution, in 1795. In the time 
of Buonaparte it consisted of four classes, 
viz. 1. Class of physical and mathema- 
tical sciences. 2. Class of French lan- 
guage and literature. 3. Class of his- 
tory and foreign literature. 4. Class of 
the fine arts. It was ordained that every 
year the classes should distribute prizes. 
INSURANCE, a contract of indem- 
nity, by which one party engages, for a 
stipulated sum, to insure another against 
the risk to which he is exposed. 

Marine Insurance, from the ex- 
traordinary hazard to which property at 
sea is exposed, seems to have long pre- 
ceded insurances against fire and upon 
lives. Suetonius ascribes the first intro- 
duction of insurance to the emperor 
Claudius, who in a period of scarcity at 
Rome, A.D. 43, to encourage the impor- 
tation of corn, took upon himself all the 
loss or damage it might sustain in the 
voyage thither by storms and tempests. 
With the exception of the above insu- 
rance, nothing bearing the remotest re- 
semblance is to be met with till a compa- 
ratively recent period. It is supposed to 
have had its origin in modern times, at 
Barcelona, in the 15th century, and was 
early brought into England. It is men- 
tioned in the statute 43 Eliz. c. 12, a sta- 
tute, in which its utility is very clearly 
set forth. 

Insurance from Fire, and upon 
Lives, is of much later origin than in- 
surance against the perils of the sea. The 
former, however, has been known and 
carried on amongst us, to some extent at 
least, for nearly a century and a half. 
The oldest office upon record is that of 
the Hand -in-Hand, established I696; 
since which, however, there have been 
numerous offices established in London, 
as well as in various parts of Great Bri- 
tain. 

An alphabetical List of London As- 
surance Companies, with the dates when 
they were established : — 

1805. Albion, New Bridge-street. 

1824. Alliance, Bartholomew Lane. 

1706. Amicable, Serjeant's Inn. 

1833. Argus, Throgmorton-street. 

1824. Asylum, 70, Cornhill. 

1808. Atlas, Cheapside. 



INT 



'583- 



INU 



1837- Britannia, Princes-street. 

1820. British Commercial, Cornhill, 
1825. Clerical, Great Russell-street. 

1806. County, Regent-street. 

1824. Crown, New Bridge-street, (fire 
only). 

1807. Eagle, New Bridge-street. 
1823. Economic, New Bridge-street. 
1762. Equitable, Chatham Place. 

1819. European, Chatham Place. 
1803. Globe, Cornhill. 

1821. Guardian, Lombard-street. 
1696. Hand-in-Hand, New Bridge- 
street. 

1807- Hope, New Bridge-street. 

1820. Imperial, Sun Court. 

1823. Law Life, Fleet-street. 

1837. Legal and General, Fleet-street. 

1838. Licensed Victuallers, London 
Bridge. 

1721. London Assurance, 19, Birchin 
Lane. 

I8O6. London Life, 81, King Wil- 
liam Street. 

1835. Metropolitan, Princes-street. 
1834. Mutual, 37, Old Jewry. 
1830. National, King WiUiam-street. 

1836. National Loan Fund, Cornhill. 
1809. North British, Bank Build- 
ings. 

1808. Norwich Union, Bridge-street. 
1797. Palladium, Waterloo Place. 
1797. Pelican, Lombard-street. 
1827. Promoter, Chatham Place. 
1838. Protector, Old Jewry. 

1806. Provident, Regent- street. 

1807. Rock, 14, New Bridge-street. 

1722. Royal Exchange, Lombard- 
street. 

1824. Scottish Union, Strand. 
1714. Union, Cornhill. 

1834. United Kingdom, Waterloo 
Place. 

1834. Universal, King William-street. 

1825. Universit)'', Suffolk-street. 
1838. Victoria, King William-street. 
I8O7. West of England, New Bridge- 
street. 

1792. Westminster, Strand. 

INSURRECTIONS. See Conspi- 
racies. 

INTERDICT, an ecclesiastical cen- 
sure, by which the church of Rome for- 
bids the performance of divine service in 
any country or city. This censure has 
been frequently executed in France, Italy, 
and Germany ; and in 1170, Pope Alex- 
ander III. put all England under an in- 
terdict. 

INTEREST of money first mentioned 



as legal at 10 per cent. 1199. It was 2(?. per 
week for 20s. in 1260; 45 per cent. 1307. 

First law m England establishing at 
10 per cent, 1546. The subjects of 
Edward VI. repealed this as unlawful 
and most impious ; but it was restored 
in Queen Elizabeth's time. In those 
days the monarchs could not borrow 
without the collateral security ^of the 
metropolis. In 1624 the legal rate wa8 
reduced to 8 per cent. ; and in the reign 
, of Queen Anne it was further reduced 
to 5 per cent., at which it continues, 
with some modifications in regard to bills 
of exchange. See Usury. 

INTERIM, a name given to a formu- 
lary, or kind of confession of the articles 
of faith, obtruded upon the protestants 
of Germany after Luther's death by the 
emperor ChaJJtes V., May 15, 1548. It 
was abolished by the diet at Augsburg in 
1555. 

INUNDATIONS. The following are 
the principal on record : — 

A.D. 8. The Thames destroyed a great 
number of the inhabitants of its banks. 

80. The Severn overflowed, and de- 
stroyed vast quantities of cattle. 

S7- The Med way overflowed its banks 
and dro^vned the country. 

95. The Humber overflowed and laid 
the adjacent country, for 50 miles, under 
water. 

115. The Severn overflowed and 
drowned 5000 head of cattle, and people 
in their beds. 

214. The Trent overflowed above 20 
miles on each side of its banks, and 
drowned many people. 

218. The Tweed had a sudden inun- 
dation, and destroyed a considerable 
number of the inhabitants on its 
banks. 

245. An inundation of the sea in Lin- 
colnshire, which laid under water many 
thousand acres, that have not been re- 
covered to this time. 

250. The Ouse, in Bedfordshire, over- 
flowed, and drowned numbers of people 
and cattle. 

323. Another inundation which de- 
stroyed all the inhabitants in Feme 
Island, seven miles soulh-west from 
Holy Island. 

353. Above 5000 people lost in Che- 
shire by an irruj)tion. 

415. One of the Dee, which drowned 
40 families. 

738. An inundation at Glasgow, which 
drowned above 400 families. 



INU 



584 



INU 



1100. The sea overflowed 4000 acres 
of Earl Godwin's land, in Kent, since 
called Godwin Sands. 

1108. A great part of Flanders over- 
flowed by the sea, 

1243. An inundation of the Thames 
for above six miles at Lambeth, &c. 

1280. AtWinchelsea, above 300 houses 
were overthrown by the sea. 

1339. 120 laymen, and several priests, 
besides women, were drowned by an in- 
undation at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

1400. At the Texel, which first raised 
the commerce of Amsterdam. 

1421. The sea broke in at Dort, and 
drowned 72 villages, and 100,000 people, 
and formed the Zuyder sea. 

1717. In Holland and Zealand, when 
1300 inhabitants were drowned, and also 
one at Holstein in the same year. 

1722. May 18, in Yorkshire, called 
Rippon flood. 

1730. In Chili, which overflowed the 
city of Conception. 

1735. At Dagenham, and upon the 
coast of Essex, which carried away the 
sea-walls, and drowned several thousand 
sheep and black cattle. 

1762. One in Spain, in April, which did 
3,000,000 livres' damage at Bilboa. May 
following in France, which did great 
damage. 

1770. November, at Coventry, 70 per- 
sons were drowned, and much damage 
done, as well as in Cambridgeshire, Glou- 
cestershire, &c. 

1771- In the north of England, when 
Newcastle-bridge, &c., was carried away. 

1773. November 10, at Venice, and 
at Naples, where it carried away a whole 
village, and drowned 200 of the inl'abi- 
tants. One also at Calcutta, in the East 
Indies. 

1785. In diff"erent parts of Germany, 
when some thousands had their houses 
and property destroyed. September and 
October, in different parts of England. 

1787- September, at Navarre, in Spain, 
where 2000 lost their lives, and all the 
buildings of several villages were carried 
away by the currents from themountains. 

1787. November 12, a terrible inun- 
dation by the Liffey, in Ireland, which 
did very considerable damage in Dublin 
and its environs. 

1 788. October 4, at Kirkwald, in Scot- 
land, by breaking the dam-dykes, which 
nearly destroyed the town. 

1791. November 20, of the river Don, 
near Doncaster, and the Derwent and 



Trent, and one of great extent at Pla- 
centia in Italy. 

1795. February, almost throughout 
England, by the melting of the snow, 
and the greatest part of the bridges were 
either destroyed or damaged. 

1800. October 4, at St. Domingo, 
which destroyed 1400 persons. 

1811. April, at Pest, near Prestburg, 
by the overflow of the Danube, by which 
24 villages with their inhabitants were 
swept away. 

1811. October, by the overflowing of 
the Elbe, the village of Wurgen, in the 
duchy of Luneburg, was swept away. 

1813. September 14, by the overflow 
of the Danube, a Turkish corps of 2000 
men, on a small island, near Widden, 
were surprised and met with instant 
death, and the island itself sunk and 
disappeared. 

1813. August, by the overflowing of 
the Drave, near Orsatch, six villages and 
the suburbs of a town were swept away, 
and a congregation of 240 persons buried 
beneath the ruins of a church. 

1813. June and July, in Silesia, six 
thousand inhabitants were destroyed, 
and the ruin of the French army, under 
Macdonald, accelerated by the floods : 
and in Poland 4000 lives are supposed 
to have been lost. By the overflow of 
the Mississippi, the country on the west 
side was inundated to the distance of 65 
miles, by which 22,000 head of neat cat- 
tle were destroyed. 

1814. February, by the overflow of 
the Nerbudda river, in the province of 
Bengal, which swept away 15 villages, 
with the houses, inhabitants, and cattle. 

I8I6. January 12, at Strabane, in 
Ireland, by the melting of the snow on 
the surrounding mountains, the most 
destructive flood that had been witnessed 
for 20 years. 

1 8 1 6. February, the greatest flood ever 
remembered in Northumberland and 
Durham. 

1816. March, 53 villages in the great 
Werder, 49 in the districts of Segenhofi^i 
and 17 Elbing villages, were under water. 

1816. June and July, at Thiel, Arn- 
heim, Zutphen, and numerous other 
places on the continent, the harvest was 
nearly destroyed by inundations from 
continued rain. 

1829. In Moray, Scotland, when above 
5000 square miles were flooded. 

1833. August 29, 10,000 houses de- 
stroyed at Canton. 



ION 



585 



ION 



1833, October, 18,000 houses carried 
away in the city of Chienchow, besides 
much other damage done throughout 
China. 

1834. January 15, whole villages swept 
away, and many thousands of inhabi- 
tants, in the country around Canton. 

1837. December 27, in the north of 
England. The roads, and many towns 
and villages were inundated, some lives 
lost, and much property destroyed. 

1840. Dreadful inundation in Italy 
and France. In Sardinia it broke sud- 
denly on the town of Verres, a,nd nearly 
destroyed it. In France the sudden rise 
of theRhone carried every thing before it. 

INVASIONS of England and Great 
Britain : — 

A.c. 55. By the Romans under Julius 
Caesar, a.d. 43. Again under Plautius. 
In 447, by the Saxons. Invasions by 
the Danes. See Danes. 

From the death of Edward the Con- 
fessor, there have been 21 unsuccessful 
attempts at invasion. The following were 
the only successful ones : — In Sept. 29, 
1066, by WilliamofNormandy. In Sept. 
23, 1326, by Isabel, queen of Edward II. 
In July, 1399, by the duke of Lancaster. 
In 1470, by the earl of Warwick. In 
1471, by Edward IV. In Aug. 6, 1485, 
by the earl of Richmond, afterwards 
Henry VII. In Oct. 19, 1688, by the 
prince of Orange, afterwardsWilliamlll. 

INVOCATION of the Virgin and 
and Saints began to be practised 593. 

lONA. See Icolmkill. 

IONIAN Islands, a republic, com- 
posed of the islands, Corfu, Paxo, Santa 
Maura, Ithaca, Cerigo, Zante,and Cepha- 
lonia, situate west from the Gulf of Le- 
panto. Previous to the French Revolu- 
tion, these islands were subject to Venice, 
but ceded to the French by the treaty of 
Campo Formio, in 1797; the French 
were shortly afterwards driven out; and 
in 1799, the Russians and Turks con- 
quered them. The emperor Paul, of 
Russia, in 1800, declared them a state 
under the protection of Turkey. In 
1807, they were again relinquished to 
France by the Treaty of Tilsit ; but all 
except Corfu, fell subsequently into the 
possession of the British, Nov. 5, 1815. 
The Ionian islands were finally placed 
under the protection of the British, from 
whom they received a constitution in 1 8 1 7. 
There is a British high commissioner re- 
sident at Corfu, the capital of the state, 
and Great Britain has a right to occupy 



the fortresses and keep up garrisons. 
In 1819, on the cession of the city of 
Parga to the Porte, by Great Britain, 
the greater part of the inhabitants, in 
despair, emigrated to the Ionian islands. 
See Parga. Since the British occu- 
pation the trade has greatly increased. 
In 1835 a steam engine, with hydraulic 
presses for the squeezing of the olives, 
and with four pairs of stones attached 
for the grinding of corn, was sent to 
Corfu. 

IPSWICH, Suffolk, was anciently for- 
tified, and encompassed with a ditch and 
rampart. The Danes pillaged the town, 
and demolished part of its defences in 
991 and 1000. William the Conqueror 
erected a castle here, which Stephen 
caused to be taken down. King John 
restored all the mural protections, and 
built four town gates. Previous to 1477, 
a free grammar-school existed here ; Car- 
dinal Wolsey converted it into a colle- 
giate institution, which becoming extinct 
with the termination of his greatness, 
Henry VIII. restored it to its original 
form, and Queen Elizabeth confirmed 
and enlarged the foundation, in 1565. 
Some remains of Wolsey's college still 
survive the waste of years. 

IRELAND, the most w'esterly of the 
British isles. There is no evidence that 
the Irish had the use of letters before the 
middle of the fifth century, when Chris- 
tianity and christian literature were in- 
troduced by St. Patrick. In the eighth 
and ninth centuries, the scholars of Ire- 
land were amongst the most distin- 
guished at the courts of the Saxon kings, 
arid of Charlemagne. 

Ireland had been for nearly two cen- 
turies, torn by internal wars, and ravaged 
by the Danes ; when, in the beginning of 
the ] 1th century, Brian Borrhoimi, or 
Boroihm (the conqueror), united the 
greater part of the kingdom under his 
sceptre. 

1156. Dermot Mc Murrogh, king of 
Leinster, having provoked the vengeance 
of O'Rourke, prince of Breflhy, or Lei- 
trim, by the abduction of his wife, fled 
for aid against the wrath of his enraged 
enemy, to Henry II., king of England, 
whom in return he promised to acknow- 
ledge as his sovereign lord. Henry ac- 
cepted the conditions, and gave permis- 
sion to all his subjects to assist him. In 
1170, Richard, earl of Chepstow, accom- 
panied by Fitzstephen and Fitzgerald, 
with a ismall body of troops, landed in 

4 F 



IRE 



586 



I RE 



Ireland, and soon made themselves mas- 
ters of a considerable part of the island, 
which was totallj' subdued in 1210. 

1310. Edward Bruce, brother of the 
king of Scotland, landed in Ireland at the 
head of a Scottish force, and caused him- 
self to be crowned king of the island, 
but was defeated, and obliged to return 
without accomplishing any thing sub- 
stantial. 

1361, The duke of Clarence, son of 
Edward III., married the daughter and 
heiress of the king of Ulster, the only 
independent prince that then remained. 
A parliament held at Kilkenny, in 1367, 
forbade intermarriages with the Irish, the 
use of their language, &c. In the reign 
of Henry VII., the law of Sir Henry 
Poynings was enacted, which ordained 
that Irish parliaments should not assem- 
ble or pass any laws without the leave 
and approbation of England. The reigns 
of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth were tur- 
bulent; the latter was disturbed by 
O'Neil, earl of Tyrone, aided by the 
Spaniards. 

1613. The first national parliament 
was held in Ireland. James I. expelled 
great numbers of the natives from the 
counties of Donegal, Tyrone, Derry, Fer- 
managh, Ca^an, and Armagh, and co- 
lonized them with English undertakers, 
and Scotch servitors. In this reign the 
University of Dul)lin, founded by Eliza- 
beth, was enriched by many of the 
largest benefices in the province. On 
the accession of Charles I., Wentvvorth, 
afterwards earl of Strafford, was ap- 
pointed lieutenant, and estabUshed the 
linen manufacture : his measures, though 
frequently arbitrary, were beneficial to 
the country. 

1641. A rebellion broke out, when 
many English Protestants were mur- 
dered in cold blood. After the death of 
Charles I., Cromwell was appointed lieu- 
tenant, and with his usual promptitude, 
soon reduced the whole country. 

The dependence of the Irish parlia- 
ment on the English became a subject 
of controversy; and, in 1719, was passed 
an act, declaring that the British parlia- 
ment had full power to make laws, bind- 
ing the people of Ireland. The Irish 
trade and industry were also subject to 
every kind of restriction and discourage- 
ment. Factions now broke out under 
the various names of Whiteboys, Oak- 
boys, &c. 

Ireland was attempted to be invaded 



by the French, in 1760, by Thurot ; and 
in Jan. 1789, at Bantry Bay, where 
their forces were dispersed in a storm. 
It was put under martial law, May 19, 
1797. The French landed, at Killala 
Bay, 1500 men, Aug. 22, 1798, who sur- 
rendered prisoners, Sept. 7, following. 
The suppression of the civil war was fol- 
lowed, in 1800, by the legislative union 
of the two kingdoms ; from this period 
the history of Ireland belongs to that 
of Great Britain. 

The following is a list of the lords 
lieutenant of Ireland, from the Union : 
Earl of Hardwicke, Feb. 23, 1801. Duke 
of Bedford, Feb. 12, 1806. Duke of Rich- 
mond, April, 1807. Viscount VVhitworth, 
June, 1813. Earl Talbot, Sept., 1817- 
Marquis Wellesley, Dec. 1821. Marquis 
of Anglesey, 1826. Duke of Northum- 
berland, 1827. Marquis of Anglesey, 
Dec. 1830. Marquis Wellesley, again, 
1833. Lord Mulgrave, 1835. Marquis of 
Normanby, 1838. Viscount Ebrington, 
1839. 

The following are the principal facta 
in the domestic history of Ireland, since 
the Union : — 

1801. A select committee reported, 
that a secret and extensive conspiracy 
existed throughout the country, without 
definite objects, against the government; 
and in 1803 a rebellion broke out. In 
1806 appeared the combination of the 
" Threshers," a most extensive associa- 
tion, for regulating tithes, priests' dues, 
&c. 

ISll — 1814, the greater part of Ire- 
land was a prey to the most frightful ex- 
cesses. In 1817 the Insurrection Act 
was deemed by government to be indis- 
pensable. In 1821 nearly the whole of 
Munster, and a considerable portion of 
Leinster and Connaught, were in a state 
of insurrection ; many districts were pro- 
claimed, and the law executed upon the 
offenders with the utmost severity. Large 
bodies of troops were dispersed over the 
disturbed districts, but with little avail ; 
a spirit of outrage which led to daring 
and systematic violations of the law, still 
prevailed. This was the precursor of a 
renewal of the Insurrection Act, in 1823 
and 1824. 

1829- The memorable year in which 
Catholic Emancipation was carried, was 
attended by some disturbances, which 
partially continued during two fol- 
lowing years. In 1833 the country was 
proclaimed under the Coercion Act; 



IRU 



587 



IRV 



since then a gradual amendment has 
taken place. 

1830 — 1839. The improvement was 
most decided ; some murders had heen 
committed in the country, but they were 
chiefly confined to one district. 

1840. The Irish Corporation Bill 
passed, Aug. 6. See Municipal Cor- 
porations. 

IRELAND, Samuel, notorious for 
the forgery of the Shakspeare papers, 
died 1835. 

IRENE, empress of Constantinople, 
born in 752 ; deposed and banished to 
Lesbos, 802 ; died 803. 

IREN^EUS, an ancient Christian 
writer, and bishop of Lyons, was born in 
Greece about the close of the first cen- 
tury. He was the disciple of Pappias 
and Polycarp, by whom he was sent into 
Gaul, about 157. In 178 he was sent to 
Rome, where he disputed with Valen- 
tinus, and his two disciples, Florinus and 
Blastus. At his return to Lyons, he 
succeeded Photinus, as bishop of that 
city. It has been commonly supposed 
that he died a martyr, in 202. The best 
editions of his works are those of Eras- 
mus, in 1526 : of Grabe, in 1702 ; and of 
Father Massuett, in 1710. His writings 
aflford express teotimony to the four Gos- 
pels, the Acts of the Apostles, and twelve 
of Paul's Epistles. 

IRETON, Gen. H., commander of 

the Parliamentary army, and son-in-law 

to Cromwell, born 1610, died 1651. 

IRISH Hospitals. See Hospitals. 

IRISH Working School Society, 

incorporated Oct. 1773. 

IRON, the most difficult of all the 
metals to obtain in a state fit for use. It 
was prepared in ancient Egypt, and some 
other countries, at a very remote period; 
but it was very little used in- Greece till 
after the Trojan war. 

Iron mines have been wrought in Eng- 
land from a very early period ; those of 
the Forest of Dean, in Gloucestershire, 
are known to have existed in the year 
1066. In consequence of the great con- 
sumption of timber which they occa- 
sioned, they were restrained by act of 
parliament, in 1581. Soon after this, 
Edward Lord Dudley invented the pro- 
cess of smelting iron ore with pit-coal in- 
stead of wood fuel, for which he obtained 
a patent, in 1619, but it did not then 
come into use. 

In the early part of last century, com- 
plaints being made of the waste and 



destruction of woods caused by the 
smelting of iron, this led, about 1740, to 
the general adoption of Lord Dudley's 
process for using pit coal. From this 
period the progress of the manufacture 
has exceeded the most sanguine expec- 
tations. In ] 740 the quantity of pig iron 
manufactured in England and Wales, 
amounted to about 17,000 tons, pro- 
duced by 59 furnaces, and this has gone 
on increasing in quantities varying to 
1830, when 678,417 tons were produced 
by 367 furnaces. The quantity of iron 
and steel, wrought and unwrought, ex- 
ported from Great Britain in 1838 was 
256,017 tons, at the declared value of 
£2,535,692. 

1839. The council of the Institution 
of Civil Engineers awarded a Telford 
premium to Mr. Bramah, for his series 
of experiments on the strength of cast 
iron. These experiments, undertaken 
with the view of verifying the principles 
assumed in the work of Tredgold on 
Iron, exceeded any previous ones, since 
two specimens of each beam were sub- 
jected to trial. The principles sought to 
be established are that, within the elastic 
limit, the forces of compression and 
extension are equal; and that, conse- 
quently, a triangular beam, provided it 
be not loaded beyond that limit, v/ill 
have the same amount of deflection, 
whether the base or apex be uppermost; 
and a flanged beam the same deflection 
whether the flange be at top or bottom, 

IRON MAsauE, or Man with the 
Iron Masque, died in the Bastile at 
Paris, 1703. The identity of this un- 
fortunate person is an historical problem. 
By some he is said to have been the twin- 
brother of Louis XIV. ; by others, the 
son of Cardinal Mazarin, by Louis'* 
mother, Anne of Austria. By some he 
is said to have been Foucquet, a states- 
man, in the time of Louis ; by others 
Count Matthioli, secretary of state to 
Charles HI. duke of Mantua. 

IRONMONGERS' Company, Lon- 
don, incorporated 1464. 

IRVING, Rev. Edward, M.A., the 
celebrated preacher, was born at Annan 
in Dumfries-shire, and educated at the 
University of Edinburgh. In 1811 he 
was appointed to superintend the mathe- 
matical school at Haddington, whence he 
was removed, in 1812, to instruct the 
higher classes at Kirkaldy. On being 
afteiwards engaged by Dr. Chalmers 
as his assistant, in St. John's Parish, 



ISL 



588 



1ST 



Glasgow, he gained so much reputation, 
that on a vacancy occurring in the mi- 
nistry of the Caledonian church, in Cross 
street, Hatton Garden, he was invited to 
London, and took possession of the 
pulpit in August, 1822. Here he 
soon attracted very large congregations, 
by the force and eloquence of his dis- 
courses, and, also, by the singularity of 
his appearance and gesticulation. 

A handsome church, erected forhimby 
Subscription, in Sidmouth-street, Regent 
Square, was completed in 1829. He was 
scarcely established in his new pulpit, 
when his thirst for notoriety urged him 
to the adoption of more dangerous ec- 
centricities, and he became the founder 
of a sect which still bears his name. He 
was charged with heresy, at a meeting 
of the presbytery of London, Nov. 29, 
1830. At length the trustees of the 
church in Regent Square completed his 
ejection May 3, 1832. The latter years 
of his life were marked by an increase 
of those eccentricities for which he had 
been long distinguished. He died at 
Glasgow, Dec. G, 1834, aged 43. "The 
constitutional basis and ground-work of 
his character," says Dr. Chalmers, " was 
virtue alone, and notwithstanding all 
his errors and extravagances, which 
both injured him in the estimation of 
the world, and threw discredit upon 
much that was good and useful in his 
writings, I believe him to have been a 
man of deep and devoted piety." 

ISAAC, Abraham's son, died a c. 
1717, aged 180. 

IS^EUS, the Greek orator, flourished 
A.C. 400. 

ISAIAH began to prophesy, a.c. 786. 
Put to death a.c. 696. 

ISHMAEL, son of Abraham, born 
A.c. 1910, died 1773. 

ISLEWORTH, Middlesex. In 1263 
the barons, in an insurrection against 
Henry III., encamped in Isleworth park. 
The property having subsequently be- 
come vested in the crown, Henry V. 
founded on it a convent of Bndgetine 
nuns, called the monastery of Sion. Ed- 
ward VI. granted the estates to his uncle 
the duke of Somerset; on his attainder 
it fell to the crown, and was regranted, 
in 1604, to Henry, duke of Northum- 
berland, whose descendants still retain 
possession. 

ISLE OF Man. See Man. 

ISLINGTON, Middlesex, was an- 
ciently a favourite place of recreation for 



the citizens of London, and in 1514, 
when the commons were enclosed, they 
levelled the fences, and attempted to con- 
tinue their amusements by force. Fox 
says, that four persons were burned here 
for heresy, in 1557. Ramparts were 
thrown up at Islington for the defence 
of the capital, at the commencement of 
the war between Charles I. and the par- 
liament. 

ISLINGTON Church, Middlesex, 
rebuilt Aug. 28, 1751. 

ISLIP, Oxfordshire. Near the cen- 
tre anciently stood a palace belonoing to 
Ethelred II.,whose son, Edward the Con- 
fessor, was born here. The manor was 
given by the confessor to the abbot and 
monks of Westminster, and in the manor- 
house Isabel of France resided for a 
short time in 1326, whilst concerting 
measures for the dethronement of her 
husband Edward II. In 1644 and 1645, 
there were repeated skirmishes in this 
village, and its vicinity, between the 
forces of Charles and the parliament. 

ISMAIL, or IsMAiLov, town, Euro- 
pean Russia, was, in December 1790, 
stormed by the Russians under Suwar- 
row : they were several times repulsed 
by the Turks, and lost in the siege 
10,000 men, but at length succeeded: 
30,000 prisoners were afterwards put to 
death in cold blood by the conquerors. 
The booty was immense in horses and 
military stores, valued at 10,000,000 
piastres. 

ISOCRATES. Athenian orator, died 
A.c. 338, aged 89- 

ISPAHAN, Persia. Under the calijjhs 
of Bagdad it became the capital of the 
province of Irak. In 1337 it was taken 
Ijy Timour Bee, and 70,000 of the in- 
habitants are said to have perished in 
an indiscriminate slaughter. Shah Abbas 
afterwards greatly embellished it. In 
1722 it was taken by the AfFghans, but 
in 1727 was retaken by Nadir Shah. 

ISRAELITES. See Bible, p. 104. 
For an account of their subsequent his- 
tory, see Jews. 

ISTHMIAN Games instituted by 
Sysiphus, king of Corinth, in honour of 
Neptune, a.c. 1326 ; revived by Theseus, 
1234 ; restored, and ordered to be cele- 
brated every fifth year, 582. 

ISTRIA, district, Austria, part of an- 
cient Illyria. Two thirds of this terri- 
tory formerly belonged to the Venetians ; 
but the whole was ceded to Austria in 
1805. It became subject to France in 



JAC 



589 



JAC 



1809, but was conquered by Austria in 
1814, and confirmed to that power at the 
general pacification of Europe. 

ITALY was anciently known by a va- 
riety of names. It was called Latium, 
from the Latini ; Ansonia, from the An- 
sones ; and Hesperia, from its western 
situation in respect of Greece. From a 
colony of the Latins proceeded the Ro- 
mans, who subdued the other nations, 
one after another, and held them in sub- 
jection for more than 700 years. See 
Rome. 

After the decline of this empire, to- 
wards the close of the fifth century, when 
the empire of the west was every day 
deprived, by the conquests of neighbour- 
ing tribes of barbarians, of some valuable 
province or territory, Italy alone for 
some time preserved the appearance and 
name of the Roman empire. 

Odoacer established the kingdom of 
Italy, and declared the Roman empire in 
the west abolished, 476 ; the empire of 
the Ostrogoths, under Theodoric, ex- 
tended from 493 — 553. Italy was re- 
conquered in Ipart by Belisarius and 
Narses, for the empire of the east, 535 — 
554 ; thesubpatriarchateof Italy extend- 
ed from 554 — 568 ; success of the Lom- 
bards, and division of Italy into Lom- 
bardy (under the Lombards), and the 
sub-patriarchate of Ravenna, or Gre- 
cian Italy (under the emperor of the 
east), 568 : the dukes at Rome expelled, 
728, and the pope (Gregory II.) placed 
at the head of the Roman republic. 

Quarrels of the popes with the sub- 
patriarch and the Lombardian kings ; 
destruction of the sub-patriarchate by 
Astolphus, a Lombard, 752 ; Pepin 
reigned in Italy, 754 — 755 ; conquest of 
Lombardy by Karl (Charlemagne), 774, 
who was named emperor of the west, 
800. 

Dismemberment of the new empire; 
Berenger I. made king of Italy, 888 ; 
wars with the emperors; perpetual de- 
feats ; independence of the principal 
cities ; elevation of Genoa (where there 
was a consulate), 888 ; and of Venice 
(of which the first magistrate was a 



doge), 697 ; augmentation of the papal 
power; exploits and conquests of the 
Normans, 1005 — 1 114, &c., who formed 
the kingdom of Naples. 

Wars of the Guelphs and Gibelins 
(WelphandHohenstauffen),1138— 1268, 
&c. See Gibelins. Quarrels of the 
popes with the French, 1295 — 1303. 

Grand division of the vvest, 1378 — 1449; 
Tuscany divided into numerous repubhc 
provinces, Florence, Pisa, Lucca, &c. 
In Lombardy, the Visconti, dukes of 
Milan, 1395; counts of Piedmont, 1382; 
dukes of Savoy, 1419; the Este at Fer- 
rara (another branch at Modena and 
Reggio), 1452 ; the Carraras at Padua, 
1337 — 1405 ; the Gonzagvies, marquises 
of Mantua, 1433, &c. &c. 

Power of the Medici family, 1430, &c. 
usurpation of the duchy of Milan by 
Sforza, 1450; the long wars of the 
French kings (representing the house of 
Visconti) in Italy, 1450 — 1540; new in- 
vasion, 1629 — 1689 ; treaty of Aix-la- 
Chapelle resolved that Naples shall be an 
independent kingdom ; Lombardy, Aus- 
tria, and Tuscany, governed by a prince 
of this house. 

Conquest by the French, 1796— 18G0; 
Cisalpine republic, 1801 ; afterwards 
called the Italian republic, then kingdom 
of Italy, 1805 (Milan the capital) : this 
state was succeeded by the Lombardo- 
Venetian kingdom, which comprises part 
of the same country. Naples has only 
changfed its sovereigns ; the states of 
the Church, which had been divided be- 
tween the kingdom of It.ly and the 
French empire, were re-established on 
their ancient footing in 1815. See Na- 
ples ; Sardinia ; Church, States 
OF, &c. 

ITHACA, island of, Mediterranean, 
celebrated as the island of Ulysses, and 
some of the places mentioned by Homer 
can still be traced here. United to the 
republic of the Ionian islands in 1817. 

ITURBIDE, emperor of Mexico, ex- 
pelled, but returned, when he was tried, 
condemned, and shot, Oct. 19, 1824. 

IVES, John, English antiquarian 
and writer, died 1776. 



J. 



JACATRA, district island of Java, 
subject to the Dutch, who obtained it 
by conquest in 1619. 



JACOB stole the blessing from Esau, 
A.c. 1776; went into Egypt a.c. 1723 ; 
died A.c. 1689, aged 147. 



JAM 



5go 



JAM 



JACOB, Edward, English antiquary 
and naturalist, died 1788. 

JACOB, Giles, English law writer, 
particularly of the " Law Dictionary," 
born 1686, died 1744. 

JACQUEMONT, M.Victor, a cele- 
brated Frenchnatuialist, died Dec.7, 1833. 

JAFFA, the ancient Joppa, town of 
Palestine, was the only seaport possessed 
by the Jews, and hence became the seat of 
an extensive trade ; it is frequently men- 
tioned in scripture. In 1799 this town 
was taken by Napoleon Buonaparte, and 
here a massacre of prisoners is said to 
have taken place ; but ail posthumous 
histories of that extraordinary person 
contradict the narration. 

JAFFNA, a town of Ceylon. The 
Dutch took it from the Portuguese in 
1658, but it fell into the hands of the Bri- 
tish in 1795, with whom it still remains. 

JAGO, St., a Sj)anish register ship, 
taken May 1793, valued at £1,500,000. 

JAMAICA, island of. West Indies, 
was discovered by Columbus in 1494; 
and in 1503 he was wrecked upon its 
coast. In 1509 it was colonized by the 
Spaniards ; but in 1555 these intruders 
abandoned every place in the island ex- 
cept St. Jago de la Vega. Diego, the 
son of Columbus, appointed Esquivel, a 
Castilian, his deputy, and this nobleman 
founded Sevilla Nueva, near to the spot 
where Columl)us suffered shipwreck. 

1596. Jamaicawas invaded and pillaged 
by the English, under Sir Anthony Shir- 
ley ; and again, in 1636, by Colonel 
Jackson. In 1655 Penn and Venables, 
who had been dispatched by OUver 
Cromwell to take Hispaniola, possessed 
themselves of Jamaica, which was soon 
taken, and settled by 3000 disbanded 
soldiers of Cromwell's army, followed 
by 1500 royalists 

The Maroons (the slaves of the first 
Spanish settlers), who fled to the moun- 
tains upon the above invasion, after hav- 
ing suffered very severely, obtained fa- 
vourable terms, and agrant of land in 1 738, 
which had the effect of pacifying them 
until the year 1795, when their temerity 
subjected them to a repetition of the 
chastisement they had before experienced. 
Blood-hounds were employed in discover- 
ing their haunts in the mountains, and a 
war of extermination was pursued. A 
mere remnant, which surrendered at dis- 
cretion, was spared, and 600 were tran- 
sported to Nova Scotia. 

For several years the peace of the island 



was undisturbed, and the efforts for the 
extension of religion were consider- 
able. The Baptist mission commenced 
its labours in 1815, and has ever since 
been very successful. The bishopric of 
Jamaica was established in 1824. The 
see extends over the Bahamas and Hon- 
duras. There are 21 rectors, and alto- 
gether of clergymen of the established 
church 57- 

1826. The local Slave Act, designed as 
a counteraction to missionary exertion, 
was first passed in the house of assembly, 
and afterwards several times disallowed 
by the British government. This act 
prohibited meetings for worship between 
sunrise and sunset. 

1832. In consequence of this and other 
oppressive acts, a most unfavourable 
sensation was excited among the ne- 
groes, which, this year, broke out into 
open rebellion. Under the pretence of 
counteracting these evils, a society was 
formed, called the Colonial Church Union, 
the object of which was the overthrow of 
the whole system of missionary labour. 

1833. Mr.Knibb, one of theBaptistmis- 
sionaries from Jamaica, visited England, 
to lay the wrongs of the negro before 
the British public and government The 
result was, that an act was passed for 
the abolition of slavery in the colonies, 
and the substitution of the apprenticeship 
system. By the provisions of the bill 
the non-praedial apprentices would have 
received their complete emancipation on 
August 1, 1838, and the praedial la- 
bourers on Aug. 1, 1840. Subsequently, 
a bill was brought forward in the legis- 
lativeassembly of Jamaicaby the planters, 
in June, giving perfect liberation to all 
the apprentices on Aug. 1, 1838 ; and this 
example was followed by most of the 
other colonies. 

JAMES'S, St., built 1530, converted 
to a palace, and a park made, 1536. 
One of the wings destroyed by fire 1809. 
Repaired in 1821 and 1823. 

James, St., the Less, bishop of 
Jerusalem, martyred 62. 

JAMES, Dr. Robert, inventor of 
the fever- powder, born 1703, died Feb. 
28, 1776. 

JAMES I. of England, born at Edin- 
burgh, June 19, 1566, crowned king of 
Scotland, July 22, 1567- Succeeded to 
the crown of England, March 24, 1603. 
First stj'led king of Great Britain, 1604. 
Died of an ague, March 27, 1625. Was 
buried at Westminster. 



JAN 

JAMES II. of England, born Oct. 14, 
1633. Succeeded to the throne Feb. 6, 
1685. Crowned April 23, 1685. Abdi- 
cated the throne of England 1688, but 
survived till Sept. 16, 1701, when he died 

JAMIESON, John, D.D., F.R.S., 
&c., was for a considerable time, minis- 
ter of a congregation of seceders at For- 
far, Scotland ; but for the last 43 years of 
his life he officiated at Edinburgh. His 
great work is, " Etymological Dictionary 
of the Scottish Language," 2 vols. 4to. 
1808-9; and a "Supplement to the 
Etymological Dictionary," 2 vols. 4to., 
1825. He died at Edinburgh July 12, 
1838, aged 80. 

JANEIRO, Rio De, important city of 
Brazil, vvas founded by the Portuguese 
in 1565, and, in 1763, was made the 
capital. In 1808, in consequence of the 
occupation of Portugal by the French, 
King JohnVI. abandoned his throne, and 
took up his residence at this city.. It con- 
tinued to be the abode of the Portuguese 
court until 1821, and in 1822 became 
the capital of the independent empire of 
Brazil. On April 7, 1831, it was the 
theatre of a revolution, in consequence 
of which Don Pedro abdicated the throne 
in favour of his son, Pedro II. See 
Brazil. 

JANISSARIES, an order of infantry 
in theTurkish armies. The name was first 
given by Amurath I. in 1361. They 
were, for some years, the terror of the 
natives, and sometimes of the sultans 
themselves, whom they, by their insur- 
rections and rebellions, occasionally de- 
throned and murdered. They were ex- 
terminated, and the order abolished by 
the late sultan Mahmoud, June, 1826. 

JANSENISTS, a sect of Roman ca- 
tholics in France, who followed the 
opinions of Jansen, bishop of Ypres, in 
relation to grace and predestination, 
commenced in 1638, when his executors 
published his liook, entitled Augustinus. 
In 1642 the Jesuits obtained of Pope 
Urban VIII. a condemnation of the 
treatise. Bulls were issued against the 
Jansenists in 1652, 1653, and 1656. At 
length Clement XI. put an end to the dis- 
pute by his constitution of July 17, 1705. 

JANUS, Temple of, at Rome, con- 
taining a statue of Janus five feet high, 
with brazen gates on each side, which 
were always kept open in time of war, 
and shut in time of peace. First shut in 
the reign of Numa, who instituted this 



S91 JAV 

ceremony. The last time of its being 
shut was underGordian, about a. u.c. 994. 

JAPAN, empire of, consists of three 
great islands, Niphon, Kiusiu, and 
Sikokf, surrounded by a multitude of 
smaller isles. The sacred era of the 
Japanese goes back to the establishment 
of the hereditary succession of the dai- 
ris, or ecclesiastical emperors, a. c. 660, 
This dynasty continued until a.d. 1585, 
when a military chief (Kubo) deprived 
the dairi of the last semblance of political 
power. From the year 1 549 the Jesuit 
missionaries had laboured to promul- 
gate their faith ; but in 1590, by order of 
the emperor, all the christians of the 
empire, 20,000 in number, were inhu- 
manly massacred. Little is known of 
the internal state or subsequent history 
of Japan. 

JASSY, city, Moldavia, was taken by 
the Russians in 1739 and 1769, but on 
both occasions restored to the Turks at 
the conclusion of peace. In 1788 it fell 
into the power of the Austrians, and 
Jan. 9, 1792, the peace between Russia 
and Turkey was signed here. 

JAVA, island. East Indies, was first 
visited by the Portuguese in 1511. Until 
1612 they chiefly traded with the king- 
dom of Bantam, but, removing to Jo- 
catra, they quarrelled with the prince of 
that country, put the inhabifants to the 
sword, and built Batavia in 16 19. In 
1629-30 they defeated a powerful army, 
sent against them by the sultan of Ma- 
taram. In 1636 Anthony Van Diemen 
(after whom Van Diemen's land was 
named) was governor-general of the 
Dutch Indies. Until 1675 their trans- 
actions were purely mercantile. In 1 722 
a conspiracy was formed for the mas- 
sacre of all the christians in the island, 
headed by Peter Erberfield, a Westpha- 
lian ; but being discovered, the conspira- 
tors were put to death. In 1740 up- 
wards of 10,000 Chinese were butchered 
in the streets of Batavia. In 1810 the 
Dutch advanced to Yugyacarta, deposed 
the sultan of Java, and placed his eldest 
son upon the throne. In 1811 the Bri- 
tish took possession of Java, the Dutch 
colonies having fallen under the domi- 
nion of France. In 1813 a liberal po- 
licy was adopted by the government ; but 
in 1816 Java was restored to the Dutch 

1826. The Javanese were in almost a 
general state of insurrection, particularly 
in the southern and middle districts of 
the island. The insurgents under Djupo 



JER 



592 



JER 



Magoro, a man of some enterprise and 
talent, completely defeated the Dutch 
in the autumn. An expedition was 
fitted out in the end of the year, from 
Java, where the power of the insurgents 
was most alarming, but it was dispersed 
by a violent storm. 

1827. In the beginning of the year, 
several vessels were despatched from 
Holland with troops; Magoro entered 
into negotiations with the Dutch autho- 
rities, and the military operations were 
suspended. 

JEAUNIN, P., a French statesman, 
born 1540, died 1622. 

JEBB, Dr., bishop of Limerick, a di- 
vinity writer, died 1834. 

JEFFRIES, George, the inhuman 
lord chief-justice in the reign of James 
II., sent to the Tower by the lord mayor 
of London, December 12, 1688, where 
he destroyed himself, from the united 
effects of terror and drunkenness, April 
18, 1689. 

JEFFERSON, Thomas, author of 
"Notes on Virginia," and president of 
America, born 1743, died 1826. 

JEFFERY, Robert, put on the de- 
solate island of Saraburo, Dec. 13, 1807, 
by Capt. W. Lake, who was tried for 
cruelty by a court martial, and dismissed 
his majesty's service, Feb. 1810. 

JEKYLL, Sir Joseph, an English 
lawyer, born 1663, died 1738. 

JENA, a town of the duchy of Saxe 
Weimer ; its universitj', founded by 
Charles V. in 1558, in 1829 contained 
600 students. Remarkable as having 
been the scene of a general engagement, 
fought between the French and Prus- 
sian armies October 14, ISOO, in whicli 
the former, commanded by Napoleon 
Buonaparte, were completely victorious, 
and tlie latter suffered prodigious loss. 

JENGHIZ Khan. See Genghis 
Khan. 

JENITE, a new mineral, discovered 
in the island of Elba, 1808. 

JENKINS, Sir Leoline, an En- 
glish civilian, born 1623, died 1685. 

JENNER, Dr., the institutor of vac- 
cine inoculation, born 1749, died 1823. 

JENYNS, SoAME, author of the " In- 
ternal Evidence of the Christian Re- 
ligion," died 1781. 

"JEPHSON, Robert, a dramatic 
writer, born 1736, died 1803. 

JEREMIAH began to prophesy a.c. 
629; foretold the Jewish captivity 607, 
and died 577. 



JERICHO, a town of Palestine, now 
called by the Arabs Herubi, and con- 
taining only a few wretched huts, was 
formerly a considerable city, famous, 
especially in Solomon's reign, for its 
balsam gardens. It was considered the 
key of Palestine, was plundered by Ves- 
pasian, about A. D. 70 ; restored by Adrian, 
about 133; but ruined by the Moslems 
in the ] 2th century. 

JERNINGHAM, Edward, a poet, 
born 1727, died 1806. 

JEROME, one of the most learned of 
the Latin fathers, born about 340. He 
settled in a desert of Syria, where he 
entered upon a strict monastic life, in the 
Slstj^earof hisage. He died Sept. 30, 420. 
JEROME of Prague embraced 
the opinions of John Huss, and began to 
propagate them in 1400. In consequence 
of this be was delivered to the secular 
arm, and brought to the stake in 1416. 

JERSEY, an island in the English 
Channel. When the Normans invaded 
France, in the ninth century, they ra- 
vaged this island. After the French had 
rescued Normandy from the English 
under John, many attempts were made 
by them to recover Jersey : the most 
remarkable was in 1781, when a detach- 
ment under baron de Rullecourt made a 
descent, and were for a time successful; 
but were ultimately repelled. 

JERUSALEM, the capital of Judea, 
now included in the Turkish pachalic of 
Damascus. It was taken from the Je- 
busites by King David, a.c. 1048 ; who 
made it the capital of his kingdom ; cap- 
tured by Hazael, king of Syria, in the 
daysof Joash ; Nebuchadnezzar destroy- 
ed it, A.c. 587, and led the inhabitants 
into captivity. Seventy years after it 
was rebuilt, by permission of Cyrus, and 
continued to be the capital of Judea 
until the reign of Vespasian the Roman 
emperor, by whose son Titus it was 
totally destroyed a.d. 70. 

It was rebuilt by Adrian 130. The 
emperors remained masters of Jerusalem 
till the reign of the caliph Omar, who 
reduced it under his dominion 637- 

In 1099 the crusaders wrested the oc- 
cupancy from the Saracens, and founded 
a kingdom, over which they placed 
Godfrey of Bouillon. This christian 
kingdom continued for 88 years, under 
nine kings, when it was taken by Sultan 
Saladin inll87. In 1217 the Turks ex- 
pelled the Saracens, and have retained 
the possession to the present time. 



JEW 



593 



JOD 



JESUITS, a celebrated religious 
order, founded by Ignatius Loyola, an 
officer in the Spanish army, in 1540. 
When their order was confirmed by 
the bull of Paul III., they only 
amounted to 10. In 1543 they were not 
more than 24; in 1545 they had only 
10 houses : but in 1549 they had two 
provinces, and 22 houses ; and at the 
death of Ignatius in 1556 they had 12 
large provinces. In 1608 they had 29 
provinces, and two vice-provinces ; in 
1629, 35 provinces, two vice-provinces, 
33 houses of profession, 578 colleges, 48 
houses of probation, 88 seminaries, I60 
residences, I06 missions, and in all 
17,655 Jesuits, of whom 7870 were 
priests. 

The emperor Charles V. saw it ex- 
pedient to check their progress in his do- 
minions : they were expelled England, by 
proclamation of James I., in 1604 ; Ve- 
nice, in 1606 ; Portugal, in 1759 ; France 
in 1764; Spain and Sicily, in 1767 ; and 
suppressed and abolished by Pope Cle- 
ment XIV. in 1773. About I8I6 this 
order was attempted to be revived by the 
influence of the holy see. This measure 
excited some alarm in the minds of the 
friends to civil and religious liberty, but 
the order was nevertheless partially re- 
stored at Rome and other states. All 
monks of the order were banished from 
St. Petersburg, Jan. 2, 18 16. 

1829- A clause was introduced into 
the Catholic Relief Bill, which required 
that all Jesuits, or other persons belong- 
ing to religious orders, already within 
the United Kingdom, should register 
themselves, and that no others should be 
admitted into the kingdom, after the 
passing of the bill, except by special li- 
cence from the secretary of state, with 
power to revoke such licence; and if 
such foreign Jesuit or other person did 
not depart within 20 days after the li- 
cence had been revoked, he should be 
banished for life from the United King- 
dom. 

JESUITS' Bark, introduced into 
France 1650; in general use 1680. 

JESUS Christ, order of knight- 
hood, began in France, 1206 ; in Rome 
1320. 

JEWEL, John, a British prelate, dis- 
tinguished by his learning and piety, 
was born in 1522. In 1544 he was ad- 
mitted, to the degree of master of arts, 
and upon the accession of Edward VI., 
in 15 46, he openly avowed himself a 



protestant. In 1550 he took the degree 
of bachelor of divinity, and frequently 
preached before the university with great 
applause. Upon the accession of Queen 
Mary to the crowm in 1553, he was ex- 
pelled from college by the fellows, and 
retired to Frankfort. He returned to 
England in 1558 after Queen Mary's 
death ; and in the following year was 
consecrated bishop of Salisbury. He 
died at Monkton Farley, in 1571, aged 50. 
JEWELS first worn in England in 
1434. The royal jewels of England 
pawned by Charles I. to Holland, and 
redeemed by the sale of iron ordnance, 
1629 ; those of France were seized by 
the national convention 1794. 

JEWS. For an account of their early 
history, see Bible. Their first arrival 
in England was about 1079. AH the Jews 
in England were apprehended in one 
daj"-, their goods and chattels confiscated 
to the king, and they, to the number of 
15,000, banished the realm, having only 
sustenance money allowed, 1286. They 
were restored by Oliver Cromwell; an 
act passed, that no Jew should enjoy a 
freehold, 1296 ; they were driven out of 
Spain, to the number of 150,000, 1492 ; 
retired to Africa, Portugal, and France. 
There was not a Jew in this island from 
1610 to 1624. Naturalization act passed 
1753; repealed the following year. 
Bill to remove the civil disabilities 
affecting the Jews passed the commons 
August 15, 1836, but was abandoned 
in the lords. 

1840. A most cruel persecution of the 
Jews at Damascus, supposed to be at the 
instigation of the French consul there. 
The pacha of Damascus under his in- 
fluence, imprisoned and tortured a great 
number of them. 

JOAN OF Arc condemned for witch- 
craft, and burnt at Orleans, May 30, 
1431, aged 24. See England. 

JOANNINA, capital of Albania, was 
founded in the 15th century, but is prin- 
cipally remarkable during the 19th cen- 
tury as the capital of Ali Pacha, a very 
powerful Turkish chief who shook off 
his allegiance to the Porte, but was ulti- 
mately subdued. It is now included in 
the boundaries of the new kingdom of 
Greece. See Albania. 

JOB died a.c. 1553, aged 189. 
JODRELL, Richard Paul, dra- 
matic writer, deputy lieutenant and jus- 
tice of the peace for the counties of Ox- 
ford, Derby, Norfolk, and Middlesex, 
4 G 



JOH 



594 



JON 



was born Nov. 13, 1745. Elected a 
fellow of the Royal Society in 177'2, and 
of the Society of Antiquaries in 1784. 
He died Jan. 26, 1831, aged 85. 

JOEL prophesied 800 years before 
Christ. 

JOHN, king of England, born at 
Oxford, Dec. 24, 1166, was crowned 
May 27, 1199 Died at Newark, Oct. 
19, 1216. Was buried at Worcester, 
where his corpse was discovered nearly 
entire in 1797, having been buried 580 
years. 

JOHN OF Gaunt, fourth son of Ed- 
ward ni. was born 1339. Created duke 
of Lancaster 1362. Appointed regent 
to Richard H. 1377- Supported Wick- 
liffe against his opposers 1378. He 
had liis palace at the Savoy destroyed 
by Wat Tyler's mob 1381. Ravaged 
Scotland to the gates of Edinburgh 
1384. Assumed the title of king of Cas- 
tile and Leon, having married the daugh- 
ter of Peter the Cruel, 1385. Died Feb. 
1399. 

JOHN, St., the Baptist, was beheaded 
about 32. 

JOHN, St., the Evangelist, composed 
his Gospel, about the year 96, and died 
at Ephesus, in the reign of Trajan, in 
100. 

JOHNES, Thomas, translator of 
" Froissart and Monstrelet," died April 
24, 1816. 

JOHNSON, Dr. Samuel, one of 
the most celebrated English writers, was 
born at Lichfield, in Staffordshire, Sept. 
IS, 1709. When in his 19th year, he 
was entered a commoner of Pembroke 
college, Oxford. In 1731 he was ob- 
liged by poverty to leave the university 
without a degree. In March, 1732, he 
became under master of a free school at 
Market Bosworth, in Leicestershire ; but 
he relinquished it in a few months. In 
1735 he opened an academy, and one of 
his pupils was the celebrated David Gar- 
rick. He set out, in 1737, accompanied 
by Garrick, to try his fortune in the 
metropolis. The literary piece which 
brought him into public notice, was en- 
titled " London," a poem, written in 
imitation of "Juvenal's Third Satire." 

His arduous and important work, the 
Dictionary of the English Language, 
employed him nearly seven years, and 
was completed in 1754. During the 
period of its publication, he began and 
finished " The Rambler," a periodical 
paper, published twice a week» from 



March 20, 1750, to March 14, 1/52. In 
1758 he began "The Idler," published 
every Saturday in a weekly newspaper, 
called "The Universal Chronicle, or 
Weekly Gazette," Hitherto Johnson 
had not possessed any certain income, 
but having been represented to the king 
as a very learned and good man, his ma- 
jesty granted him a pension of £300 per 
annum. In 1755 the University of Ox- 
ford conferred upon him the degree of 
Doctor of Civil Laws. In 1779 Johnson 
undertook his literary work, " The Lives 
of the Poets." He died Dec. 13, 1785, 
in his 75th year. 

JOHNSTON, Cochrane, convicted 
of a conspiracy to raise the public funds, 
was expelled the house of commons, 
July 5, 1814. 

JOHNSTON, Francis, an eminent 
Irish architect, built at his own expense, 
and was the first president of, the Royal 
Hibernian Academy; died 1826. 

JOINERS' Company, London, in- 
corporated 1564. 

JOINVILLE, Jean De, author of the 
" History of Louis IX.," died 1318. 

JONES, Capt. George Matthew, 
R. N., author of " Travels in Russia, and 
the North-eastern Countries of Europe," 
received his first commission in 1802, 
died at Malta, May, 1831. 

JONES, Inigo, an eminent English 
architect, was born in London in 1572. 
He died at Somerset House, July 21, 
1651. Among his works are, the Ban- 
queting House, Whitehall, began 1619; 
the new buildings fronting the gardens, 
at Somerset House ; the Queen's house, 
at Greenwich, and the elegant portico of 
the Physic Garden, Oxford. 

J ONES, Sir Willi AM, the celebrated 
orientalist, born in London, 1746. He 
determined to devote himself to the study 
and practice of the law ; and with this 
view he was admitted into the Temple, 
Sept. 19, 1770. He was chosen one of 
the judges in the British territories of 
India, in March, 1783, and on this oc- 
casion the honour of knighthood was 
conferred upon him. The publication of 
the Asiatic Researches occupied much 
of his attention, from 1785 to 1788. He 
died April 27, 1794. After his death, 
his lady pubUshed his whole finished 
works in six quarto volumes, in 1799. 

JONES, Rev. William, of Nay- 
land, a writer on divinity and natural 
history, died Jan. 6, 1800. 

JONES, John Ga lb, president of a 



JUA 



595 



JUR 



debating society, called "The British 
Forum," committed to Newgate by the 
house of commons, for a breach of its 
privileges, Feb. 21, 1810. 

JONSON, Ben, a dramatic poet, 
born at Westminster, in 1574. The first 
piece which he printed was, "Every 
Man in his Humour," acted in 1598, 
with great success. In 1609 he pro- 
duced his " Epicen, or Silent Women," 
which is considered the most perfect of 
his comedies. His "Alchemist," pub- 
lished in the following year, gained him 
such reputation, that in 1619 he was ap- 
pointed poet laureate. The " Tale of a 
Tub" was his last comedy that was sub- 
mitted to the public. He died in Aug., 
1637, aged 63, and was buried in West- 
minster Abbey. 

JORDAN, Mrs., English actress, died 
at St. Cloud, July 5, 1816. 

JORTIN, Dr. John, theological 
writer, born 1701, died 1790. 

JOSEPH, sold to the Egyptians, 
A.c. 1728 ; made governor of Egypt, 
1715 ; died in Egypt, 1685, aged 110. 

JOSEPHINE, the repudiated wife of 
Napoleon, died at Paris, May 30, 1814. 

JOSEPHUS, Flavius, author of the 
Jewish Antiquities, born 37, died 93. 

JOUDPOOR,intheprovinceofAjmere, 
Hindoostan. The rajah was one of Au- 
rungzebe's best generals in 1678. In 
1806 Scindia, Holkar, and Ameer Khan, 
harassed the country till 1818, when en- 
gagements entered into with the British, 
stopped further effusion of blood. 

1839. Disputes again arose, and the 
British interposed. The fortress of Joud- 
poor was taken by the British, Sept. 
28, it having been supposed that the nu- 
waub, or chief of the territory of Kur- 
noul, was hostile to the British rule in 
India. 

JOURDON, Jean Baptiste, one 
of Napoleon's marshals, born at Li- 
moges, April 29, 1762. In 1806 he 
governed Naples under Joseph Buona- 
parte; and in 1808 he accompanied him 
into Spain. He died Nov. 23, 1833, so 
poor that after holding his rank of mar- 
shal for 30 years, and filling some of the 
most important offices, he left scarcely 
15,000 francs in the funds. 

JOURNAL DES S9AVANS, the first 
literary periodical published in Europe, 
1660. 

JUAN Fernandez, island. South 
Pacific Ocean, takes its name from its 
first visitor, who introduced goats here. 



and formed a settlement. After his de- 
cease it was abandoned until 1750, when 
the Spaniards again settled here. This 
was the solitary residence of Alexander 
Selkirk, the original of De Foe's " Ro- 
binson Crusoe." 

JUANES, Juan Battista, the Spa- 
nish Raffaelle, born 1523, died 1579. 

JUGGERNAUTH (the lord of the 
world,) celebrated place of Hindoo wor- 
ship, in Orissa. The temple was com- 
pleted in 119s. The British succeeded 
to the Mahratta sovereign's rights upon 
the conquest of Cuttack, and took pos- 
session of the temple Sept. 18, 1803. 
About 70,000 pilgrims annually visit 
this shrine. 

JULIAN, the Roman emperor, called 
the Apostate, was saluted emperor, 360 ; 
abjured Christianity, 361; endeavoured in 
vain to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem ; 
was mortally wounded, near Ctesiphon, 
and died June 26, 363. 

JULIAN Period. See Era, page 
454. 

JULIAN, Pierre, a French sculptor, 
author of the " Dying Gladiator," born 
1731, died 1804. 

JULIERS, duchy, Prussia, formerly 
belonged to the reigning princes of 
Cleves. On the extinction of that family 
in 1609, the succession was disputed; 
but in 1648 it was allotted to the pala- 
tinate of Neuburg, and continued in the 
elector palatine's family to the peace of 
Luneville, when it was ceded to France. 
It was annexed to Prussia, in 1815, by 
the congress of Vienna. 

JULIUS C^SAR, born a.c. 100; di- 
vided the republic with Pompey and 
Crassus, 60 ; attacked the Helvetii, 58 ; 
defeated the Germans, and made his 
first expedition into Britain, 55 ; made 
a second expedition to Britain, 54 ; civil 
war between him and Pompey, 50; de- 
feated Ptolemy, who was drowned, 46 ; 
Julius Caesar was killed in the senate 
house by Brutus, 44. See Brutus. 

JUNKCEYLON, Siamese empire. 
The French attempted to estabhsh a 
settlement here in 1688, but the district 
with little interruption, has always be- 
longed to Siam. The Malays seized this 
territory after 1785, and offered it to the 
British, but the Siamese recovered pos- 
session in 1810. 

JUNO, the planet, discovered Sept. 1, 
1804. 

JURIEU, Peter, French divine, born 
1627, died 1677. 



KAT 



596 



KEH 



JURIN, Dr. James, phj-^sician and 
mathematician, born 1684, died 1750. 

JURY, trial by, traces of it have been 
found for many ages among the northern 
nations. Reginer, a Dane, ordered 12 to 
be impannelled, 820. It was first estab- 
lished in England by Ethelred, 979 ; the 
])laintiflf and defendant, in those times, 
nsed to feed them, whence the common- 
law of denying sustenance to a jury after 
hearing evidence. Regulated by various 
statutes in the reign of George II. and 
George III. 



In Scotland, trial by jury in civil cases 
passed into a law, 1815. 

JUSSIEU, Ant., physician and bota- 
nist, born 1686, died 1758. 

JUSTICES OF THE Peace first ap- 
pointed 1079. Itinerant justices ap- 
pointed 1176. 

JUSTICIARY Court of Scotland, 
established 1672. 

JUSTIN, the Roman historian, lived 
in the 2d century of the Christian era. 

JUVENAL, the Roman satirist, bom 
45, died 127. 



K. 



KiEMPFER, Englebert, a physi- 
cian and traveller, born in Westphaha, 
1651, died 1716. 

KAIMES, Lord, author of " Ele- 
ments of Criticism," born 1696, died 
1770. 

KALEIDOSCOPE, an optical in- 
strument invented by Dr. Brewster, 
in 1814, for the purpose of exhibiting a 
beautiful variety of symmetrical forms. 

KALISCH, European Russia, was in 
1835 the scene of a splendid review, 
held by the emperor of Russia in person, 
at which the king of Prussia and many 
of the chief nobility of Europe were 
present. 

KALMUCS. See Calmucs. 

KAMTSCHATKA, peninsula, Asia, 
belonging to Russia. In 1690 the Rus- 
sians had some knoivleiige of this 
country. In 1696 they sent thither a 
detachment of Cossacks, under Moros- 
koo ; and in the following year, part of 
the country was rendered tributary ; 
but it was not until 1706 that all Kamt- 
schatka was surveyed and occupied by 
the Russians. 

KANGAROO Island, South Pacific 
Ocean, discovered by Captain Flinders 
about 1800, who named it from the 
number of kangaroos found there. It 
is included in the newly-estabhshed set- 
tlement of the South Australian Com- 
pany. See Australia, South. 

KANT, Immanuel, a metaphysical 
systematizer, born in Prussia 1724, died 
1805, 

KATER, Captain Henry, dis- 
tinguished for his scientific discoveries, 
wa^ born at Bristol, April 16, 1777. 



His trigonometrical operations, his 
experiments for determining the length 
of a pendulum beating seconds, and his 
labours for constructing standards of 
weights and measures, are well known. 
Most of the learned societies in Great 
Britain and on the Continent testified 
their sense of thevalue of Captain Kater's 
services, by enrolling him amongst their 
members. He died April 26, 1835, aged 
58. 

KEAN, Edmund, the most accom- 
plished actor of the present century, 
was born November 4, 1787, in Castle- 
street, Leicester-square. After acting at 
several provincial theatres, he came out 
at Drury Lane January 26, 1814, in 
Shylock ; his triumph was complete, 
and the committee presented him with 
50 guineas. During his first season he 
used to play Othello and lago alternately. 
The receipts of his benefit amounted to 
£1150. From this period till within a 
few weeks of his death, he continued to 
perform in London and the chief towns 
of the United Kingdom, with extraordi- 
nary success. He died May 15, 1833, 
aged 45. 

KEATS, John, juvenile poet, died 
1816. 

KEBLE, Joseph, Enghsh law author, 
died 1710. 

KEHL, town, grand duchy Baden. 
In 1697 it was ceded to the margrave of 
Baden, In the middle of the 18th cen- 
tury it was demolished, but during the 
revolutionary war was rebuilt ; sustained 
several sieges ; was alternately in French 
and German hands, and was three times 
burnt down. In 1814 it was restored to 



KEN 



Baden, and in 1815 the works were again 
demolished. 

KEILL, John,. the astronomer, born 
1671, died 1721. 

KELLY, Hugh, dramatic author, 
born 1739, died 1777. 

KELLY, Michael, author of "Re- 
miniscences," died 1826. 

KELLY, Miss, shot at while acting 
at Drury-lane, by George Barnett, Feb. 
17, 1816; he was tried and acquitted, 
as insane, April 8, 1816. 

KEMBLE, John Philip, the cele- 
brated actor, was born in 1757, at Pres- 
cot, in Lancashire. He received the first 
part of his education at the university 
of Douay, where he soon became dis- 
tinguished for that talent for elocution 
which afterwards raised him to such 
eminence. He returned to England, and 
performed at Liverpool, York, Edin- 
burgh, and Dublin. He made his first 
appearance in London, at Drury-lane 
Theatre, in the character of Hamlet, 
September 30, 1783. His reception was 
most encouraging; but he had not an op- 
portunity of fully developing his powers 
till the retirement of Mr. Smith in 1788. 
On the secession of Mr. King, Mr. 
Kemble became manager of Drury-lane 
Theatre, which office he filled till 1796. 
Shortly afterwards he resumed the ma- 
nagement, and held it till the conclusion 
of the season 1801. In 1802 Mr. Kem- 
ble visited the Continent for the purpose 
of introducing to the British stage what- 
ever he might find worthy of adoption 
in foreign theatres. On his return he 
purchased a sixth part of the property 
of Covent Garden patent, and became 
manager, which situation he filled till 
a season or two before his retirement. 
He died February 26, 1823, aged 66. 

KEMPIS, Thomas a', a pious and 
learned divine of the Romish church, 
author of the "Imitation of Jesus Christ," 
was bom at Kempen, in the diocese of 
Cologne, Prussia, in 1380. In 1399 he 
entered the monastery of the regular 
canons of Mount St. Agnes, near Swol. 
He died July 25, 1471. 

KEN, Thomas, bishop, author of 
" Devotional Poetry," born 1637, died 
1710. 

KENILWORTH, Warwickshire, re- 
markable for its castle, near to the town, 
founded by Geoffrey de Clinton, cham- 
berlain and treasurer of Henry I. ; a 
fortress was afterwards added to the 
original building by John of Gaunt, 



597 KEP 

whose son, Henry IV., coming to the 
throne, the castle was vested in the 
crown. Queen Elizabeth gave it to Ro- 
bert Dudley, earl of Leicester, who, in 
July, 1575, celebrated a festival here in 
honour of his mistress, which is described 
by Sir Walter Scott in his romance of 
Kenilworth. The castle was demolished 
during the civil wars ; the site belongs 
to the earl of Clarendon. 
KENNICOTT,DR.BENJAMiN,English 
divine and oriental scholar, well known 
for his elaborate edition of the Hebrew 
Bible, was born at Totness, in Devon- 
shire, in 1718. During the progress of 
his great work he was appointed keeper 
of the Radcliffe Library, Oxford ; admitted 
to the degree of doctor of divinity ; pre- 
sented to a living in Cornwall ; and re- 
warded by a canonry of Christchurch,Ox- 
ford. In 1776 the first volume of his He- 
brew Bible was Ipublished, and in 1780 
the whole was completed. He died at 
Oxford, September 18, 1783. 

KENRICK, Dr. William, dramatic 
writer, &c., died June 9, 1777. 

KENSINGTON, Middlesex, chiefly re- 
markable for its palace. It was the seat of 
SirHeneage Finch, afterwards lord chan- 
cellor, whose son sold it to William III. 
in 1691 ; it then became a favourite royal 
residence, and continued so until the 
death of George II., who died there. Itwas 
the principal residence of our present 
sovereign till her accession to the throne. 
Kensington Gardens were enlarged by 
Queen Anne, and much more exten- 
sively by Caroline, queen of George II. 

KENT, County of. Julius Caesar 
landed on the east coast, when he first 
invaded Britain, A.c. 54. In this county, 
the Saxons under Hengist and Horsa, 
obtained their earliest settlements in the 
island. Hengist assumed the title of 
king of Kent about A. D. 455. William 
of Normandy established the Cinque 
Ports, and conferred other advantages 
on the county. 

KENT, East Indiaman, burned in 
the Bay of Biscay, and 85 lives lost, 
March 13, 1825. 

KENT, Duke of, brother of 
George IV., and father of our present 
queen, born 1767, died January 23, 
1820. 

KENYON, Lord, a learned judge, 
born 1733, died 1802. 

KEPLER, John, an eminent astro- 
nomer, born at Weil in Wirtemberg in 
1571. He studied at the university of 



KIN 



598 



KIN 



Tubingen, where he obtained the degree 
of bachelor in the year 1588, and that 
of master of philosophy in 1591. In 
1594 he filled the mathematical chair in 
the university of Gratz. On the death 
Tycho Brahe in 1601, Kepler was em- 
ployed to complete the Rodolphine 
Tables, which that great man had begun. 
These were published in 1627- He died 
November 1630, in the 59th year of his 
age. 

KETTERINn, Northamptonshire, 
destroyed by a fire, 1767. 

KEYSLER, J, G., a German antiqua- 
rian, died 1630. 

KIEL, a city in Denmark, contains 
a university called Christiana Alber- 
tina, founded in 1665. The treaty of 
Kiel between Great Britain, Sweden, 
and Denmark, took place January 14, 
1815, when Norway was ceded to 
Sweden. 

KIESEWETTER, C. G.. the cele- 
brated violinist, was born at Anspach, 
and first introduced to a British audience 
in the winter of 1821, at the Philharmo- 
nic Concert. He was the first who in- 
troduced the compositions of the cele- 
brated Mayabeer into this country. He 
died October 28, 1827, aged 50. 

KILLALA, a town in Ireland, pro- 
vince of Connaught. A body of French 
under General Humbert effected a land- 
ing here in the year 1798, and joined the 
rebel army at that time wasting the 
kingdom. 

KILLARNEY steamer was wrecked 
off Cork harbour, when 29 persons pe- 
Kished January 26, 1738. 

KILLMORE, a village in Ireland. St. 
Columb built an abbey here in the 6th cen- 
tury ; and St. Ferdinand converted the 
abbey into a bishopric in the 13th. This 
latter saint removed the see, for a time, 
to Tiburna, where it continued until 
1454, when Bishop Macbready restored 
the primitive church, and called it Kill- 
more. The see was united to the see of 
Elphin, in conformity with an act of 
parliament passed in 1834. 

KILMARNOCK, Lord, and Lord 
Balmerino, beheaded Aug. 18, 1746. See 
Balmerino. 

KILWARDEN, Lord, murdered by 
the rebels in Dublin, July 23, 1803. 

KIMCHI, David, a learned Jewish 
rabbi, died 1240. 

KING, archbishop of Dublin, born 
1650, died 1729. 

KING OF England, the title of. 



first used 829; of Ireland added 1542 ; 
of Great Britain 1603. 

KING OF France, the title of, as- 
sumed by the king of England, an(l his 
arms quartered with those of England, 
with the motto " Dieu et mon droit," 
first used, Feb. 21, 1340; relinquished 
Jan. 1, 1801. 

KING OF THE French began 1791; 
abolished 1792 ; restored August 9, 
1830. 

KING, Capt., the companion of Cap- 
tain Cook, died Nov. 1784. 

KING, Edward, the subject of Mil- 
ton's " Lycidas," drowned 1637- 

KING, Henry, a bishop and theolo- 
gian, born 1591, died 1669. 

KING, John Glen, an English 
topographer, died 1787, aged 55. 

KING, Peter, Lord, the biographer 
of Locke, born August 31, 1775, died 
June 4, 1833. 

KING, Peter, lord chancellor, born 
1669, died 1733. 

KING'S Bench Prison, St. George's 
Fields, South wark, built 1751 ; enlarged 
1776 ; burnt by rioters, June 7, 1780; 
rebuilt 1781 ; 100 apartments burnt, 
July 13, 1799. 

KING'SCoLLEGE, Cambridge, found- 
ed 1541. 

KING'S College, London. At a 
meeting of the subscribers and donors 
held at the Freemasons' Tavern, May 16, 
1829, Lord Bexley announced that the 
government had given the ground ori- 
ginally intended for the east wing of 
Somerset House, for the purposes of the 
institution, free of expense for 1000 years, 
on condition that the new erection cor- 
responded with the rest of the edifice. 
The building was completed in 1831, 
and the institution opened the same year; 
about 400 pupils had been admitted, to 
whom lectures were daily given on 
various subjects. The fagade consists of 
a central building, forming the front of 
the vestibule and grand staircase. It is 
decorated with four columns of the 
Corinthian order, in antis, upon a base- 
ment of piers, supporting arches, which 
run along the whole length of the build- 
ing. The whole is surmounted by a ba- 
lustrading above its entablature. 

KING'S College, Aberdeen, was 
founded in 1500. 

KING'S College, in Nova Scotia, 
founded 1798 ; charter granted May 12, 
1802. 

KING'S-EVIL, first touched for the 



KIR 

cure of Edward the Confessor, 1058 ; 
discontinued by George I. 

KINGSTON, Jamaica, founded in 
1693, after the destruction of Port Royal 
in the preceding year by an earthquake, 
and was constituted a city in 1703. 

KINGSTON-UPON-THAMES, in 
Surrey, under the Anglo-Saxons was 
a place of importance and a royal resi- 
dence, and several monarchs were 
crowned here ; whence its present appel- 
lation. A council was held at Kingston 
by Egbert in 838. 

KINSALE, a boroxigh town of Ire- 
land, in the province of Munster. It 
was anciently a place of great importance, 
was inclosed with walls and regularly 
fortified. Edward III. granted the town 
a charter of incorporation, which was 
renewed, confirmed, and enlarged by 
Edward IV. In I6OO the Spaniards 
made a successful landing at this place. 
In 1649 the town surrendered to Crom- 
well. In the reign of Charles II., the 
fort commanding the harbour was built, 
and called Charles Fort. James II. 
landed at this port from France. In 
1690 the earl of Marlborough compelled 
the town to surrender. 

KIPPIS, Dr. Andrew, an eminent 
nonconformist divine, was born at Not- 
tingham, March, 1725. He received the 
degree of doctor of divinity from the 
university of Edinburgh, in 1767 ; in 1778 
he was made a member of the Antiqua- 
rian, and in 1779 a fellow of the Royal 
Society. He died Oct. 5, 1795, aged 71. 
His works are numerous and valuable; 
the principal one is the " Biographia Bri- 
tannica," which he did not live to finish. 

KIRBY, William, mathematician, 
died 1771. 

KIRCH, Chris. Frederick, Prus- 
sian astronomer, died 1740. 

KIRCHER, a celebrated philosopher 
and mathematician, born at Fulda in 
1601. In I6I8 he entered into the so- 
ciety of the Jesuits, and, after completing 
his studies, taught philosophy, mathe- 
matics, the Hebrew and Syriac languages, 
in the university of Witzburg, till 1631. 
In 1646 he published at Rome his "Ars 
Magna Lucis et Umbrae," containing an 
account of his attempts to imitate the 
burning mirrors of Archimedes, and a 
descnption, of the magic lantern of which 
he was the undoubted inventor. He 
died at Rome in I68O. 

KIRKALDY, burgh, Scotland, shire 
of Fife, said to have been anciently the 



599 K L O 

seat of a society of Culdees. In 1334 it 
belonged to the abbot of Dunfermline, 
as a burgh of regality, and continued 
so till 1450, when it passed into the pos- 
session of the Bailies and their succes- 
sors for ever. It was shortly afterwards 
erected into a royal burgh by a charter, 
which Charles I. confirmed in 1644, and 
made it a free port. In 1828 an accident 
occurred at the church of Kirkaldy, by 
the falling of a gallery, during the as- 
sembly of a large concourse of persons 
to hear an evening discourse by the Rev. 
Edward Irving. Between 30 and 40 per- 
sons were killed. 

KIRKDALE, village. Yorkshire, re- 
markable for its cave discovered in 1821, 
in one of the calcareous hills in this 
parish. Its floor was strewn with dilu- 
vial loam, thickly interspersed with or- 
ganic remains of bones of various ani- 
mals, which were submitted to Professor 
Buckland, M. 'Cuvier, and other natu- 
ralists, and pronounced by them to be 
the bones of hyenas mixed with those of 
the elephant and rhinoceros, hippopota- 
mus, and other animals ; several be- 
longed to species diflferent from any at 
present existing. 

KIRWAN, Richard, mineralogist, 
died August, 1812. 

KITCHENER, William, M.D., au- 
thor of "The Cook's Oracle," died 
1827, aged 50. 
KITT'S, St. See Christopher's. 
KLAPROTH, M. H., chemist, died at 
Berlin 1817- 

KLEBER, French general in Egypt, 
born 1750, assassinated 1800. 

KLEIST, Christian Ewald Von, 
German poet, and an officer in the Prus- 
sian army, was born at Zeblin, in Pome- 
rania, in 1715. After rendering himself 
distinguished on many occasions both for 
bravery and humanity, Kleist lost his life 
in the bloody battle of Kimnersdorf,l749. 
KLOPSTOCK, Frederick Theo- 
PHiLus, a celebrated German poet, was 
born at Quedlinburg in 1724. He com- 
menced the study of theology at the uni- 
versity of Jena in 1745. By his removal 
to Leipsic in ] 746, he became acquainted 
with a number of young men who pub- 
lished their essays in a paper called the 
" Bremen Contributions." In this pub- 
lication appeared the first three cantos of 
Klopstock's " Messiah." Tlie publica- 
tion of the ten books afterwards made 
him known and admired ail over Ger- 
many. Baron Bernstorff invited him to 



KNO 



600 



KOR 



Copenhagen, where he lived till 1771, 
after which he resided at Hamburgh in 
the capacity of royal Danish legate. He 
died at Hamburgii, in March, 1803, aged 
79. His odes and lyric poems are much 
admired by his countrymen, and his 
dramatic works display great dignity and 
force, but are better adapted for reading 
than for exhibition. He was an e.xcel- 
lent prose writer, as is evinced by his 
" Grammatical Dialogues." 

KNELLER, Sir Godfrey, an emi- 
nent painter, was born at Lubec in 
1648. He received his first instruc- 
tions in the school of Rembrandt, but be- 
came afterwards a disciple of Ferdinand 
Bol. He came to England in 1674, 
where he gained the favour of the duke 
of Monmouth. He was state-painter to 
Charles H., James II., William III., 
Queen Anne, and George I., equally 
esteemed and respected hj them all : the 
emperor Leopold made him a knight of 
the Roman empire, and King George I. 
created him a baronet. His works were 
celebrated by the best poets in his time. 
He died in 1726 at Whitton, near Hamp- 
ton-court. 

KNIGHT, Matthew, cashier of the 
South Sea Company, absconded with 
£100,000, 1720. Compounded with go- 
vernment for £10,000, and returned to 
England, 1743. 

KNIGHTHOOD had its origin in 
England in the time of the crus^ades. 
See Crusades. From these wars it 
followed, that new fraternities of knight- 
hood were invented : hence, the knights 
of the Holy Sepulchre, the hospital- 
lers, templars, &c. Various other or- 
ders were at length instituted by sove- 
reign princes : the Garter, by Edward 
III., of England; the Golden Fleece, by 
Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy ; 
and St. Michael, by Louis XI. of France, 
&c. In 1430 every person with £40 
per annum was required to take tlie 
order of knighthood. All orders of 
knighthood were abolished in France by 
the National Assembly, July 30, 1791- 

KNIGHTS-TEMPLARS. See Tem- 
plars. 

KNITTING stockings, invented in 
Spain, 1550. 

KNOCKTOPHER, village in Ireland. 
In 1536 James, the second earl of Or- 
mond, founded a priory here. Dec. 14, 
1832, an officer, and a party of police, 
while proceeding to execute a tithe pro- 
cess, \yere attacked, near Knocktopher, 



by a large assemblage' of the peasantry, 
and the officer and 11 of his party were 
killed. 

KNOLLES, Richard, an English 
historian, died I6l0. 

KNOX, Dr. Vicessimus, author of 
" The Spirit of Despotism," &c., born 
1752, died 1821. 

KNOX, John, well known as an 
eminent Scottish reformer, was born at 
Giffiard near Haddington. Being ap- 
pointed tutor to the sons of the lairds 
of Ormiston and Langniddrie, he began 
about 1542 to instruct them in the 
principles of the protestant religion, and 
was so violently persecuted as to be 
compelled to take shelter in the castle of 
St. Andrew's with his pupils. The 
castle was afterwards besieged and taken 
by the French ; and Knox being taken 
prisoner, was closely confined till the 
latter end of 1549, when, being set at 
liberty, he repaired immediately to 
England. In 1552 he was appointed 
chaplain to Edward VI. After the ac- 
cession of Queen Mary, he was obliged 
to seek safety by flight. In 1555 re- 
ceiving information that the reformation 
had made considerable progress, he 
returned to his native country. The 
English Calvinists at Geneva invited 
Knoxto become their pastor. Heaccept- 
ed their invitation, and continued abroad 
till 1559. In 1561 Mary queen of Scots 
arrived from France, and Knox not only 
declaimed against her in the pulpit, but 
hehaved to her with the most unjustifi- 
able freedom. In 1571 he was obliged 
to leave Edinburgh, on account of the 
confusion and danger from the opposi- 
tion of the earl of Lenox, then regent ; 
but he returned the following year, and 
resumed his pastoral functions. He 
died at Edinburgh in November, 1572, 
and was buried in the churchyard of St. 
Giles's in that city. 

KNUTZEN,MATTHiAS,theprofessed 
German atheist, lived in 1674. 

KOLBEN, Peter, a traveller, born 
1674, died 1726. 

KONIGSBERG, city, Prussia. The 
university was founded in 1544; the 
town was taken by the Russians in 1758 ; 
and in June, 1807, fell into the hands 
of the French ; but since the peace in 
1814, has remained under the dominion 
of Prussia. 

KORAN, the Mahometan scriptures, 
commonly called the Alcoran ; but the 
first syllable of the word is only an 



LAB 



601 



LAB 



article signifying the. The Koran, while 
Mahomet lived, was only kept in loose 
sheets, and was not published till after 
his death in 631. Othman, successor 
of Abubeker, a.h. 30, })rocured a great 
number of copies to be taken, suppress- 
ing all the others not conformable to the 
original. There are seven principal 
editions of the Koran ; two at Medina, 
one at Mecca, oneatCufa,one atBassora, 
one in Syria, and the common or vulgate 
edition. The first contains 6000 verses; 
the second and fifth 6214 ; the third 
6219; the fourth 6236 ; the sixth 6226; 
and the last 6225 : but the number of 
words and letters is the same in all, viz., 
77,639 words, and 323,015 letters. The 
Koran has been often published in 
Europe, in Arabic and in other languages. 
Maracci published it in Arabic and 
Latin at Padua in 1698. The English 
translation of Sale was printed at Lon- 
don in 1734; the German of Boysen 
at Halle in 1773 ; the French of Savary 
at Paris in 1782. 

KOSCIOSCO, the patriotic Polish 
general, died 1798. 

KOTZEBUE, Augustus Von, a Ger- 
man dramatist, was assassinated at Man- 
heim by Sandt, a Wurtzburg student, 
April 2, 1819. 

KOULI-KHAN, Thamas, or Nadir 
ScHAH, a Persian conqueror, was born 
in the province of Khorassan. His 
father was chief of a branch of the tribe 
of Afghans. He joined a banditti of 
robbers, who committed great ravages.. 



In 1729 the Afghans having made them- 
selves masters of Ispahan, and the Turks 
and Muscovites ravaging other parts of 
Persia, they applied to Nadir Schah for 
assistance, and made him general of 
Persia. In 1736 he fomented a revolt 
against his master. In 1739 he con- 
quered the Mogul empire, making him- 
self master of Delhi, where he acquired 
immense riches, and assumed the title of 
Emperor of the Indies; but his reign was 
of short duration. He was assassmated 
in 1747, aged 60. 

KNUCKELL, John, an eminent che- 
mist, died 1702. 

KURILE Isles, occupied by theRus- 
sians 1711. The people of these islands, 
which are 21 in number, still pay tribute 
to Russia ; they are principally volcanic. 

KUSTER, LuDOLPH, a critic, born 
1670, died 1716. 

KUTCHUK Kainarji, peace of, 
between Russia and Turkey. Crimea 
declared independent ; Azoph ceded to 
Russia, and freedom of commerce and 
navigation of the Black Sea granted 
July 21, 1774. 

KUTUSOFF, the Russian general, 
died June 21, 1813. 

KUYP, Old, Jacob Gerritze, of 
Dort, a landscape painter, founder of the 
Academy of St. Luke, born 1578, died 
1649. 

KYRIE Eleison, first introduced 
into the Litany 590. 

KYRLE, J., " the benevolent man of 
Ross," died 1724, aged 90. 



L. 



LABOUR, Price op. In 1352, 25 
Edw. III. wages paid to hay-makers were 
but \d. & day ; a mower of meadows 5c?. 
per day, or bd, an acre ; reapers of corn, 
in the first week of Augiist, 2d., in the 
second 3o(. per day, and so till the end 
of August, without meat, drink, or other 
allowance, finding their own tools. For 
thrashing a quarter of wheat or rye 2f c^.; 
a quarter of barley, beans, peas, and 
oats, ij. A master carpenter "id. a 
day, other carpenters 2c?. per day. A 
master mason 4d. per day, other masons 
3c?. per day, and their servants \\d. per 
day. Tilers 3c?., and their knaves \^d. 
Thatchers Zd. per day, their knaves l|c?. 
Plasterers and other workers of mud- 
walls, and their knaves, in the like man- 
ner, without meat or drink, and this 



from Easter to Michaelmas ; and from 
that time less, according to the direction 
of the justices. 

1361. By the 34 Edw. III. chief 
masters of carpenters and masons 4c?. a 
day, and the others 3c?. or 2c?. " as they 
are worth." 

1389. 13 Richard II., the wages of a 
bailiff of husbandry 13*. 4c/. per year, 
and his clothing once a year at most ; 
the master hind 105., the carter 10s., 
shepherd 10s., oxherd 6s. Qd., cowherd 
6s. 8d., swineherd 6s., a woman labourer 
Qs., a day ditto 6s., adriver of plough 7*. 
From this time to the time of 23 of 
Henry VI. the price of labour was fixed 
by the justices by proclamation. 

1445. 23 Henry VI., the wages of a 
baihflF of husbandry was 23s. 4c?. per 

4 H 



LAC 



602 



LAC 



annum, and clothing of the price of 5s., 
with meat and drink ; chief hind, carter, 
or shepherd 20s., clothing 4s.; common 
servant of husbandry 1 5s., clothing 40d. ; 
M'oman servant 10s., clothing 4s.; infant 
under 14 years 6s , clothing 3s. Free- 
mason or master carpenter 4d. per day; 
without meat or drink 55c?. Master tiler 
or slater, mason or mean carpenter, and 
other artificers concerned in building 3d., 
per day ; without meat or drink 4|f/. ; 
every other labourer 2d. a day ; without 
meat or drink Sfrf., after Michaelmas to 
abate in proportion. In time of harvest a 
mower 4^d. a day; without meat and drink 
6d. ; reaper or carter 3d. a day; without 
meat and drink 5d. ; woman labourer, 
and other labourers 2c?. a day ; without 
meat and drink 4^d. per day. 

1496. By the 11 Henry VIL, there 
was a like rate of wages, only with a 
little advance ; as, for instance, a free- 
mason, master carpenter, rough mason, 
bricklayer, master tiler, plumber, glazier, 
carver, joiner, was allowed from Eas- 
ter to Michaelmas to take 6c/. a day 
without meat and drink, or with meat 
and drink 4rf. ; from Michaelmas to 
Easter to abate Id. A master having 
under him six men, was allowed id. per 
day extra. 

1515. By the 6 Henry VIII., the 
wages of shipwrights were fi.xed as fol- 
lows '. — a master ship-carpenter, taking 
the charge of work, having men under 
him 5c?. a day in the summer season, 
with meat and drink; other ship-carjjen- 
ter, called an hewer, 4c?. ; an able clincher 
3c?., holder 2d., master calker 4c?., a 
mean calker 3c?., a day labourer by the 
tide 4c?. 

LABRADOR, British North America, 
discovered by Cortercal, who sailed from 
Lisbon on a voyage of discovery for the 
Portuguese, 1501. Afterwards visited 
by a French engineer, Alphonze, 1541 ; 
but this country has never been fully 
explored ; the severity of the climate, 
and the barrenness of the soil, having 
confined the visits of travellers princi- 
pally to the coasts. 

LA CRUSCA, Academy of, founded 
at Florence 1282. 

LACCADIVES. a group of small 
islands, Indian Ocean, discovered by 
Vasco de Gama in 1499, and are nomi- 
nally dependant on Cannanore. 

LACE, a delicate and beautiful fabric. 
Mary de Medici was the first who brought 
it into France, from Venice. In England 



so early as 1483, "laces of thread, and 
laces of gold, and silk and gold," were 
enumerated among the articles prohi- 
bited to be imported. In I626, Sir 
Henry Borlase founded and endowed 
the free school at Great Marlow, for 24 
girls, to knit, spin, and make bone lace. 
In 1640 the lace trade was flourishing in 
Buckinghamshire; and so greatly had it 
advanced in England, that by a royal 
ordinance in France, passed in I66O, a 
mark was established upon the thread 
lace imported from this country and 
from Flanders, and upon the point lace 
from Genoa, Venice, and other foreign 
countries, in order to secure payment 
of the customs duties. 

The first lace made in this country 
was Brussels point. About a century 
since, the grounds in use were the old 
Mechlin, and what the trade termed the 
wire ground. An improvement took 
place about the year 1770, when the 
ground, which is probably the most an- 
cient known, was re-introduced. From 
the first appearance of the point ground 
may be dated the origin of the modern 
pillow lace trade ; but it was not until 
the beginning of the present century 
that the most striking improvements 
were made. Soon after the year 1 800, 
a freer and bolder style was adopted ; 
and from that time to 1812, the im- 
provement and consequent success 
were astonishing and unprecedented. 
The effects of the competition of ma- 
chinery, which had been begun in 1768, 
and the correct principle latterly intro- 
duced began to be felt, however, about 
this time, and in 1815, the broad laces 
began to be superseded by the new ma- 
nufacture. The pillow lace trade gra- 
dually dwindled into insignificance, and 
has only within the last few years in a 
measure revived. 

Mr. Heathcoat of Tiverton obtained a 
patent for his invention of the bobbin net 
frame in IS09. Steam power was first 
introduced by Mr. John Lindley in 1815, 
but did not come into active operation 
till 1820. It became general in 1822 ; 
and a great stimulus was at this period 
given to the trade, owing to the expira- 
tion of Mr. Heaihcoat's patent, the 
increased application of power, and the 
perfection to which the different hand- 
frames had been brought. In 1831 the 
annual produce at Nottingham was 
estimated at 23,400,000 square yards, 
worth £1,891,875. It is now estimated 



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at 30,771,000 square yards, worth 
£1,850,650. 

LACEDiEMON, or Sparta, city of 
Peloponnesus, the capital of Laconia, 
founded by Lelex, about a.c. 1516, and 
his subjects were called Leleges. About 
80 years after the fall of Troy, the de- 
scendants of Hercules took Lacedaemon 
from Tisamenus, the grandson of Aga- 
memnon. In A.c. 1102, upon the divi- 
sion of the Peloponnesus by the Hera- 
clidse, the kingdom of Lacedaemon or 
Sparta properly commenced under Pro- 
cles and Eurysthenes, the two sons of 
Aristodemus, the chief of the Heraclidae. 
The successors of Procles were Ivas 
A. c. 1060; Eurypon 1028; Prytanis 
1021; Eunomus 986; and Polydec- 
tes 907. The celebrated Lycurgus suc- 
ceeded his brother Polydectes. See 
Lycurgus. The Messenian war began 
A.c. 752, and after a conflict of several 
years, ended in the total reduction of 
the Messenian territory. This conquest 
gave Lacedeemon the superiority o?er all 
the Grecian states, excepting that of 
Athens. The Lacedaemonians were de* 
feated by the Athenians a. c. 377 ; 
reconciled to them 372 ; joined the 
Achaean league, 182. The country made 
a Roman province, 71. 

LA CEPEDE, the French naturalist, 
died 1825, aged 68. 

LACKINGTON, George, an ex- 
tensive dealer in second-hand books, 
born at "Wellington, Somerset, Aug. 31, 
1746, died Nov, 22, 1815, 

LACTANTIUS, Fermianus, one 
of the Christian fathers, and author of 
the "Defence of Christianity," died 
325. 

LAD RONE Isles, a group of islands, 
in the North Pacific Ocean, discovered 
by Magalhean, who called them Islas 
des Ladrones, (Islands of Thieves), be- 
cause the natives stole every article of 
iron that they could find within their 
reach. Towards the end of the 17th 
century, they received the name of Ma- 
riana, or Marianne islands, from the 
queen of Spain, Mary Anne of Austria, 
the mother of Charles II. 

LAFAYETTE, Gilbert Mortier, 
Marquis De, was born at Chavaniac 
in Auvergne, September 6, 1757. At 
the age of 1 9 he espoused the cause of 
American independence, and arrived at 
Charlestown in the beginning of 1777. 
In 1787 he was a member of the assem- 
bly of the "Notables" at Paris, in which 



he denounced various abuses. When de- 
I)uted to the states general, he ])ropo8ed, 
on the 11 til of July, 1789, his famous de- 
claration of rights, which was made the 
basis of that of the constituent assembly. 
On the I5th of the same month, he was 
])roclaimed commandant-general of the 
l)urgher guard, and the next morning 
published the order for destroying the 
Bastille. On the l6th of June, 1792, 
he wrote a letter to the national assem- 
bly, denouncing the Jacobin clubs In 
the revolutionary struggles he attempted 
a retreat into some neutral territory, 
when he was intercepted by an Austrian 
corps at Liege, and imprisoned by the 
coalition. He continued to suffer the 
miseries of a rigorous confinement for 
four years ; and after his release, and 
return to France, he retired to his coun- 
try residence at Lagrange. The various 
changes after the fall of Napoleon again 
brought him forward in the chamber of 
deputies ; and he made several proposi- 
tions, in accordance with his principles 
of liberty, but with only partial success. 
He witnessed with gratulation the events 
of July, 1830, and again placed himself 
at the head of the movement, by calling 
out his favourite national guard. He 
died at Paris, Mav 20, 1834, aged 76. 

LA FONTAINE, Augustus, one of 
the mostfraitfulGermanromance writers, 
was born at Brunswick. He studied di- 
vinity in the first instance, then under- 
took the education of general Thadden's 
children, and in 1789 he became chaplain 
to a Prussian regiment, which he accom- 
panied in 1792 in the campaign against 
France. After the peace of Basle, he 
retired to Halle, where he lived on a 
pension granted to him by the king 
of Prussia. He died April 20, 1831, 
aged 70. 

LAGRANGE, J. L., mathematician^ 
born 1786, died 1813. 

LAING Malcolm, historian, born 
1762, died 1819- 

LALANDE, Joseph Jerome Le 
Francois, an eminent French astrono- 
mer, was born at Bourg, in the depart- 
ment of the Ain, on the 11th of July, 
1732. He made observations at the ob- 
servatory of Berlin in 1751 and 1752, to 
determine the moon's paralla.x and its 
distance from the earth, and he published 
an account of them in three papers, 
which appeared in the memoirs of the 
Academy of Sciences for 1751, 1752, and 
1753. Lalande was a member of almost 



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604 



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ail the distinguished academies and socie- 
ties in Europe, and corresponded with 
all the principal astronomers of the age. 
He published no fewer than 150 papers 
in the memoirs of the French academy. 
He rendered inestimable service to sci- 
ence during his life, and consulted its 
interests after his death, by founding an 
annual prize to the author of the best 
astronomical memoir, or most curious 
observation. He died at Paris, on the 
4th of April, 1807, aged 75. 

LALANDE, Michael Jerome, a 
distinguished astronomer, author of se- 
veral articles in the " Connaisance des 
Tems," and nephew of the illustrious 
astronomer of the same name, died in 
1839. 

LALLY, Marguis De Tolendal, 
author of " Plaidoyer pour Louis XVL," 
died 1830. 

LAMARQUE, a brave French officer, 
distinguished in the campaigns of Na- 
poleon, born 1772, died May 31, 1832. 
Upwards of 4000 persons were killed at 
Paris in the riots that took place at his 
funeral. 

LAMB, Charles, author of " Essays 
by Elia," &c., born February 18, 1775, 
died December 27, 1834, aged 60. 

LAMBERT, Daniel, died June 21, 
1809, weighing 52 stone 11 lbs. ; 14 lbs. 
to the stone — 739 lbs. Probably the 
heaviest man on record. 

LAMBETH, Surrey. The kings of 
England had formerly a palace in this 
parish. Hardicanute, the son of Canute 
the Great, died suddenly, in 1041,whilst 
celebrating the marriage feast of a noble 
Dane; and here Harold H. is said to 
have placed the crown on his own head, 
after the death of Edward the Confessor. 
This palace continued to be the occasional 
residence of the royal family down to 
the reign of Henry VH. The palace of 
the archbishop of Canterbury in Lam- 
beth was founded about 1191, by Bald- 
win, who then occupied the see. 

LANARK, a royal burgh of Scotland, 
supposed to be the Colonia of Ptolemy, 
was, at an early period, a place of consi- 
derable importance. Kenneth H. held 
a parliament here in 978. Its castle, 
which stood on an eminence south-west 
from the town, is said to have been built 
in 1197, by David L It was several 
times reduced by the English in the 13th 
century. In 1244 the town was destroyed 
by fire, and in 1297 Wallace here first 
raised his standard, slew the English 



governor, and made himself master of 
the place. It was erected into a royal 
burgh under Alexander I. 

LANCASTER, capital of the county 
of Lancaster. After the Norman con- 
quest a grant of the lordship of Lancas- 
ter was obtained by Roger de Poitou, 
who erected a castle here, remains of 
which are still visible. Edward III., in 
the 50th year of his reign, created his 
son, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster ; 
and during the civil wars of York and 
Lancaster this town suflfered so much, 
that when Camden wrote it was merely 
the residence of a few husbandmen. 
Charles II. renewed the charter under 
which it was locally governed until 
the passing of the Municipal Reform 
Bill in 1835. 

LANCASTER, Joseph, the success- 
ful promulgator of the system of mutual 
instruction known by his name, which 
he brought into practice in 1798. He 
was bred a Quaker ; and, after spending 
considerable time in travelling over the 
kingdom to introduce his system of edu- 
cation, he went, about 1820, to America. 
He was the author of several publications 
relating to education. He died at New 
York, 1838, aged 68, of wounds received 
by being knocked down by a gig as he 
was walking in the street. 

LAND-SLIP, a convulsion exhibited 
in several places in England, particularly 
in the south coast. A remarkable one 
occurred recently near Axmouth, Devon. 
It commenced at three o'clock in the 
morning of December 24, 1839. A man 
who dwelt in a cottage half a mile dis- 
tant, saw that the ground was sinking 
beneath him, that it was gaping with 
fissures, and that the walls of his dwell- 
ing were cracking and tottering as if 
ready to fall. During the whole of 
Christmas day the disruption continued. 
An immense tract, extending east and 
west, one mile in length, and many hun- 
dred feet in width, subsided or sank 
down so as to foi'm a ravine or chasm 
more than 200 feet in depth. This huge 
mass, so cut otF, has been forced on its 
foundation many yards in a southerly 
direction towards the sea, inclined some- 
what from its former level, and rent and 
depressed into terraces. The bed of the 
sea also, the whole way along in front of 
it, has been lifted up to the height of 40 
feet above the surface, to a great distance 
out from the original line of coast, now 
forming reefs and islands, inside which 



LAN 



60& 



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are bays and small harbours, into which 
boats have been, and have found good 
soundings. 

On June 18, 1839, a remarkable dis- 
placement of an entire valley near the 
foot of a mountain took place at the vil- 
lage of Federowk, in Russia ; and during 
72 hours it moved with an undulating 
motion towards the river Volga. The 
sinking of the valley is one mile and a half 
long, and 250 fathoms in breadth. Above 
70 houses were damaged or thrown down, 
but happily no lives were lost. 

LANDEN, John, an eminent mathe- 
matician, born January 17l9,was elected 
fellow of the Royal Society January I6, 
1766. He died January 15, 1790. 

LANDER, Richard, the enterpris- 
ing African traveller, born at Truro in 
1804. He embarked with Captain Clap- 
pertonon the 24th of August, 1825, for 
Africa. The death of Clapperton oc- 
curred April 10, 1827, and Lander re- 
turned home April 30, 1828. He pub- 
lished his first journal in 1830. Imme- 
diately after he set out on his second ex- 
pedition to trace the river Niger, from 
thence to Benin, accompanied by his 
brother John. This second expedition 
became the triumph of Lander's fame, 
and imparted to his name a large share 
of immortality. In 1831 the discovery 
of the course and termination of the Ni- 
ger was announced, and the return of 
the brothers to England was the subject 
of the warmest congratulations. Richard, 
again hurried away by the same enter- 
prising ambition which had actuated him 
through life, set off on a third expedition. 
On his way to the interior he purchased 
an island near the city of Atta, on which 
he built a house, and which he in- 
tended as a depot for merchandise. He 
died of a wound he received at Fernando 
Po,byashotfrom the natives, Feb. 6,1834. 

LANDER, John, the brother of the 
above, and his attendant in his African 
expedition, died in 1839. 

LANDRECY, a town in France, 
department of the North, was besieged 
by Prince Eugene without success 
in 1712; in 1794 it was taken by the 
allied armies ; but soon afterwards eva- 
cuated. It was one of the barrier fort- 
resses occupied by tbe allies, after the 
second treaty of Paris in 1815. 

LANDSHUT, town of Bavaria taken 
by the French, April 21, I8O9. 

LAND-TAX, one of the annual taxes 
raised upon the subject ; exacted in some 



form in the reigns of Henry II. and 
III, but fell into disuse upon the intro- 
duction of subsidies, about the time 
of Richard II. and Henry IV. The 
land-tax was first properly introduced 
in the reign of WiUiam III. ; in 1692 a 
new assessment or valuation of estates 
was made throughout the kingdom : and, 
according to this enhanced valuation from 
the year 1693 to the present, the land-tax 
has continued an annual charge upon the 
subject. 

The method of raising it is by charg- 
ing a particular sum upon each county, 
and this sum is assessed and raised 
upon individuals by commissioners 
appointed in the act. An act passed 
annually for the raising in general 
£2,037,627 9s. 10c?. by this tax at 4s. 
in the pound, till the year 1799, at which 
time the land-tax was made perpetual, 
subject to redemption by purchase on 
certain conditions. In the first year 
upwards of £13,000,000 was purchased; 
and, since that period, a great propor- 
tion of the land-tax has been redeemed. 
By 4 and 5 Will. IV. c. 60, August 13, 
1834, commissioners of the land-tax are 
empowered to transfer jurisdictions from 
one hundred or division to another, or to 
create new divisions. Assessments of 
open fields, commons, and waste lands, 
since the inclosure thereof, in the places 
in which they have usually been assessed, 
are declared valid, although not in the 
parishes in which they lie. Since the 
Reform Act, certain provisions of 18 
Geo. II. c. 18, and 20 Geo. III.c. 17, re- 
lating to the assessment of the land-tax, 
have become unnecessary ; they are, 
therefore, repealed, and persons are in- 
demnified for omission, &c. 

LANFRANC, archbishop of Canter- 
bury, in the 11th century, was a native 
of Italy, and born at Pavia. He was 
appointed abbot of St. Stephen, at Caen, 
in 1063 ; and consecrated archbishop of 
Canterbury in 1070. Having presided 
over the diocese 19 years, he died in 
1089,leaving behind him a high character 
for wisdom, learning, munificence, and 
other virtues. 

LANGHORNE, Dr. John, English 
poet, born at Kirkby-Stephen in West- 
moreland, in 1735. He held the living 
of Blagden, in Somersetshire, at the 
time of his death, which happened 
April 1, 1779. 

LANGRES, town, France, province 
Champagne, taken by the allied Russian 



LAR 



606 



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and Prussian army under General Guillay, 
January 17, 1814. 

LANGUAKD Fort, Essex, built 1618. 

LANTANE, a new metal, discovered 
byM. Mosander, 1839, while submitting 
the cerite of bastnas to fresh examina- 
tion. The oxide of cerium, extracted 
from the cerite by the usual method, 
contains nearly two-fifths of its weight 
of the oxide of the new metal, which 
but little changes the properties of the 
cerium, and lies, as it were, hiciden in it. 
For this reason, M. Mosander has named 
it lantane. It is prepared by calcining 
the nitrate of cerium mixed with nitrate 
of lantane. 

LAODICEA, on the Lycus, a town of 
Phrygia, built by Antiochus, son of Stra- 
tonice, and called after his consort Lao- 
dice. It was long an inconsiderable 
place ; but increased towards the age of 
Augustus Caesar. Its memory is ren- 
dered interesting, being one of the seven 
churches addressed by St. John in the 
Apocalypse. It was often damaged by 
earthquakes, and restored by its own 
opulence, or by the munificence of the 
Roman emperors. It became early a 
scene of ruin, and fell into the hands of 
the Turks about a.d. 1000. 

LAON, town, France, department 
Aisne. A severe battle was fought here 
between the Prussians and French, in 
March, 1814. 

LAPLACE, Marquis De, a French 
mathematician and astronomer of the 
first rank, was born in 1749. He was 
the successor of Bezout, as examiner of 
the royal corps of artillery ; and he be- 
came successively, member of the Aca- 
demy of Sciences, of the National In- 
stitute, and of the Board of Longitude. 
In 1796 he dedicated to the council of 
Five Hundred his " Exposition of the 
System of the World." In July, 1803, 
he was elected president of the senate ; 
and, in September, he became chancellor 
of that body. In April, 1814, he voted 
for a provisional government, and the 
dethronement of Buonaparte ; services 
for which Louis XVIII. rewarded him 
with the dignity of a peer. He was no- 
minated a member of the French Aca- 
demy in 18 J 6, and president of the 
commission for the re- organisation of 
thePolytechnic school. He died March 5, 
1827. 

LA PLATA. See Buenos Ayres. 

LARCHER, P. H., French translator 
of Herodotus, born 1726, died 1812. 



LARDNER.Dr.Nathaniel, eminent 
divine and writer, was born at Hawk- 
herst, in the county of Kent, June 6, 
1684, In 1727 he published, in two 
vols., the first part of his great work 
"The Credibility of the Gospel History, 
or the facts occasionably mentioned in 
the New Testament, confirmed by pas- 
sages of ancient authors, who were con- 
temporary with our Saviour, or his 
Apostles, or lived near their time." This 
valuable work occupied many years, and 
was not completed till 1743, when he 
published the fifth A'olume, which con- 
cludes with the year 306. In 1764 Dr. 
Lardner continued the prosecution of 
his grand object, and gave the world the 
first volume of "A large Collection of 
ancient Jewish and Heathen Testimonies 
to the Truth of the Christian Religion." 
The remaining three volumes were pub- 
lished at intervals between that and the 
close of the year 1767- They completed 
the grand design which had occu})ied 
43 years of Dr. Lardner's life ; and by 
them, though far from j)rofitable, he has 
raised a monument to his fame, which 
can never perish. In 1768 he fell into 
a gradual decline, which carried him oft* 
in a few weeks, at Hawkherst, his native 
place, aged 85. 

L.\RISSA, city, Greece, capital of 
Thessaly, famous in antiquity as the 
birthplace of Achilles, and as having 
been the rendezvous of Julius Caesar's 
army previous to the battle of Pharsalia. 
It was the head quarters and centre of 
the military operations of the Turks 
against the Greeks, from the time of 
Ali Pacha, who died in 1822, and who 
here laid the foundation of his power. 
From this city, also, Kourschid Pacha, 
and all the other seraskiers who suc- 
ceeded him in the late Greek war, com- 
menced their campaigns against Livadia 
and Epirus. 

LATIMER, Hugh, bishop of Wor- 
cester, and one of the earliest British 
reformers, born about 1480, at Thur- 
caston in Leicestershire. In 1535 he 
was promoted to the bishopric of Wor- 
cester : in the possession of this dignity 
he continued till 1539, when, rather than 
assent to the act of the Six Articles, he 
resigned his office, and retired into the 
country. He was soon after accused of 
speaking against the Six Articles, and 
committed to the Tower, where he con- 
tinued prisoner till the death of Henry 
VIII. in Jan. 1547. On the accession 



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of Edward VI. he was released, but not 
restored to his bishopric, though he 
preached several times before the kinjr, 
and continued to exercise his ministerial 
duties with unremitting zeal. Edward 
finished his short reign 1553, and the 
persecuting Mary ascending the throne, 
Latimer was doomed to destruction, 
and, together with Cranmer and Ridley, 
confined in the Tower. In April, 1554, 
they were removed to Oxford, that they 
might dispute with the learned doctors 
of both universities. Latimer, and his 
fellow prisoner Ridley, adhering to their 
former declarations, they were con- 
demned to the stake Sept. 16, 1554. 

LATIN, that language, being cor- 
rupted by the irruption of the Lombards, 
ceased to be spoken in Italy, about 581. 

LATIUM, kingdom of, begun by 
Janus, A.c. 1367. 

LATOUR, Hubert Dk, the sta- 
tuary, died 1650. 

LAUD, William, archbishop of 
Canterbury, born at Reading, in 1573- 
He received his classical education at 
St. John's College, Oxford, of which he 
was afterwards a fellow and grammar 
reader. In 1610 he went into orders; 
in the following year he was elected pre- 
sident of St. John's College, and was 
sworn the king's chaplain. In 1621 
the king nominated him to the bishopric 
of St. David's ; and he resigned the pre- 
sidentship of St. John's College, in 
obedience to the statutes of that college. 
In 1628 he was promoted to the see of 
London. Having now great influence, 
he became extremely active in the high- 
commission court, in which such arbitrary 
and severe prosecutions were carried 
on, as rendered him extremely unpopu- 
lar. He was elected chancellor of the 
university of Oxford in 1630, and made 
it his business during the remainder of 
his life to adorn the university with 
buildings, and to enrich it with valuable 
manuscripts and other books. In 1633 
he was made archbishop of Canterbury, 
and was sworn a privy councillor for 
Scotland. In 1635 he was appoint- 
ed one of the commissioners of the Trea- 
sury; and on tlie 6th March, 1636, re- 
ceived the staflT of the lord high treasurer 
of England. In order to prevent the 
printing what he thought improper books, 
he procured a decree to be passed in the 
star-chamber, July 11, 1637, whereby 
it was enjoined that the master printers 
should be reduced to a certain number. 



and that none of them should print any 
book till they were licensed either by 
the archbishop or the bishop of London. 
On Dec. 18, Denzill Holies, by order of 
the house of commons, impeached Arch- 
bishop Laud for high treason, &c., at 
the bar of the house of lords. He was 
then committed to the Tower, found 
guilty, and beheaded on Tower-hill, Jan. 
10, 1645, in his 72d year. 

LAURA, illustrious for her virtues, 
and immortalized in the verses of Petrarch, 
died 1348. See Petrarch. 

LAUREL, British frigate, lost in Qui- 
beron Bay, and the crew made prisoners 
Jan. 31. 1812. 

LAURISTON, a field-marshal, and a 
peer of France, born at Pondicherry 
1768, died June 10, 1828. 

LAVALETTE, condemned at Paris 
for high treason ; escaped from prison 
disguised in his wife's clothes Dec. 21, 
1815. Major-General Sir Robert Wil- 
son, Michael Bruce, Esq., and Captain 
Hely Hutchinson, were sentenced to 
three months' imprisonment for aiding 
his escape from France. 

LAVATER, John Gaspard, a ce- 
lebrated physiognomist, born at Zurich 
in Switzerland 1741. After completing 
his studies, he entered into the ministry 
in 1762, and in 1778 was chosen deacon 
and pastor of St. Peter's church. His 
first volume on physiognomy appeared 
at Leipsic in 1776, under the title of 
" Fragments." Two additional volumes 
appeared in quick succession. This 
work was translated into the French and 
English languages, and was for some 
timethe favourite topic of literary discus- 
sion. He was the determined enemy 
of tyranny in every shape, being posses- 
sed of the genuine Swiss zeal for liberty; 
and on the day when the city of Zurich 
was stormed by Massena in 1 799, Lavater 
received a wound in the breast from a 
Swiss soldier, from which he never re- 
covered. He died Jan. 2, 1801. 

LAVOISIER, Anthony Law- 
rence, a celebrated French philoso- 
pher and chemist, born at Paris August 
26, 1745. In 1774 he published his 
" Opuscules Chymiques." Turgot em- 
ployed him in 1776 to inspect the ma- 
nufacture of gunpowder; andhis chemical 
investigations of the proper mode of pre- 
paring this article wei"e so successful, 
that he increased its explosive force by 
one-fourth. In 1778 Lavoisier discover- 
ed that all acids contain the respirable 



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portion of the atmosphere as a consti- 
tuent principle, and to this he gave the 
name of oxygen. His " Elements of 
Chemistry" were published in 1789. 
The last of his philosophical works was 
" On the Perspiration of Animals," first 
read to the Academy May 4, 1791. 
Having been involved in charges fabri- 
cated against 28 farmers-general, he was 
capitally condemned, and suffered on 
the scaffold May 8, 1794. 

LAW, Edmund, bishop of Carlisle, 
a theological writer, died 1789- 

LAW, Rev. William, a divine, 
author of the " Serious Call," &c., born 
1686, died 1761. 

LAWRENCE, Sir Thomas, an emi- 
nent modern artist, was born at Bristol 
April 13, 1769. In 1787, when in his 
18th year, he came to London, and 
availed himself of the public institutions 
in his art. He made his first appear- 
ance as an exhibiter at Somerset House 
the same year. In 1791 he was elected 
an associate at the Royal Academy. On 
the death of Sir Joshua Reynolds, the 
Society unanimously chose him as his 
successor as their painter. In 1818 he 
went to Aix-la-Chapelle, to paint for his 
Royal Highness the Prince Regent, 
the resemblance of those by whose 
actions posterity was so much to be in- 
fluenced. On November 7, the emperor 
of Russia repaired to tlie Town-hall to 
sit to Sir Thomas Lawrence. Having 
concluded his mission at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
Sir Thomas proceeded to Vienna ; from 
Vienna to Rome May 15, 1819 ; and he 
there finished the portraits of the pope 
and cardinal Gonsalvi. March 30, 1820, 
Sir Thomas Lawrence was, without op- 
position, elected to succeed Mr. West 
as President of the Academy. Immedi- 
ately after the coronation in July, 1821, 
his majesty George IV. directed Sir 
Thomas to paint a full-length portrait 
of him, in his coronation robes. His 
last public duty was the delivery of the 
biennial medals December 10, 1829. 
He died January 7, 1830 ; his remains 
were interred in St. Paul's Cathedral, 
Jan. 21. 

LEACH, Sir John, master of the 
rolls, a privy councillor, a bencher of the 
Middle Temple, and LL.D., was born 
1760. He became king's counsel in 
1807. His most remarkable speeches 
were on the duke of York's affairs, 
on the motion of colonel Wardle in 
1809 ; and also on the bill for creating 



the vice-chancellor's court. He died 

Sept. 14, 1834. 

LEAD, a metal of much importance 
for its durability. It is extensively used 
in the construction of water-pipes and 
cisterns, as a covering for flat surfaces 
or tops of buildings, &c. &c. The 
lead-mines of Great Britain have been 
wrought from a very remote era. Pre- 
viously to 1289, however, those of Der- 
byshire only had been explored ; but in 
that j'ear lead-mines were discovered in 
Wales, and subsequently in Scotland, 
and since then others also have been 
worked in Cumberland and Northum- 
berland ; the whole producing annually 
about 16,000 tons. The total annual 
produce of the Scotch lead-mines is esti- 
mated at 4120 tons. 

The lead ore exported from the 
United Kingdom from January 1, 1832, 
to January 1, 1833, was 12,181 tons, 
3 cwt. Since then the exports of Bri- 
tish lead have fallen off, and the imports 
increased, princij)ally owing to the 
vast supplies of that metal that have 
recently been furnished by the mines of 
Adra, at Granada, in Spain. The quan- 
tity exported from this country in 1838 
was 7381 tons, at the declared value of 
£154,126. 

LEADENHALL, London, built 1446. 

LEAMINGTON Priors, Warwick- 
shire, has risen since 1797, and from an 
inconsiderable village become a place of 
fashionable resort. The springs are va- 
riously impregnated. The original spa 
contains a large proportion of common 
salt, with sulphate of soda, muriate of 
magnesia, and sulphate of lime ; there 
are besides chalybeate and sulphureous 
springs ; the waters of the latter are 
chiefly used externally. 

LEATHER-SELLERS' Company, 
London, incorporated 1442. 

LEDYARD, John, the African tra- 
veller, born 1751, died 1788. 

LEE BOO, a prince from the Pelew 
Isles, died of the small-pox, and was 
interred in Rotherhithe church-yard, 
Dec. 27, 1784. 

LEEDS, Yorkshire, is a place of great 
antiquity ; it is mentioned by Bede the 
ecclesiastical historian, and is noticed in 
the Doomsday Survey. A castle for- 
merly stood here, besieged by King 
Stephen in 1139, and in which Richard 
II., after his deposition in 1339, was 
confined for a short time previously to 
his repioval to Pontefract. Tlie town 



LEI 



609 



LEL 



received its first charter of incorporation 
from Charles I. in 1626 ; a second charter 
was granted by Charles II. in 1661, 
and renewed by James II. in 1684. 
Under this the town continued to be go- 
verned until the passingof the Municipal 
Reform Bill in 1835. 

LEGHORN, city, grand duchy of 
Tuscany, anciently Liburnum, was, in 
the 15th century, a village immersed in 
swamps ; it was then given by the Ge- 
noese to Florence, in exchange for Sar- 
zana : it is indebted for its prosperity to 
the family of Medici, who constructed 
the port and mole, and declared it a free 
harbour. 

LEGION OF Honour, instituted by 
Buonaparte, July 15, 1804; confirmed 
by Louis XVIII. in 1814. 

•LEIBNITZ, Godfrey William De, 
a celebrated mathematician and philo- 
sopher, was born at Leipsic in 1646. In 
1700 he was admitted a member of the 
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris ; 
and in the same year was appointed per- 
petual president of the academy of Ber- 
lin. His writings spread his fame over 
Europe, and procured him the patronage 
of several crowned heads. The emperor 
of Germany appointed him in 1711 aulic 
counsellor; and the czar of Russia 
made him privy councillor of justice, 
with a pension of 1000 ducats. On the 
accession of the elector of Hanover to 
the throne of Great Britain in 1714, 
Leibnitz visited this country, where he 
was received with every mark of distinc- 
tion. He died in I7l6, aged 70. His 
philosophy which has excited consider- 
able interest, is a system formed partly 
on the Cartesian theory. The particulars 
of this system may be seen in the 
"Principia" of Leibnitz," published by 
Hanschius in 1728. 

LEICES TER was, under the Romans, 
a military station of importance. About 
the year 737 the see of a bishop was 
transferred from Sidnacester to Lei- 
cester ; the period at which it ceased to 
be a bishopric is uncertain. The first 
charter was granted by King John in 
1199, and confirmed by Heniy VII. in 
1504. Elizabeth in 1584 granted a fresh 
charter, which was renewed by her suc- 
cessor in 1604. Leicester, during the 
civil wars, was occupied by the parlia- 
mentarians, and taken after a siege by 
the king in 1645 ; but after the battle of 
Naseby, was surrendered by the royal 
governor, Lord Loughborough, to Sir 



Thomas Fairfax. Here Cardinal Wolsey 
died, Nov. 29, 1530, having been com- 
pelled by sickness, on his journey to 
London, to seek an asylum there. 

LEIGHTON, Robert, an eminent 
English divine, the eldest son of Alex- 
ander Leighton, a native of Scotland, 
(well known by his writings and his suf- 
ferings,) was, from his youth, equally 
distinguished by his talents and his 
piety, and at an early age was ordained 
minister of Nevvbottle, near Edinburgh. 
In 1648 he declared his approbation of 
the measures in favour of the king, and 
"finding it impossible to avoid sharing in 
the disputes of that period, he resigned 
his charge, and withdrew to a private 
station. Soon after the Restoration, 
when the introduction of episcopacy into 
Scotland was resolved on, Leighton was 
consecrated bishop of Dunblane, but he 
resigned his bishopric. The king and 
council resolved to carry on the cause of 
episcopacy in Scotland on a different 
plan ; ami, with this view, Leighton was 
persuaded to acce[)t the archbishopric of 
Glasgow; but, finding it not in his 
power to stem the violence of the times, 
he resigned his archbishopric, and retired 
to a private residence in Sussex. He 
died in 1684 while on a visit to London. 
LEIPSIC, city. Saxony, is first men- 
tioned as a fortified city in the 12th cen- 
tury. On Sept. 7, 1631, Gustavus Adol- 
phus, on the plains of Leipsic, prevailed 
over the Roman catholic generals Tilly 
and Pappenheim. In 1642 Tostenson 
defeated, at the same place, the imperial 
Saxon troops, under the archduke Leo- 
pold WiUiam and Piccolomini. Leipsic 
is also celebrated for two of the greatest 
battles recorded in history, fought in its 
A'icinity between the French and the 
allied armies on Oct. 16 and 18, 1813 ; 
the French were completely defeated and 
the town captured : their loss in killed, 
wounded, and prisoners, is stated at 
60,000 men. 

Leipsic university, which was founded 
in 1409, is composed of six colleges, and is 
divided into four faculties : theology, law, 
medicine, and philosophy. It contains 
upwards of 70 professors, and about 
1300 students. 

LELAND, John, the antiquarian, 
was born in London about the end of the 
reign of Henry VII. 'Intense application 
brought upon him a derangement of 
mind in 1550, from which he never re- 
covered. He died in 1552. 

4 I 



LEO 



610 



LES 



LELAND, Dr. John, a distinguished 
nonconformist divine, and writer in de- 
fence of Christianity, was born at Wigan 
in Lancashire in I69I. His principal 
work entitled, "A View of the Principal 
Deistical Writers that have appeared in 
England, in the last and present Cen- 
tury, with Observations," &c., was pub- 
lished in 1754. He died Jan. 16, 1766, 
aged 75. 

LELAND, Dr. Thomas, a divine of 
the church of England, born at Dub- 
lin about 1702, author of "A History 
of Ireland," &c., died 1785, aged 83. 

LELY, Sir Peter, eminent portrait 
painter, born l6l7, died 1680. 

LEMPRIERE, John, D.D., author 
of " Bibliotheca Classica," died 1824. 

L'ENFANT, James, historian, born 
1661, died 1728. 

LENNOX, Mrs., author of the " Fe- 
male Quixote," &c., died Jan. 4, 1804. 

LENOX, Earl of, regent of Scot- 
land, murdered 1571. 

LEO X., one of the most celebrated 
Roman pontiffs, was the second son of 
Lorenzo de Medici, and born at Florence 
in Dec, 1475. In the time of Innocent 
VIII. he was promoted to the rank of 
cardinal, being only 13 years of age. 
He was formally invested with the purple 
in 1492, and went soon after to reside at 
Rome, as one of the sacred college, and 
afterwards went to Florence. On the 
invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. of 
France, he was involved in the expulsion 
of his family, and took refuge at Bo- 
logna. In 1505, when 30 years of age, 
he began to take an active part in public 
affairs, and Julius II. appointed him go- 
vernor of Perugia. He was taken prisoner 
at the battle of Ravenna in 1512, and con- 
veyed to Milan. On the death of Julius 
II. in 1513 he was chosen pontiff, and 
ascended the throne under the name of 
LeoX. 

It was during the reign of this pontiff 
that the reformation under Martin Luther 
commenced. Leo having exhausted his 
coffers, determined to take from the 
church the profits arising from the sale 
of indulgences for his own private emo- 
lument. In 1518 he published a bull, 
asserting the pope's authority to grant 
indulgences. The works of Luther were 
burnt in different places by Leo's com- 
znand. It was this pontiff who conferred 
on Henry VIII. of England the title of 
" defender of the faith." He died Dec. 1, 
1521, aged 46. 



LEO BEN, town, Austrian empire. 
A convention was here concluded in 
April, 1797, between the French and 
Austrian s, previously to the peace of 
Campo Formio. 

LEON, kingdom of Spain. The foun- 
dation of it was laid by Pelagius in the 
eighth century, but Ordonno II. was the 
first who assumed the title of king of 
Leon. It was united to Castile in 1030. 
The town was the residence of the Ro- 
man catholic kings of Spain until the 
year 1037- 

LEOPOLD, Prince of Saxe-Co- 
BOURG, married to the Princess Char- 
lotte, May 2, 1816. He was elected 
king of Belgium June 4, 1831, crowned 
at Brussels July 21, 1831 ; married at 
Compeigne to Louise, daughter of the 
king of the French, Aug. 9, 1832. 

LEPANTO, town, Greece, situated on 
a bay, called the Gulf of Lepanto. Hav- 
ing been ceded to the Venetians by the 
emperor, it was fortified, and stood a 
siege of four months, in 1745, against 
the Turks, who lost 30,000 men. Near 
this town, Don John of Austria ob- 
tained a celebrated victory over the 
Turkish fleet, Oct. 7, 1571, which effec- 
tually checked the progress of the Turks 
in the Mediterranean. It was taken by 
the Greeks May 9, 1829- 

LERIDA, town, Spain, Catalonia, was 
for some time in the possession of the 
Goths and Moors, and under the latter 
was, for several years, the capital of a 
small kingdom. It was taken by the 
French in 1707 and in 1810. Capitulated 
to the Spaniards, Feb. 18, 1814. 

LESLIE, Sir J., professor of natural 
philosophy in the university of Edin- 
burgh, a corresponding member of the 
Institute of France, &c., was born April, 
1766, at Largo. His differential ther- 
mometer was invented before 1800. His 
inquiries in relation to heat were given 
to the world in 1804, in his " Essay on 
the Nature and Propagation of Heat," 
which the Royal Society honoured by 
the Rumford medal. In 1805 he was 
elected to the mathematical chair in the 
university of Edinburgh. In 1809 he 
published " Elements of Geometry, Geo- 
metrical Analysis, and Plane Trigono- 
metry." In 1810 he discovered that 
beautiful process of artificial congelation, 
which enabled him to convert water and 
mercury into ice. In 1813 he published 
"An Account of Experiments and In- 
struments depending on the Relations of 



LIB 



611 



LIB 



Air to Heat and Moisture." In 1819, on 
the death of Professor Playfair, he was 
removed to the chair of natural philo- 
sophy. He -was knighted on June 27, 
1832, and died Nov. 3, aged 66. 

LESSING, G. E., German dramatist, 
born 1729, died 1805. 

L'ESTRANGE, Sir Roger, a great 
patron of music, born 16 17, died Dec. 
11, 1704. 

LETl'SOM, John, M.D., an eccen- 
tric physician, died 1815, aged 72. 

LEUWENHOEK, Anthony, a 
Dutch philosopher, celebrated for his 
discoveries and experiments in natural 
history, was born at Delft in Holland, 
1632. He was a member of mostof the li- 
terary societies of Europe : he was elected 
a fellow of the Royal Society of London 
in 1680; and a corresponding member 
of the Academy of Sciences at Paris in 
1697. He died at Delft in 1723. 

LEVER, Sir Ashton, collector of 
the Leverian museum, died Jan. 30, 1788. 

LEVESQUE, P. C., historian, born 
1736, died 1812. 

LEWES, Sussex, before the Norman 
conquest, was vested in the crown,but was 
made over by William to his son-in-law 
William de Warren, a Norman baron, in 
whose family it remained until 1347. 
Near this town was fought, in 1263, a 
battle between the forces of Henry III. 
and those of the rebellious confederate 
barons, when the king and his son, after- 
wards Edward I., were made prisoners. 

LEWIS, W^iLLiAM Thomas, come- 
dian, died Jan. 2, 1811. 

LEWIS, George, author of " The 
Monk," born 1773, died 1819. 

LEWIS, Rev., the historian and an- 
tiquary, died January 16, 1746, aged 73. 

LEXINGTON, a town in Massachu- 
setts, United States. The first conflict 
in the American war occurred in this 
place, April 19, 1775. 

LEYDEN, a city in Holland, famous 
for having sustained a long siege against 
the Spaniards in 1574, during which 
6000 of the inhabitants perished by fa- 
mine and pestilence. In reward for this 
resistance, the university was founded in 
the following year. It is distinguished 
for its botanical gardens, anatomical 
theatre, observatory, and valuable library. 
The number of students exceeds 300. 
Ley den suffered much in January 1807, 
from an explosion of a ship containing 
40,000 lbs. of gunpowder. 

LIBERIAj a district of Western Af- 



rica, Grain Coast, Guinea, recently es- 
tablished. This tract of country was 
purchased by the American Colonization 
Society from the natives in 1-820, and 
-settled with people of colour and liberated 
captives. The capital is Monrovia, on 
CapeMontserado, named after Mr. Mon- 
roe, president of the United States. The 
emigrants from America first established 
themselves in Liberia January 7, 1822, 
and have since that time transported 
thither free persons of colour, slaves 
rescued from pirates, &c. There are 
four flourishing settlements within the 
limits of the colony. It is represented 
as highly religious and moral, with trade 
and commerce rapidly increasing, and 
extending into the interior and along 

LIBRARY. The first public one of 
which we have any certain account in 
history was founded at Athens by Hip- 
parchus, ac. 526. The second of any 
note was founded at Alexandria by 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, A.c. 284. It was 
burnt when Juhus Caesar set fire to that 
city, A.c. 47. See Alexandria. 

The following are the principal during 
the Christian era:— One was established 
at Rome, a.d. 167 ; another at Constan- 
tinople, founded by Constantine the 
Great, about 335 ; destroyed 477. A 
second Alexandrian library, formed from 
the remains of the first, by Ptolemy's 
successors, was totally destroyed by the 
Saracens, 640. The Vatican at Rome, 
by Pope Nicholas V., founded 1446 ; 
rebuilt, and considerably improved by 
SixtusV.,1588. The Imperial, of Vienna, 
by Maximilian I., founded about 1500. 
The Royal, of Paris, by Francis I., about 
1520. The Escurial.at Madrid, by Philip 
II., 1557. That of Florence, byCosmo de 
Medicis, 1560. The Bodleian, at Oxford, 
founded in 1595. See Bodleian. 

The Cottonian, formerly kept at Cot- 
ton-house, Westmin.ster, founded by Sir 
Robert Cotton about 1600 ; appropriated 
to the public use and benefit 13 William 
III,, 1701 ; partly destroyed by fire, 
1731; removed to the British Museum, 
1753. The Radcliffeian, at Oxford, 
founded by the will of Dr. Radcliffe,who 
left £40,000 to the university for that 
purpose, 1714. One at Cambridge, 17 20, 
to which George I. gave £5000 to pur- 
chase Dr. Moore's collection. 

The most valuable libraries now exist- 
ing in Europe, and the number of printed 
books and manuscripts, are aa follow : — 



LIF 



Vols. MSS. 

Royal Library, Paris. . 700,000. . 80,000 

Bodleian, Oxford 420,000. . 30,000 

jloyal Central, Munich 500,000. . 16,000 

Vatican, Rome 100,000. . 40.000 

University, Gottingen 300,000. . . 5000 

British Museum 305,000. . 22,000 

Vienna 350,000. . 16,000 

St. Petersburgh 400,000. . 16,000 

Naples 300,000. . . 6000 

Dresden 300,000. . . 2700 

Copenhagen 400,000. . 20,000 

Berlin 250,030. , . 5000 

The various public libraries in the 
United States of Americacontain 754,050 
volumes. 

LICHFIELD, or Litchfield, said 
to have been a small village when Oswy, 
king of Northumberland, having defeat- 
ed and slain Penda, the pagan king of 
the Mercians, introduced Christianity 
among his subjects about the year 656, 
built a church, and established a bishop- 
ric at this place. The see was transfer- 
red to Chester, and thence, in 1102, to 
Coventry ; but Roger de Chnton having 
been appointed bishop in 1129, made 
this place again the seat of prelacy, and 
his successors have ever since retained 
the style of bishops of Lichfield and 
Coventry. 

LIERAU, treaty of, which annulled 
the feudal subjection of the duchy of 
Prussia to the crown of Sweden, Novem- 
ber 10, 1656. 

LIEGE, a province of Belgium, for- 
merly a bishopric in the circle of West- 
phalia, was occupied by the French in 
1794; ceded to them by the peace of 
Luneville, and formed into the depart- 
ment of Ourthe. By a decree of the 
congress of Vienna, and a separate treaty 
of March 23, 1815, this country was 
given as a sovereign principality to the 
king of the Netherlands, and formed, 
until 1830, a province of that kingdom ; 
but at the revolution it became a portion 
of the Belgic kingdom. 

LIEGE, city, taken by the English 
1702; by the French 1792 ; by the French 
1795 ; by the Austrians 1798. A Uni- 
versity was established here in 1817, 
which, previous to the disturbances in 
1830, contained 350 students. 

LIFE Annuities, periodical paj'- 
ments, depending on the continuance of 
the life of one or more persons. These 
annuities commence either immediately, 
or at some future period ; in the latter 
case they are called reversionary life an- 



612 LIF 

nuities. Life annuities, for accelerating 
the liquidation of the national debt, by 
their reversion at the death of the nomi- 
nees into the sinking fun^, were intro- 
duced 1808. 

LIFE Assurance, or Insurance, 
a species of insurance founded on the 
average term of the duration of life. The 
average in Great Britain is longer by 
almost one-third, than it was during the 
last century. The rate of mortality in 
1780, was one in 40j; in 1821 it was one 
in 58. The tables which have been con- 
structed, upon the experience of most 
European nations, enable us not only to 
determine the average term of life, but 
the probabilities of the number of years 
a person, at any particular age, has to 
live. Upon thesecalculations are founded 
the system of Life Assurance and annui- 
ties. For a list of the principal offices, 
see Insurance. 

LIFE Boats. See Boats. A new 
and improved life boat has lately been 
introduced, which from its strength and 
elasticity, is capable of sustaining con- 
cussions that would destroy life-boats of 
the usual construction : it was invented 
in 1823, but the originator only brought 
it into use in 1839. It is perfectly elas- 
tic, except about three-fourths of its 
keel, which are secured by plates of cop- 
per, or irori. The stern and other parts 
of the keel are secured by thinner plates, 
in joints, so as to give great strength to 
these parts, but still preserve their elas- 
ticity. The timbers, which are very 
slight, are of oak, tarred and covered 
with light strong canvass, with a casing 
over that of thin whalebone, and the out- 
side finished with leather, or improved 
canvass, sewed on. The materials of this 
cloth are saturated in the loom by a che- 
mical process, which preserves it from 
wet, and the action of the atmosphere, 
heat, mildew, or rot. 

LIFE Preserver, a new safety 
jacket, invented by a mechanic at Bath, 
1823. 

LIFE Ships. The plan of dividing 
the hull of a vessel into sections, each of 
which should be completely water-tight, 
long practised by the Chinese, has been 
introduced, with some improvements, 
into European naval architecture, by 
Mr. Williams, the engineer of the Dub- 
lin steam-boat company in 1838. He 
divided the vessel into five compartments 
by means of four bulk-heads of iron. 
The central section of this division is 



Lie 



oi; 



occupied bj' the engine boiler and coal- 
bunkers; thus detaching them entirely 
from all other parts of the vessel. The 
sections, numbers 2 and 4, form the 
fore and after holds ; or, in case of pas- 
sengers' vessels, the fore and after cabins; 
and the two remaining sections at the 
bow and stern, need not be so high as 
the main deck, as the water could never 
rise within several feet of the same. 
Here then is an effectual remedy against 
the casualties attendant on a vessel 
coming into collision vi'ith another. Un- 
less the vyater break into the vessel in all 
its sections at the same time, (which 
may be considered impossible), there can 
be no danger of submersion ; and expe- 
rience has proved that a small addition 
of buoyancy would prevent a vessel from 
sinking, after it had been so immersed 
that the deck was level with the surface 
of the sea. 

LIGHTFOOT, Rev. Dk. J., a learned 
divine, born in 1602. In 1652 he took 
the degree of doctor of divinity, and in 
1655 was made vice-chancellor of Cam- 
bridge. He took an active part in per- 
fecting the Polyglott Bible, then in the 
press. He was appointed one of the as- 
sistants at the conference upon the li- 
turgy, which was held in 1661. He died 
in 1675, aged 74. His works were col- 
lected and published in 1684. 

LIGHTHOUSE, a tower situated on 
a promontory, or headland on the sea- 
coast, for the reception of a hght for the 
guidance of ships at night. The most 
celebrated of all the ancient lighthouses 
was that erected by Ptolemy Soter, on 
the small island of Pharos, opposite to 
Alexandria ; it was of great height, and 
is said to have cost 800 talents. In the 
ancient world there were hghthouses at 
Ostia, Ravenna, Puteoli, Caprea, Rhodes, 
on the Thracian Bosphorus, &c. Nu- 
merous lighthouses have been erected 
in most civilized maritime countries ; 
they are particularly abundant in the 
Baltic and in the Sound, and have con- 
tributed in no ordinary degree, to render 
navigation comparatively safe. The Tour 
de Cordouan, at the entrance of the Gi- 
ronde, was begun in 1584, by order of 
Henry IV. of France, and was completed 
in 1611. 

Lighthouses were erected in England 
at an early period. The act 8 Eliz. c. 13, 
empowers the corporation of the Trinity 
House to erect beacons, &c., to prevent 
accidents to ships. The first lighthouse 



; LIG 

erected by the Trinity corporation, wa.9 
in 1680, but several had been ])revious]y 
erected by private parties. The most 
important British lighthouses are the Ed- 
dystone, near Plymouth, and Bell Rock, 
on the Forth of Tay, Scotland. The first 
hghthouse erected on theEddystone rocks 
only stood about seven years, having 
been blown down in the dreadful storm 
on Nov. 27, 1703; a second, erected in 
1708, was burnt down in 1755. The 
present lighthouse, constructed by the 
celebrated engineer, Smeaton, was com- 
pleted in 1759 ; it is regarded as a mas- 
terpiece of its kind. The Bell Rock light- 
house was built by Mr. Stevenson, on the 
model of the Eddystone. The foundation 
stone was laid July 10, 1808. In Feb. 2, 
1811, it was lighted for the first time. 
The light is clear and powerful, and may 
be seen, when the sky is clear, very dis- 
tinctly at eight leagues' distance. 

The invention of revolving, intermit- 
ting, and colouring lights, since the 
close of the last century, has afforded 
facilities for varymg the apjjearance of 
each light, which have been, in that re- 
spect, of the greatest importance. An 
improved method of illuminating was 
invented by Lieut. Drummond, 1832. 

1836. Important regulations, in re- 
spect of lighthouses, are embodied in the 
act 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 79, in which 
provision is made for placing all light- 
houses, floating lights, harbour lights, 
buoys, beacons, &c. on and round the 
coasts of England and Wales, under the 
control and management of the Trinity 
House; and also for placing all light- 
houses, &c. on the coasts of Scotland and 
Ireland respectively, under the control 
and management of the Commissioners 
of Northern Lights, and of the Commis- 
sioners for improving the Port of Dublin. 

1838 — 1840. It having been repre- 
sented to the Corporation of the Trinity 
House, that Mitchell's patent screw 
moorings might be advantageously em 
ployed in constructing lighthouses on 
sands, an experiment to ascertain its 
practicability was made under the su-- 
perintendence of their engineer, Mr. J. 
Walker. The spot selected is on the 
verge of the Maplin sand, at the mouth 
of the Thames, about 20 miles below the 
Nore. In August, 1838, operations were 
commenced to form the base of an oc- 
tagon, 40 feet diameter, with Mitchell's 
mooring screws, aitd have been since 
continued. 



LIN 



614 



LIN 



See 



LIGHTNING Conductors. 
Electricity, page 419. 

LILLO, George, dramatist, born 
1693, died Sept. 3, 1739- 

LILLY, William, the astrologer, 
born 1602, died 1681. 

LILLY, William, the grammarian, 
was born at Oldham, in Hampshire, 1466, 
and educated at Magdalen College, 
Oxford. In 1510, when Dr. Colet 
founded St. Paul's school, Lilly was ap- 
pointed the first master. Being seized 
by the plague, he died in Feb. 1523, and 
was buried in the north yard of St. Paul's. 
His principal work on grammar is enti- 
tled, " Brevissima Institutio seu ratio 
Grammatices cognoscendse : " Lond. 1513. 
LIMA, city. South America, capital of 
the republic of Peru, was founded in 
1535, by Francis Pizarro. A university 
was instituted at Lima in 1551, which 
obtained from the crown of Spain the 
same privileges as that of Salamanca. 
Lima has been repeatedly laid in ruins 
by earthquakes, more than 20 of which 
it has experienced since 1582. Previ- 
ously to the emancipation of Peru, Lima 
was the grand entrepot for the trade of 
all the west coast of South America ; but 
a considerable portion of the foreign 
trade of Peru is now carried on through 
Buenos Ayres. A revolution broke out 
at Lima against General Santa-Cruz, 
July 29, 1838. The Chilian troops en- 
tered Lima, Aug. 21. 

LIMBORCH, Philip, a learned 
Dutch divine, born at Amsterdam 1633. 
In 1655 he began to preach in public, 
at Haerlem. He obtained the professor- 
ship of divinity at Amsterdam, in which 
he acquitted himself with great reputation 
till his death, which happened in 1712. 

LIMERICK, a city in Ireland, was 
founded in 155, by Yuorus. In 970 it 
was plundered by Mahon, brother of 
Brian Boromhe. In 1174 it was first 
taken by the English, and was then 
the strongest fortress in Ireland, and the 
port much frequented. In 1651 it was 
again taken by Ireton, at the head of the 
Parliamentarians. In 1691 it surren- 
dered to General Ginkle, having first ob- 
tained the conditions well known as the 
"Articles of Limerick." The see of Lime- 
rick existed in the beginning of the 12th 
century, and is said to have been founded 
in the sixth. It was united to the sees 
of Ardfert and Aghadoe in 1663. 

LINACRE, Thomas, English phy- 
sician and philosopher, died 1524. 



LINCOLN, under the Romans, was 
an important colony, called Lindum. 
In the wars between the Danes and 
Saxons, it was twice stormed and cap- 
tured by the former, and as often re- 
taken. During the contest for the crown, 
between Stephen and the empress Ma- 
tilda, this place was the theatre of fre- 
quent hostilities. 

In the reign of Wilham the Conqueror 
it became the seat of a bishop, the see 
having been removed hither from Don- 
caster; soon after the transfer the see 
acquired a vast accession of territorial 
jurisdiction and wealth ; and, though 
Henry II. dismembered it by the foun- 
dation of the bishopric of Ely, and 
Henry VIII. by founding those of Pe- 
terborough and Oxford, it is still con 
sidered as the largest in England. 

LINCOLN'S-INN, London, built in 
1229 ; converted from the bishop of Chi- 
chester's palace to an inn of court 1310; 
new buildings erected 1782. The square 
enclosed with rails 1737- 

LINDISFARNE Abbey, Northum- 
berland, founded 651 ; re-built 1014. 

LINEN Manufacture has been 
prosecuted in England since 1253. In 
1698 both houses of parliament ad- 
dressed his majesty William III., pray- 
ing that the woollen manufacture of Ire- 
land might be discouraged, and the linen 
manufacture established in its stead. 
The linen trade of Ireland, from the 
reign of William III., has been the ob- 
ject of regulation. Besides premiums and 
other encouragements of various kinds, 
bounties were granted on the exportation 
of linen for a very long period. 

In 1727 a board of trustees was esta- 
blished in Scotland for the superinten- 
dence and improvement of the linen ma- 
nufacture. The regulations, after having 
been long objected to by those con- 
cerned, were abolished in 1822, and the 
bounties have ceased. The total average 
export of Irish linen, during the three 
years ending with 1825, was 51,947,413 
yards, of which 49,031,073 came to this 
country ; the exports to all other parts 
being only 2,916,340. The quantity ex- 
ported from the United Kingdom in 1838, 
was 77,195,894 yards; declared value, 
£2.717,979. 

LINNiEAN Society, founded 1788; 
incorporated 1802. 

LINNiEUS, Charles, the most ce- 
lebrated botanist and natural historian of 
modern times, was born May, 1707, at 



LIS 



61; 



Rashult, a village in Sweden. In 1727 
he was matriculated at the University of 
Lund. In 1731 the royal academy of 
sciences at Upsal deputed him to make 
the tour of Lapland, with a view of ex- 
ploring the natural history of that region. 
In 1733 and 1734 he visited and ex- 
amined the several mines in Sweden. 
In 1735 he took the degree of doctor of 
medicine, and soon after published the 
first sketch of his " Systema Naturae." 

In 1736 Linnaeus travelled into Eng- 
land, and visited Dillenius, the professor 
of botany, at Oxford. In 1738 he settled 
as a physician at Stockholm. In 1741, 
upon the resignation of Roberg, he was 
constituted joint professor of physic, and 
physician to the king, with Rosen, and 
pronounced before the university his ora- 
tion " De Peregrinationum intra Patriam 
necessitate," Oct. 17. From this time 
we find this eminent man in a more ele- 
vated rank in life ; his reputation had 
procured him honours from nearly all 
the royal societies in Europe; and his 
own sovereign created him a knight of 
the polar star. In 1776 he was seized 
with apoplexy, which left him para- 
lytic; he died Jan. 11, 1778, in the 
7 1st year of his age. 

LIPARI, volcanic islands in the Me- 
diterranean. The following are the prin- 
cipal eruptions on record : — Under the 
consulship of iEmilius Lepidus and L. 
Aurelius Orestes, a.c.126. In a. d. 1444, 
at which time both Sicily and the iEohan 
isles were agitated by dreadful shocks of 
earthquakes. In 1550 the fury of this 
volcano was again renewed. In 1739 it 
was attended with a noise so dreadful, that 
it was heard as far as Melazzo, in Sicily, 
liastly, in 1783, when the isles of Lipari 
were agitated anew by that fatal earth- 
quake which ravaged Calabria and part 
of Sicily. See Calabria. 

LISBON, the capital of Portugal, on 
the river Tagus, anciently called Olisipo, 
or Olisippo. The first inhabitants, ac- 
cording to Pliny, were the ancient Tertu- 
leans, who fell under the power of Rome 
after the destruction of Carthage. In 
716 this place was taken b,y the Moors, 
who gave it the name of Lisboa; and in 
the 16th century it was made the capital 
of the kingdom, by Emanuel I. In 1531 
the city was shaken, and in 1755 almost 
annihilated by an earthquake. See 
Earthquake. In 1807 theFrencharmy 
occupied this city, as well as the gi'eater 
part of Portugal. Upon the advance of 



i LIT 

theTrench on Lisbon, the royal family of 
Portugal embarked for Brazil, 1808. 
Don Miguel seized on Lisbon in 1829; 
reigned until 1833, at which time he was 
compelled to evacuate the city, and aban- 
don further contest for the crown of Por- 
tugal. Lisbon was captured by Donna 
Maria's forces, July 24. 

LISLE, city, France, taken from the 
Spaniards by Louis XIV. in 1667; sur- 
rendered to the duke of Marlborough 
and Prince Eugene in 17O8. At the 
peace of Utrecht it was restored to 
France. In 1792 it was bombarded by 
the Austrians, who were obliged to retire 
with the loss of 20,000 men. In 1815 
Louis XVIII. spent one day here, pre- 
vious to his leaving France. 

LISLE, William De, eminent geo- 
grapher, born 1675, died 1726. 

LISLE, Joseph Nicholas De, an 
eminent French astronomer, brother of 
the preceding, was born at Paris, 1688. 
A total eclipse of the sun having taken 
place in March 1706, he was by this cir- 
cumstance led to the study of astronomy. 
He was chosen a member of the Aca- 
demy of Sciences in 1714 ; came over to 
England in 1724, where he became ac- 
quainted with Newton and Halley. In 
1726 he went to Petersburgh, to fill the 
post of astronomer royal in the imperial 
academy of sciences. On the transit of 
Mercury over the sun, in 1753, De Lisle 
published an interesting map represent- 
ing it. About 1758 he withdrew into re- 
tirement, at the abbey of St. Genevieve, 
and died Sept. 11, 1768, aged 81. 

LISTER, Dr. M., natural philoso- 
pher, born about 1688, died 1768. 

LITANY, first used in churches 443 ; 
first used in England in English 1543. 

LITERARY Fund Society, estab- 
lished 1790 ; incorporated 1818. 

LITERARY Property. See Copy- 
right. 

LITERATURE, Royal Society of, 
founded 1831. 

LITHOGRAPHY, an art recently 
introduced into this country, which con- 
sists in taking impressions from a draw- 
ing or writing executed on stone: was 
first discovered in 1800, by Aloys Sene- 
felder ; brought over to England in I80I, 
when M. Andre D'OflFenbach, a mer- 
chant in London, succeeded in obtaining 
several beautiful drawings on stone; 
greatly improved since 1820, by Hul- 
mandel, and various other artists. 

1840. Mr. Hulmandel took out a 



LIV 



616 



LOG 



patent for his latest and most important 
improvement; viz. the production on 
stone of tiitferent tints, put on by liquid 
washes with the brush, that will yield 
corresponding impressions. By this 
means the coloured drawings of Hard- 
ing and other eminent artists have been 
faithfully transferred from the stone ; so 
that what lithography has hitherto been 
to the draftsman, it will now become to 
the painter. 

LITURGY. The liturgy of the church 
of England was composed in the year 
1547, established by statute 2 and 3 Ed- 
ward VI. c. 1., reformed and established 
by the act of 5 and 6 Edward VI. c. 1. 
It was abolished by Queen Mary, but af- 
terwards re-established with some few 
alterations and additions, by 1 Elizaljeth, 
c. 2. The last review of the liturgy was 
in the year l66l, and the last act of uni- 
formity, enjoining the observance of it, 
is 13 and 14 Charles II. c. 4. 

LIVERPOOL, Lancaster. A charter 
of privileges was granted to the towns- 
mCTi by Henry I.; but the first recorded 
charter is dated 1203. Henry III. 
granted farther privileges in 1227 ; vvhich 
were confirmed and augmented by Ed- 
ward III. in 1312; by Richard II. in 
1378 ; by Henry IV. in 1413 ; by Philip 
and Mary in 1555; by Charles I. in 
1626 ; and by Charles II. in 1676. In 
1684 the charter was surrendered to 
James II. for one of his peculiar forma- 
tion, which, however, was annulled by 
William III. in 1695. In 1752 George 
n. granted an entirely new charter, au- 
thorising the mayor to act as justice of 
the peace for four years after the expira- 
tion of this office, and George III. e.v- 
tended tlie privileges and powers of the 
mayor and corporation in 1808. The 
last charter continued in operation until 
the passing of the Municipal Reform 
Bill. 

A castle was erected here in 1076 by 
Roger de Poictiers, one of the followers 
of William the Conqueror. The office 
of constable of the castle was vested in 
the Molyneux family from the reign of 
Henry V. to that of Queen Elizabeth ; 
in 1659 the castle was dismantled, and 
its site is now occupied by St. George's 
church. In 1644 the town was garri- 
soned for the parliament, and held out 
against Prince Rupert for one month, 
when Colonel Moore, the governor, was 
obliged to surrender. 



LIVERPOOL AND Manchester 
Railway. See Railway. 

LIVERPOOL, Right Hon. Robert 
Banks Jenkinson, late earl of, was 
born June 7, 1770. In 1791 he took 
his seat in the house of commons; and, 
in 1801, was appointed secretary of 
state for the foreign department. On 
the death of Mr. Pitt in 1806 he was 
made secretary of state for the home 
department. In 1808 his father died, and 
he was placed at the head of his family, as 
second earl of Liverpool. In 1809 he 
was made secretary of state for the war 
department; in 1812, first lord of the 
treasury, an office which he lield till 1827- 
On February 17, that year, he was seized 
with a fit both of an apoplectic and of a 
paralytic nature, which continued till his 
death, Dec. 4, 1828. 

LIVY, Titus Livius, the celebrated 
Roman historian, was l)orn at Patavium 
or Padua. He died in the fourth year 
of the reign of Tiberius, aged 70. 
His history was originally 142 books, 
of which only 35 are extant. The best 
editions are that of Gronovius, 1679; Le 
Clerc at Amsterdam, 1709 ; Crevier at 
Paris, 1735. 

LLANDAFF, Glamorganshire, South 
Wales. On the first introduction of 
Christianity amongst the Britons, a 
church was founded here, and Dubricius 
was consecrated first bishop in the fifth 
century, by St. Lupus and Germanus. 
The cathedral was built in 1120, Urban 
being bishop, and exhibits a beautiful 
specimen of the pure Norman style. 

LL ANTONY Abbey, Monmouth- 
shire, built 1110. 

LLEWELLIN, the last prince of the 
Welsh, defeated, and his head put on 
the Tower of London, 1286. 

LOCK Hospital, Knightsbridge, 
instituted 1746. 

LOCKE, John, an eminent English 
philosopher and ^vriter, was born at 
Wrington, near Bristol, in 1632. In 
1651 he was sent to Christchurch, 
Oxford. In 1655 he took his de- 
gree of bachelor of arts, and in 1658 
that of master of arts. In 1664 he went 
to Germany as secretary to Sir William 
Swan, envoy from the EngUsh court to 
the elector of Brandenburg. In 1670 he 
began to form the plan of his " Essay 
on Human Understanding." In 1685, 
when the duke of Monmouth and his 
party were active in Holland, the EngUsh 



LOG 



6ir 



LON 



envoy at the Hague demanded him and 
83 other persons to be delivered up by 
the states-general; and he was obliged 
to conceal himself till the following 
year. At the revolution he returned to 
England in the fleet which conveyed the 
princess of Orange. In 1690 he pub- 
lished his celebrated " Essay on Human 
Understanding." He also published se- 
veral other works, and died October 28, 
1704, aged 73. 

LOCKHART, John Hugh, the Hugh 
Little-John of Sir Walter Scott, died 
December, 1831, aged 11 years. 

LOCUST, a destructive insect, the 
gryllus migratorius of Linnaeus. This 
species, originally a native of Tartaiy, 
frequently take their flight in such im- 
mense swarms, that they obscure the 
light of the sun. In the year 593, after 
a great drought, these animals appeared 
in such vast legions as to cause a famine 
in many countries. In 852 immense 
swarms took their flight from the eastern 
regions into the west, devouring the corn 
so rapidly as to destroy, on computation, 
140 acres in a day. In 1271 all the 
corn-fields of Milan were destroyed; 
and in 1339 all those of Lombardy. In 
1541 incredible hosts afflicted Poland, 
Wallachia, and all the adjoining territo- 
ries. In 1693 some swarms of locusts 
(probably of this species) settled in Wales. 
The species that visited this country in 
1748, was certainly of this kind. A 
large swarm passed over Warsaw, June 
17, 18 16 ; swarms also appeared at As- 
chersleben, in Prussia, the same year. 

LODI, town, Lombardo- Venetian 
Kingdom, was founded by the Emperor 
Barbarossa. Napoleon made his first 
display of heroism here in 1796, by lead- 
ing the French over the bridge of Lodi, 
under the fire of a battery of artillery 
that swept the bridge from end to end. 

LOFFr, Capel, the patron of Bloom- 
field, died 1824, aged 73. 

LOGAN, John, ;joet, born 1748, died 
1788. 

LOGARITHMS, invented by Napier, 
published I6l7. Proposed change of the 
base by Briggs, 1615. Logarithmic 
Bines, &c., calculated, and logarithmic 
scale constructed, by Gunter, about 1620. 
Changed to the present form by Briggs, 
in 1633. The other improvements have 
been unimportant. Dr. Hutton's tables, 
publishedinl785,containthelogarithmsof 
numbers from 1 to 100,000, to 7 decimals; 
logarithms to 20 places; 61 places, &c. 



LOLLARDS, a religious sect which 
arose in Germany, so called from Walter 
Lollard, who began to teach his senti- 
ments in 1315, and was burnt at Cologne. 
They rejected the sacrifice of the mass, 
extreme unction, and penances for sin. 
Charles, duke of Burgundy, in 1472, ob- 
tained a bull from Pope Sixtus IV., or- 
daining that the Lollards should be ranked 
among the religious orders, and delivered 
from the jurisdiction of the bishops ; and 
Pope Julius II. granted them yet greater 
privileges in the year 1506. In England, 
the followers of WicklifFe were so called, 
by way of reproach, from an affinity be- 
tween some of their tenets. 

LOxMBARDO-VENETIAN King- 
dom, Austrian empire, comprehending 
the states of Venice and Lombardy, with 
the duchies of Mantua and Milan. The 
name was given since the Congress of 
Vienna, in 1815. 

LOMBARDY, a country in the 
northern part of Italy, corresponding 
nearly to the Cisalpine Gaul of the Ro- 
mans. The Lombards of Scandinavian 
origin were invited by Narses into Italy, 
where they founded their kingdom, un- 
der Alboinus, 568 ; their laws were 
formed into a system in 644. They 
were defeated by Charlemagne, and their 
kingdom destroyed 774. 

LOMBE, Sir Thomas, introducer 
of the silk-mill into England, from Pied- 
mont, died 1739. 

LONDON, the metropohs of Great 
Britain, and with Westminster forming 
the largest city in the world : it contains 
80 squares, and 9000 streets, lanes, rows, 
alleys, &c. ; the houses in which exceed 
I70,000and the populationl, 500,000. The 
present site of London was said to be oc- 
cupied as a British town before the ar- 
rival of the Romans. Tacitus says, that 
about the year 61, Londinium, or Colonia 
Augusta, was the chief residence of mer- 
chants, and the great mart of trade and 
commerce. About the year 64 it was 
burned by the Britons under Boadicea, 
and the greater part of the inhabitants 
massacred. It was soon restored by the 
Romans, and it increased so much, that 
in the reign of the emperor Severus, 
was called by Herodian " a great and 
wealthy city." Constantine made this 
city a bishop's see ; it appears that th 
bishops of London and York, and an- 
other English bishop, were at the coun- 
cil of Aries in 314. 

Under the Saxons, London gradually 

4 K 



LON 618 LON 

increased in extent and influence, and produce of wine and coal duties, levied 

about the year 819 it became, and has by the port of London, is proposed to be 

since continued to be, the metropolis of apphed ; the City revenues furnishing 

England. William the Conqueror, at his £23,000 additional. In order to raise 

accession to the throne, granted to the the required sum, the wine and coal du- 

citizens a charter, still preserved among ties will have to be continued for four 

the city archives. In 1077 the greater years beyond 1858, the time limited by 

part of the city was reduced to ashes by the acts 10th and 11th George IV., 

fire, and in 1086 it again suffered from a passed for the purpose of providing 

like calamity. The city flourished under funds for making the London Bridge 

Henry I. and Stephen On the death of approaches. 

Henry II. the title of the first magistrate Lord Mayor, the chief magistrate 

of London was changed from that of of the city of London, at the commence- 

portreeve to that of bailiff"; and in 1189 he ment of the reign of Richard I. was 

claimed and acted in the office of the denominated bailiff". Henry Fitz Alwyn 

chief butler at the coronation of Rich- was the first who bore the name of mayor, 

ard I., which privilege is still retained in 1191. Edward III., in 1354, granted 

by the chief magistrate of the city, the mayor the privilege of having gold 

Henry III. greatly oppressed, and fre- and silver maces carried before him; a 

quently exacted money from," the citi- privilege hitherto belonging only to 

zens ; in consequence of which they, royalty. From that period the chief 

being alarmed, demanded and obtained magistrate has borne the title of Lord 

from him a confirmation of the Magna Mayor. 

Charta at Westminster, in the year The following is a list of lord mayors 

1225. from 1760, with the dates of their en- 

During the reign of Charles II., in tering upon their office : — 
1665, London was ravaged by the most 

virulent plague ever known in Britain ; Sir Mathur Blackerton, Knight. . 1760 

it appeared with violence in the months Sir Samuel Fludyer, Bart 1761 

of July, August, and September, after a William Beckford 1762 

very warm season. In September the fury William Bridged 1763 

of the disease began to abate, and it totally Sir William Stephenson 1764 

disappeared in the winter: itwascomputed George Nelson 1765 

that 100,000 persons were carried off" by Robert Kite 1766 

this dreadful malady. The plague was Right Hon. Thomas Harley 1767 

speedily followed by the great fire of Samuel Turner 1768 

London, Sept. 2, 1666. See Fire. The Wm. Beckford, Bart. Trecothick. . 1769 

city was re-built in little more than four Brass Crosby . 1770' 

years, in such a manner as greatly to William Nash 1771 

surpass the ancient capital in point of James Townshend 1772 

health, convenience, and general ar- Frederick Bull 1773 

rangement. In 1780 London was greatly John Wilkes 1774 

disturbed by a riot, in consequence of a John Sawbridge 1775 

bill brought into parliament for the relief Sir Thomas Halifax 1776 

of the Roman Catholics. The malcon- Sir James Esdaile 1777 

tents, with Lord George Gordon at their Samuel Plumbe 1778 

head, assembled in St. George's Fields, Brackley Kennet 1779 

and proceeded to destroy the Roman Ca- Sir Watkin Lewes, Knt 1780 

thohc chapels. The disturbance conti- Sir WiUiam Plomer, Knt 1781 

nued for about seven days : it was at Nat. Newnham 1782 

length quelled, and about 20 of the prin- Robert Peckham 1783 

cipal rioters were executed. Richard Clark 1784 

The Metropolis Improvement Com- Thomas Wright 1785 

mittee, in their reports made to the Thomas Sainsbury 1 786 

House of Commons, in June and July, John Burnell 1787 

1840, recommended the adoption of William GiU 1788 

several plans for enlarging and con- William Pickett 1789 

tinuing old thoroughfaies, and making John Boydell 1790 

new ones ; towards accomplishing which John Hopkins 1791 

a sum of £510,000, to be raised on the Sir James Saunderson 1792 



LON 619 

Paul Le Mesurier 1793 

Thomas Skinner 1 794 

William Curtis 1795 

Brook Watson 1796 

John William Anderson 1797 

Sir Richard Carr Glyn, Bart 1798 

Harvey C. Combe 1799 

Sir William Staines, Knt 1800 

Sir John Earner 1801 

Charles Price 1802 

John Perring 1803 

Peter Perchard 1804 

James Shaw 1805 

Sir William Leigh ton 1806 

John Ainsley 1807 

Charles Flower 1808 

Thomas Smith 1809 

Joshua Jonathan Smith 1810 

Sir Claudius Stephen Hunter. ... 1811 

George Scholey 1812 

Sir William Domville, Bart. 1813 

Samuel Birch 1814 

Mattthew Wood / J?J« 

\ 1816 

Christopher Smith . . . ". 1817 

John Atkins 1818 

George Bridges 1819 

John T. Thorpe 1820 

Christopher Magnay 1821 

William Heygate 1822 

Robert Waithman 1823 

John Garratt 1824 

William Venables 1825 

Anthony Brown 1826 

Matthias P. Lucas 1827 

William Thompson 1828 

John Crowder 1829 

John Key 1830 

Sir John Key, Bart 1831 

Sir Peter Laurie, Knt 1832 

Charles Farebrother 1833 

Henry Winchester 1834 

William T. Copeland 1835 

Thomas Kelly 1836 

Sir John Cowan, Bart 1837 

Samuel Wilson 1838 

Sir Chapman Marshall ........ 1839 

Thomas Johnson 1840 



LONDON Assurance Office, 
Institution commenced 1805 ; was incor- 
porated 1815. 

LONDON East Indiaman, run 
down by the Russell, man-of-war, when 
she sunk, and 1100 persons perished 
Dec. 28, 1778. 

LONDON Hospital, Mile End, 
instituted 1740; foundation laid June 
10, 1752; incorporated 1758 ; medical 
theatre opened Oct. 27, 1785. 



LON 

LONDON Institution, first stone 
of the new building laid in the am- 
phitheatre, Moorfields, November 4, 
1815. 

LONDON Stone, Cannon Street 
first placed there by the Romans, A.c.15. 

LONDON University. See Uni- 
versity. 

LOxNDON Wall built 306. - 

LONDONDERRY, a city in Ireland, 
was erected into a' bishop's see in 1158. 
The most conspicuous event in the his- 
tory of this city is that commonly called 
" The Siege of Derry," on which occa- 
sion the citizens sustained a close siege 
from the month of December, 1688, to 
August, 1689, from the whole force of 
the Irish army, in the interest of James 
II. of England. 

LONDONDERRY, Maruuis of, 
born 1763, destroyed himself 1822. 

LONG, Mr. St. John, tried at the 
Old Bailey, October 30, 1 830, and found 
guilty of manslaughter, in the case of 
Miss Cashin, whose death was occasioned 
by injudicious treatment. His sentence 
was a fine of £250. Iii a similar case of 
Mrs. Lloyd, he was tried and acquitted, 
Feb. 19, 1831. 

LONGEVITY. Immediately after the 
creation, the ordinary age was 900 and 
upwards. After the flood, vvhen there 
were three persons to stock the world, 
their age was cut shorter, and none of 
those partriarchs but Shem, arrived at 
the age of 500. In' the second century 
after the Deluge, we find none that 
reached 240 ; in the third, none but 
Terah that reached 200. By degrees, 
as the number of people increased, their 
longevity dwindled; till it came down at 
length to the present age of three score 
years and ten. " ' 

From the FirSt Annual Report of the 
Registrar-General of England in 1837-8, 
it appears that in the whole of England 
and Wales, out of 1000 deaths, 145 had 
been at the age of 70 and upwards ; while 
in the North-Riding and northern part 
of West-Riding of Yorkshire, and in 
Durham, excluding the mining districts, 
the proportion had been as high as 210. 
In Northumberland, excluding the min- 
ing district, Cumberland, Westmoreland, 
and the north of Lancashire the propor- 
tion had been 198; in Norfolk and Suffolk 
196; in Devronshire 192, and in Cornwall, 
188. In the metropolis and its suburbs 
the proportion who had died at 70 and 
upwards had been only 104. In 'the 



LON 



C20 



LON 



northern counties of England, in Wilt- 
shire, Dorset, and Devon, in Hertford- 
shire and Monnaouthshire, and in Wales, 
the deaths at that age, out of 1000 of all 
ages, had scarcely exceeded 180. 



The following are some of the most 
remarkable instances of longevity on 
record, which are exceptions to the ge- 
neral age : — 



Galen, physician 

Marc Albuna 

Thomas Pai r 

James Bowles 

J. Laurence 

Henry Jenkins 

Robert Montgomery . . 

James Sands 

His Wife 

Countess of Desmond. . 
Countess of Ecleston . . 
Col. Thomas Winslow. . 

John Mount 

A. Goldsmith 

Mary Yates 

John Bales 

Francis Consist 

Francis Bons 

Christ. J. Drakenberg . . 

Margaret Forster 

John Tice 

John Brooky 

William EUis 

James Brown 

Richard Loyd 

William Postell 

A woman of Belfast. . . . 

Martha Hannah 

Mary Meighan 

Mary Innes 

John Woods 

David Ferguson 

Mrs. Starr Barrett .... 
R. Lynch, a negro slave 

John Maddock 

Joseph Ram, a black . . 
William Mortimer 



Age. 



Residence. 



140 
150 
152 
152 

140 
169 
126 
140 
120 
140 
143 
146 
136 
140 
128 
126 
150 
121 
146 
136 
125 
134 
130 
120 
133 
120 
123 
126 
129 
127 
122 
124 
120 
150 
121 
146 
125 



Pergamus 

Ethiopia 

Shropshire 

Killingworth, War- 
wickshire 

Scotland 

Yorkshire 

Ditto 

Staffordshire 

Ditto 

Ireland 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Scotland 

France 

Shropshire 

Northampton 

Yorkshire , . 

France 

Norway 

Cumberland 

Worcester 

Devonshire 

Liverpool 

Cornwall 

Montgomery 

France 

Ireland 

Donoughmore 

GlasnaUilly, Isle of Sky 

Dungannon 

Boughton 

Charleston, N. Ame.. . 

Jamaica 

Holloway-Head 

Jamaica 

Straffan, Ireland .... 



Death. 



361 

1635 

1656 
166S 
1670 



1691 
1766 



1768 
1769 
1770 
1771 
1774 
1777 
1780 
1781 
1781 

1808 
1808 
1813 
1814 
1818 
1818 
1820 
1821 
1821 
1827 
1833 



LONGINUS, DiONYSius, a cele- 
brated Greek writer and critic, who 
flourished in the third century, was pro- 
bably born at Athens, where he pub- 
lished his "Treatise on the Sublime," 
for which he is so deservedly celebrated. 
He was executed by order of the em- 
peror Aurelian in 273. 

LONGITUDE, the distance of any 
point or place reckoned east or west on 



the equator, and from that point of it 
which is called the first meridian. The 
Fortunate Islands, supposed to be the 
Canaries, taken by the ancients as the first 
meridian were about 17° W. long, from 
Greenwich. The western extremity of 
Africa as then known, taken by Abul- 
feda, the Arabian geographer, was about 
7° W. long. Terceira was taken by the 
Portuguese and Spaniards in the l6th 



LOR 



621 



LOU 



century; 27° 10' W. long. : Teneriffe by 
the Dutch in the l6th century ; 16° 30' 
W. long. : Ferro by all nations in the 
1 7th and 18th centuries; 17» 30' W. long. 
Afterwards the European nations fixed 
their first meridian to that passing 
through their capital city, or some re- 
markable spot within their dominions. 
Thus, with the English, the meridian 
passing through the observatory at 
Greenwich is universally adopted as the 
first meridian. 

Methods for finding the latitude have 
long been discovered; but an easy prac- 
ticable method for determining the lon- 
gitude was long a desideratum. The 
cross-staff began to be employed by 
seamen towards the beginning of the 
l6th century. About 1664 Dr. Hooke 
and M. Huygens adapted the pendulum 
spring to watches, chiefly for the purpose 
of discovering the longitude at sea. 
This led to the adoption of the chrono- 
meter, which was brought to perfection 
at the commencement of the present 
century. See Chronometer. 

LOPE De Vega, Spanish dramatist, 
born 1562, died 1635. 

LOPES, Sir M. M., fined £10,000, 
and imprisoned in Exeter gaol for bribing 
the electors of Grampound; born 1755, 
died 1831. 

LORCA, a city of Murcia in Spain, 
destroyed by the bursting of a reservoir 
that inundated more than 20 leagues, 
and carried away 1000 persons, besides 
cattle, &c., April 30, 1802. 

LORD Auckland's group of islands 
in the South Sea, discovered by Captain 
Bristow, 1809. 

LORD High Steward. The first 
appointed for a coronation was Thomas, 
second son of Henry IV. The first for 
the trial of a peer was Edward, earl of 
Devon, on the arraignment of John, earl 
of Huntingdon, in the same reign. 

LORD Mayor's Show instituted 
1453 ; the feast added the first time 
1501. 

LORETTO, a town in Italy, States of 
the Church. It contains a church in 
which is the Santa Casa, the Holy House, 
said to have been the house of the Virgin 
Mary, with an image of the Virgin, 
which was traditionally carried by the 
angels in 1291 from Galilee to Dalmatia, 
and thence in 1295 to Italy. The image 
was forcibly carried to Paris by the 
French in 1796. but was restored with 
great pomp, Dec. 9, 1802. 



L'ORIENT, French man-of-war, 12a 
guns, blown up at Aboukir, August 1, 
1798. 

LORINERS' Company, incorporated 
1488. 

LORRAINE, Claude, or Claude 
Gillee, an eminent landscape painter, 
was born at Chamagnein Lorraine 1600. 
The works of Claude are very num-erous, 
and many of the most celebrated have 
found their way into the collections of 
England. He died in 1682, aged 82. 

LOTTERIES. The first in Englai^ 
mentioned in history was drawn at the 
western door of St. Paul's Cathedral 
1569, consisting of 40,000 lots, at 10s. 
each lot. The drawing began January 
11, and continued till May 6, follow- 
ing. In 1612 James I. granted per- 
mission for a lottery to be held also at 
the west end of St. Paul's, of which 
the highest prize was " of the value of 
4000 crowns in fair plate." Soon after- 
wards lotteries were suppressed by an 
order of council. They were revived in 
1630, when Charles I. granted to a com- 
pany, who undertook to supply London 
with water, a special licence to establish 
a lottery. After the revolution public 
lotteries were resorted to, among other 
expedients, for raising part of the extra- 
ordinary sums necessary for the public 
service. In 1698 an act passed for sup- 
pressing private lotteries; but the buying 
and selling of chances, and parts of 
chances, of tickets in the state lotteries 
became a general practice, till it was pro- 
hibited by an act passed in 1718. 

In the reign of Queen Anne, lotteries 
were suppressed as nuisances to the pub- 
lic; since that time,however, state lotteries 
have been licensed by act of parliament,^ 
under various regulations. The act passed 
in 1778 restricts any person from keeping 
an oflSce for the sale of tickets, shares, or 
chances ; or for buying, selling, ensur- 
ing, or registering, without a licence. 
Another state lottery act, enacting va- 
rious new regulations, was passed 49 
George III. c. 94. 

LOUGHTON-HALL, Essex, the seat 
of William Whittaker Maitland, Esq., 
the high sheriff for the county of Essex, 
destroyed by fire, and property to the 
amount of between £20,000 and £30,000 
consumed, Dec. 11, 1836 

LOUIS XIV., king of France, sur- 
named Le Grand, succeeded to the 
throne in 1643. By his impolitic and 
unjust revocation of the edict of Nantz, 



LOU 



622 



LOU 



in 1685, he obliged the Protestants to 
take shelter in England, Holland, and 
different parts of Germany, where they 
established the silk manufactures, to the 
great prejudice of their own country. 
He at length raised against himself a 
confederacy of almost all the princes 
of Europe ; at the head of which was 
King Wjilliam IH. of England. For 
some years France seemed to have at- 
tained the highest pitch of military 
glory ; but at length, having provoked 
tbe English by repeated infidelities, 
their arms under the duke of Marlbo- 
rough, and those of Austria under Prince 
Eugene, rendered the' latter part of 
Louis's life as miserable as the begin- 
ning of it was splendid. His reign, 
from the year 1702 to l7ll, was one 
continued series of defeats and calami- 
ties. He was only saved by the peace 
of Utrecht, in 1713, and died in Sep- 
tember, 1715. 

LOUIS XVL, king of France, as- 
cended the throne in 1774, in the 20th 
year of his age. Some disturbances 
having arisen, the legislative assembly of 
the nation, the States-general, which had 
not met since the year 1614, were as- 
sembled at Versailles on May 4, 1789, 
assuming the title of the National As- 
sembly. This gave rise to commotions 
in Paris, which ended in the flight of the 
royal family. On June 21, 1791, it was 
announced from the Tuileries, that the 
king, the queen, the dauphin, with Mon- 
sieur and Madame, had quitted the pa- 
lace and capital, without leaving any in- 
formation of their intentions or their 
route. They proceeded in safety till 
they reached Verennes, when Louis was 
recognised by Drouet, the postmaster of 
St. Menehould, and detained. 

In 1792, after the massacre of the 
Swiss Guards, the National Assembly, 
under the influence of a turbulent audi- 
tory, that in fact dictated laws to the 
lawgivers, passed a series of acts, " de- 
claring the executive power suspended ; 
the authority given by the constitution to 
Louis XVI. from that moment revoked;" 
and inviting the peopleto meet in primary 
assemblies to form a national convention, 
to assemble on Sept. 20. Louis XVI. 
was in the mean time conveyed, under a 
strong escort, to the Teinj)le, while a de- 
cree of accusation was issued against se- 
veral of his late ministers. On Dec. 11, 
Louis was ordered to the bar of the Con- 
vention ; the act of accusation was read. 



and the king was summoned by the pre- 
sident, Barrere, to answer to each sepa- 
rate charge. On January 16, 1793, the 
trial closed ; and after a sitting of nearly 
34 hours, the punishment of death was 
awarded. On Monday, January 21, at 
eight o'clock in the morning, the unfor- 
tunate monarch was summoned to his 
fate. He ascended the scaffold with a 
firm air and step. Raising his voice, he 
said, "Frenchmen, I die innocent; I 
pardon all my enemies." When they 
offered to bind his hands, he started back 
as if about to resist ; but, recollecting 
himself in a moment, submitted, and the 
instrument of death descended. Thus 
fell Louis XVL, a monarch possessed of 
good talents, a benevoli-nt temper, and a 
sincere desire to promote the good of his 
people ; but he was too tenacious of 
power, and deficient in that candour of 
character, and directness of purpose, 
which a sovereign owes to the people 
over whom he is placed. It would have 
been happier for him if, from the break- 
ing out of the revolution, he had acted a 
more ojjen and decided part ; but this 
may be excused when we consider the 
manners of the court in which he was 
educated, and the influence of the cour- 
tiers by whom he was surrounded. 

LOUIS XVIII., king of France, was 
born at Versailles, Nov. 17, 1755. In 
1791 he secretly fled from Paris to Cob- 
lentz, where he organized the system of 
emigration ; and by his intrigues in the 
interior, accelerated the more fatal events 
of the revolution. He retired to Peters- 
burgh, and was allowed a pension by the 
emperor of Russia, April 3, 1798; landed 
at Yarmouth under the title of Count de 
Lille, Oct. 6, 1807; was recalled to the 
throne ; made a public entry into Lon- 
don, April 21, 1814; sailed from Dover 
April 23, reached Compeigne April 29, 
Paris, May 3 ; fled from Napoleon, 
March 21, 1815; resumed the govern- 
ment July, 1815. During many years 
Louis was a prey to serious infirmities, 
the results of intemperance. His enor- 
mous appetite gave rise to many laugh- 
able stories, which was the cause of his 
death. The state of the king's blood 
brought on a paralysis, when the disease 
made such rapid progress, that he died 
Sept. 16, 1824, in his 69th year. 

LOUIS Philippe, duke of Orleans, 
acknowledged king of the French by the 
Chamber of Deputies, Aug. 7, 1830. A 
conspiracy to dethrone him and re-esta- 




iL^TDTUg Sfl. 







LOW 



623 



LUC 



blish\ the late dynasty, detected in Paris 
Feb. 1, 1832. About 300 arrests took 
place, and large sums of money, received 
as bribes, were found on the persons of 
some of the prisoners. The assassina- 
tion of Louis Philippe by the Infernal 
Machine attempted at Paris in 1835; 
also other attempts in 1836 ; again in 
1840. See France, p. 490, 491. 

LOUISBURGH, city, British North 
America, capital of Cape Breton, was 
taken from the French by an English 
and American force in 1745, but restored 
in 1748. It was retaken by the British 
in 1758, and its fortifications have since 
been demolished. 

LOUISIANA, one of the United 
States. In 1682 the country was ex- 
plored by La Salle, and named Louisiana, 
in honour of Louis XIV. A French 
settlement was begun at Iberville in 
1699, and in I7l7 New Orleans was 
founded. In 1803 the extensive country 
of Louisiana, comprising all the territory 
now belonging to the United States, lying 
west from the Mississippi, was purchased 
from France for the sum of 15,000,000 
doUars, and in 1812 the southern portion 
of this country Was admitted into the 
Union as an independent state. In the 
war between Great Britain and the 
United States, a formidable armament 
invaded Louisiana. Four engagements 
took place, in which the British were 
repulsed ; the last occurred on Jan. 8, 
1815; after which they withdrew and 
abandoned the attempt. 

LOUVAIN, town, Belgium, contains 
a university, founded in 1426 by John 
IV., duke of Brabant, suppressed during 
the French revolution, and re-established 
in 1817 ; number of students 580. 

LOUVRE, at Paris, built 1552; the 
front completed 1688 ; first exhibition of 
painting and sculpture opened there, 
August 22, 1740 ; stripped of the trea- 
sures of art of which Napoleon had de- 
spoiled other nations, 1815. 

LOVAT, Simon Eraser, Lord, 
engaged in the rebellion of 1745 ; was 
beheaded April 2, 1747. 

LOVELACE, Richard, soldier and 
poet, born 1618, died 1658. 

LOWESTOFT, Suflfolk. Its harbour 
with a magnificent swing bridge, works 
connected with the Norwich and Lowe- 
stofF navigation, were finished under the 
direction of Mr. Cubit in 1830, by which 
the commerce of this town has been 
greatly benefited. 



LOWTH, Dr. Robert, an eminent 
prelate and writer, was born November 
29, 1710. In 1730 he was admitted into 
New College, Oxford ; and took the de- 
gree of master of arts in 1737. In 1754 
that university conferred upon him the 
degree of doctor of divinity by diplo- 
ma. In June 1766 he was preferred 
to the bishopric of St. David's ; and in 
October following, promoted to that of 
Oxford. In this office he remained till 
1777, when he was translated to the see 
of London. He died at Fulham, Nov. 
3, 1787. In 1762 was published his 
"Short Introduction to English Gram- 
mar," which has since gone through 
many editions, and in 1778 his great 
work, " A Translation of Isaiah." " To 
the world he was a benefit by his exem- 
plary life and his splendid abihties. And, 
whilst virtue and learning are reverenced 
ajnong men, the memory of Lowth will 
be respected and admired." 

LOYOLA, Ignatius, the founder of 
the order of Jesuits, was born in Spain 
in the year 1491. At the siege of Pam- 
peluna, in 1521, his right leg having been 
broken, during the slow progress of 
his cure, he met with a " Life of the 
Saints," which powerfully impressed his 
mind, and led to the establishment of 
the order. See Jesuits. Hediedin 1556, 
and was canonized in 1609 by Paul V. 

LUBECK, or Lubec, one of the four 
free cities of the German confederacy. 
It was founded by Adolphus II., count 
of Holstein-Schaumburgh, in 1144, who, 
10 years afterwards, ceded it to Henry 
the Lion, duke of Saxony. Henry made 
it a free port, and gave it the celebrated 
Lubeck code, afterwards adopted by 
many of the German cities. In 1226 it 
became a free city of the empire, and 
was subsequently at the head of the 
Hanseatic union. When the constitu- 
tion of the empire was abolished in 1806, 
Lubeck, though disconnected from the 
rest of Germany, remained a free Han- 
seatic city. After the battle of Lubeck, 
Nov 6, 1806, it was taken and pillaged 
by the French. In 1810 it formed part 
of the French department of the mouths 
of the Elbe. It capitulated to the allied 
Austrians, Russians, and Prussians, Dec. 
5, 1813. By the congress of Vienna, 
Lubeck was again declared a free city. 

LUCAN, the author of " PharsaJia," 
born at Corduba in Spain, Nov. 11, 37. 
Condemned and bled to death in a bath, 
April 30, 64. 



LUD 



624 



LUT 



LUCCA, duchy, north of Italy, was 
originally a colony of the Ronnans, which 
on the fall of the Lombard kingdom in 
774, was added by Charlemagne to his 
territories, and annexed by Otho L to 
his German dominions. During the 
middle ages it was repeatedly sold by its 
masters, but finally obtained its freedom 
in 1370, from the Emperor Charles IV. 
The French obliged it to adopt a new 
constitution, and in 1797 it was given to 
Bacciocchi, brother-in-law to Napoleon, 
as a principahty. In 1815 theAustrians 
took possession of it, and by an act of 
the congress of Vienna it was granted to 
the Infanta Maria Louisa, daughter of 
Charles IV. of Spain, who accepted the 
government in 1818, after the reversion 
of Parma was secured to her. 

LUCERNE, canton, Switzerland, 
joined the Swiss confederacy in 1332 ; 
it was one of 11 cantons in which 
fundamental changes in the cantonal 
constitutions were demanded by the peo- 
ple, in October, 1830 

LUCIA, St., one of the Caribbee is- 
lands. The English first settled in this 
island in 1637, but were driven out by 
the natives in 1638 ; the French after- 
wards accupied it, but were massacred in 
l65fi. It was then considered neutral 
until 1763, when it was ceded to France. 
It was taken by the English, in 1779, 
and 1794; again, May 31, 1796 ; again, 
June 22, 1803; with whom it remains. 

LUCIAN, author of " Dialogues of 
the Dead," flourished a.c. 100. 

LUCIUS, the first christian king of 
Britain, reigned 11 years. He founded 
the first church in London, at St. Peter's, 
Cornhill, which was made the see of an 
archbishop, till removed to Canterbury 
179. He died 180. 

LUCON, principal of the Philippine 
islands. It was discovered by Magellan, 
in 1521, and conquered by the Spaniards 
in 1571, under whose government it still 
continues. 

LUCRETIA, the celebrated Roman 
matron, wife of CoUatinus, a noble Ro- 
man ; being ravished by Sextus, the 
eldest son of Tarquin, king of Rome, 
stabbed herself a.c. 509. 

LUCRETIUS, one of the most cele- 
brated of the Roman poets, was born of 
an ancient and noble family, about A.c. 
96 ; killed himself in a fit of insanity 
A.c. 54. 

LUDLOW, Edward, republican ge- 
neral and writer, born 1620, died 1693. 



LUDWIG, C. T„ botanist, born 1769, 
died 1773. 

LUKE, St., wrote his gospel 55 ; died 
about 70, aged 80 years. Festival of 
instituted 1090. 

LULWORTH Castle, Dorsetshire, 
built 1610. Charles X., king of France, 
took up his residence here, August 24, 
1830, and left it Oct. 16, following. 

LUNEVILLE, Peace of, between 
the French republic and the Emperor 
of Germany, February 9, 1801. This 
treaty confirmed the cessions made by 
the treaty of Campo Formio, stipulat- 
ing that the Rhine, to the Dutch terri- 
tories, should form the boundary of 
France, and recognizing the indepen- 
dence of the Batavian, Helvetic, Ligurian, 
and Cisalpine republics. 

LUTHER, Martin, the celebrated 
reformer, was born at Eisleben, in Sax- 
ony, in 1483. In 1501 he entered the 
university of Erfurt, and took his de- 
gree of M.A. when he was scarcely 20 
years of age. The death of a friend by 
the discharge of a thunder cloud, so sen- 
sibly affected him, that he retired from 
the world. Having passed a year in the 
monastery of Erfurt, he took the vows, 
and was in 1507 admitted to priest's 
orders. In 1510 Luther was sent to 
Rome by the monks of his order, to get 
some disputes between them and their 
vicar-general settled by the Pope ; where 
he made his observations on the govern- 
ment of the church of Rome. On his re- 
turn to Wittemburg in 1512, he had the 
degree of doctor of divinity conferred 
upon him. 

In the year 1517 he attacked, with all 
the vehemence in his power from the 
pulpit, in the great church of Wittem- 
burg, the vices of those monks who 
openly distributed indulgences. He tried 
their doctrines by the standard of scrip- 
ture, and exhorted his hearers to look for 
salvation to the means appointed by God 
in hi s holy word. The boldness and fer- 
vour with which he uttered his exhorta- 
tions did not fail to make a deep and 
lasting impression on the people. Shortly 
after, Leo X. issued an order for his ap- 
pearing at Rome to justify himself; but 
the reformer was allowed to be heard at 
Augsburg, instead of being obliged to 
travel to Rome, where Cardinal Cajetan 
was appointed to try the merits of the 
question. He arrived at Augsburg in 
the month of October, 1518. The car- 
dinal required Luther, by virtue of the 



LUX 



625 



L YS 



apostolic powers, to retract his opinions. 
Being determined to maintain them, he 
witlidrevv, and sought the protection of 
the elector of Saxony. On June 15, 1520, 
a bull was issued, in which 41 proposi- 
tions, extracted from Luther's works, 
"were condemned as heretical, and all 
persons were forbidden to read his 
writings on pain of excommunication. 
On the accession of Charles V., he was 
cited before the diet at Worms. On his 
appearance he resisted all solicitations 
and threatenings on the measure of re- 
cantation. He was finally ordered by 
the emperor to leat-e Worms. In Octo- 
ber 1524, Luther threw off the monastic 
habit, and soon after married Catherine 
de Bore, a lady who had been a nun. In 
1530 he furnished the materials for the 
Protestant confession of faith, to be pre- 
sented by the leaders of the Reformation 
at the Diet of Augsburg. In Feb. 1537, 
an assembly was held at Smalkald, about 
matters of religion, to which Luther and 
Melancthon were called. His health now 
began to be impaired, so that there were 
no hopes of his recovery, and he expired 
on Feb. 18, 1546, in his 63d ^'ear. 

LUXEMBURG, a province of Bel- 
gium, was erected into a duchy by the 
German emperor in 1354, and formed a 
part of the Austrian Netherlands. In 
1815 it was granted to the king of the 
Netherlands. The possession of this 
province was for some time a subject of 
dispute. By the treaty of the 24 articles 
it was ceded to Holland in 1838. 

LUXOR, a village of Upper Egypt, 
occupying the site of ancient Thebes. A 
curious monument from these ruins, 
called the Luxor Obelisk, was set up in 
the Place de la Concorde at Paris, Octo- 
ber 25, 1836. It is the smaller of two 
monolithes of red granite, discovered in 
front of the ruins of the palace of Luxor, 
supposed to be 4000 years old. Itis covered 
with curious inscriptions, whichhavebeen 
explained by M. Cham.pollion. The con- 
veyance, the laying down, and the ac- 
cessories, cost 560,000 francs ; the gra- 
nite base upwards of 190,000 francs ; so 
that, altogether, this monolithe has cost 
the French government 1,700,000 francs. 

LUXURY restricted by an English 
law, wherein the prelates and nobility 
were confined to two courses every meal, 
1337. An edict was issued by Charles 
VL, of France, which says, " Let no one 
presume to treat with more than a soup 
and two dishes," 1 340. 



LYCOPHRON, a Greek poet and 
grammarian, author of " Cassandra," 
flourished a.c. 300. 

LYCURGUS, the Spartan lawgiver, 
born 926 ; established his code of laws 
in Lacedaemonia, a.c 884, and died in 
Crete, a.c. 872. The laws of Lycurgus 
were abrogated by Philopoemen, a.c. 
188, but the Romans soon re-established 
them. 

LYDGATE, John, the poet and his- 
torian, born 1380, died 1440. 

LYDIA, kingdom of, began in some 
form in 1223. Said to be regularly 
founded by Dejoces in 708 ; destroyed 
by Cyrus 548. 

LYING-IN-HOSPITAL, Old-street, 
began to be built 1770. 

LYON, Captain, R.N., a celebrated 
traveller and navigator, born 1796, died 
1833. 

LYONS, the second city in France, 
and an archiepiscopal see ; made by Au- 
gustus the capital of Celtic Gaul. In 
the reign of Nero it was burned to the 
ground. In the 5th century the Bur- 
gundians made it their capital. During 
the revolution the fortifications and many 
buildings were demolished, the name abo- 
lished, and that of Ville Affranchie sub- 
stituted for it ; but it was afterwards 
restored. In 1814 it was the theatre o£ 
several bloody actions between the French 
and the allies. Capitulated to the Aus- 
trians, July 12, 1815. Revolutionary 
movements against the Bourbons sup- 
pressed, January 1816. Alarming riots 
at Lyons, November 31, 1831, in conse- 
quence of a dispute between the working 
weavers, their employers, and the civic 
authorities, respecting the rate of wages. 
Again, in 1834, April 5, to 15, at the 
trial of some workmen for their connec- 
tion with former riots, such demonstra- 
tions were made by their companions as 
rendered it necessary to call in the mili- 
tary, and keep them in readiness to act. 
The conflict between them and the mili- 
tary began soon after, and did not ter- 
minate until the 15th, when it was as- 
certained that the troops had lost 2000 
men in killed and wounded ; and it was 
calculated that the killed and wounded 
among the insurgents were from 6000 to 
8000. 

LYON'S-INN Society founded in 
1420. 

LY''SANDER, an eminent Spartan 
commander. He defeated Conon at 
iEgospotamus, a.c. 405 ; took Athens 

4 li 



MAC 



626 



MAC 



404. The Spartan troops were defeated 
and Lysander killed, a.c. 394. 

LYSIAS, a Greek actor, born about 
A.c. 459, died aged 81. 

LYSIMACBUS, elected king of Ma- 
cedon, a.c. 2S6; slain in battle a.c. 281. 

LYSONS, Samuel, antiquary, the 
author of the " Environs of London," 
died in 1819- 

LYSONS, Daniel, physician, died 
1800. 

LYTTLETON, Lord George, was 
born in January 1708-9. In 1744 he 
was appointed one of the lords of the 
treasury. He occupied several posts 
under government, but at the dissolution 



of the ministry in 1759 he went out of 
office. As a pohtician, his speeches on 
the Scotch and Mutiny bills, in ] 747 j 
on the naturalization of the Jews, in 
1753 ; and on the privilege of parliament, 
in 1763, hold him out to public estima- 
tion. He died in August, 1773, in the 
64th year of his age. He chiefly de- 
voted the latter years of his life to litera- 
ture, and was author of ' A Dissertation 
on the Conversion of St. Paul," which 
has ever been regarded as a masterly 
performance. 

LYTTLETON, Charles, bishop of 
Carlisle, the antiquarian, brother of the 
above. He died in 1768. 



M. 



MABILLON, J., a diplomatic writer 
and biographer, born 1632, died 1707- 

MABLEY, Abbe' De, apolitical wri- 
ter, born 1709, died 1785. 

MACADAM, John Landon, pro- 
jector of the improved system of road- 
making, died November 26, 1S36, aged 
81, 

MA.CAO, a peninsula, China, was 
granted to the Portuguese in 1580, as a 
reward for assistance afforded by them 
to the Chinese against a body of pirates. 

MACARTHY, Sir C, killed in an 
action with the Ashantees, January 21, 
1824. 

MACARTNEY, George, Earl of, 
was born in Ireland, 1737. In 1764 he 
was appomted envoy extraordinary to 
the empress of Russia. In 1792 he was 
selected as the fittest person for ambas- 
sador from the king of Great Britain to 
the emperor of China, to obtain permis- 
sion for the permanent residence of a 
British ambassador at that court. This 
being refused, he returned over land. 
He entered Canton in December 1793, 
and arrived in England September 1794. 
He died March 31, 1806. 

MACASSAR, a settlement in the 
island of Celebes, was at its height about 
the middle of the 12th century. The 
Portuguese settled here about 1525, but 
were expelled by the Dutch in 1660. 
The British took possession of it in 1810, 
but restored it; in 1814. 

MACAULAY, Zachary, F.R.S.,dis- 
tinguished for his talents and his philan- 
thropic and religious character, was editor 



of the " Christian Obsen^er " from its 
commencement in 1802 till 1816; and 
for more than 40 years he dedicated his 
eminent talents and active energies, in 
conjunction with Messrs. Wilberforce, 
Stephen, Buxton, and other distinguished 
philarthropists, to the abolition of the 
slave trade and colonial slavery. He died 
Mav 13, 1838, aged 70. 

MACCABEES, Government of, 
began at Jerusalem, a.c. 163. 

MACCHIAVELLI, Machiaval, 
Nicholas, political writer, born at Flo- 
rence 1469. He was employed in em- 
bassies to King Louis XII. of France 
to the Emperor Maximilian ; to the col- 
lege of cardinals ; to the pope, Juhus 
II., and to other Italian princes. He 
died in 1530. His principal works are, 
"The Golden Ass;" "Discourses on 
the First Decade of Livy," &c. Of all 
his writings, that which has made the 
most noise, is his political treatise, en- 
titled the " Prince." 

MACEDON, or Macedonia, a cele- 
brated kingdom of Greece, commenced 
by Caranus, an Argive, a descendant of 
Hercules, about a.c. 800, who conducted 
a small colony of his countrymen into 
this inland district. A.c. 547, the kings 
of Macedon became tributary to the 
Persian emperors ; but they insensibly 
extended their possessions and authority, 
and paved the way for the prosperous 
reign of Philip and the succeeding con- 
quests of Alexander. See Alexander. 
Macedon was made a Roman province, 
A.c. 168. 



MAC 



627 



MAD 



MAC GILL, Rev. Dr., eminent pro- 
fessor of divinity in the university of 
Glasgow. He was ordained at Eastwood 
September 8, 1791, inducted to the Tron 
Church, Octohei 12, 1797, and appointed 
professor of divinity in 1814. He died 
August 18, 1840, aged 75. 

MACHL\ERY, Power of. In 1792 
the machinery in operation in England 
was equal to the labour of 10,000,000 of 
labourers; in 1827 to 200,000,000 ; and 
and in 1833 to 400,000,000. 

MACKENZIE, Henry, author of 
" The Man of Feeling," &c., died 
1831. 

MACKEREL first allowed by statute 
to be cried through the streets of Lon- 
don on Sundays, 1698. 

MACKINTOSH, Sir Jambs, was 
born at Alldowrie, in the county of In- 
verness, Scotland, Oct. 24, 1765. In 
1787 he took the degree of M.D., but 
was diverted from his professional studies 
to the science of politics. In 1791 he 
acquired considerable celebrity as the 
antagonist of Mr. Burke, in "Vindiciae 
Gallicse, or a Defence of the French Re- 
Afolution." In 1803 he \vas made re- 
corder of Bombay, on which occasion he 
received the honour of knighthood, De- 
cember 21. He obtained in July, 1813, 
a seat in the house of commons, as mem- 
ber for the county of Nairn. In 1818 he 
was elected for Knaresborough, through 
the influence of the duke of Devonshire; 
and was re-chosen at the subsequent 
elections of 1820, 1826, 1830, and 1831. 
He was appointed one of the commis- 
sioners for the affairs of India, Dec. 1, 
1830. He was elected Lord Rector of 
the imiversity of Glasgow in 1822, and 
again in 1823. He died May 30, 1832, 
aged 67. 

M ACKLIN, Charles, the comedian, 
died Jidy 11, 1797, aged 97. 

MACLAURIN, Colin, an eminent 
Scotch mathematician, was born at Kil- 
moddan in 1698. In 1740 the Royal 
Academy adjudged him a prize for 
solving the motion of the tides from 
the theory of gravity. His elaborate 
"Treatise on Fluxions" was published 
at Edinburgh in 1742, and which is 
reckoned the most complete one on that 
science that has ever appeared. In 1745, 
having been very active in fortifying the 
city of Edinburgh against the rebel 
army, he was obliged to flee into the 
north of England, where he died June, 
1746, aged 48 



MACMAHON, Lord, hanged for 
high treason, Nov. 1, 1644. 

MACNEILL, Hector, Scotch poet, 
author of " Will and Jean," born 1746, 
died 1818. 

MACPHERSON, James, a Scotch 
poet and historian, was born at Ruth- 
ven, Inverness, in 1738. In 1760 he 
published " Fragments of Ancient Poe- 
try, collected in the Highlands of Scot- 
land, and translated from the Gaelic 
and Erse language." These pieces met 
with an extraordinary degree of admira- 
tion, and gave rise afterwards to the 
publication of the poems which profess 
to be the production of Ossian, the son 
of Fingal, king of Scotland, respecting 
which much dispute has arisen in the 
literary world. He died in Feb., 1796. 
MACQUER, J., chemist, born 17I8, 
died 1784. 

MACROBIUS, the author of " Sa- 
turnalia,'" flourished in the fourth cen- 
tury of the christian era, 

MADAGASCAR, island, Indian 
Ocean, was first known to Europeans by 
Marco Polo in the 13th century; visited 
by the Portuguese in the beginning of 
the 16th century. The French made 
attempts to found colonies there in the 
17th century, but abandoned the island 
after many severe struggles with the 
natives. Their chief settlement was 
Port-Dauphin on the south-eastern 
coast. In 1745 they made new efforts, 
but without success. In 1814 it was 
claimed by England, as a dependency 
on Mauritius. One of the native kings 
named Radama, consented in 1820 to re- 
linquish the slave-trade, on condition that 
ten Madagasses should be sent to Eng- 
land, and ten to Mauritius for education. 
Those sent to England were placed under 
the care of the London Missionary So- 
ciety, who sent missionaries and me- 
chanics to Madagascar. This enterpris- 
ing king died in 1828, having been 
poisoned by his wife, who immediately 
seized the throne. The event introduced 
great anarchy, and the missionaries were 
banished from the island. An embassy 
from the queen of that country was sent 
to his late majesty, William IV., in 
1837, consisting of six oflScers in the 
service of the queen, who had an audience 
of his majesty at Vv^indsor. 

MADEIRAS, group of islands. North 
Pacific Ocean, discovered by Zarco, a Por- 
tuguese navigator in 1419. In 1801 a 
British squadron took temporary posses- 



MAD 



628 



MAG 



sion of these islands, in order to pre- 
serve them from the French, but re- 
stored them at the peace of Amiens. In 
1 807 Great Britain again occupied them 
in trust for her ally. They were taken 
possession of by the expedition sent out 
by Don Miguel, August 23, 1828. On 
receiving intelligence that Don Miguel 
had capitulated, the islands declared for 
Donna Maria 1834. 

MADISON, James, ex-president of 
the United States of America, a native 
of Virginia, and brought up for the bar. 
At the age of 22 he held a situation 
under the government, and was after- 
wards constantly employed in a variety 
of important offices. He was appointed 
secretary of state in 1800, during the 
presidency of Mr. Jefferson; and he 
was chosen president on Mr. Jefferson's 
retirement in 1808. He died July 30, 
1836, aged 78. 

MADOX, Isaac, an English contro- 
versial writer, born 1697, died 1759. 

MADRAS, southern presidencj', Hin- 
doostan, so called after the name of its 
capital on the Coromandel coast. The 
territory was ceded to the East India 
Company 1639, by the reigning prince 
of Bijanagur, with permission to erect a 
fort, afterwards called Fort St. George, 
erected in 1640. In 1653 Madras was 
raised to the rank of a presidency. The 
native population soon assembled round 
the English fortress ; and in 1687 
amounted to 300,000 persons. In 1744 
Madras was taken by the French, and 
retained by them for five years. Dur- 
ing their occupancy the Black Town 
was almost destroyed, and the materials 
useti in constructing a glacis and enlarg- 
ing the fortifications. At the peace of 
Aix-la-Chapelle in 1749, Madras was 
restored to the British, in whose pos- 
session it has ever since continued. 

MADRID, capital of Spain, was for 
a long time an inconsiderable place be- 
longing to the archbishop of Toledo ; but 
Philip II. made it the capital of the 
kingdom, and permanently fixed the 
court here in 1563. The French took 
possession of it in March, 1808 ; and 
on May 2, the inhabitants rose up in 
arms to expel them from the city, when 
a terrible carnage ensued, which lasted 
for several hours. On July 20 following 
Joseph Buonaparte entered it, but was 
obliged to abandon it soon afterwards. 
On December 2, it was retaken by Na- 
poleor., who reinstated his brother on 



the throne, which he retained until Aug. 
1812, when Madrid was entered by the 
British army under the duke of Welling- 
ton. The French again took possession 
of it in the November following, but 
finally evacuated it in 1813. The in- 
habitants took part in a revolutionary 
movement in 1820, when the king was 
compelled to restore the constitution of 
the Cortes of 1812. In the French ex- 
pedition into Spain in 1823, Madrid was 
again entered by the French under the 
duke of Angouleme. A revolution took 
place here August 12, 1836; Isturitz, 
the prime minister, made his escape, 
reached Lisbon, and from thence he 
proceeded to England. Madrid was de- 
clared in a state of siege, in consequence 
of riots in that city, by the captain-gene- 
ral Antonio Quiroga October, 1839 ; the 
siege was raised Nov. 14. 

MADURA, district, Hindoostan, first 
taken by the British in 1757, and ceded 
to them in 1801. 

MAESTRICHT, city, Belgium, was 
taken from the Spaniards by the Dutch 
1632 ; From the Dutch by France 1673; 
restored to them in 1679 ; besieged by 
the French in 1748 ; unsuccessfully 
attacked by them in 1793 ; and taken 
by them in 1794. In 1814 it was de- 
livered up to the allied armies. 

MAGDALEN Hospital instituted 
in Prescot-street, Goodman's-fields, 
1758 ; and built in St. George's-fields 
1772. 

MAGEE, Dr. William, archbishop 
of Dublin, bishop of Glandelagh, and 
primate of Ireland, born in 1765. His 
celebrated " Discourses on the Scrip- 
tural Doctrine of the Atonement and 
Sacrifices," were published in 1801. He 
was advanced in 1813 to the deanery of 
Cork; in 1819 he was consecrated bishop 
of Raphoe, and in 1822, was translated 
to the see of Dublin. He died August 
19, 1831, aged 66. 

MAGELLAN, Straits of, a passage 
between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, 
discovered by Ferdinando Magellan, or 
Magalhaens, in the service of the crown 
of Spain, about the end of October, 
1520. Having landed upon Matan, 
and taken part in a quarrel between 
some of the native tribes, Magellan was 
wounded in the leg by an arrow, beaten 
down, and at last slain with a lance in 
1521, 

MAGIC Lantern, first invented by 
Roger Bacon in 1252. 



M A G 



629 



MAH 



MAGNA Charta, the great char- 
ter of the liberties of Britain, and the 
basis of our laws and privileges. It was 
signed and sealed by king John in a con- 
ference between the king and barons at 
Runing Medd, or Runnemede, between 
"Windsor and Staines, June 15, 1215, 
and afterwards confirmed in the 37th 
year of Henry III., and by 25 Edw. I. 
This charter protected every individual 
of the nation in the free enjoyment of 
his life, his liberty, and his property, 
unless declared to be forfeited by the 
judgment of his peers, or the law of the 
land. 

.MAGNETISM. The power of the 
loadstone or magnet was known to the 
ancients. Its application to the mariner's 
compass introduced into Europe before 
1150. See Compass. North and south 
poles of the magnet described by Norman 
1581. Experiments on magnetism by Dr. 
Gilbert ; making of artificial magnets ex- 
plained by bim in his treatise " De Mag- 
nete etCorporibusMagneticis," publish- 
ed in 1600. The analogy existing between 
electricity, galvinism and magnetism, 
suggested by Van Swinden, Ritter, and 
others, in the middle of the J S^ century; 
established by Oersted 1807- 

1838. On November 30, Professor 
Gauss of Gottingen received from the 
Royal Society a Copley medal, for his 
recent improvements in the methods of 
making magnetic observations, and for 
his theoretical investigations relative to 
terrestrial magnetism. By the use of 
magnetical bars from one to twenty-five 
pounds in weight, by a multitude of 
ingenious and delicate applications of 
principles never before brought into 
combination. Professor Gauss has given 
to magnetic determinations the precision 
of astronomical observations ; and, in 
fact, may almost be said to have created 
anew this important department of 
science. 

1839. Prof. Lloyd having observed 
to the British Association, that the phe- 
nomena of terrestrial magnetism could 
not be determined by one magnet, his 
researches have been directed to ascer- 
tain the best position of three magnets, 
80 as in the least degree to aflfect each 
other, and work out this problem. One 
magnet should be placed in the line of 
the magnetic meridian, and is termed 
the declination magnet ; the second, per- 
pendicular to it, representing the hori- 
zontal force ; and the third, representing 



the vertical force, at the angle opposite 
the base of the other two. By the posi- 
tions of these three magnets, we have 
four indeterminate arbitrary angles, by 
which we are enabled to fulfil four equa- 
tions of conditions ; and thus the re- 
lative action is rendered nothing, and 
the mutual action of the three magnets 
destroyed. A gallery of about 40 feet 
in length is most practically convenient 
for the placing of the three magnets. 
The result arrived at by Prof. Lloyd is 
exceedingly interesting, in relation to 
the observatories about to be erected in 
the British colonies, and the solution of 
the difficult problem of terrestrial mag- 
netism. 

MAHOMEl, or Mohammed, the im- 
postor of Arabia, was born at Mecca, in 
the reign of Anushirwan the Just, em- 
peror of Persia, May 5, 570. His father 
Abd'allah was a younger son of Abd'al- 
motalleb. Abu Taleb, Mahomet's uncle, 
instructed him in the business of a mer- 
chant, and afterwards recommended him 
to Khadijah, a noble and rich widow, 
who employed him as her factor ; and 
he behaved so well that she afterwards 
married him, and thus raised him to an 
equality with the richest merchants in 
Mecca. After he had lived at his ease 
for some time, he formed the scheme of 
establishing a new religion. For this 
purpose he retired with his family to a 
cave in Mount Hara, about 604, where 
he opened the secret of his mission to his 
wife, telling her that the angel Gabriel 
had just before appeared to him, and 
told him that he was the apostle of God. 
The prophet commenced his career in 
the month of Ramaden, in the 40th year 
of his age, and his sect commenced about 
622. He died in 631. He possessed 
good natural talents, a retentive me- 
mory, and promptness of judgment. 
Ambition was nevertheless the ruling 
passion of his later years; and the means 
by which he sought to gain his object 
were such as could not be justified 
on any of the common principles of 
morality. 

MAHMOUD II., late sultan of the Ot- 
toman empire, remarkable for the vigour 
of his character, was born July 20, 1785, 
ascended the throne in 1808, at about 
23 years old. His mother was the 
daughter of a French merchant at Mar- 
tinique, who, at the age of 13 was taken 
prisoner by an Algerine ship of war, and 
carried into Algiers. The constitution 



MAI 



630 



MAL 



of the sultan's mind, as well as the senti- 
ments he bad adopted by education, 
disqualified him for patiently suffering 
the old order of things to remain ; he 
therefore, as a first step to a change of 
politics, determined on the destruction of 
tlie Janissaries, which he accomplished 
in 1826. See Janissaries. After a 
reign of nearly 31 years, in which be uni- 
formly opposed the established abuses in 
Turkey, he died July 1, 1839, in the 
54th year of his age. 

MAHilATTA Territory, country 
Hindoostan. The Mahrattas first became 
known to Europeans towards the close 
of the 18th century, when the sovereigns 
abandoned the government to their mi- 
nisters, the peishwahs. On the accession 
of Ram Rajah, the last of the royal 
family, in 1740, at the age of eight years, 
he was confined by his minister to the 
fortress Sattarah. In 1802 the reigning 
pei.shwah became dependent on the Bri- 
tish, Tbe remaining portions of this 
once extensive empire have almost all 
become subject to the authority of Great 
Britain. 

MAIDSTONE, Kent. On Penenden 
Heath, about a mile north-east from the 
town, a county court was held in 1071 
for the trial of a cause, said to have been 
the first instance of trial by jury in this 
kingdom. 

MAIL Coaches first established to 
Bristol 17S4; to other parts of England, 
and an act to regulate and encourage 
them, and exempt them from tolls, 1785; 
introiiuced into Ireland by Mr. Anderson 
in 1790. 

MAINE, state, member of the North 
American Union, The first permanent 
settlement was about the year 1630, and 
for several years the government of the 
colony was administered in the name of 
Sir Fernando Gorges. In 1652 Maine 
was jilaced under the jurisdiction of 
Massachusetts. From that time it was 
styled the district of Maine until 1820, 
when it was erected into an independent 

MAINTENON, Madame De, the 
widow of Carron, and wife of Louis 
XIV., died in 1719 aged 84. 

MA IRE, James Le, Dutch navigator, 
died 1622. 

MAISON-DIEU, hospital, Dover, 
built 1229. 

MA IT LAND, William, the histo- 
rian of London, died 1757. 

MAIZE, or, Indian Corn, supposed 



to be indigenous to South Ancerica, being 
the only species of corn cultivated in 
the New World pre\'iously to its disco- 
very. It was introduced into the Conti- 
nent about the beginning, and into Eng- 
land a little after the middle of the l6th 
century. It has been raised in England 
in nursery gardens near the metropolis, 
for more than a century ; and, recently, 
it has been attempted to raise it in the 
fields, but with indifferent success. 

MAJORCA, island, Mediterranean 
sea, the largest of the Balearic islands. 
It assisted the Carthaginians in the se- 
cond Punic war, but was afterwards 
overrun by the Romans a.c. 122. It was 
subsequently seized by the Vandals, who 
were expelled by the Moors a.d. 800. 
The latter, with some interruptions, held 
it until 1229, when Don Jayme, grand- 
son of Alphonso II., king of Arragon, 
made an expedition against the island, 
exterminated the Moors, and established 
in it a new kingdom. This was again 
destroyed in 1341, and the island has 
ever since been subject to Spain, 

MALABAR, district, Hindoostan. 
This coast, the first part of India visited 
by Europeans, was discovered by Vasco 
de Gama, who landed at Calicut in May, 
1498, Malabar was partially .subdued 
by Hyder Ali in 1761 ; more fully subju- 
gated in 1782 ; placed under the British 
government 1803. 

MALACCA, city, India, was founded 
in 1252 by the last king of Sing:ipoor. 
In 1508 it was taken by the Portuguese, 
and became their princijial settlement. 
In 1640 it was taken from the Portu- 
guese by the Dutch, who retained it 
until 1795, when it was subjected l)y a 
British force; it was restored in 1801, 
reca[)tured in 1807, and again given up 
in 1815, but was fully received in ex- 
change for the British settlements in 
Sumatra, and occupied by the British 
authorities in 1825. 

MALACHI, the prophet, flourished 
A.c. 397. 

MALAGA, town, Spain, was founded 
by tbe Phoenicians, and called, originally, 
Malacha. It was taken by the Moors 
in 714, and retained by them until 1487- 
It was taken by the French, Feb. 5, 
1810; evacuated by them March 17, 1810 

MALAY Pirates. Twenty-six 
double-decked Malay proas, manned 
with upwards of 1000 men, repulsed off 
Manilla,by Lieutenant Ehiott and 41 men, 
in a government falwa (viz., a large open 



MAL 



631 



MAM 



boat,) armed with one brass gun in tlie 
bow, four swivels in the stern, and small 
arms. Cannon Rejrister, May 24, 1836. 
MALCOLM, Major-Gen. John, 
author of the " History of Persia," 
died 1833. 

MALEBRANCHE, Nicholas, a 
French philosopher, author of the 
" Search after Truth," born 1638, died 
1715. 

MALESHERBE, Christian Wil- 
liam, De Lamoignon De, born at 
Paris in 1721. He was chosen minister 
of state under Louis XVI. in 1775 ; but 
owing to the rejection of some important 
measures which his zeal for the public 
good led him to propose, resigned his 
post in May, 1776 ; was condemned by 
the convention in 1794, and received the 
stroke of the guillotine in April, in the 
73d year of his age. 

M ALIBRAN, De Beriot, an excel- 
lent vocal actress, born at Paris, 1808, 
died at Manchester, Sept. 23, 1836. 

MALLET, David, dramatic author, 
died 1765. 

MALONE, Edmund, dramatic critic, 
born 1741, died 1812. 

MALPIGHI, the ana^mist, born 
1628, died 1694. 

MALPLAQUET, village, France, the 
scene of a sanguinary battle, fought on 
September 11, 1709, between the French 
army commanded by Marshal Villars, 
and the British under the duke of Marl- 
borough and Prince Eugene, in which 
the former were defeated, though the 
latter lost 20,000 men. 

MALT Tax estabhshed 1667; in- 
creased 1760 ; new-modelled 1766. Tax 
repealed by 11 Geo. IV. c. 17, May 29, 
1830, entitled " An act to alter and 
amend an Act of the 7th and 8th Geo. 
IV. c. 52, for consolidating and amend- 
ing the laws of excise on malt made 
in the United Kingdom, and for amend- 
ing the laws relatmg to brewers in 
Ireland, and the malt allowance on 
spirits in Scotland and Ireland." 

MALTA, an island in the Mediterra- 
nean sea, was early in the hands of the 
Carthaginians ; they were dispossessed 
by the Romans, who were driven out by 
the Arabs in 828, and expelled in their 
turn by Roger the Norman, earl of Si- 
cily, who took possession of it in 1190. 
From this time it continued under the 
power of the Sicilian princes till it was 
conquered by Charles V. In 1530 it was 
conferred by him on the knights of 



St. John, after their expulsion from 
Rhodes by the Turks. It was strongly 
fortified l)y the knights, and underwent 
several memoral)!e sieges, the most ce- 
lebrated of which took place in 1565, 
which lasted for four months, and ter- 
minated unsuccessfully to the Turkish 
assailants. In 1798 Buonaparte took 
possession of Malta, on his expedition 
to Egypt; in ISOO the French garrison 
was compelled by famine to capitulate to 
a British force. In 1814 the possession 
of it was confirmed to Great Britain by 
the treaty of Paris. 

MALTA, Knights of, originally 
called Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusa- 
lem, a religious military order, th-j foun- 
dation of which was laid by opening a 
house for the reception of pilgrims at Je- 
rusalem, 1048 ; became a regular mo- 
nastic order 1099, and a military order 
1118 ; they took Rhodes, and were called 
Knights of Rhodes, 1310. Being ex- 
pelled from thence by the Tui'ks, the 
emperor Charles V. gave them the island 
of Malta, 1530; and they were called 
Knights of Malta. In 1566 they sustain- 
ed the memorable siege against the ar- 
mies of Solj'man, and did other great 
exploits against the infidels, 1595. Con- 
spiracy at Malta to destroy the whole 
order, for which 125 Turkish slaves suf- 
fered death, June 26, 1749. 

MALTE Brun, Conrade, the geo- 
grapher, died 1826. 

MALTHUS, Rev. T. R., author of 
the "Essay on Population," died 1835, 
aged 68. 

MALUS, S., mathematician, born 
1775,, died 1812. 

MAMELUKES, Mamalukes, or 
Mamlouks, a dynasty that reigned in 
Egypt for a considerable time, were ori- 
ginally Turkish and Circassian slaves, 
who were introduced into Egypt in con- 
sequence of an expedition which took 
place in 1227- The Sultan of Egypt, 
Malek Salah, about 1230, purchased 
12,000 of these young men, whom he de- 
signed to be his guard and marine. He 
died in 1249, and was succeeded by his 
son, Turan Shah; whom, in 1250, the 
Mamelukes deposed and massacred; and 
this event commenced the dynasty of the 
Mamelukes of Egypt, which continued 
till 1517. See Egypt, p. 415. 

MAMMOTH, a name given by the 
Russians to the fossil remains of an an- 
tediluvian animal. A skeleton of one was 
discovered at Ilford, in Esse.x, 16 feet 



MAN 



632 



MAN 



below the surface of the ground, May 1 , 
1824. 

MAN, Isle of, was known to the 
Romans under the name of Monoeda, 
and Monabia. After Britain was aban- 
doned by the Romans, it was seized by 
the Scots, who were ex))elled by the 
British prince Cunedda. In 1270 Alex- 
ander III. of Scotland obtained full pos- 
session of it by purchase ; it remained 
suljject to Scotland until 1340, when Sir 
WilHam de Montacute, afterwards earl 
of Salisbury, conquered the isle with the 
sanction of his sovereign, Edward III., 
. by whose command he was crowned king 
of Man in 1344. In 1406, having been 
forfeited by rebellion, it was granted by 
the crown to Sir John Stanlej^ whose 
descendant was created by Henry VII., 
earl of Derby, in 1486. It was surren- 
dered to the royalists in the civil war, in 
Oct. 1651. The isle was given by par- 
liament, in 1652, to Lord Fairfax; but 
on the restoration of Charles II., it re- 
verted to the Derby family, who held it 
till 1735, when James, the 10th earl, 
dying without issue, it was transferred to 
the duke of Athol. The duke was in- 
duced, in 1765, to surrender the sove- 
reignty of the island to the British go- 
vernment for the sum of £70,000, and 
the Isle of Man has, since that time, 
formed an integral part of the British 
empire. In 1805 an act of parliament 
was passed, securing to the duke and his 
heirs one-fourth of the gross revenue of 
the island; and in 1825 another act was 
passed, granting to the family of the 
duke, as the purchase of their remain- 
ing interest in the island, the sum of 
£416,000. 

MANBY, Captain, inventor of the 
method of preserving shipwrecked per- 
sons, born 1765. 

MANCHESTER, county of Lancas- 
ter. Its origin may be traced back before 
the time of the Romans, who conquered 
it under Agricola, in 79. It is men- 
tioned, in the reign of Edward IV., as 
noted for the production of various 
woollen goods. In the reign of James I. 
a pestilence raged there, which carried 
off nearly 1000 persons. During the 
civil wars this place warmly espoused 
the cause of the parliament against 
Charles I., and it was besieged by a 
strong force under the earl of Derby. 
Its commercial superiority may be dated 
from about the year 1758. Its subse- 
quent increase and improvement have 



been materially influenced by the inven- 
tion of machinery for the abridgment of 
labour. In 1781, two years previous to 
the introduction of Arkwright's ma- 
chines, the quantity of cotton-wool im- 
ported annually, was but 5,198,778 
pounds ; but after the successive inven- 
tions or improvements of Highs, Har- 
greaves, Arkwrij,ht, Crompton, andWatt, 
the quantity of goods manufactured was 
augmented more than thirty-fold. There 
were in 1825, in the parish of Manches- 
ter a\om, more than 20,000 steam-looms 
in motion ; and it appears that since that 
period the number has increased. See 
Cotton. 

MANDEVILLE, Sir J., the travel- 
ler, died 1372. 

MANDEVILLE, Bernard, author 
of the "Table of the Bees," died 1733, 
aged 65. 

MANETHO, an ancient Egyptian his- 
torian, who was high priest of Helio- 
polis, in the time of Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus, about A.c. 304. His History of 
Egypt in Greek, though in a great mea- 
sure fabulous, is often quoted by Jose- 
phus and other ancient authors. 

MANFREDI, Eustacio, astrono- 
mer, born 1674, died 1739. 

MANHEIM, town. Grand Duchy of 
Baden, has suffered much from the 
effects of war. It was devastated by the 
Bavarians in 1662 ; in the destruction of 
the palatinate, almost all the houses were 
demolished. Having been rebuilt by its 
princes, it was bombarded in 1795 by the 
republican armies of France, and a great 
many of its buildings were reduced to 
ashes. Retaken by the Austrians, Nov. 
22, 1795, with 10,338 prisoners, four ge- 
nerals, and 400 guns, besides stores. 
Was taken by the French 1796, but re- 
taken by the Austrians, Sept. 18, 1799. 
Its commerce and manufactures have, 
however, contributed to restore it to its 
ancient prosperity 

MANICHEES, or Manicheans, a 
sect of ancient heretics, which had its 
rise about the year 277, and spread it- 
self principally in Arabia, Egypt, and 
Africa. They were the followers of 
Manes, who made his appearance in the 
reign of the emperor Probus, pretending 
to be the Comforter whom our Saviour 
promised to send into the world. 

MANILLA, city of the island of Lu- 
zon, chief of the Philippines, and metro- 
polis of the Spanish settlements there. 
Most of the public sanctuaries are built 



MA R 



of wood, on account of the frequent 
earthquakes, by one of which, in 16 17, a 
mountain was levelled ; and, in 1625, a 
third part of the city was overthrown by 
another, when 3000 persons perished in 
the ruins. In 1762 the English took 
this city by storm, and suffered the 
archbishop to ransom it for about a 
million sterling. A destructive fire took 
place here March 26, 1833, by which 
10,000 bamboo huts were destroyed, 50 
lives lost, 30,000 Indians left houseless, 
and an extent of three miles of country 
laid waste. 

MANLIUS, Marcus, a distinguished 
Roman general, thrown down from the 
Tarpeian rock, A.c. 484. 

MANSFIELD, Lord Chief Jus- 
tice, died March 15, 1793, aged 89. 

MANSION House, city of London, 
built 1739, first inhabited 1752, and cost 
£42,638 18s. 8d. 

MANTUA, an ancient town of Italy, 
founded about 300 years before Rome, 
celebrated as the birthplace of Virgil. 
After the fall of the Roman empire it be- 
came a free and independent state, sub- 
ject to its own dukes, about 200 years ; 
but the last of these princes having taken 
up arms against the Austrian interest, 
was driven from his dominions, and died 
in exile at Padua, in 1708. It surren- 
dered to the French, February 1, 1797, 
and was retaken July 28, 1799, by the 
Russians and Austrians, after a long 
siege. It is at present subject to the 
archduchess Maria Louisa, late empress 
of France. 

MAPS invented by Anaximander,who 
flourished about a.c. 400 ; improved by 
Ptolemy, and published about a.d. 140. 
Maps and charts introduced into Eng- 
land by Bartholomew Columbus, 1489. 
The first map of England published 
1520, by George Lilly; the first of Rus- 
sia J 560. 

Geological Maps introduced about 
1810; greatly improved about 1838. 
At the meeting of the British Association 
that year, new geological maps were ex- 
hibited and explained by Mr. Murchison 
and Mr. Griffiths. Professor Buckland 
said, " Mr. Murchison's new map must 
now be a standard work to the end of 
time." 

MAR, Earl of, sentenced to two 
years' imprisonment by the High Court 
of Justiciary at Edinburgh, for shooting 
at Mr. Oldham, a clergyman, December 
17, 1831. 



633 MAR 

MAR, Mr., and family, murdered 
under circumstances of peculiar atro- 
city, at Radcliffe-highway, December 7, 
1811. 

MARALDI, James Philip, an Ita- 
lian mathematician and astronomer, was 
born at Perinaldo, in Nice, in 1665. His 
uncle, the celebrated Cassini, sent him 
to France in 1687, where he acquired 
great reputation on account of his learn- 
ing and observation. In 1700 he was 
employed by Cassini in prolonging the 
French meridian to the southern extre- 
mity of that kingdom. His catalogue of 
the fixed stars is more particular and 
exact than Bayer's. He died in 1729» 
in his 65th year. 

MARANA, author of " The Turkish 
Spy," bom 1642, died 1693. 

MARAT, the French demagogue, as- 
sassinated by Charlotte Cordoy, 1793. 

MARATHON, a village of Attica, ten 
miles from Athens, celebrated as the 
scene of Miltiades's victory over the 
Persians, by which the liberties of Athens 
and other cities of Greece were saved, 
A.c. 490. 

MARC Antony. See Antony. 

MARCLEY Hill, near Hereford, 
was moved from its situation February 
17, 1571. It carried along with it the 
trees, hedges, and cattle, on its surface, 
overthrew a chapel in its way, and form- 
ed a large hill 12 fathoms high, where it 
settled, having left a chasm 40 feet deep, 
and 30 long. 

MARCO Polo, or Paulo. See 
Paulo. 

MARCOU, St., Isles, on the caast 
of France, taken by Sir Sidney Smith in 
July 1795, and ably defended by Lieu- 
tenant Price against the French troops. 
May 7, 1798. 

MACROSS, Glamorganshire, cliff at, 
fell and spread 300,000 tons of limestone 
on the beach, August, 1833, 

MARET, HuGUES Bernard, duke 
of Bassano, grand officer of the legion 
of honour, and a distinguished French 
political writer. He embraced with en- 
thusiasm the cause of the first French 
revolution, and was the publisher of the 
" Bulletin de I'Assemblee," until the 
bookseller, Panckouke, founded the 
" Moniteur," of which Maret was ap- 
pointed chief editor, and which became 
the official paper of the government. 
After acting an important part in public 
affairs in various offices, he was, in 1814, 
appointed minister of foreign affairs, 

4 M 



MAR 



634 



MAR 



with the title of duke of Bassano. On 
the second restoration of the Bourbons 
he v/as banished from France, and re- 
tired to Gratz ; but after the revolution 
of July, 1830, he again returned to 
France, and was reinstated in his former 
honours. He died in 1839, aged 81. 

MARGARET, countess of Richmond 
and Derby, mother of King Henry VII., 
died June 29, 1509. 

MARGARET, countess of Salisbury, 
daughter of the duke of Clarence, bro- 
ther of Edward IV., beheaded May 27, 
154i; aged 70. 

MARGARET, queen of Henry VI., 
with her son, taken prisoners at the 
battle of Tewkesbury, May 4, 1471. 

MARGATE, Kent. Though a place 
of considerable antiquity, it has risen to 
importance only since 1787, when an 
act of parliament was procured for re- 
building the pier with stone. This 
town has attained its present celebrity 
in consequence of the facihties afiorded 
for sea-bathing. The pier was consi- 
derably injured by a violent storm in 
1808, when a new pier, terminatin;^ with 
a stone jetty, was erected, and completed 
in 1824. The new pier constructed 
under the direction of Mr. John Rennie, 
at the expense of £90,000, is built of 
Wliitby stone ; it is 900 feet in length, 
60 feet where broadest, and 26 feet in 
height, with a parapet of four feet and a 
half. 

MARIA Antoinette, queen of 
France, guillotined Oct. 16, 1793. 

MARIA Louisa, consort of Napo- 
leon, obtained the states of Parma, Pla- 
centia, and Guastalla, by the treaty of 
Fontainbleau, A])ril 11, 1814. 

MARIEGALANTE, island. West 
Indies, discovered 1493; colonised by 
the French in 1647 ; conquered by the 
British during the revolutionary war, 
but afterwards restored. 

MARIENBURGH, in Prussia, found- 
ed by the Teutonic knights, 1231. 

MARINE Society estabhshed 1756, 
to u'hom Vv'^. Hicks, Esq. left £300 per 
annum 1753. Incorporated 1772. 

MARIUS, Caius, a Roman general, 
born at Arpinum, of an obscure family, 
was made tribune a.c. 119 ; praetor a. c. 
116. He went into Africa as lieutenant 
to the consul Metellus against Jugurtha, 
A.c. 109; defeated the Teutones, 102; 
civil war between him and Sylla, 88 ; 
he joined Cinna, entered Rome like a 
conqueror, and filled it with blood ; they 



made themselves consuls a.c. 86 ; but 
Marius died 16 days after a.u.c. 666. 

MARK, St., wrote his gospel 44 ; 
died 68 ; his festival celebrated 1090. 

MARK, St., order of, began at 
Venice 830; reviA-ed 1562. 

MARK'S, St., Palace, Venice, built 
450. 

MARK'S, St., Chukch, at Venice, 
built 826. 

MARLBOROUGH, John Chur- 
chill, Duke of, was born at Ashe, 
in Devonshire, in 1650. He was made 
page of honour to the duke of York, 
afterwards King James II. when oidy 
12 years of age. In 1666 he was made 
an ensign in the guards. In 1672 he 
attended the duke of Monmouth, who 
commanded a body of auxiliaries in the 
French service. In 1673 he was at the 
siege of Maestricht, where he displayed 
so much courage, that the king of France 
made him a public acknowledgment of 
his service. After the abdication of 
James II., he was one of the noblemen 
who voted that the throne was vacant: and 
the prince and princess of Orange were 
in consequence declared king and queen 
of England. In 1689 he was appomted 
one of the privy-council, and raised 
to the dignity of earl of Marlborough. In 
1690 he was made general of the forces 
sent to Ireland, where he took the strong 
garrisons of Cork and Kinsale prisoners 
of war. In 1692 he was suddenly (lis- 
missed from ail his employments, and 
committed to the Tower. Being restored 
to favour in 1698, he was appointed 
governor to the duke of Gloucester. 

Upon the accession of Queen Anne, he 
was declared captain-general of all her 
majesty's forces. After his first cam- 
paign in 1702, he was created marquis 
of Blandford and duke of Marlborough. 
On the battle of Blenheim, 1704, he re- 
ceived congratulatory letters from most 
of the potentates in Europe, and this 
was followed by several other success- 
ful campaigns. At the change of the 
ministry in 1710, owing to political in- 
trigues, he was disgraced, and his in- 
terest daily dechned, till the death of the 
queen. He attended on King George I. 
in his public entry through London, 
who appointed him captain-general, co- 
lonel of the first regiment of foot guards, 
one of the commissioners for the govern- 
ment of Chelsea Hospital, and master- 
general of the ordnance. Some years 
before his death he retired from public 



MAR 



635 



MAR 



i)usiness. He died at Windsor-Lodge 
in 1722, in his 73d year. 

MARMONTEL, a French writer, 
author of " Moral Tales," born 1723, 
died 1799. 

MOROT, Clement, a French poet, 
born 1495, died 1544. 

MARQUESAS, a group of islands. 
South Pacific Ocean, consists of two 
groups named the Marquesas and 
Washington Islands : the former dis- 
covered in 1596 by the Spanish naviga- 
tor Alvaro Mendana ; the other was first 
visited in 1791 by an American named 
Ingraham ; and then in 1792 by Mar- 
chand. They were examined in 1804 with 
some attention by Krusenstern, and have 
since been frequently touched by Bri- 
tish and American ships. They were 
recently visited by the Hon. W. Walde- 
grave, R.N., and also by Mr. Williams, 
the missionary about 1830. But the 
missionaries have not succeeded in esta- 
blishing permanent stations. 

MARQUESS, or Makquis, a title of 
honour, next in dignity to that of duke; 
first introduced in the reign of Richard 
II., when Robert Vere, earl of Oxford, 
was created marquis of Dublin, in the 
80th year of his age. 

MARRIAGE. The law relative to 
the solemnization of marriage in Eng- 
land was formerly in a veiy undefined 
state. By the ancient law a marriage 
was good if celebrated in the presence of 
two witnesses, though without the inter- 
vention of a priest ; then came the de- 
cision of the Council of Trent 1545, 
rendering the solemnization by a priest 
necessary. The archbishop of Canter- 
bury had authority to grant special 
licences, derived from the 25 Henry 
VIII c. 21. Henry, in furtherance of 
of his quarrel with the pope, caused an 
act to be passed, 32 Henry VIII. c. 38, 
by which he declared all persons to be 
lawful "that be not prohibited by God's 
law to marry," and that "no reserva- 
tion or prohibition, God's law excepted, 
shall trouble or impeach any marriage 
within the Levitical degrees." During 
the commonwealth, a great number of 
marriages were solemnized by justices of 
the peace. Doubts having been raised 
about their validity, an act was passed 
the 12 Charles II. c. 33, entitled "An 
act for confirmation of marriage," in 
which all such marriages solemnized 
from May 1, 1642, were confirmed. 

There were a number of chapels in 



privileged places in London, claiming 
exemption from episcopal visitation. Of 
these, the chapel in the Fleet prison 
acquired the most infamous notoriety. In 
the Registration Act, 6 and 7 Will. III. 
c. 6, a clause is introduced, declaring 
that "no person shall be married at 
any place pretending to be exempt from 
the visitation of the bishop of the diocese 
without a licence, first had and obtained, 
except the banns shall be published and 
certified according to law." Again, in 
the loth Anne, c. 18, it is enacted that 
" every parson, vicar, or curate, or other 
person in holy orders, beneficed or not 
beneficed, who should, after the 24th of 
June, 1712, marry any person in any 
cluu'ch or chapel exempt or not exempt, 
or in any other place whatsoever, without 
publication of the banns of matrimony, 
&c., should forfeit £100, and a similar 
penalty was made applicable to gaolers 
and keepers of prisons for permitting, 
or conniving at, clandestine marriages." 

Lord Hardwicke's bill, called the Mar- 
riage act of 1753, 26 Geo. II. c. 53, 
" An act for the better preventing clan- 
destine marriages," took effect from the 
25th of March, 1754; and Burn tells 
us, that so eager were all parties to be 
beforehand with the law, that on that 
day no less than 217 marriages were 
celebrated at the Fleet, "which," he adds, 
" were the last of the Fleet weddings." 

This act continued in full force till the 
recent act, 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 85, Aug. 17, 

1836, entitled "An act for marriages 
in England." The following are the 
principal provisions : — Afcer March 1, 

1837, all rules prescribed by the Eu- 
brick are to continue to be observed by 
clergymen ; but marriages may be so- 
lemnized at other places on production 
of the registrar's certificate, as hereafter 
provided. Marriages of Quakers and Jews 
may be solemnized as at present, when 
both parties are members of those bodies, 
and notice be given as hereafter provided. 
Notice of every intended marriage to be 
given to the superintendent registrar of 
the district within which the parties 
shall have dwelt for not less than seven 
days then next preceding; or if they 
dwell in different districts, then to the 
superintendent registrar of each district, 
and shall state therein the name and 
surname, and the profession or condi- 
tion of each of the parties intending mar- 
riage, the dwelling place of each of them, 
and the time, not being less than sevea 



MAR 



636 



MAR 



days, (luring wliich each has dwelt there- 
in, and the church or other building in 
which the marriage is to be solemnized. 
Places of worship may be registered for 
solemnizing marriages therein, on ap- 
plication of the trustees, &c., and on 
removal of the same congregation, the 
new place of worship may be imme- 
diately registered, instead of the one dis- 
used. Marriages may be solemnized 
in such registered places in the presence 
of some registrar, and of two witnesses ; 
but it must be with open doors between 
8 and 12 in the forenoon. And per- 
sons objecting to marry in such re- 
gistered places, may marry before the 
superintendent registrar and some regis- 
trar of the district, and in the presence of 
two witnesses. 

Under tiiis act the member of the 
established church may be married as 
heretofore, if he chooses ; the dissenter 
may be married with or without religious 
rites, as he pleases ; and both marriages 
are equally valid in the eye of the law. 
The machinery for registering dissenting 
places of worship, for the purpose of 
solemnizing marriages, is sufficiently 
free and unrestricted, consistently with 
a due provision for guarding against the 
evils which were put an end to by Lord 
Hardwicke's act, while it removed the 
obligations which were felt as infringe- 
ments upon the rights of conscience 
which that act perpetuated. 

MARS, one of the primary planets. 
The spots on the disc of Mars were first 
discovered by Dr. Hook in 1665 ; and 
from their motion he concluded that the 
planet revolves about its axis. M. Cas- 
sini, also in 1666, observed spots on the 
two hemispheres of Mars, which per- 
formed one revolution in 24 hours ; and 
in 1670 Maraldi repeated these observa- 
tions of Cassini ; and before the year 
1720 the motion and period of this 
planet were satisfactorily determined. 

MARSEILLES, department, mouths 
of the Rhone, France, founded by a Greek 
colony from Phocis about a.c. 600. 
In the ilth century it erected itself 
into a republic, and was united to the 
crown of France in the reign of Louis 
XIV. In 1720 the plague broke out 
here and carried off" about 60,000 in- 
habitants. Marseilles was agitated along 
with all other parts of France by the 
troubles of the revolution ; and in 
1793 it was entered by the forces of 
the convention. In January, 1794, 



the Jacobins dreading a counter-revolu- 
tion, ordered the inhabitants to be dis- 
armed and tlie town to be declared in a 
state of rebellion. It was not restored 
to tranquillity till the assumption of 
power by Buonaparte in 1799- 

MARSH, Herbert, D.D.,F.R.S.,&c. 
bishop of Peterborough, professor of di- 
vinity in the University of Cambridge, 
and author of many theological works 
and controversial publications, died May 
1, 1839. 

MARSTON, Long, Yorkshire. Near 
this place is Marston Moor, celebrated 
for the defeat sustained by prince Rupert 
in 1644, from the parliamentary army. 

MARTABAN, town, Birman empire, 
was captured by the British, Nov. 1824; 
but by the provisions of the treaty of 
1826, relinquishing the north bank of the 
Saluen, it was restored to the Burmese. 

MARTIAL, Marcus Valerius, 
the Latin epigrammatist, born at Bilboa, 
34, died 109. 

MARTIN, Richard, the founder of 
the Humane Society for the Protection of 
Animals, died 1835, aged 80. 

Martin, Rev. Thomas, author of 
"Flora Cantabrigiensis," died 1825. 

MARTINIQUE, or Martiniccouc 
of the largest of the Caribbee islands, was 
first colonized by M. Besnambuc, a 
Frenchman, in 1635. The French con- 
fined themselves at first to the culture of 
tobacco and cotton ; that of sugar was 
not begun till about 1650. Ten years 
after, cocoa trees became the principal 
support of the colonists ; but by the in- 
clemency of the season, in l7l8,all the 
trees were destroyed. The culture of 
coflEee was then begun, and attended with 
the greatest success. The war of 1744, 
however, put a stop to its prosperity, till 
the freedom of trade was restored by the 
return of peace. Martinique fell into the 
hands of the British in 1794 ; was re- 
stored to France by the treaty of peace 
in 1801 ; was several times taken and re- 
taken till it again reverted to the French 
at the general peace in 1815. It suffered 
from an earthquake in 1839, by which 
nearly half of Fort Royal was destroyed, 
aearly 700 persons killed, and the whole 
much damaged. 

MARTIN'S, St., a Danish island in 
the West Indies, taken by the English, 
March 24, 1801. 

MARTYN, John, professor of botany 
at Cambridge, born Sept. 12, 1699, died 
Jan. 29,1768, in the 69th year of his age. 



MAR 



637 



MAS 



MARTYN, Justin, a Christian 
father, who flourished in the second cen- 
tury, was born in Flavia Neapolis, an- 
ciently called Sichem, a city of Samaria, 
in Palestine. His conversion happened 
about 132. In 140 he presented his first 
apology to the emperor Antoninus Pius. 
He suffered martyrdom about l64. 

MARTYR, Peter, a celebrated re- 
former, was born at Florence in 1500. 
About 1542 he was invited to Strasburg, 
where he filled, for the space of five 
years, the theological chair. In 1546 he 
married a nun who had escaped from a 
convent and became a protestant. In 
the following year he was sent to Eng- 
land by King Edward VI., and made 
professor of divinity at Oxford, in 1549. 
He wrote a great number of works, and 
died in 1562. 

MARUM, Dr. Martin Van, se- 
cretary to the Batavian Society of Sci- 
ences, at Haarlem, who superintended 
the publication of their transactions for 
many years. It was under his directions 
that the great electrical machine belong- 
ing to the Teylerian Museum was con- 
structed ; and he published in 1795 and 
1800, the results of a very e.xtensive se- 
ries of experiments on the various forms 
of electrical phenomena which were pro- 
duced by it ; and more particularly with 
reference to a comparison of its effects 
with those produced by a powerful vol- 
taic pile, which were undertaken at the 
express request of Volta himself. Dr. 
Van Marum was remarkable for his very 
various acquirements, and was the au- 
thor of many memoirs in the Haarlem 
and other transactions, on botanical, 
chemical, physical, and other subjects. 
He was a man of the most simple habits, 
and of the most amiable character, and 
devoted himself most zealously, during 
the greatest part of a very long life, to 
the cultivation of science, and to the pro- 
motion of the interests of the establish- 
ment over which he presided. He died 
1838. 

MARVEL, Andrew, the incorrupti- 
ble patriot and senator, born 1620, died 
1 678, in a state of so virtuous indigence, 
that he was interred at the expense of 
his constituents. 

MARY, Queen of England, born 
Feb. 11, 1516, proclaimed July 9, 1553, 
and crowned Oct. 1 following. Mar- 
ried Philip of Spain, July 15, 1554, died 
Nov. 17, 1558 ; was buried at AVest- 
minster. 



MARY'', Queen of Scots, daughter 
of James v., was born Dec. 8, 1542. At 
six years of age she was conveyed to 
France, where she received her education 
in the court of Henry II. She married 
the dauphin in 1558, when her husband 
received the crown matrimonial of Scot- 
land, On the death of Henry II. he 
became king of France : he died after a 
reign of 16 months. Mary next mar- 
ried Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, July 
29, 1565. On Feb. 10, 1567, the house 
in which he resided was blown up with 
gunpowder, and his dead body, without 
any marks of violence, was found in an 
adjoining field. Mary married the earl of 
Both well. May 15, following. She was 
soon after obliged to resign the crown, 
and was thrown into prison. In the 
castle of Fotheringay she was beheaded 
on Feb. 8, 1787, in the 45th year of her 
age. Twenty years afterwards her bones 
were, by order of her son. King James I., 
removed to Westminster, and deposited 
among those of the kings of England. 

MASON, Rev. William, author of 
"The English Garden," born 1725, died 
1797. 

MASONS' Company, London, in- 
corporated 1677. 

MARYLAND, one of the United 
States of North America, was granted by 
Charles I. to George Calvert, Lord Bal- 
timore . The first settlement was formed 
by his son Leonard Calvert, together 
with about 200 Catholics, in 1634 ; and 
it was named Mar3'land, from Henrietta 
Maria, the queen of Charles. In 1687 
the government was taken from Lord 
Baltimore, and Mr. Copley was ap- 
pointed governor by commission from 
William and Mary in 1692, when the 
protestant religion was established by 
law. The constitution of this state was 
formed in 1776. 

MASKELYNE, Rev. Nevil, astro- 
nomer-royal, and institutor of the " Nau- 
tical Almanack," died 1811. 

MASS, first celebrated in Latin 394, 
introduced into England 680 ; prostra- 
tion required at the elevation of the 
host, 1202. 

MASSACHUSETTS, one of the 
United States of North America, and one 
of the earliest colonies from England. The 
first settlement was formed by 101 per- 
sons who fled from religious persecution 
in England, landed at Plymouth, Dec. 
22, 1620, and laid the foundation df 
Plymouth colony. The territory of 



MAS 



638 



MAS 



Massachusetts comprised, for many 
years after its first settlement, two se- 
])arate colonies, styled the Plymouth 
colony and the colony of Massachusetts 
Bay. The constitution of this state was 
framed in 1780, and amended in 1S21. 

MASSACRE, the sudden and promis- 
cuous butchery of a multitude. The 
following are some of the most remark- 
able massacres recorded in history : — 

A.c. 397. Of all the Carthaginians in 
Sicily. 

331. 2000 Tyrians crucified, and 8000 
put to the sword for not surrendering 
'i'yre to Alexander. 

1 54. The Jews of Antioch fell upon 
the other inhabitants, and massacred 
100,000 for refusing to surrender their 
arms to Demetrius Nicanor, tyrant of 
Syria. 

102. A dreadful slaughter of the Teu- 
ton3S and Ambrones, near Aix, by Ma- 
rius, the Roman general, 200,000 being 
left dead on the spot. 

89. The Romans, throughout Asia, 
women and children not excepted, cruelly 
massacred in one da)', by order of Mith- 
ridates, king of Pontus. 

8G. A great number of Roman se- 
nators massacred by Cinna, Marius and 
Seitorius, and several of the patricians 
dispatched themselves to avoid their 
horrid butcheries. 

82 and 79. Again, under Sylla, and 
CatiUne, his minister of vengeance. 

41. At Praeneste, Octavius Ctesar or- 
dered 300 Roman senators, and other 
persons of distinction, to be sacrificed 
to the manes of Julius Ceesar. 

A.D. 70. At the destruction of Jeru- 
salem 1,000,000 Jews were put to the 
sword. 

197. Cassius, a Roman general, under 
the Emperor M. Aurelius, put to death 
37,000 of the inhabitants of Seleucia. 

213. At Alexandria, of many thou- 
sand citizens, by order of Antoninus. 

277- The Emperor Probus put to 
death 700,000 of the inhabitants on his 
reduction of Gaul. 

370. Of 80 christian fathers, by order 
of the Emperor Gratian, at Nicomedia ; 
they were ])ut into a ship, which was set 
on fire, and driven out to sea. 

390. At Thessalonica, when upwards 
of 7000 persons, invited into the Circus, 
were put to the sword by order of Theo- 
dosius. 

475. In England, 300 English nobles, 
by Hengist. 



532. Belisarius put to d£ath above 
30,000 citizens of Constantinople for a 
revolt, on account of two rapacious mi- 
nisters set over them by Justinian. 

1002. Of the Danes, in the southern 
counties of England. In the night of 
the 1 3th of November, at London, it 
was the most bloody, the churches being 
no sanctuary : amongst the rest, Gu- 
nilda, sister of Swein, king of Denmark, 
left in hostage for the performance of a 
treaty newly concluded. 

1184. Of the Latins, by Andronicus, 
at Constantinople. 

1189- Of the Jews, some few pressing 
into Westminster-hall, at Richard I.'s 
coronation, were put to death by the 
people, and a false alarm being given, 
that the king had ordered a general mas- 
sacre of them, the people in many parts 
of England, from an aversion to them, 
slew all they met ; in York, 500 who had 
taken shelter in the castle killed them- 
selves, rather than fall into the hands of 
the people. 

1282. The Sicilians massacred the 
French throughout the whole island, 
without distinction of sex or age, on 
Easter-day, the first bell for vespers 
being the signal. This horrid affair is 
known in history by the name of the 
Sicilian vespers. 

1572. Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French 
protestants, throughout the kingdom of 
France, attended with circumstances of 
the most horrid treachery and cruelty. 
It began at Paris in the night of the 
festival of St. Bartholomew, by secret 
orders from Charles IX., king of France, 
at the instigation of the queen dowager, 
Catherine de Medicis, his mother. It 
is styled in history the massacre of St. 
Bartholomew. 

1592. Of the christians in Croatia, by 
the Turks, when 65,000 were slain. 

1600. Matins of Moscow, when all 
the Poles, adherents of Prince Deme- 
trius, wei'e assassinated at six o'clock in 
the morning, Aug. 25. 

1624. Of the English, by the Dutch 
at Amboyna. See Amboyna. 

1641. Of the Protestants in Ireland, 
when 40,000 were killed. 

1692. Of the Macdonalds at Glen- 
coe, in Scotland, for not surrendering 
in time according to King William's 
proclamation. See Glencoe. 

1724. Of a great number of protest- 
ants at Thorn, who were put to death 
under a pretended legal sentence of tlie 



MAT 



639 



MAU 



chancellor of Polana, for being concerned 
in a tumult occasioned by a popish pro- 
cession. 

1740. At Batavia, when 12,000 Chi- 
nese were killed by the natives in 
October. 

1811. Dreadful massacre of the Ma- 
melukes in the citadel of Cairo, March 1. 

1836. At Barcelona, of 100 Carlist 
prisoners, in January. 

MAfcioAiNiELLO the fisherman of 
Naples. See Anello. 

MASSILON, Jean Baptist, a ce- 
lebrated French preacher and bishop of 
Clermont, was born at Hieres in Pro- 
vence in 1663. His first Advent sermon 
at Versailles was received with great 
approbation by Louis XIV. In 17 17 
the regent appointed him to the bishop- 
ric of Clermont. The next year, being 
destined to preach before Louis XV., 
who was only nine years of age, he 
composed in six weeks those discourses 
which are so well known by the name of 
' Le Petit Careme." The funeral oration 
of the duchess of Orleans, in 1723, was 
the last discourse he pronounced at 
Paris. He died Sept. 28, 1742, at the 
age of 79- 

MASSINGER, Philip, a dramatic 
writer, died 1640, aged 55. 

MASULIPATAM, district, Hindoo- 
stan, pro\ance Northern Circars. It is 
mentioned by Marco Polo in 1295. In 
1749 the French established a factory 
here ; and in 1751 received possession 
of the town and fort. It was taken by 
storm in 1759 by the British troops. 
After this event the town and adjacent 
territory were ceded to the British, with 
whom they have ever since remained. 

MATARIA, village, Egypt. On the 
20th March, 1800, a bloody battle was 
fought here between the French and 
the Turks. 

MATHER, Rev. Dr. Cotton, theo- 
logian, born at Boston, America, 1663, 
died 1728. 

MATHIAS, J. T., author of "Pursuits 
of Literature," died May 1835. 

MATHISSON, Frederick, the 
well-known German poet and tourist ; 
he died March 12, 1831, aged 71. 

MATLOCK, Derbyshire, derives its 
importance from the mineral springs 
discovered about 1698. Tliereare three 
bathing establishments ; the Old Bath, 
the New Bath, and the Hotel ; and many 
lodging-houses have been erected for the 
reception of visitors. 



MATTHEW, St., died in 65. 

MATTHEW, of Westminster, En- 
glish historian, died 1379. 

M AIT HEWS, Charles, the eminent 
comedian, was born June 28, 1776; in 
1793 made his first public appearance on 
the stage as Richmond in " Richard the 
Third," and Bowkitt, in the " Son-in- 
Law." He was engaged in Aug., 1798, as 
principal low comedian at York, Leeds, 
Hull, Doncaster, and Wakefield, for the 
sum of 305. weekly, and four benefits 
per year. He made his first appearance 
at the Haymarket May 15, 1803; in 
1804 he was jointly engaged with Mrs. 
Matthews at Drury Lane ; and there and 
at the Haymarket they remained until 
September 15, 1810, when Mrs. Mat- 
thews quitted the stage. On Oct. 12, 
1812, he appeared at Covent Garden 
where he v/as engaged for five years. In 
1815 he was thrown out of his gig, and 
his right leg fractured. This occurred 
in the midst of the Haymarket season, 
and his absence visibly affected the re- 
ceipts. On April 2, 1818, he announced 
his intention of giving, at the English 
Opera-House, a monodramatic enter- 
tainment called " Matthews at Home." 
Night after night, and season after sea- 
son, the theatre was thronged. What- 
ever merits Matthews possessed as an 
actor on the stage, his quahties of de- 
scription, imitation, and illustration, 
off the stage, far transcended them. 
After six years' success with this enter- 
tainment, Mr. Matthews went, in 1823, 
to America, where he was extremely 
well received by the public. He return- 
ed, and acted at the English Opera, in 
the autum of 1823; and on March 25, 
following, he produced his "Trip to 
America." In 1832 Mr. Matthews 
undertook a second trip to America ; 
and, for the first time, gave his "At 
Home"" in the United States. He re- 
turned to England in 1833, and died 
June 28, 1835, aged 59. 

MATURIN, Rev. R. C, author of 
"Bertram," &c., died 1824. 

MAUDE, Empress, daughter of 
Henry I. of England, bom lioi ; mar- 
ried to Henry IV., emperor of Germany, 
1109; had the English nobility swear 
fealty to her 1126 ; buried her husband 
1127; was marriedto Jeffrey Plan taganet, 
earl of Anjou, 1130; was set aside from 
the English succession by Stephen 1135. 
She landed inEngland, and claimed a right 
to the crown, September 30, 1139 ; was 



M AU 



640 



M A Y 



crowned, but soon after defeated at 
Winchester 1141 ; escaped to Gloucester 
on a bier ; and from a window of Ox- 
ford Castle by a rope, in the winter of 
1142 ; retired to France 1147 ; returned 
to England, and concluded a peace with 
Stephen 1153; died at Rouen in Nor- 
mandy, Sept. 10, 1167, and was buried 
in the abbey of Beec. 

MAUNDAY Thursday, the Thurs- 
day in passion week, observed in com- 
memoration of the day on which Jesus 
Christ instituted the Lord's Supper; 
ceremony commenced in 1362. 

MAUPKRTUIS, Peter Louis 
Mareau De, a French mathematician 
and philosopher.was born at St. Malo in 
1698. In 1723 he was received into the 
Academy of Science ; and in 1743 into 
the French academy, which was the first 
instance of the same person bein^ a 
member of both the academies at Paris 
at the same time. In 1746 he was de- 
clared president of the Royal Academy 
of Sciences at Berlin, and soon after 
honoured with the order of merit ; he 
died in 1759, at ttie age of 69. He was 
the author of several valuable works in 
French, as " The Figure of the Earth," 
" Nautical Astronomy," &c. 

MAURICE, Rev. Thomas, author 
of "Indian Antiquities," died 1824. 

MAURITIUS, or Isle of France, 
island, Indian ocean, was discovered in 
1507, by Don Pedro Mascarenhas, a na- 
vigator of the Portuguese government, 
who named it Carne' ; they were masters 
of it almost the whole of the 16th cen- 
tur}^ In 1598 the Dutch admiral. Van 
Nerk, landed on the island, took posses- 
sion of it, and named it Mauritius, in 
honour of the prince of Orange. The 
Dutch had regular governors appointed, 
who resided at Grand Port from 1644 
to 1712, when Mauritius was finally 
abandoned by them, and was subse- 
quently colonized by the French ; its 
formal occupation took place in 1721, 
when the name was changed from Mau- 
ritius to Isle de France, and the terri- 
tory given by the king to the French 
East India Company, under whose sway 
it remained, from 1722 to 1767- On the 
renewal of the charter of the company in 
1784, the island became a commercial 
depot, and the population rapidly aug- 
mented. 

In 1789 Mauritius declared for a na- 
tional assembly, and endeavoured to 
shake off dependance on France. After 



a severe struggle the colonial assembly 
was dissolved, and the colonists enjoyed 
tranquillity. Buonaparte saw its impor- 
tant position for the annoyance of Bri- 
tish commerce ; and under the govern- 
ment of General Decaen, Mauritius 
assumed a leading part in the eastern 
hemisphere, to the great injury of Bri- 
tish trade. To put a stop to these pro- 
ceedings, an armament of 12,000 troops, 
with 20 ships of war, was dispatched 
from India, and from the Cape of Good 
Hope, for the conquest of -Mauritius, in 
1810. A capitulation was entered into, 
and it became subject to the crown of 
Great Britain. At the peace of 1814 the 
acquisition was ratified, and the island 
has ever since remained a colony of the 
British empire. 

1832. The island was agitated by the 
conduct of the planters in relation to 
slavery. July 8, arrival of Mr. Jeremie, 
formerly protector of slaves at St. Lucie, 
and who distinguished himself by several 
publications in favour of negro emanci- 
pation. No sooner had he landed than 
a great part of the white population as- 
sembled to resist his admission to oflSce, 
and a deputation represented to the go- 
vernor. Sir Charles Cohalle, the impos- 
sibility of maintaining the public peace 
if Mr. Jeremie was not dismissed. Sir 
Charles at length was induced to comply 
wth their demands, and Mr. Jeremie 
returned to England. 

1838. Abolition of slavery in the is- 
land. On July 18, 1840, arrival of Sir 
Lionel Smith, as governor, the well- 
known friend of the coloured population, 
who was the same day duly installed be- 
fore the legislative assembly. 

MAXIMILIAN I., emperor of Ger- 
many, born in 1459; succeeded to the 
throne 1493. The famous league of 
Cambray against the Venetians, took 
place in 1509, to which Maximilian was 
one of the contracting parties. He sum- 
moned Luther to appear, with the pro- 
mise of a safe conduct, before the diet of 
Augsburg. He died in January, 1519. 

MAXIMILIAN II. was born in 1 527 ; 
succeeded to the empire in 1564 ; was 
distinguished for prudence and modera- 
tion. He died in 1576. . 

MAXIMUS, Tyrius, the Greek phi- 
losopher, flourished a.c. 100. 

MAY, Thomas, author of the "His- 
tory of Parliament," died 1652. 

MAYER, Tobia.s, the astronomer, 
born 1723, died 1762. 



MliA 



G4l 



M EC 



MAYNOOTH, town, Iieland, county 
Kildare. The Royal College here, for 
the education of persons professing the 
Roman Catholic religion, was founded in 
1795, conformable to an act of parlia- 
ment then passed. The number of stu- 
dents amounts to 330. The ecclesias- 
tical establishment is supported by an- 
nual parliamentary grants. The lay 
college depends upon subscriptions, and 
was opened in 1802. 

MAYOR, the chief magistrate of a 
city or town, had its origin in England, 
in the year 1191, when king Richard I. 
changed the bailiff of London into a 
mayor ; and from that example King 
John made the hailifl of Lynn Regis a 
mayor in 1204. The title of Lord Mayor 
of London first instituted in 1354. The 
city of Norwich did not obtain the title 
of mayor for its chief magistrate till the 
seventh year of King Henry V., in 1419, 
since which there are few towns of note 
but have had a mayor appointed. 

MAXTOCK Castle, Warwickshire, 
built 1346; burned down Aug. 1, 1762; 
Priory built 1337. 

MAZARINE, Cardinal Julius, 

?rime minister of France, was born at 
'iscina, in Italy, in 1602 ; made cardinal 
by Louis XIII. In 1641, during the 
minority of Louis XIV., he had the sole 
management of affairs ; he caused the 
president Blancmesnil and the counsel- 
lor Broussel to be imprisoned, which 
was the signal for the civil wars which 
commenced in 1648. Mazarine was af- 
terwards proscribed as a public disturber 
of the peace ; but an accommodation was 
effected in 1649. In 1650 fresh distur- 
bances led the parliament to issue a de- 
cree, banishing Mazarine fiom the king- 
dom ; but in 1653 he returned to Paris 
amidst the acclamations of the people. 
He died at Vinciennes in I66I. 

M'CRIE, Dr. T. M., author of the life 
of Knox, was a native of Dunse, Scot- 
land. In 1805 he separated from the 
General Associate Synod, and joined in 
founding the Constitutional Associate 
Presbytery ; his life of John Knox was 
published in 1812 ; he died August 5, 
1835, aged 63. 

MEAD, Richard, an eminent En- 
glish physician, took his degree of doc- 
tor of philosophy and physic at Padua in 
1695 ; he was made physician to King 
George II. in 1727; he died February 
16, )754. His reputation as a physician 
and a scholai- was so universally esta- 



blished, that he corresponded with all 
the principal literati in Europe. 

MEAL-TUB Plot, as denominated 
from the place where the papers con- 
cerning it were found, a forged conspi- 
racy against James II. 1679- 

MEASURES. See Weights and 
Measures. 

MECHAIN, M., a French astronomer, 
born August 16, 1774, died Sept. 4, 1805. 

MECHANICS. The simple mecha- 
nical powers must have been known to 
the ancients ; but when first introduced 
is not known ; nor even the machinery 
by which the immense masses of stone 
which are found in some of the ancient 
edifices were moved and elevated. 

a.c. 320. First writing on mechanics 
by Aristole about this time. 

205. The fundamental property of the 
lever demonstrated ; the pulley said to 
be demonstrated; and the centre of gra- 
vity treated of by Archimedes ; hand- 
mill or quern used at a very early period, 
the remains of Roman hand-mill found 
in Yorkshire ; cattle-mill {molce jumen- 
taricB) also used by the Romans. 

70. Water-mill, probably invented 
in Asia ; the first described was near the 
dwelling of Mithridates about this time. 

50. Water-mill erected on the Tiber, 
about this time. 

a.d. 500. About this time Roman 
water-mills were placed on the canals. 

536. Floating- mills on the Tiber. 

1078. Tide-mills at Venice about this 
period. 

1200. Wind-mills, when they were in- 
troduced is uncertain, but they were 
common in the 12th century. 

1332. Saw-mills said to be used at 
Augsburg. 

1540. Theory of the inclined plane 
investigated by Cardan about this time. 

1586. Work on statics by Scevinus. 

1638. Theory of falling bodies by 
Galileo. 

1647. Theory of oscillation by Huj'- 
gens, about this time. 

1662. Laws of collision by W^allis, 
Huygens, Wren, about this time. 

1675. Epicycloidal form of the teeth 
of wheels by Roemer. 

1679. Percussion and animal mecha- 
nics by Borelli, who died this year. Ap- 
plication of mechanics to astronomy, 
paralleiogism of forces, laws of motion, 
&c. by Newton. 

1697. Problem of the catenary Avith 
the analysis by Dr. Gregory. 

4 .N 



MED 



642 



MED 



The solution of the problem of 
the centre of oscillation was brought 
forward again in 1714, and further illus- 
trated by the BernouilUs, and Dr. Tay- 
lor, &c. John Bernouilli employed for 
this purpose the principle of tensions ; 
Euler that of pressures ; Daniel Ber- 
nouilli that of virtual power. The pro- 
blem was further illustrated by D'Alem- 
bert. His general principles were first 
developed in ] 743, but more fully treated 
of in his " Treatise of Dynamics," pub- 
lished in 1749. The science of dyna- 
mics was still further enriched, in 1765, 
by an important discovery by Segner, 
who demonstrated "that if a bofiy of 
any size and figure, after rotatory or 
gyratory motions in all directions have 
been given to it, be left entirely to itself, 
it will always have three principal axes 
of rotation." This theory was treated 
at length by Albert, son of Euler, in his 
paper ' On the Stowage of Ships," 
which shared the prize of the Academy 
of Sciences at Paris for I76I. 

Very little improvement in the theory 
of mechanics during the present centurj', 
but their application to the mechanical 
and useful arts present new subjects 
every year. 

MEDIdNE, or the healing art. Its 
origin has been attributed by the Egyp- 
tians to Thoth, the Hermes or Mercury 
of the Greeks. /Esculapius became ce- 
lebrated about A.c. 1100. After his 
death for many succeeding centuries, 
the practice of medicine in Greece was 
confined to his descendants. Hippo- 
crates, who appeared about the fifth 
century before Christ, was possessed of 
endowments particularly adapted to the 
cultivation of medical science. He 
effected a total revolution both of opi- 
nion and practice. For nearly a century 
subsequent to the death of Hippocrates, 
Greece continued to be the exclusive 
seat of medical knowledge. The first 
who practised at Rome was Archagathus 
a native of Peloponnesus, who came to 
Italy about a.c. 200. Nearly a century 
after, Asclepiades made his appearance. 
His pathology was founded on the Cor- 
puscularian philosophy of Epicurus. 
His pupil Themison became the founder 
of a new sect called the Methodic. Cel- 
sus lived at the commencement of the 
christian era during the reign of Tibe- 
rius. His work " De Medicina," is ap- 
propriated to external diseases, surgical 
ooerations, and pharmacy. 



About the second century of the chris- 
tian era, Galen of Pergamus arose, whose 
talents acquired for him a despotic as- 
cendency in the schools of medicine, 
which was very unfavourable to the pro- 
gress of the science. Some centuries 
after this the Aiabians became the prin- 
cipal depositories of medical science, 
and by them it was very assiduously culti- 
vated. Though the disciples of this school 
paid a too obsequious deference to the 
authority of Galen, yet several diseases 
of great importance were discovered by 
them, and they added a considerable 
number of valuable articles to the Ma- 
teria Medica. 

The discoveries of the chemists and 
anatomists in the l6>h and I7th cen- 
turies, began to lessen the excessive 
veneration for the ancients which had 
hitherto prevailed. See Chemistry and 
Anatomy. The first in point of cele- 
brity who combined medicine and che- 
mistry was Paracelsus, a native of 
Switzerland, who flourished at the com- 
mencement of the 16th century. From 
this period to the commencement of the 
17th century, the medical world was 
divided into the two sects of the Galen- 
ists and the Chemists. The latter sect 
gradually assiiraed a more scientific 
form, and their opinions were embraced 
by men of learning and character, 
amongst whom may be mentioned Syl- 
vius and Willis. The latter was one of 
the original members of the Royal So- 
ciety. His first appearance as an author 
was in the year 1659. His observations 
on the phenomena of diseases discover 
great correctness and acumen. Con- 
temporary with Willis was his moi"e 
celebrated countryman Sydenham, who 
has been designated the English Hippo- 
crates. Baglivi, and after him Hoffmann, 
at the close of the 17th century, first 
promulgated correct views on the pro- 
perties and action of the living fibre. In 
the 18th century important discoveries 
were made in the department of morbid 
anatomy. Bonetus led the way ; and the 
course of investigation which he had 
commenced, was pursued on a very ex- 
tensive scale by the celebrated Morgagni, 
and Haller. In the present century are 
writers of modern date who, disclaim- 
ing theory, have devoted themselves to 
the investigation of particular diseases. 
Among these, Heberden,Fothergill, Rus- 
sel, Cieghorn,- and Lind, distinguished 
themselves. And although no very pecu- 



MEL 



liar discovery has been recently made, 
inany living authors of deserved eminence 
and celebrity have contributed largely to 
the advancement of medical science. 

MEDICIS, or Medici, Cosmo De, 
called the " father of his country," born 
1389, died 1464. 

MEDICIS, or Medici, Lorenzo 
De, styled the " Magnificent," was the 
grandson of Cosmo, and the son of Piero 
de Medicis, both celebrated citizens of 
Florence, and was born January 1, 1448. 
After tlie death of his father, at the re- 
qtiest of the people of Florence, he took 
upon himself the post of head of the 
rejiublic. He had incurred the displea- 
sure of pope Sixtus IV., who attempted 
his assassination and that of his brother, 
on Sunday April 26, 1478, and the ca- 
thedral was the place appointed for this 
horrid tragedy. But by the interference 
of the magistrates, Lorenzo escaped, and 
was conducted home in safety. Having 
distinguished himself beyond any of his 
predecessors, in the encouragement of 
literature and the arts, and by his public 
conduct, he died 1492, in his 44th year. 

MED WAY, a river of England, chiefly 
nsnning through the county of Kent. In 
the tempest which happened in Nov. 
1703, the Royal Charlotte was driven on 
shore and lost. Oct. 19, 1840, a fearful 
accident happened on this river, near 
Chatham, by which seven men perished 
belonging to a party of "lumpers," 15 
in number, who had been at work on 
board a merchant ship in the river. 

VIEGARA, a celebrated city of ancient 
Greece, was engaged in various wars 
wi,th Athens and Corinth ; it is now only 
a small village, retaining its original 
name ; it was much infested by Corsairs 
in 1676. Thevaiwode, or Turkish gover- 
nor, who resided in a forsaken tower above 
the village, was once carried off. The 
placewas burnedby the Venetiansin 1687. 

MEHEMET, or Mohamed, Ali, 
viceroy ot Egypt, was born at Cavala, 
in Macedonia, in 1769 ; was appointed 
pacha of Egypt by the sultan of Turkey 
in 1806. He has governed the country, 
in a great measure, according to Euro- 
pean princij)les, and has recently thrown 
off all allegiance to the Turkish govern- 
ment. His son Ibrahim Pacha, born 
1784, the general of his armies, now 
makes a conspicuous figure in the East. 
See Egypt. 

MELA PoMPONius, an ancient geo- 
gra])hical writer, was born in the pro- 



643 MEL 

vinceof Bcetica, in Spain, and flourished 
in the first century of the christian era, 
m the reign of the Emperor Claudius. 
He published a work in three books, 
" De Situ Orbis : " Isaac Vossius gave 
an edition of it in 1658, 

MELANCTHON, Philip, the cele- 
brated reformer, was born at Brettan, in 
Saxony, in 1497. In 1509 he went to 
Heidelberg, and made a most rapid .pro- 
gress in the classics and other branches 
of literature. Before he had attained the 
age of 17 he was elected doctor of philo- 
sophy, and in 1518 he was appointed 
by the elector of Saxony professor of the 
Greek language in the University of Wit- 
temberg. In 1519 he accompanied Lu- 
ther to Leipsic, to be witness of his ec- 
clesiastical combat with Eckius ; and in 
1520 dehvered a course of lectures at 
Wittemberg on the Epistle of the Ro- 
mans, with which Luther was so highly 
pleased that he caused it to be published. 
Soon after he was engaged with Luther 
in drawing up a system of laws relating 
to church government, which John of 
Saxony promulgated in his dominions in 
1529- In 1530 the protestant princes 
employed Melancthon to compose the 
Augsburg Confession of Faith. In 1541 
he was present at the conferences at Ra- 
tisbon, and in 1548 he assisted at seven 
conferences on the subject of the interim 
of Charles V. He was employed in ar- 
ranging the order of the churches and 
academies in Misnia in 1553, and assist- 
ing at a conference at Nuremberg in 
1554. He died at Wittemberg in 1560, 
at the age of 63. His literary powers 
and attainments were of no common or- 
der. To an excellent memory and great 
natural acuteness, he added indefatigable 
application in the investigation of every 
important subject, an undeviating love of 
truth, and great elegance as well as per- 
spicuity of diction. 

MELOS, one of the Grecian islands, 
situate between Crete and the Pelopon- 
nesus, was originally peopled by a La- 
cedssmonian colony, a.c. 1116. It en- 
joyed its independence for about 700 
years before the Peloponnesian war. It 
now belongs to the new kingdom of 
Greece. 

MELROSE, a burgh of barony and 
market town, Roxburgh, Scotland. At 
a short distance from the town, on 
the southside of the Tweed, is the abbey 
of Melrose, which was founded in 1136. 
by David I. 



MEM 



644 



MEN 



MELVILLE, Henry, Viscount. 
See DuNDAS. 

MELVILLE, Lord, transport, wreck- 
ed near Kinsale harbour, when 11 per- 
sons were drowned, Jan. 31, 1816. 
MEMORY, extraordinary instances of. 
Seneca, whodied A. c.64,was able to repeat 
■2000 words upon once hearing them, each 
in its order ; though they had no depen- 
dence or connection on each other. Dr. 
Wallis, who died in 1703, could perform 
arithmetical operations, as multiplica- 
tion, division, extraction of roots, &c. to 
forty places. 

Recent instances of the extraordinary 
exercise of the faculty are to be found in 
Jedediah Buxton, and Zerah Colburn; 
the latter was an American boy. When 
eix years old, in August IS 10, he began 
to manifest such powers of arithmetical 
computation as excited much wonder, 
and soon brought him into general no- 
toriety. He visited England in 1812; 
he was afterwards asked, by the duke 
ot Cambridge, the number of seconds 
emce the commencement of the chris- 
tian era, 1813 years, 7 months, and 27 
days. The answer was correctly given : 
57,234,384,000. He was asked the 
square root of 106,929, and before the 
number could be written down, he im- 
mediately answered, 327. He was then 
requested to name the cube root of 
268,336,125, and with equal facility and 
promptness he replied 645. 

In July 1838, the remarkable youth, 
Gustave Adolphe Bassle, from the Hague, 
aged about 12 years, attended by his 
father. Chevalier Bassle, was introduced 
to his royal highness the duke of Sussex, 
accompanied by the Sicilian youth, Man- 
giamele, and several distinguished mem- 
bers of the Royal Society were present. 
Gustave Bassle first gave the relation of 
the circumference to the diameter of a 
circle, considered as unity, to 155 figures, 
without one fault ; after which the per- 
sons present demanded, at pleasure, the 
35th, 9Sth, 73d, 140th, and 106th figures, 
and so forth, which he told almost in- 
stantly, without hesitation. On July 21 
Chevalier Bassle lectured at the Royal 
Institution, and submitted to the au- 
dience programmes containing answers 
to upwards of 20,000 questions, by which 
each individual present could be satisfied 
of the accuracy of hismnemonical system. 
His son named the day of the week on 
which fell the first of January, from the 
commencement of the christian era till 



the adoption of the Gregorian calendar ; 
the same from that time till the year 
2400, or to the most remote period; and 
the same for any day of the month, in 
any year whether common or bissextile. 
He repeated the numbers, denoting the 
proportion in any year, whether common 
or bissextile. He repeated the numbers, 
denoting the proportion of the circumfe- 
rence to the diameter, on the 154th 
place of decimals, backwards, forwards, 
or in any order ; and gave the figure ac- 
companying any piece taken at. random. 

MENAI Bridge. See Bridge, 

MENANDER, Greek comic writer, 
flourished A.c. 400. 

MENDICANTS, or Begging Fri- 
ars, were first patronised by Innocent 
III., and their number grew to such an 
enormous multitude, that Gregory X., 
in a general council, which he assembled 
at Lyons in 1272, suppressed them, as 
well as all the religious orders that had 
sprung up after the council held at Rome 
in 1215. 

MENGS, Anthony Raphael, a 
celebrated painter, was born at Ausig, 
in Bohemia, in 1728. At the age of 12 
he went to Rome, and was there intro- 
duced to the works of M. Angelo, Ra- 
phael, &c. On the accession of Charles 
III. of Spain, he was sent for to Madrid, 
and arrived in Oct. 1761. He enjoyed 
a pension as first painter to the king 
tiUliis death in 1779. 

MENNONiTES, a sect in the United 
Provinces, who had their rise in 1536. 
They derive their appellation froraMenno 
Simon, a native of Friesland, born at 
Wilmarsum, a village in the neighbour- 
hood of Bolswert in 1505, who died 
1561. 

MENTCHIKOF, Alexander, a 
statesman and general under the czar, 
Peter I , was the son of a peasant. The 
czar, by accident, discovering his talents, 
took him to serve about his person; and 
when he went on his travels for improve- 
ment he took Mentchikof for his com- 
panion. In 1706 he was created a prince 
of the German empire. He was victo- 
rious over the Swedes in the war against 
Charles XII., and had the command of 
the left wing of the Russians at the 
decisive battle of Pultowa in 1709- He 
died in November 1729. 

MENTZ, a town of Germany, grand 
duchy of Hesse. The university was 
founded by Charlemagne in 800, and 
established in 1482 by Archbishop 



MER 



645 



MET 



Diether. The town bad undergone many 
revolutions, and frequently changed its 
masters, until, in 1792, it was taken by 
the French ; but in the following year it 
was retaken. By the peace of Luneville 
in 1801 it was surrendered to the French, 
but was delivered up to the allies in 1814. 

MEQUINENZA, fortress of Spain, 
taken by the French June 8, 1810- capi- 
tulated to the Spaniards February 18, 
1814. 

MERCATOR, Gerard, Flemish geo- 
grapher, born 1512, died 1594. 

MERCATOR, Nicholas, of Hol- 
stein, astronomer, died 1690. 

MERCATORS' Chart. See Chart 
MERCERS' Company, London, in 
corporated 1393. 

MERCIA, one of the kingdoms com- 
prising the Saxon heptarchy. See Eng- 
land, p. 423, 424. 

MERCHANT Tailors' Company, 
London, incorporated 1466. 

MERCHANT Tailors' School, 
founded 1568. 

MERCURY, the planet, passed over 
the sun's disc, visible to the naked eye, 
from 12 to 2 o'clock, at London, Nov. 
25, ]769. 

MERCURY, quicksilver, discovered 
to be anti-venereal by Corpus, an Italian 
surgeon, 1512; first given to patients 
under inoculation, 1745 ; rendered mal- 
leable by Orbelin, at Vienna, 1785. 

MERIDA, town, Spain, in Estreraa- 
dura, under the Goths was the see of 
an archbishop ; and here a great church 
council was held in the year 666. It 
was besieged and taken by the Moors in 
713, and was for some time the capital 
of a small Moorish kingdom : retaken 
by the Spaniards in 1230. In the penin- 
sular war it was taken by the French in 
January, 1811, and retaken by General 
Hill in Jan., 1812. 

MERIT, a military order of knight- 
hood in Prussia, instituted in 1730. 

MERLIN, the prophet, lived 477- 

MERRICK, James, divine and poet, 
born 1720, died 1769- 

MERTHYR-TYDVIL, or Tudfil, 
town, Glamorganshire, chiefly remark- 
able for its iron founderies commenced 
in 1755, when Mr. A. Bacon, member 
for Aylesbury, obtained a lease for 99 
years of a tract of land, upon which he 
erected extensive iron and coal-works. 
There were alarming disturbances at this 
place, which ended with the loss of 
several hves, June 3, 1831 



MERTON. Walter De, founder of 
Merton College, 0.\ford, died 1277. 

MESSIER, C, astronomer, born 1730, 
died 1817. 

• MESSINA, city, island of Sicily, 
most remarkable in history for its mis- 
fortunes, particularly the plague of 1743, 
and the earthquake of 1783. The former 
carried off more than half the inhabitants. 
In consequence of these calamities, se- 
veral immunities were granted to the 
inhabitants. They were exempted in 
1783 from the payment of taxes for a 
period of 25 years, and their harbour 
was declared a free port. 

MESSOLUNGHI, Mesalongi, or 
MissoLONGHi, town of modern Greece, 
situate in the Gulf of Patras. It was 
taken by the Turks in 1826, dunng the 
late Grecian war, and the inhabitants 
nearly all put to the sword. So obstinate 
was the conflict, and so ruthless the 
massacre, that, although two or three 
thousand Greek troops perished, only 1 50 
were returned as having been taken 
alive. The male population above 12 
years of age were exterminated. Be- 
tween three and four thousand women 
and children survived, to be carried into 
slavery, Messolunghi surrendered to the 
Greeks by capitulation. May 17, 1829. 

METASTASIO, the Italian dramatist, 
born 1698, died 1782, aged 84. 

METELIN E, island in the Archipelago, 
had 2000 houses, &c. destroyed by an 
earthquake, May 27, 1755. 

METEORS, luminous phenomena, 
chiefly occasioned by atmospherical elec- 
tricity. Sometimes they take their course 
in a straight line, at others in the form 
of a curve, leaving a luminous train be- 
hind them, exhibiting for a time the ap- 
pearance of a comet. Some of these 
meteors when about to disappear are di- 
vided into numerous small bodies, ac- 
companied with an explosion, followed 
by showers of stony or metallic sub- 
stances called aerolites, meteoric stones, 
or meteorites. See Aerolites. 

These phenomena have latterly been 
the subject of very minute examination. 
The following are some of the most re- 
cently described : — Fall of a meteorite in 
Brazil, December 11, 1836, about half- 
past eleven p.m., over the village of Ma- 
cao, at the entrance of the river Assu ; it 
immediately burst with a loud crackhng 
noise, and a shower of stones, within a 
circle of ten leagues. They came into 
several houses, and buried themselvea 



MET 



646 



MEX 



some feet derp in the sand. The weight 
of those picked up varied from 1 to 80 
podnds. Specimens were sent to thePa- 
risian academy to be analysed byBerthier. 

1838. Remarkable meteor, without 
any falling body, observed March 7, near 
Kensington Palace, at about ten minutes 
before eleven o'clock. The arc described 
was at least 30 degrees. The meteor 
was not seen till its full briUiancy had 
been obtained ; and the whole course 
must have been 40 degrees or more. The 
gas lamps on the road were dull com- 
pared to its glowing brightness. 

Meteoric stone at the Cape of Good 
Hope observed the same year, October 
13. Its appearance was that of a silvery 
hue, traversing the atmosphere for a dis- 
tance of about 60 miles, and then ex- 
ploding with a loud noise, like that from 
artillery, which was heard over an area of 
more than 70 miles in diameter, the air 
at the time being calm and sultry. The 
entire mass was estimated at about five 
cubic feet, according to Dr. Faraday's 
" Chemical Account" ot'the above meteor. 

1839. Fall of a meteorite in Mis- 
souri on the afternoon of Feb. 13, which 
exploded near the settlement of Little 
Piney (lat. 37" 55' N., long. 92^^ 5' W.), 
End cast down to the earth one stony 
n ass or more in that vicinity. Although 
ihe ground was covered with three or 
four inches of snow, there was found a 
meteoric stone, about as large a man's 
head, partly imbedded in the earth. The 
total weight of all the fragments collected 
was 973 grains, 

METHODISTS, a term first applied to 
a sectof ancient physicians, wlio reduced 
the whole art of healing to a few com- 
mon principles or appearances. After- 
wards the denomination was given in the 
l7thcentnr}'to the doctors of the Romish 
church, in opposition to the Huguenots 
or Protestants, Lastly, the term in 
the present day was applied to the fol- 
lowers of Mr. John Wesley and Mr. 
Whitefield. and latterly has been confined 
to those of Mr. Wesley, 

In 1735 Mr. John Wesley, Mr.White- 
field, and others, while at college at Ox- 
ford, associated for reading the Greek 
Testament and religious exercises, which 
became the origin of the sect. It is said 
that the regularity of their lives induced 
the students of Christchurch to exclaim 
that " a new sect of methodists was 
sprung up :" alluding to the sect of an- 
cient physicians who bore that name. 



The methodists who were followers of 
Mr- Whitefield may date their origin in 
America, in 1739, when he landed at 
Philadelphia, and instantly began his 
spiritual labours, which were attended 
with astonishing success wherever he 
went. His followers were afterwards 
very numerous in the United Kingdom, 
particularly in London and its vicinity, 
'dt Bristol, Bath, &c. 

The sect of Wesleyan Methodists, to 
which the term is now almost exclusively 
applied, commenced in 1738, when Mr. 
Wesley applied himself with the greatest 
assiduity and success to the propagation 
of his doctrine. Multitudes of converts 
were made in various parts of the king- 
dom, and the reproaches poured upon 
him by his opponents seemed to have 
rendered his zeal more fervent if possible 
than before. From the year 1738 to 
1747, he, and the itinerant preachers in 
his connection, were employed in various 
parts of England. In 1750 they had 
formed 29 circuits, which emph)yed 67 
itinerants, besides a considerable num- 
ber of local preachers. In 1767 the 
number of itineiant preachers was not 
more than 9"2, and of the people in the 
societies 25,911. In the year 1840 the 
97th annual meeting of the conference 
was held at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, com- 
mencing July 29, when it appeared from 
the report that the number of preachers 
was 1078 ; of members belonging to the 
society in Great Britain 323,178; in Ire- 
land 27,047 : total throughout the world, 
includmg the United States and Upper 
Canada, &c. &c., 1,137.424. 

METHUSELAH died a.m. 1656, 
aged 969. 

METONIC Cycle, Lunar Cycle, 
or Golden Number, a period of 19 
years, invented by Meton, A.c.432,atthe 
end of which the moon is supposed to ar- 
rive at the same point with respect to the 
sun that slie was in at the beginningof it. 

MEXICO, or New Spain, was first 
imperfectly discovered by a Spaniard 
named Nunez de Balboa; and in 1518 
the conquest of it was undertaken by 
Ferdinand Cortez. He sailed from the 
Havannah, in Cuba, in Feb. 1519 ; en- 
tered the city of Mexico, Oct. 29, and 
soon after seized the emperor Montezuma. 
Retreat of the Spaniards from Mexico, 
1520. The important battle of Otumba, 
July 7, in which the Spaniards were vic- 
torious, laid the foundation of their ulti- 
mate success. Cortez began his march 



M EX 



54/ 



MIC 



towards Mexico, about six months after 
his fatal retreat from that city, Dec. 28. 
The siege of Mexico commenced 1521, 
and the city was taken Aug. 13. The 
fate of the capital decided that of the em- 
)»ire ; the provinces submitted one after 
another to the conquerors; small detach- 
ments of Spaniards marching through 
tliem without interruption, penetrated in 
different quarters to the great Southern 
Ocean, and Mexico remained in the 
hands of the Spaniards. When the 
Mexicans had been brought to bear pa- 
tiently the yoke of their conquerors, and 
the colonists had become tranquil pos- 
sessors of all the treasures of the country, 
the warlike spirit insensibly declined ; 
and the kingdom of New Spain, with the 
other settlements, enjoyed a peace of two 
centuries and a half. Till the late strug- 
gle for independence, the internal tran- 
quillity of Mexico was very rarely dis- 
turbed after the year 1596, when the do- 
minion of the Spaniards was established 
over all the territories, from the penin- 
sula of Yucatan and the Gulf of Tehuan- 
tepec, to the sources of the Rio del 
Norte and the coast of New California. 

1810. Commencement of the civil 
commotions, which continued to agitate 
the country for several years. In 1821 
the Mexicans were enabled to throw oflF 
the yoke of Spain, to desert the viceroys, 
and proclaim, under Iturbide, the inde- 
pendence of Iguala. The empire was in- 
stituted in 1822 by Iturbide, under the 
title of Augustine I. The republic com- 
menced in 1823, when the Mexicans 
drove the emperor (by a declaration of 
Casa Mata) from the throne, to which 
but the year before he had been elevated 
by the same body. After many vicissi- 
tudes, the Mexicans succeeded in form- 
ing a'constitution nearly on the model of 
that of the United States. On Oct. 4, 
1824, the constitution was solemnly 
sworn to. 

Commerce and credit soon revived 
with the establishment of fi'eedom ; the 
revenue increased ; and the country, en- 
joying peace, was rapidly advancing in 
improvement. But revolts and conspi- 
racies in portions of the immense terri- 
tory succeeded, and afforded constant 
occupation to the new government, (un- 
der the president Victoria), which seemed 
hardly to have acquired sufficient strength 
for the arduous duties demanded from it. 
Nev/ commotions, in Dec. 1828, produced 
a civil war, which threatened the most 



disastrous consequences, and which ter- 
minated in another revolution in 1830, 
attended with circumstances of disorder 
and atrocity, for several years ; which, 
from the comparatively settled state of 
Victoria's government, had not at all 
been expected. 

1835 Acentral constitution establish- 
ed, of which Santa Anna was madehead. 
1836. Revolt of the province of TeXae, 
which was assisted by the United States. 
See Texas. 

1838. Dispute with France ; blockade 
of the coast by a French squadron. Con- 
vention between Admiral Baudin and the 
Mexican general, Don Manuel Rincon ; 
the articles of which provided that 1000 
Mexican troops should remain at Vera 
Cruz to preserve order ; that the block- 
aded ports should be opened to com- 
merce ; and that the fortress of St. John 
d'Ulloa should be evacuated when the 
differences between France and Mexico 
were decided. The war between France 
and Mexico was at length terminated by 
the mediation of England. Mr. Paken- 
ham, the British minister. Admiral Bau- 
din, and Generals Gorostija and Victoria, 
having had several interviews, a treaty of 
peace was signed, March 9, 1839 : Mexi- 
co to pay 600,000 dollars, the Castle of 
St. Juan d'Ulloa, with its artillery, to be 
delivered up; the Mexicans were at 
liberty to make treaty of commerce with 
the French, (for which no terms were sti- 
pylated); and the prizes made by France, 
and the losses resulting on both sides 
from the war, to be left to the arbitration 
of'England. 

1840. A new revolution broke out in 
July, in favour of federalism, under Ge- 
neral Urrea. The garrison of the city 
of Mexico, with other troops, declared 
for the federation, and proceeded to the 
government palace, where they arrested 
the president Bustamente, and left the 
palace as well as the cathedral, the De- 
putacion, and the convents of San Do- 
mingo and San Francisco, in the power 
of the disaffected. General Almonte, mi- 
nister of war, strengthened himself in 
the citadel, being resolved to defend him- 
self to the utmost. 

MEYER, the constructor of lunar 
tables for the English government, died 
1762. 

MEZZOTINTO. See Engraving. 

MICAH, prophet, flourished a.c. 754. 

MICHAEL'S, St., festival, first ob- 
served 487. 



MID 



6lH 



MIL 



MICHAEL'S, St., order of kniaht- 
hood, began in France 14C9; in Germany 
]618 ; in Naples, time unknown. 

MICHAELIS. John David, a cele- 
brated German theologian, was born at 
Halle, Feb. 27, 1717. In 1741 he came 
to England, where his superior know- 
ledge of the Oriental languages, intro- 
duced him to the acquaintance, and 
gained him the esteem of our first lite- 
rary characters. On his return to Halle 
he obtained the place of secretary to the 
Royal Society there, of which he was di- 
rector in 1761. In 1786 he was made 
privy councillor of justice to the court of 
Hanover, and two years afterwards was 
elected a fellow of the Royal Society of 
London. He was professor in the Uni- 
versity of Gottingen 45 years ; and dur- 
ing that long period, he filled the chair 
with dignity, credit, and usefulness. He 
died Oct. 22, 1791, aged 74. 

MICKLE, William Julius, the 
poet, translator of the " Lusiad," born 
17.35, died 1788. 

MICROSCOPE, invented byZachary 
Jansen and his son, who presented the 
first microscojjes they had constructed to 
Prince Maurice, of Nassau, and to Al- 
bert, archduke of Austria, about 1619- 
The knowledge of the microscope pre- 
vailed in Germany about 1624; and from 
thence it most probably was e.xtended to 
the neighbouring countries. The solar 
microscope, also known by the name of 
the Camera Obscura microscope, was 
invented by M. Lieberkulin about the 
year 1738, and has since been consider- 
ably improved. 

The oxy-hydrogen microscope, exhi- 
bited at the Adelaide Gallery, is among 
the most valuable of modern improve- 
ments. See Adelaide Gallery. 
Others of less importance are conti- 
nually being made ; the following is one 
of the most recent. The Pantocratic 
microscope, the invention of Professor 
Fisher, of Moscow, in 1839. With it 
the observer can, by simple and almost 
imperceptible movements, vary the mag- 
nifying power from 270 to 550, without 
obscuring the object, the degree of en- 
largement being registered on the body 
of the instrument. 

MIDDLESEX, county, England. 
Before the invasion of Britain by the Ro- 
mans, this county constituted part of the 
territories occupied by a Belgic tribe of 
people. When the Roman government 
was established here, Middlesex was 



comprehended in the province of Flavia 
Csesariensis ; but it owes its present ap- 
pellation to the Saxons. Part of Mid- 
dlesex was formerly a vast forest, well 
stocked with deer and other wild animals. 
The whole county may now be regarded 
as a sort of demesne to the metropolis, 
being interspersed with villas, and inter- 
sected by a multitude of roads leading to 
it. See LoNDox. 

MIDDLESEX Hospital, instituted 
1745 ; built 1755 ; enlarged 1834 ; house 
of correction finished 1794. 

MIDDLETON, Dr. Conyers, au- 
thor of the " Life of Cicero," born 1683, 
died 1750. 

MIDDLETON, Sir Hugh, who 
brought the New River water to London, 
died 1631. 

MIDDLETON Stoney, Oxford- 
shire, burned down April 29, 1755. 

MIGUEL, Don. See Lisbon. 

MILAN, capital of the government of 
the same name, in the Lombardo-Vene- 
tian kingdom, reputed to have been built 
bytheGauls, about a. c. 408; submitted to 
the Romans, a.c. 222 ; was formed into 
a republic, A. c. 121 ; governed by 
dukes from 1395 till 1501; the French 
expelled from it by Charles V., of Ger- 
many, about 1525, who gave it to hia 
son Philip II. ; taken by the Imperialists 
1796 ; given to Austria, on Naples and 
Sicily being ceded to Spain, 1748 ; seized 
by the French 1796; retaken by the 
Austrians May 1799- 

MILAN Decree, by which Napo- 
leon declared England in a state of 
Ijlockade, and promulgated his prohibi- 
tory system, Dec. 17, 1807, which gave 
birth to the English orders in council. 

MILDMAY, Sir Walter, founder 
of Emanuel College, Cambridge, died 
1640. 

MILE, the length of it first deter- 
mined, in 1593, to consist of 5280 feet, or 
1760 yards; so that a square mile con- 
tains 27,178,400 square feet, or 640 
square acres. 

MILITARY Academy, Woolwich, 
established 1741. 

MILITIA. King Alfred first settled a 
national militia in this kingdom, and by 
his prudent discipline, made all the sub- 
jects of his dominions soldiers. This 
was continued till the reign of James I. ; 
was revived under Charles II. The order 
in which the militia now stands by law is 
principally formed upon the statutes 
which were then enacted viz., 13 Car. II. 



MIL 



649 



MIN 



cap. 6; 14 Car. II. cap. 3 ; 15 Car. II. 
cap. 4. Ey the 42 Geo. III. cap. 90, 
the chief former acts relative to the mili- 
tia are from June 26, 1802, repealed, 
excepting such as relate to the city of 
London, Tower Hamlets, the Stannaries, 
and the Cinque Ports; and it is provided 
by this act, that " the king shall appoint 
lieutenants for the several counties, &c., 
with full power to call together, arm, 
aiTay, and cause to be trained and exer- 
cised certain persons, once in every year; 
and such lieutenants shall appoint 20 or 
more persons, duly qualified, to be de- 
puty lieutenants, and shall also appoint 
a proper number of colonels, lieutenant- 
colonels, majors, and other officers, qua- 
lified to train, discipline, and command 
the persons to be armed and arrayed." 

MILL, James, author of the "His- 
tory of British India," &c., died 1836, 
aged 63. 

MILLHOUSE, Robert, author of 
" The Destinies of Man," and various 
other poems, was the son of poor parents, 
and had no advantages of education, except 
those of a Sunday-school. His employ- 
ment was mostly in the stocking-loom, 
which he gave up in 1832, and devoted 
himself to composition. He died at Not- 
tingham, April 13, 1839, in his 51st year. 

MILLAR, John, author of the 
" Historical View of the English Govern- 
ment," died 1801. 

MILLER'S Patent Fire Bars. 
See Fire Bars. 

MILNER, Joseph, author of the 
" History of the Church," died 1797. 

MILTIADES, the celebrated Athe- 
nian general and the son of Cimon. At 
the battle of Marathon, a.c. 490, he 
was the means of obtaining a decisive 
victory, which delivered his country from 
a foreign yoke. He died a.c. 489. 

MILTON, John, the brightest or- 
nament of English poetry, was born in 
London, Dec. 9, 1608. At the age of 
17 he was sent to Christ's College, Cam- 
bridge, where he made great progress in 
all parts of academical learning, but 
poetry was his chief delight. In 1628 
he obtained the degree of bachelor of 
arts, and in 1632 that of master of arts. 
About 1637 he commenced his travels 
for improvement, and visited Rome, 
Naples, &c. On his return to England, 
he fixed himself in the metropolis, and 
undertook the education of his sister's 
sons. In 1641 he published four trea- 
tises relative to church government, in 



which he attacked episcopacy, and sup- 
ported the cause of the puritans. In 
1644 he wrote his "Tract upon Educa- 
tion," and soon after protested boldly 
against the restrictions on the liberty of 
the press. In 1645 he pubhshed his 
juvenile poems. 

On the death of Charles I. he was 
taken into the service of the common- 
wealth, and made Latin secretary to the 
council of state. About 1652 he lost his 
eye-sight by a gutta serena. When 
Cromwell took the reins of government 
into his own hands in the year 1653 
he still held his office ; and on the depo- 
sition of his successor, Richard Crom- 
well, and the return of the Long Parha- 
ment, he was still continued secretary. 
On the return of Charles II. our author 
chose to consult his safety, and retire to 
a friend's house in Bartholomew Close. 
His great work, the "Paradise Lost," 
which probably occupied his thoughts, 
with no considerable interruption, for 
11 years, was first printed in 1667. 
" Paradise Regained " .was written soon 
after, upon a suggestion of his friend 
Elwood ; " Sampson Agonistes " was 
published about the same time. He died 
Nov. 8, 1674, at 66 years of age. In 
1737 a monument was erected to him in 
Westminster Abbey. Dr. Johnson has 
spoken in the highest terms of his genius 
as a writer. " The * Paradise Lost,' " 
he says, " is a poem which, considered 
with respect to design, may claim the 
first place, and with respect to perform- 
ance, the second, among the productions 
of the human mind." 

MILTON, Lord Viscount, eldest 
son of Earl Fitzwilliam, and M. P. for 
North Northamptonshire, died of typhus 
fever, Nov. 8, 1835, aged 24. His early 
death occasioned very general regret. 

MINA, Don Francisco Esposy, 
the distinguished Spanish constitutional 
general. During the peninsular war in 
1810 he rendered his name the terror of 
the French. In 1811 the regency gave 
him the rank of colonel ; in 1812 that of 
brigadier-general, and, soon after, that 
of general. His force in 1813 consisted 
of 11,000 infantry, and 2500 cavalry; 
and with this he co-operated in the 
blockade of Pampeluna, and recovered 
Saragossa, and several other places. On 
the conclusion of peace, disgusted with 
the policy of King Ferdinand, he sought 
an asylum in France, until the army of 
Cadiz raised the standard of freedom in 



MIN 



650 



MIN 



1822, Avhen he was appointed captain- 
general of the three armies of Navarre, 
Catalonia, and Arragon; and was em- 
ployed in suppressing a formidable in- 
surrection in Catalonia. He remained 
in arms until the intervention of France, 
in 1823, again restored the absolute mo- 
narchy, when he took refuge in this 
country. He landed at Plymouth on 
Nov. 30, 1823. After the last change in 
aflfairs Mina was employed in the field 
against Don Carlos, till near his death, 
which took place Dec. 24, ]836, aged 55. 
MINDEN, a town of Prussia. In 
1529 this town embraced the reforma- 
tion ; in 1757 it was taken by the French, 
and the following year retaken by the 
Hanoverians. In 1759 the French enter- 
ed it again ; but after the celebrated 
battle of Minden, August 1, they were 
obliged to quit it immediately. In I8O6 
it was occupied by the French, and 
finally ceded to Prussia in 1814. 

MINE, a term applied to all works 
carried on underground, but principally 
used for those which have for their ob- 
ject the discovery of metallic ores. 
Mining in England had a very early 
origin. The Saxons neglected the pur- 
suit of the metals, but the Normans 
worked for them to advantage ; and 
until the reign of King John, the mines 
were mostly in the hands of Jews. Ed- 
ward I. caused the Jews to be banished; 
and various persons held the right of 
searching for mines in the reigns of Ed- 
ward III., Richard II., Henry IV., and 
Henry VI. The mines continued to be 
protected by the crown, and jjarticularly 
by Henry VII., until Edward VI., when 
they were neglected. Elizabeth esta- 
blished, in 1568, a corporation, which 
still exists, called The Society for the 
Mines Royal. The application of gun- 
powder for the purpose of blowing up 
the rocks, first took place in Germany 
about 1600, and the mode was first in- 
troduced into England about 1670. Cop- 
per-mines were discovered in 1691. In 
1702 the first brass- work in England 
was erected near Bristol, which has con- 
tinued to this time. For an account of 
the coal-mines see Coal. 

1839. According to the Geological 
Report for this year, the value of metals 
annually raised in the mines of Great 
Britain and Ireland, is about £ 1 0,597,000, 
and of this sum the iron amounts to 
£8,000,000. The value of the remaining 
metals would be £2,597,000, of which 



Cornwall and Devon would furnish 
ai)out £1,340,000, or more than one- 
half, leaving £1,257,000 for the value of 
all the metals, with the exception of 
iron, raised in other parts of the United 
Kingdom. The two great metallic pro- 
ducts of the Cornwall district are copper 
and tin: of the former it yields one- third, 
and of the latter, nine-tenths of the 
whole supply of copper and tin furnished 
by the British islands, and all the coun- 
tries of the continent of Euro])e. 

Mining in France. By an ac- 
count presented to the British Associa- 
tion in 1838, the mineral resources of 
France have of late years been rapidly 
developed. The increase in the A'alue 
of coal, iron, lead, antimony, cop- 
per, manganese, alum, and sulphate 
of iron since 1832, has been 45 per 
cent. There are 46 coal-fields in France; 
and great as the increase has been of 
late years in the produce of the French 
coal-mines, large establishments are 
forming in the great field of the Loire, 
as well as in other localities. At pre- 
sent, France ranks second among na- 
tions in the production of iron ; England 
beingstill immeasuraidy in the advance of 
France. There are in the latter country 
12 distinct localities, or districts, in 
which the making of iron is prose- 
cuted : four-fifths of the fuel employed 
are wood ; coke was not used in the 
iron-works of France until 1821 ; and, 
at the present time, is employed almost 
exclusively for processes subsequent to 
smelting the ore. The production in 
France of metals, other than iron, is of 
little or no commercial importance at 
the present time. The whole value of 
lead and silver, antimony, copper, and 
manganese, amounted, in 1836, to less 
than £60,000, and gave employment to 
only 1760 workmen. 

MINERVA'S Temple at Athens 
built A.c. 450. 

MINORCA, island, Mediterranean 
Sea, the smaller of those called by the 
Romans Baleares. See Baleric Is- 
lands. 

MINOS, the lawgiver, reigned at 
Crete a.c. 1432. 

MINOTAUR of 74 guns, wrecked on 
the Haaks bank, when 480 of the crew 
perished, Dec. 22, 1810. 

MINT, the place in which the money 
of any state is coined. There were an- 
ciently mints in almost every county m 
England. In 928 Athelstan enacted 



I 



MIS 



651 



MIS 



that only one kind of coin should be 
current. Edward II. appointed a mas- 
ter, warden, comptroller, king's and 
master's assay master, and king's clerk, 
with several inferior officers ; and this 
constitution continued with but few 
changes till 1798, when a committee was 
appomted to consider the establishment 
and constitution of his majesty's mint. 

The result of this was the erection in 
1811, of a new and elegant building on 
the eastern side of Tower Hill; and 
Boulton and Watts' system of coining 
machinery was adopted. The bullion, 
as received from the Bank of England, 
is first sent to the master of the mint's 
assay office, and received into the strong- 
hold, till its quality is ascertained. It 
is next delivered to the melting-house. 
When finished, the plates of silver are 
about three- sixteenths of an inch thick. 
In the coining rooms there are several 
coining presses worked by a steam-en- 
gine. The machines are worked with 
such rapidity, that each will produce 
about 60 in a minute, or allowing for 
necessary delays, about 19,200 in an 
hour, from eight machines. 

MIRABEAU, the French orator, who 
made himself conspicuous during the 
revolution, died 1791. 

MIRAMICHI, river. New Brunswick. 
A terrible conflagration in October, 1825, 
devastated a tract of country upwards of 
300 miles in extent along the banks of 
this river. 

MIRRORS. See Burning Glasses. 

MISCHNA, or Misna, a part of the 
Jewish Talmud, containing the text, as 
the Geraara contains the commentaries. 
The Mischna consists of various tradi- 
tions of the Jews, and of explanations 
of several passages of scripture. Ac- 
cording to Prideaux's account, the 
Mischna was composed about a.d. 150, 
but Dr. Lightfoot says, that Rabbi Judah 
compiled it about 190. It has been 
published with a Latin translation by 
Surenhusius, in six vols, folio, Amster- 
dam, 1698. 

MISSIONS, a term applied in mo- 
dern times to the attempts made for the 
propagation of christianityamongheathen 
nations. The following are theprincipal : — 

Moravians or United Brkthren, 
commenced their labours by sending 
two or three missionaries to Green- 
land in 1733, who fixed their residence 
near the colony of Good Hope. The 
same year a mission was established at 



the island of St. Thomas, one of the 
West India islands ; in 1734 at Georgia, 
for the purpose of introducing Chris- 
tianity among the neighbouring Indians ; 
in 1736 at the Cape of Good Hope 
among the Hottentots; in 1738 near 
Surinam in South America. In 1752 
they turned their attention to the be- 
nighted inhabitants of Labrador, 

1840. The United Brethren have btill 
stations at the above places ; they have 
also extended their labours over various 
parts of Asia and Africa, and, though 
on a small scale, are conducting their 
exertions with energy and success. 

Baptist Missionary Society. 
This had its origin in the year 1792, 
when a few baptist ministers assembled 
at Kettering in Northamptonshire, where 
they opened a subscription for this im- 
portant purpose ; one of the earliest mis- 
sionaries was the late Dr. Carey. See 
Carey. 

1840. This society has the following 
principal stations: — In the East Indies, 
(the scene of its earliest operations in 
1793), Calcutta is at present the chief 
seat of the mission. Farther up the 
country about 20 principal stations are 
occupied, on each of which are depend- 
ent several sub-stations, and each of 
which constitutes a centre of operation 
for the surrounding country. In the 
islands of Ceylon, (commenced in 1812) 
Sumatra, and Java, the missionaries are 
training up native converts as teachers. — 
In the island of Jamaica, the principal 
scene of the labours of this society in the 
west (commenced in 1813) notwithstand- 
ing the difficulties attending a transition 
from bondage to freedom, the missionary 
work has been going forward with a 
high degree of prosperity. From the 
latest return, the number of members 
was 21,337; those under a course of 
religious instruction and examination, 
preparatory to church membership, 
amounted to 20,919; the day-schools 
contained 5413 scholars; the evening- 
schools 577, and the Sunday-schools 
10,127- Missionary stations also are 
occupied in the Bahamas ; at Balize in 
the Bay of Honduras ; and in Graham's 
Town, South Africa. 

London Missionary Society, 
formed in 1795, consisted of christians 
of various denominations, who agreed to 
unite their efforts in the great work of 
evangelizing the heathen. The atten- 
tion of this society was first directed to- 



MIS 



652 



MIS 



wards the islands of the South Sea; and 
in 1796, 29 missionaries embarked on 
board a vessel purchased by the society, 
and established a mission there, which 
recently, under the auspices of the late 
Mr. Williams, has been attended with 
great success. In 1798 this institution 
sent four missionaries to the Cape of 
Good Hope in Africa, with Dr. Vander- 
kemp, Mr. Kicherer, and others. In 
1804 this society sent out missionaries 
to India; and in 1807, to China, under 
the late Dr. Morrison, who settled at 
Macao. 

1840. The following are the principal 
stations of this society: — In the South 
Sea, at the Fiji or Fejee Islands, the Geor- 
gian (or Wind ward) Islands, principally at 
Tahiti (or Otaheite), the Society Islands, 
the Hervey Islands, the Austral Islands, 
and the Navigators' Islands. — Ultra 
Ganges. China, Malacca, Singapore, 
Penang, and Java. — East Indies. Cal- 
cutta district : Kidderpore, Chinsurah, 
Berhampore, Moorshedabad, Benares, 
and Surat. Madras district; Madras, 
Vizagapatam, Cuddapah, Clittoor, Bel- 
gaum, Bellary, Bangalore, Salem, and 
Combaconum. South Travancore, Na- 
gercoil, Neyoor, Quilon, and Cimbatoor. 
— Russian Empire. St. Petersburgh, 
Siberia.— South Africa. Stations with- 
in the colony of the Cape : Cape Town, 
Paarl,Tulba5h, Boschesfeld, Caledon In- 
stitution, Pacaltsdrop, Port Elizabeth, 
Uitenhage, Graham's Town, GraafFRei- 
net, Theopolis, and Kat River. Stations 
without the colony : CafFerland, Griqua- 
Town,Tsantsaban, Campbel, Philippolis, 
Mission to the Bushmen, and Lattakoo. 
— Island of Madagascar. — West 
Indies. Demerara, Essequibo, Berbice, 
and Jamaica. 

Wesleyan Missionary Society. 
Although missionary exertions were com- 
menced in 1780, in the West Indies, by 
Dr. Coke and others, this society was 
not formed till 1820, when the whole 
number of members connected with the 
West India mission amounted to 22,157, 
besides 120,000 stated hearers, and 36 
missionaries. 

1840. The missionary stations of this 
society, which are very numerous, are 
undei- the direction of the Wesleyan 
Methodist Conference ; but are immedi- 
ately conducted by a committee. The 
following are the principal : — In India, 
commenced in 1817, Madras, Bangalore, 
Mysore, and Courg Country, Negapa- 



patam, Melnattam and Manaargoody. — ' 
In Ceylon, commenced in 1814, Colom- 
bo and Colpetty ; Kandy, Negombo, and 
Caltura; Galle. Matura, and Moruwa 
Korle, in the South or Singhalese dis- 
trict : Jaffna, Point Pedro, Trincomalie, 
and Batticoloa, in the North or Tamul 
district. South Sea, commenced in 
1816, New South Wales, Van Diemen's 
Land, New Zealand, and the Friendly 
Islands, including Tonga, Vavou, the Ha- 
bai, and the Fejee Islands. — Southern 
Africa, commenced in 1817, Cape 
Town, Somerset, Hottentots' Holland, 
Khamiesberg, in Little Namacqualand; 
Nisbett Bath, Great Namaqualand ; 
Graham's Town and Salem, Bathurst 
and Port Frances, Wesleyville, Pato's 
Tribe, Mount Coke, Islambie's Tribe, 
Butterworth , H intza'sTribe,Clarkesbury, 
Vossanie's Tribe, Morley, Dapa's Tribe, 
Buntingville, Faku's Tribe, Chaka's 
Tribe, Plaatberg, Thaba Unchu, Umpu- 
kani, and the Mantatees. — West In- 
dies, commenced in 1786, Jamaica, 
Antigua, Montserrat, St. Christopher's, 
St. Eustatius, Nevis, St. Bartholomew's, 
Dominica, Tortola, and the Virgin Is- 
lands, St. Martin's, Anguilla, St. Vin- 
cent's, Grenada, Trinidad, Barbadoes, 
Tobago, Hayti, the Bermudas; and in the 
Bahamas, New Providence, Eleuthera, 
Harbour Island, Abaco, and Turk's Is- 
land. — British North America, 
commenced in 1780, Lower Canada, 
Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island, 
Cape Breton, New Brunswick, and New- 
foundland. In the whole of the above 
foreign stations the regular preachers 
and assistant missionaries, according 
to the Report to Conference for 1840, 
amounted to 342, and the number of 
members of the society, 78,504. 

Church Missionary Society'. 
This society was instituted in 1800, by 
some members of the church of England. 
Their first station was in Western Af- 
rica. Having failed in procuring mission- 
aries of their own communion, they 
obtained two from the Missionary Se- 
minary at Berlin. In 1804 Messrs. 
Renner and Hartwig sailed from Eng- 
land, and after a voyage of seven 
weeks, arrived at Sierra Leone. They 
commenced their labours in tie Susoo 
country, where they were received with 
kindness by some of the chiefs. 

1S40. The following are the principal 
stations of this society : — West Africa 
commenced 1 804, number of mis8ionp.fiei 



MIS 



653 



MOC 



7. Mediterranean commenced 1815, 
2 missionaries. North India com- 
menced 18 16, 22 missionaries. South 
India commenced 1814, 18 missionaries. 
Bombay and Western India com- 
menced 1820, 6 missionaries. Ceylon 
commenced 1818, 8 missionaries. New 
Holland commenced 1832, 2 mission- 
aries. New Zealand commenced 1814, 
8 missionaries. West Indies commenced 
1827, 2 missionaries. North West Ame- 
rica commenced 1823, 2 missionaries. 

In the Mediterranean mission, the 
society had in view the revival of the 
ancient christian churches planted on 
its shores, as a prelude to the ex- 
tension of Christianity throughout the 
continents of Africa and Asia. On 
this errand the Rev. Mr. Jowett left 
England in Septemher, 1815. The Rev. 
Mr. Marsden's first visit to New Zealand 
was in the year 1814, to estahlish the 
first settlers of the society. On a second 
visit in 1819, he established Mr. Butler 
and others in the Bay of Islands. On 
a third visit in 1820, he was indefatigable 
in his exertions in promoting the objects 
of the society. The society has now in 
New Zealand 12 stations. 

The Society for the Propaga- 
tion OF THE Gospel in Foreign 
Parts, though originally differing in its 
principle, and more confined in its objects, 
than the preceding, yet from its recent 
proceedings and present sphere of ope- 
ration, requires to be mentioned among 
the missions of this country. This so- 
ciety was incorporated by royal charter 
in 1701, for the receiving, managing, and 
disposing of such funds as might be con- 
tributed for the religious instruction of 
her majesty's subjects beyond the seas; 
for the maintenance of clergymen in the 
plantations,colonies, and factories of Great 
Britain; and for the general propagation 
of the gospel. The society's missionary 
stations are British North America; 
dioceses of Toranto, of Montreal, of Nova 
Scotia, and Newfoundland. British 
Inpia : dioceses of Calcutta and Madras. 
Cape of Good Hope. Australia. 
British West Indies; dioceses of 
Jamaica and Barbadoes. 

The other institutions connected 
with missions, chiefly of a local character 
are, the Colonial Mission, commenced in 
1836; the Baptist Home Missionary So- 
ciety established in 1814; the Home 
Mission 1819 ; and the City Mission 
estabhshed in May, 1835, 



MISSISSIPPI, one of the United 
States of America, situated east of the 
river of the same name. The first set- 
tlement of whites was made here by the 
French at Natchez about l7l6; in 1729 
these colonists were massacred by the 
Natchez Indians ; but in the succeeding 
year, this once powerful tribe was ex- 
tirpated by the French. . But few Ameri- 
can settlements were madein this country 
till near the end of the last century. In 
1800 the territory was erected into a 
separate government; and in 1817 into 
an independent state. The constitution 
of this state was formed at the town of 
Washington in August. In 1829 a 
Board of Internal Improvement was 
organised by the legislature, and author- 
ised to take measures for the improve- 
ment of the navigable streams and pub- 
lic roads within the state. 

MISSOURI, one of the United States, 
bordering on the river of the same name. 
It is of recent formation, and until 1803 
some parts were not inhabited. The con- 
stitution of this state was formed at St. 
Louis in 1820; and a board of internal 
improvement appeared in 1839. 

MITFORD, William, F.S.A., pro- 
fessor of ancient history to the Royal 
Academy, and author of the " History 
of Greece," born in London, Feb. 10, 
1744. In 1796 he was returned to the 
house of commons as member for Beeral- 
ston. He died Feb. 10, 1827, aged 83. 

MITFORD, John, an eccentric 
writer, the author of "Johnny New- 
come in the Navy," for which the pub- 
lisher gave him a shilling a-day while 
engaged in its composition, died at St. 
Giles's workhouse Dec. 1831. 

MITHRIDATES ordered all the Ro- 
mans that were in Asia to be put to 
death, a.c. 88. 

MITYLENE. See Meteline. 

MNEMONICS. See Memory. 

MOBILE, West Florida, taken by 
the Americans, April 12, 1813. Surren- 
dered by capitulation to the British, Jan. 
11, 1815. 

MOCHA, an extensive city and port, 
Araliia, the emporium of the Red Sea. 
The Dutch established a factory here in 
the l7th century; they were followed in 
17O8 by the French, and by the English 
and Americans during the present cen- 
tury. The great article of export is 
coffee, which is universally admitted to 
be of the finest quality. The quantity 
anitually exported is about 10,000 tons. 



M OG 



654 



MOL 



MODENA, duchy, north of Italy ; it 
forms an independent state, possessed in 
full sovereignty by a lateral branch of 
the house of Austria. It was united to 
the Cisalpine republic in 1796, and 
formed afterwards a part of the kingdom 
of Italy. Tl'.e city surrendered to the 
Austrians, May 1799, and was re-taken 
by the French July 3 following. The 
Archduke Francis, who succeeded by 
right of his mother to the ancient duchy, 
took possession of it in 1814. Anattempt 
at insurrection was made by an Italian 
named Cyrus Menotti, and his accom- 
plices, in 1831 ; but it was suppressed 
shortly after. 

MOGUL Empire, in its original 
sense, including those parts of Asia over 
which Tamerlane and his successors 
reigned, was not either extensive or po- 
pulous till the time of Temujin, or Gen- 
ghiz Khan. See Genghiz Khan. At 
his death in 1227, it extended over a 
tract of country 1800 leagues in length, 
from east to west, and upwards of 1000 
in breadth from north to south. In 1257 
Hulaku, a descendent of Genghiz Khan, 
advanced to Bagdad, which he took, and 
put the caliph to death. Hulaku died in 
1264; and at this period we may fix the 
greatest extent of the Mogul empire. It 
comprehended the whole of the conti- 
nent of Asia, excepting part of Hindoo- 
stan, Siam, Pegu, Cochin China, and a 
few of the countries of Asia Minor. 
From this period, however, the empire 
began to decline. It was divided among 
a great number of petty princes, who 
were engaged in perpetual wars with 
each other. 

In 1369 Timur Beg, or Tamerlane, 
having conquered a number of other 
princes, was crowned at Balkh, with the 
pompous title of Sabeb Karan. In 1399 
he took the city of Delhi, the capital of 
the country, and seated himself on the 
throne of the Indian emperors. See Ta- 
merlane. He did not, however, dis- 
turb the order of succession in Hin- 
doostan, but left Mahmoud, the reigning 
emperor on the throne, reserving to 
himself the possession of the Paujab 
country only. The death of Mahmoud, 
in 1413, put an end to what is called the 
Patau dynasty. In 1518 Sultan Baber, 
a descendant of Tamerlane, conquered a 
consideral)le ])art of the empire. In 1555 
his grandson, Acber, ascended the throne, 
then only 14 years of age. During his 
reign of 51 years, he estabhshedthe em- 



pire on a sure foundation. As in the 
person of Baber the line of Tamerlane 
first ascended the throne of Hindoostan, 
so in that of Acber it may be said to have 
been established : thus Baber was the 
founder of the Mogul dynasty The 
most remarkable prince of this line was 
Aurengzebe, who in I66O had attained 
full possession of the sovereignty. This 
prince died in 1707. The conquests of 
the British in India, terminated about 
1760, in the entire humiliation of the 
Mogul, and his being reduced to a state 
of dependence on the English East India 
Company. 

1838. Acber II., the last representa- 
tive of the Mogul dynasty, the nominal 
sovereign of India, the 15th in descent 
from Baber, who ascended the throne in 
1805, died this year, beingSl years of age. 
His authority, as is well known, had long 
passed away, and he existed as a mere 
pensioner of the English government. 

MOLDAVIA, j)rovince, European 
Turkey. The sovereign, who is styled 
hospodar, is tributary to the Grand Seig- 
nior. Moldavia and Wallachia were 
invaded by the Russians, Nov. 23,1806. 
These provinces are in a state of double 
dependence upon Russia and Turkey. 
In conformity with the treaty of Adria- 
nople, a constitution, called " The Or- 
ganic Statute," was granted to Wal- 
lachia and Moldavia in 1832. 

MOLIERE, John Baptist Poque- 
LIN De, an eminent French dramatic 
writer, was born at Paris about 1620. 
His first regular comedy, " L'Etourdi," 
was acted at Lyons in 1653. He ob- 
tained permission to open a theatre in 
the metropohs; and in 1665 was placed 
in the ser\ ice of the kmg, Louis XIV., 
with a pension. He rapidly rose in 
reputation as a writer by the new pieces 
which he presented to the public. The 
principal were his comedy of the " Mi- 
santhrope," "Tartuffe;" and "La Ma- 
lade Imaginaire," which was the last of 
his productions. He died in 1653, in 
his 53d year. 

MOLUCCAS, or Spice Islands. 
in the Eastern Seas, were discovered in 
1511 by the Portuguese, who formed 
some settlements, but were driven out 
in 1607 Ijy the Dutch, to whom the 
islands are at present subject. Till 
lately, very little information had reached 
this country respecting this chain of 
islands. The largest islands, Amboyna, 
Banda, Ternato, &c., had become some- 



xVI O N 



655 



MON 



what familiar, but many of the others 
were scarcely known in this country, even 
by name, till the year 1837, when Lieu- 
tenant D. H.KolfTs account of his voyage 
through tho southern, or little known 
part of the Archipelago, was presented 
to the Geograpliical Society. 

MOLYNEUX, William, astrono- 
mer, born 1656, died 1698. 

MONARCH, steam-boat, a vessel of 
800 tons, ran down the Apollo of 120 
tons, on the Thames, near Northfleet. 
The Apollo was sunk. The crew and 
passengers were saved, with the excep- 
tion of the stewardess and two children. 
MONASTERIES, houses built for 
the reception and entertainment of 
monks, &c. Their origin may be traced 
to the time of St. Anthonj'^, who, about 
270, sold his possessions, and, retiring 
from the world, fixed his residence on a 
hill near the Red Sea. In the fourth 
century the deserts of Egypt became in- 
habited by a set of solitaries, who took 
upon them the monastic profession. 
The first monastery is said to have been 
founded in France, near Poictiers, by 
St. Martin, in 360 ; the first in Britain 
in 596, when St. Augustine, being sent 
into England by Pope Gregory, intro- 
duced the monastic state into this king- 
dom. Witl:in the space of 200 years, 
there were 30 kings and queens who pre- 
ferred the religious habit to their crowns, 
and founded stately monasteries. 

The dissolution of religious houses 
began in 1312, when the Templars were 
suppressed, and in 1323 their lands, 
churches, advowsons, and liberties, in 
England, were given by 17 Edw. II. 
Stat. 3, to the prior and brethren of the 
hospital of St. John at Jerusalem. In the 
year 1390, 1437, 1441, 1459, 1497, 1505, 
1508, and 1515, several other houses 
were dissolved, and their revenues set- 
tled on diflferent colleges in Oxford and 
Cambridge. Soon after the last period. 
Cardinal Wolsey, by licence of the king 
and pope, obtained a dissolution of above 
30 religious houses for the founding and 
endowing his colleges at Oxford and 
Ipswich. By 27 Hen. VIII. cap. 28, 
about 380 houses were dissolved, and a 
revenue of £30,000 or £32,000 a year 
came to the crown; besides about 
£100,000 in plate and jewels. By 31 Hen. 
VIII cap. 13, all monasteries, &c., which 
had been surrendered since Feb. 4, in 
the 27th year of his majesty's reign, 
and which hereafter should be surren- 



dered, were vested in the king. Tlie 
knights of St. John of Jerusalem were 
also suppressed by the 32 Hen. VIII. 
cap. 24. The last act of dissolution in 
this king's reign was 37 Hen. VIII. cap. 
4, for dissolving colleges, free chapels, 
chantries, &c., which act was farther en- 
forced by 1 Edw. VI. cap. 14. By this 
act were suppressed 90 colleges, ,110 
hospitals, and 2374 chantnes ajid free 
chapels. The number of houses and 
places suppressed from first to last seems 
to be 3182, which, at a moderate com- 
putation, might contain about 50,000 
persons. 

MONBODDO, Lord, author of the 
" Origin and Progress of Language," 
died May 5, 1799- 

MONDEGO, river, Portugal. Its 
banks were the scene of great military 
movements between the British and 
French in 1810 and 1811. 

MONDOVI, town, kingdom af Pied- 
mont and Sardinia. In 1796 Buona- 
parte obtained here an advantage over 
the Piedmontese, v.'hich led the court of 
Turin to separate from its alliance with 
Austria. 

MONK, George, Duke of Albe- 
marle, memorable for having been the 
principal agent in restoring Charles II. 
to his throne, was born in Devonshire 
in 1608. He early engaged in the cause 
of parliament, and in 1646 obtained the 
command-in-chief of all the forces in 
the north of Ireland, where he performed 
signal services. On the death of Crom- 
well Monk proclaimed Richard Crom- 
well, and continued to make the strongest 
declarations of his attachment to the 
republican cause. But, notwithstanding, 
he was a principal instrument in the re- 
storation of the monarchy. On May 8, 
1660, he assisted at the proclamation of 
Charles II., and on the 28th set out for 
Dover, where the king landed on the 
25th. From thence he proceeded to 
London, into which he made his public 
entry with much magnificence on the 
29th. About a month after, he was cre- 
ated a peer by the title of Baron Monk, 
earl of Torrington, and duke of Albe- 
marle. He died Jan. 3, 1670, in his 
62d year. His remains were deposited 
with great funeral pomp in Henry VII. 's 
chapel in Westminster-abbey. 

MONMOUTH, county, England. 
Before the conquest of Britain by the 
Romans, Monmouthshire was included 
within the territories of the Silures, who 



MOxN 



656 



M O N 



were finally reduced to subjection by 
Julius Frontinus. Early in the fifth cen- 
tury the country became divided into a 
number of independent states, one of 
which was called Gevent. This part of 
the country contained more Roman set- 
tlements than most other districts ; and, 
as these were fortified })laces, the princes 
or chiefs of Gevent were enabled to de- 
fend their territories from the encroach- 
ments of the Anglo-Saxons. Mon- 
mouthshire continued under the sove- 
reignty of the Welsh princes till the 
entire subjugation of Wales, by Ed- 
ward I.; it was afterwards a part of the 
marches of Wales, and its inhabitants, 
together with those of the principality, 
were admitted to a participation in the 
legislative authority of the kingdom, by 
the 27th Henry VIII. About 1535 Mon- 
mouthshire was detached from the prin- 
cipality, and included among the coun- 
ties of England ; but was regarded as a 
Welsh county so late as the reign of 
Charles II., when it first began to be 
reckoned an English county, because the 
judge kept the assizes here, on the Ox- 
ford circuit. 

■ MONMOUTH, Jeffery of, wrote 
in 1152. 

MONMOUTH, James, Duke of, 
natural son of Charles II., born at Rot- 
terdam, in Holland, 1649. He invaded 
England June 11, 1685 ; was proclaimed 
king at Taunton, June 20, following; 
defeated near Bridgewater July 5 ; be- 
headed on Tower Hill, July 15, aged 35. 

MONRO, Dr. Alexander, an emi- 
nent anatomist, and the father of the 
medical school of Edinburgh, was born 
in London, Sept. 1697. In 1719 he was 
appointed professor and demonstrator of 
anatomy to the company of surgeons, at 
Edinburgh. His first and principal pub- 
lication was his " Osteology, or Treatise 
on the Anatomy of the Bones," in 1726. 
In 1759 he resigned his anatomical 
chair, but he still continued to lecture as 
one of the clinical professors. He died 
July 10, 1767, aged 70. 

MONRO, Dr. Alexander, son and 
successor of the preceding, born 1732 ; 
filled the anatomical chair with great 
credit to himself and to the university, 
for upwards of 40 years; died 1817- 

MONRO, Dr. Donald, physician 
and medical writer, brother of the pre- 
ceding, died 1802. 

MONS, town, kingdom of Belgium, 
capital of the province of Hainault. It 



lias frequently sufl'^ered by the calamities 
of war. In 1746 its fortifications were 
demolished by the French ; and in this 
state it was restored to the emperor by 
the peace of Aix-la-ChapclIe. After the 
battle of Jemmappe, it was summoned 
by Dumourier, and surrendered the next 
morning. 

MONTAGUE, Lady Mary Wort- 
ley, daughter of Evelyn Pierrepont, 
earl of Kingston, was born about 1690 
at Thornsley, in Nottinghamshire ; mar- 
ried to Edward AVortley Montague on 
Aug. 12, 1712. After the death of Queen 
Anne he obtained an appointment in 
the Treasury. In I7l6 he resigned his 
situation at the Treasury board, in conse- 
quence of an appointment as ambassador 
at Constantinople. He left England in 
August, accompanied by his lady. The 
embassy continued two months at Adria- 
nople, where Lady Mary found oppor- 
tunity to augment her acquaintance with 
eastern manners, by an examination of 
the Harem, never before permitted 
to any European. In 1761, after an 
absence of 22 years, she returned to 
England ; but her health had suffered 
much, and a gradual decline terminated 
in death, Aug. 21, 1762. Her letters, 
written during her travels, from the year 
1716 to 1718, are much admired; they 
are composed in a lively, interesting, and 
agreeable style, and contain many cu- 
rious facts relating to the manners and 
government of the Turks, which are no 
where else to be found. 

MONTAGUE, Elizabeth, author 
of the " Essay on the Writings and Ge- 
nius of Shakspeare," and memorable for 
her May-day festivals and regalement of 
the chimney-sweepers of the metropolis, 
at her house in Portman-square on that 
day, died 1800. 

MONTAIGNE, Michael De, the 
author of " Essays," &c., born 1533, 
died 1592. 

MONTAUBAN, town of France; 
its celebrated protestant university 
suppressed in 1629 was re-established 
by Buonaparte in 1810, and has four 
professors of theology. 

MONT Blanc. See Blanc, Mont. 

MONTEM. The triennial custom of 
the Eton scholars parading to Salt-hill, 
and distributing salt, originated about the 
15th century, in the early days of monk- 
ish superstition, when the friars used to 
sell their consecrated salt for medical 
purposes. 



M ON 



655 



M OxX 



MONTESQUIEU, Charles De 
Secondat, Baron, an eminent French 
writer, was born at the castle of La 
Brede, near Bourdeaux, in 1689. He 
became a counsellor of the parliament of 
Bourdeaux in 1714. In 1721 he pub- 
hshed his " Persian Letters," without 
his name, and was received into the 
French Academy in 1728. He travelled 
through Germany, Italy, Switzerland, 
Holland, and England. His work on 
the " Causes of the Grandeur and De- 
clension of the Romans," appeared in 
1734, and his " Spirit of Laws" in 1750. 
He died at Paris Feb. 10, 1755. Lord 
Chesterfield says of him : " His virtues 
did honour to human nature, his writings 
justice. His works will illustrate his 
name, and survive him, as long as right 
reason, moral obligation, and the true 
spirit of laws, shall be understood, re- 
spected, and maintained." 

MONTE-VIDEO, sea-port town. 
South America, was taken by the Bri- 
tish, Feb., 1807 ; but, after the unsuc- 
cessful attack on Buenos Ayres, was 
evacuated with the other Spanish settle- 
ments, the same year. Capitulated to 
Buenos Ayres, June 20, 1814; became 
the capital of the United Provinces of 
La Plata, but these having been separated 
by the recent disturbances, Monte-Video 
and the Banda Oriental now form the 
new republic of Uruguay, of which the 
former is the capital. It has suffered 
severely in passing through the hands of 
the insurgent Artigas, and then of the 
Portuguese. 

MONTFAUCON, French antiqua- 
rian, born 1655, died 1741. 

MONTGOLFIER, Etienne, inven- 
tor of the balloon, died in November, 
1799. 

MONTGOMERY Castle was an- 
ciently remarkably strong. The Welsh 
took and demoUshed it; but, in 1093, it 
was rebuilt by William Rufus. King 
Henry III. again seized and destroyed 
it ; but it became, shortly after, the re- 
sidence of the Lords Herbert and Cher- 
bury. It is now in ruins. 

MONTI, Vincenzo, one of the most 
eminent of the modern Italian poets. 
His tragedy of " Aristodemo," which 
appeared in 17S6, at once fix>:d his re- 
putation. His poem of the " Basvil- 
liana" insured his most permanent fame. 
For some time he was secretary to the 
Cisalpine Republic, and in 1805 was 
appointed by Napoleon historiographer 



of the kingdom of Italy. Hs ditd 
October 13, 1828. 

MONTLOSIER, Count, one of the 
most striking writers in that great con- 
troversy respecting the origin of basaltic 
rock, which occupied the attention of 
mineralogists during the latter half of 
the last century, died in 1839. 

MONTPELIER, city, France, capital 
of the department of Herault, owes its 
origin to the time of Charlemagne. A 
university for the study of medicine was 
founded here in 1180, and an academy 
of sciences was instituted in 1706. 

MONTREAL, town. Upper Canada, 
commenced in 1640 by a few log-houses 
built close together. In consequence of 
the hazards to which it was exposed from 
the hostility of the Iroquois, it was sur- 
rounded with a high wall, with battle- 
ments. It was taken by the English, 
under the command of General Amherst, 
in the year 1760. In 1775 it was taken 
by the Americans, under General Mont- 
gomery, but retaken June 15, 1776, 
and soon after evacuated. The new Ro- 
man Catholic cathedral in Montreal, the 
most splendid temple in the New World, 
was commenced in 1824, finished in 1829, 
and dedicated to the Virgin Mary. 

MONTROSE, James Graham, 
Marquis of, a celebrated general in 
the reign of Charles I. He reduced 
Scotland to the obedience of the king, 
and, after his death, made a second at- 
tempt, which was defeated by a nume- 
rous army. He was betrayed into the 
hands of the enemy by Lord Aston, his 
friend, and was executed May 21, 1650 
MONTSERRAT, one of the Carib- 
bean isles belonging. to Great Britain, so 
named by Columbus, who discovered it 
in 1493. It was planted by a small co- 
lony from St. Christopher's in 1632. In 
1712 it was invaded by a French force, 
and suffered much. Taken by the 
French, Feb. IS, 1782 ; restored to Eng- 
land 1783. 

MONTUCLA, John Stephen, 
French mathematician, was born at 
Lyons in 1725; in 1755 was elected a 
member of the Royal Academy of Sci- 
ences at Berlin. In 1758 he published 
his " History of the Mathematical »Sci- 
ences." He died Dec. 1799. 

MONUMENT of London, a mag- 
nificent pillar erected by order of parlia- 
ment, in memory of the burning of the 
city of London in 1666. It was designed 
])y Sir Christopher Wren, and was com- 
4 p 



MOO 



638 



MOR 



menced in 1671, and finished in l677. 
It is of the Doric order, fluted, 202 feet 
high from the ground, and 15 feet in 
diameter. It is built of sohd Portland 
stone, with a staircase in the middle, of 
black marble, containing 345 steps. 
The lowest part of the pedestal is 28 
feet square, and its altitude 40 feet ; the 
front being enriched with curious bas- 
so-relievo. It has a balcony within 32 
feet of the top, whei'e is a curious and 
spacious blazing urn of gilt brass. 

Falls from the Monument. 
1750. June 25, about four o'clock in 
the afternoon, a man, supposed to be a 
weaver, fell from the top. 
■ 1788. July 17, Thomas Craddock, a 
baker, threw himself over the north 
side; he cleared the pedestal and the 
iron rails, but fell just outside of them, 
near to the north-west corner. 

1810. January 18, Lyon Levy, a Jew 
dealer in diamonds, fell from the gallery 
on the east side. He struck the pedestal, 
but cleared the rails, and fell one yard 
outside, near to the south-east corner. 

1839. September 11, Miss Margaret 
Moyes, one of four sisters, who resided 
at No. 3,Hemming's-rovv, Charing-cross. 
She had been in an exoted state for 
above a week, frequently crying. She 
was also observed to cry before she left 
home to commit this horrible deed. 

1839. October 18, Richard Donald- 
son Hawes, aged about 18 or 19. He 
was the son of a laundress, residing near 
Chelsea. It has also been discovered 
that the father of the unfortunate youth 
destroyed himself by casting himself 
from an elevation. 

MOORE, Dr. John, a celebrated 
miscellaneous writer, was born at Stir- 
ling, in 1730. In 1772 he obtained the 
diploma of doctor of physic from the 
university of Glasgow, and soon after 
accompanied the son of the duchess of 
Hamilton and Argyle on the continent. 
They spent five years together in this 
tour, and visited France, Italy, Switzer- 
land, and Germany. He was author of 
"A Journal during a Residence in 
France," and other works ; all of which 
display a comprehensive knowledge of 
life and manners derived from his tra- 
vels. He died in 1803. 

MOORE, Sir John, son of the pre- 
ceding Dr. Moore, a celebrated British 
general, was born at Glasgow, Novem- 
ber 13, 1761. In 1795 he was appointed 
a brigadier-general in the West Indies, 



and served \vith honour under Sir Ralph 
Abercrombie. His next appointment 
was also under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, 
in the expedition to Holland in 1799, 
with the rank of major-general, and 
afterwards in Egypt. He had the chief 
command of the embarkation of the 
troops previously to the attempt on Alex- 
andria, and continued to serve in the 
army of Egypt until after the surrender 
of Alexandria. When he returned to 
England at the peace, he received the 
honour of knighthood, and the order of 
the bath. Sir John Moore was called, 
in 1808, to take upon him the command 
of an armament which the British go- 
vernment had prepared in aid of the 
Spanish patriots, then engaged in hostili- 
ties with Napoleon. In this disastrous 
campaign, by the masterly disposition of 
his troops at Corunna, he repelled the 
formidable attack of the French army, in 
which action a cannon ball deprived him 
of life. In his last moments he was 
consoled by the intelligence that victory 
had secured a safe embarkation for hia 
troops. He died January 16, 1809. 

MOORE, Daniel, F.R.S., fellow of 
the Royal Antiquarian, Linnaean, Astro- 
nomical, Horticultural, and other learned 
and scientific societies. He died Jan. 6, 
1828, aged 68. 

MOORE, Philip, an English divine, 
translator of the Bible, &c. into the 
Manks language, died 1783. 

MOORE, JAMEs,an English dramatic 
writer, died 1734. 

MOORSHEDABAD, a city of Hin- 
doostan, province of Bengal. It became 
the capital of Bengal in l704, when the 
seat of government was removed from 
Dacca ; and it continued to be the me- 
tropolis until the conquest of Bengal by 
the British in 1757, when it was virtually 
superseded by Calcutta. 

MOOSE Island, Pasamaquoddy 
Bay, surrendered to the British July 1 1 , 
1814. 

MORA Tree, a new botanical genus, 
of the order Leguminosae, a native of 
the forests of British Guiana, where it 
attains a large size, the trunk often ex- 
ceeding 90 feet in height. On March 
20, 1838, was read to the Linnaean So- 
ciety a description of this tree, by Mr. 
R. H. Schomburgh, whose researches in 
Guiana are well known. The trunk 
produces large buttresses at its base, 
which, from their partial decay, after- 
wards became hollow beneath, and form 



MOR 



659 



MOR 



a chamber capable of sheltering several 
persons standing erect. The tops of 
these buttresses, and the trunk itself, are 
found clothed with innumerable epiphy- 
tes, which greatly add to the singularity 
oi tn6 tree 

MORAVIANS, or United Bre- 
thren, a sect of protestant Christians, 
who profess to derive their origin from the 
protestants of Moravia, who, in the 15th 
century, threw off the despotic yoke of 
Rome. The modern Moravians owe 
their origin and present establishment to 
Nicholas Lewis, count of Zinzendorf, 
who, in 1721, settled at Bertholsdorf, a 
village in Upper Lusatia, afterwards 
called Herrnhuth. In 1732, 1736, and 
1737, commissioners were appointed to 
examine into the doctrines and proceed- 
ings of the brethren. The commissioners 
made a favourable report; and ever since 
both Herrnhuth and other settlements of 
the brethren in Saxony have been pro- 
tected. The Moravian brethren have 
similar settlements in Holland, Denmark, 
England, Ireland, and America, and 
their missionary exertions have been 
eminently successful. See Missions. 

MORAYSHIRE, or Murrayshire, 
Scotland, was the scene of several bat- 
tles between the Scots and Danes, about 
1010, and subsequently witnessed bloody 
contests between the king and his sub- 
jects. The Covenanters attacked Mont- 
rose in 1645; and for about 50 years 
aftenvards the contest between the king's 
troops and the Highlanders was carried 
on in this country. 

MORE, Sir Thomas, an eminent 
statesman and lord high chancellor of 
England, was born at London in 1480. 
At the age of 19 he entered the New Inn 
in London to study the law. Before he 
had attained his 23d year, having been 
chosen a member of the house of com- 
mons, he had an opportunity of distin- 
guishing himself by an opposition to 
some of the arbitrary measures of Henry 
VII., in consequence of which he was 
obliged to give up his practice at the 
bar and live in retirement. The death 
of Henry VII., in 1509, enabling him 
to resume his practice, his talents and 
acquirements soon raised him to emi- 
nent distinction. In 1514 he was ap- 
pointed, by the city of London, judge 
of the sheriff's court. About 1529, on 
the disgrace of Wolsey, More was made 
chancellor, which office he executed for 
three years with great wisdom and inte- 



grity; but, in 1533, in order to avoid 
the danger of refusing to confirm the 
king's divorce, he resigned the seals 
Refusing to take the oath enjoined by 
the act of supremacy, he was committed 
to the Tower, and, after 15 months ' im- 
prisonment, was tried at the bar of the 
king's bench for high treason ; the jury 
brought him in guilty, and he was con- 
demned to suffer as a traitor. Hewas 
beheaded on Tower-hill, July 6, 1535, 
in the 56th year of his age, deeply la- 
mented by all who knew his worth, and 
admired even by his enemies. 

MORE, Hannah, one of the most 
celebrated female writers of the present 
day, was born in 1744, at Stapleton in 
Gloucestershire, where her father kept 
the charity-school at the Fishponds. At 
an early age her literary abilities having 
been made known to some of the neigh- 
bouring gentry, a subscription was 
formed for establishing her and her 
sisters in a school of her own. Her 
first publication, "The Search after 
Happiness, a pastoral Drama," was writ- 
ten when she was 18 years of age, al- 
though not published until 1773. After 
writing several tragedies, the best of 
which was " The Fatal Falsehood," in 
1779, her opinions on public theatres 
underwentachange,andsheherselfstated 
in the preface to the third volume of her 
works, " she did not consider the stage, 
in its present state, as becoming the ap- 
pearance or countenance of a christian." 

In 1782 she sent forth a volume of 
" Sacred Dramas," with a poem annex- 
ed, entitled *' Sensibility." Between 
1786 and 1789, she published different 
poems of more or less merit. In 179S 
her " Strictures on the Modern System 
of Female Education" appeared. At 
this time she took up her residence at 
Barley Wood, a cottage delightfully situ- 
ated in the village of Kingston, where 
she wrote " Hints towards forming the 
Character of a Young Princess." In 
I8O9 was published, " Coelebs in search 
of a Wife." In 1811 and the following 
year, appeared her " Practical Piety ; or, 
the Influence of the Religion of the 
Heart on the Conduct of the Life," and 
" Christian Morals." In 1815 she pub- 
lished one of the ablest of her perform- 
ances — "An Essay on the Character 
and Writings of St. Paul." She had 
previously retired from Barley Wood to 
a neat house in Clarence-place, Clifton, 
where she lived in a state of peaceful 



MOR 



660 



M O R 



quietude till September 7, 1833, when 
bhe (lied, at the age of 88 years. 

MORE A, peninsula of Europe, to the 
south of Greece, to which it is joined by 
the isthmus of Corinth, anciently called 
Peloponnesus. The kingdoms of which 
it once consisted were Sicyon, Argos, 
Mycenae, Corinth, Achaia Propria, Ar- 
cadia, and Laconia. It was the scene of 
the most brilliant achievements in Gre- 
cian history, and was afterwards a pro- 
vince of the Roman empire. In the 
15th century it was occupied by the 
Turks ; and after being alternately in 
possession of that powerful people and 
the Venetians for two centuries, it finally 
became subject to the Porte in 1715, in 
whose hands it continued under the 
appellation of the Morea, till the late 
Grecian war. By the treaty of 1830, it 
w^as agreed to form a part of the new 
kingdom of Greece. See Greece. 

MOREAU, the French general, wound- 
ed by a cannon baU while talking to 
the emperor of Russia, before Dresden, 
August 28, and died September 4, 
18]3. 

MORELL, Dr. Thomas, the lexico- 
grapher, died 1784, aged 83. 

MORELLO, general of the insurgent 
army in South America, condemned and 
e.\ecuted at Mexico 1816. 

MORERI, Lewis, historian, born in 
France 1643, died 1680. 

MORGAN, William, author of 
" Doctrine of Annuities and Assu- 
lances on Lives," &c. died 1833. 

MORGAGNI, G., the anatomist, born 
1681, died 1771. 

MORGHEN, Raphael, distinguished 
engraver, born at Naples June 19, 1758, 
died at Florence, April 8, 1833, aged 
75. 

MORLAND, George, an Enghsh 
artist, was born in 1764. His favourite 
subjects were interiors of stables, pig- 
stys, farm-yards, doors of public-houses, 
&c., in which he excelled; but having 
unhappily acquired a habit of intoxica- 
tion, he fell into decay, and a premature 
dissolution closed his mortal career, Oc- 
tober, 1804, in his 40th year. 

MORNAY, P. Du Plessis, a French 
statesman, born 1549, died 1623. 

MOROCCO, ancient Mauritania, a 
kingdom north-west of Africa, the chief 
of the states comprehended under the 
general denomination of Barbary. It 
was occupied by the Romans a.c. 25, 
and reduced by them to a province a.d. 



53. From this time it underwent va- 
rious revolutions, till the establishment 
of the Almovarides. The second em- 
peror of this family built the capital Mo- 
rocco. About 1116 Abdallah, the leader 
of a sect of Mahometans, founded the 
dynasty of Almahides, which ended in 
the last sovereign's total defeat in Spain 
1312. At this period Fez and Tremecen, 
then provinces of the empire, shook off 
their dependence. Morocco was after- 
wards seized by the king of Fez ; but the 
descendants of Mahomet, 1550, subdued 
and united again the three kingdoms, 
and formed what is at present the em- 
pire of Morocco. 

MORRISON, Rev. Dr. Robert, 
F. R. S., &c., an eminent Chinese scholar, 
was born at Morpeth, Jan. 5, 1782. On 
May 2S, 1805, he placed himself under 
the patronage of the London Missionary 
Society ; and having chosen China as the 
field of his missionary labours, on Jan. 
8, 1807, he was formally ordained in the 
Scottish church, in Swallow-street. On 
Jan. 31 he embarked for China, and 
landed at Macao on Sept. 4, 1807, whence 
he proceeded to Canton. In 1813 he 
completed an edition in Chinese of the 
whole of the New Testament. In 1815 
he commenced the publication of hi.s 
"Dictionary of the Chinese Language." 
It consists of three parts : the first part 
containing the Chinese and English, ar- 
ranged according to the radicals, bearing 
date 1815, 1822, and 1823; the second 
part, published in 1819 and 1820, con- 
tains the Chinese and English, arranged 
alphabetically ; the third part, published 
in 1822, consists of English words with 
Chinese meanings. 

Dr. Morrison's Chinese Dictionary 
occupied, from its commencement to its 
completion, 13 years of the prime of his 
laborious life. I'he translation and pub- 
lication of the whole of the Old and New 
Testament, in 19 volumes octavo, was 
completed in 1819. On the arrival of 
Lord Napier at Macao, with his ma- 
jesty's commission, constituting the new 
arrangement for the administration of 
the British affairs in Canton in 1833, he 
appointed Dr. Morrison Chinese secre- 
tary and interpreter to the commission. 
To the zealous discharge of the duties of 
this a[)pointment, his life fell a sacrifice 
On July 23, 1834, having been exposed 
during the night in an oj)en boat, on the 
Canton river, to very boisterous and 
rainy weather, his illness was greatly 



MOS 



661 



MOZ 



increased in consequence, and he expired 
Aug. 1. 

MORTIMER, Roger, earl of March, 
hanged Nov. 29, 1330. 

MORTMAIN, an alienation of lands 
or tenements to any corporation, eccle- 
siastical or temporal, as bishops, vicars, 
&c. To prevent the undue alienation of 
property for charitable and religious 
purposes, various statutes were enacted, 
particularly tlie statute de religiosis, 
7 Edward I., 1279, called the Mortmain 
Act, which provided that no person, re- 
ligious or other whatsoever, should buy, 
or sell, or receive under pretence of a 
gift or term of years, or any other title 
whatsoever; nor should by any art or 
ingenuity, appropriate to himself any 
lands or tenements in mortmain, upon 
pain that the immediate lord of the fee ; 
or, on his default for one year, the lords 
paramount, and in default of all of them, 
the king, might enter thereon as a for- 
feiture. This was afterwards regulated 
by other statutes, particularly 9 Geo. 
II. c. 36. ; 43 Geo. III. c. 108 ; 7 and 8 
Will. III., &c. 

MOSCOW, or Moskva, city, Euro- 
pean Russia, is not a place of great anti- 
quity ; was founded in the middle of the 
12th century, and was progressively en- 
larged in the 13th and 14th centuries. 
In 1571 it fell into the hands of theTar- 
tars, and was surrendered to the flames. 
It was afterwards recovered and re-built 
by the czars, and remained for a century 
and a half the sole caipital of the empire. 
Since the building of St. Petersburgh, in 
the early part of the 18th century, it has 
been the occasional residence of the 
court. The most remarkable event in 
the history of Moscow is its occupation 
by the French, on their invasion of Rus- 
sia, in 1812; and its entire destruction 
by fire by the Russians, under the com- 
mand of the governor. Count Rostop- 
chin, in order that it might not afford 
winter quarters for the French army. 
This event took place on Sept. 14, and 
on Oct. 19 the enemy were compelled to 
commence one of the most calamitous 
retreats ever recorded in history. The 
re-building commenced in 1817, under 
the emperor Alexander. In 1823 Dr. 
Lyell and Captain Cochrane found the 
work of reparation far advanced, and the 
new streets and edifices were constructed 
in a more regvilar style. According to 
a work published in 1824 at Moscow, by 
M. Leconite, 6341 houses had been 



burned, and 8027 had been built, so that 
it was larger than before. 

MOSELEY, Dr. B., physician, born 
in Essex, died 1819- 

MOSES, born a.c. 1571; fled into 
Midian, where he continued 40 years, 
and married Zipporah, the daughter of 
Jethro, 1531 ; set up the Tabernacle, and 
in it the Ark of the Covenant 1491. The 
five books of Moses were written in the 
land of Moab, where he died 1451, aged 
120. 

MOSHEIM, John Laurence, au- 
thor of " Ecclesiastical History," born 
1695, died 1755. 

MOTHE, LE Vayer, Francis De 
LA, a French writer, born 1588, died 
1672. 

MOTHERWELL, William, born 
at Glasgow, author of an interesting and 
valuable collection of ballads, which he 
published in 1827, under the title of 
" Minstrelsy, Ancient and Modern," &c. 
!He died Nov. 1, 1835, aged 38. 

MOTTE, A. H., De la, a French 
poet, born 1672, died 1731. 

MOULIN, Cha. Du, French writer, 
born 1500, died 1566. 

MOUNT OF Piety, at Naples, burnt 
down with the loss of above 2,000,000 
crowns, July 31, 1786. 

MOUNTSANDFORD, Lord, killed 
at Windsor in an affray with a party of 
journeymen shoemakers, June 14, 1828. 
Two of the persons engaged in this 
unhappy event were afterwards found 
guilty of manslaughter. 

MOURZOUK, or Mourzuk, city, 
North Africa, kingdom Fezzan. It was 
here that Captain Clapperton, the late 
African traveller, in 1821, was cour- 
teously received by the sultan of Fezzan, 
but detained for near 12 months, from 
jealousy of the object of his mission. 

MOZAMBIQUE, or Mosambigue, 
island of, discovered by Vasco de Garaa, 
1498. 

MOZART, John Chrysostom 
Wolfgang Theophilus, an eminent 
musical composer, was born at Salz- 
burgh in Bavaria, in 1756. At seven 
years of age he visited Paris, when he 
played the organ of the king's chapel, 
before the whole French court. He 
next visited London, where his talents 
excited universal attention. In 1781 
he produced his opera " Idomeneo," 
which, with that of "Don Juan," he is 
said to have considered the best of his 
productions. His compositions were 



MUM 



662 



MUN 



very numerous, and embraced every 
branch of the science. He fell at last 
into a state of complete melancholy, but 
was employed in musical composition as 
long as he was able to make the least 
exertion. He died in the 35th year of his 
age, in 1792. 

MUDGE, Major-General Wil- 
liam, the mathematician, for many years 
employed on government surveys, died 
1820. 

MUGGLETONIANS, a religious sect 
sprung from L. Muggleton, a journey- 
man tailor, 1657. 

MULGRAVE'S Islands, Lord, a 
group of islands in the Pacific Ocean, 
closely adjoining on the east to the Caro- 
lines, discovered by Captains Marshall 
and Gilbert, in a circuitous voyage from 
Port Jackson to Canton ; afterwards 
more fully examined in 1817, by Kotze- 
bne, who discovered the important isles 
of Radack and Ralik. 

MULL, island of, one of the largest 
of the Hebrides, anciently was part of the 
territories of the lords of the isles ; but 
it subsequently came into the possession 
of the Macleans, who still retain half of 
it, the other part having belonged, since 
1674, to the dukes of Argyll. 

MULLER, WiLHELM, one of the 
most popular German lyric poets of his 
time, born October 7, 1794. Besides his 
larger \Torks, many tales and other pro- 
ductions from his pen appeared in va- 
rious pocket-books ; and in the " Ura- 
nia," for 1828, an admirable novellette, 
entitled " Deborah." He died Oct. 1, 
1827, aged 33. 

MULLER, the distinguished profes- 
sor of Gottingen, died at Athens, Aug. 
1, 1840, of a fever caught at Delphi, 
caused by exposing himself to the in- 
tense heat of the sun. 

MUM MY, a carcass or body embalmed 
or dried in the manner of the ancient 
Egyptians, A mummy which formed 
part of the collection of M. Passalacqua 
was opened in 1827, in the gallery of 
Egyptian Antiquities at Paris in pre- 
sence of her royal highness Madame, of 
the ambassadors of Prussia, Bavaria, and 
Tuscany, the duke of Blacas, Count 
Turpin, and Messrs. Champollion, 
Figeac, Champollion, junior, &c. After 
opening the external covering, which 
was attended with considerable difficulty, 
the bandages, which formed more than 
26 turnings, from the head to the feet, 
was unrolled. The body, by reason 



of the bituminous substances which 
had been employed in the process of 
embalming, was in a state of perfect 
preservation. 

1838. Among the curiosities lately 
added to the museum of the Royal So- 
ciety of Northern Antiquities at Copen- 
hagen, there is the mummy of a female, 
found in a peat bog near Haraldskioer 
in Jutland, supposed, on good grounds, 
to be the body of Gunnhilda, Queen of 
Normandy, whom King Harold Blaatand 
enticed, by promise of marriage, to 
come to Denmark in 965, when he 
put her to death by sinking her in a bog. 

1839. A million of mummies, it is 
stated, have lately been discovered in the 
environs of Durango, in Mexico. With 
them were found fragments of finely 
worked elastic tissues (probably our 
modern India-rubber cloth^) and neck- 
laces of a marine shell found at Zaca- 
tecas, on the Pacific, where the Indians, 
probably, landed from Hindoostan, or 
from the Malay or Chinese coast, or from 
their islands in the Indian Ocean. 

MUNDEN, John Shepperd, the 
eminent comic actor, was the son of a 
poulterer in Brooks' market, Holborn, 
where he was born in 1758. His father 
died soon afterwards, leaving his widow 
with slender means, and Munden was 
thrust upon the world to seek his for- 
tune at 1 2 years of age. After a variety 
of adventures at provincial theatres, he 
appeared Dec. 2, 1790, at Covent Gar- 
den theatre, as Sir Francis Gripe, in the 
" Busy Body," and Jemmy Jumps in the 
" Farmer ;" his success in which parts 
established his popularity. During his 
theatrical course he was successively the 
original representative of Old Rapid, 
Caustic, Brummagem, Lazarillo, (" Two 
Strings to your Bow,") Crack, Nipper- 
kin, Sir Abel Handy> Sir Robert Bramble, 
Old Dornton, &c. On May 31, 1824, 
he took his farewell of the stage, in the 
character of Sir Robert Bramble in the 
" Poor Gentleman," and Old Dozy in 
" Past Ten o'Clock." He died Feb. 6, 
1832, aged 73. 

MUNICH, capital of the kingdom of 
Bavaria. In 1632 it surrendered to the 
Swedes and German protestants, under 
Gustavus Adol|)hus ; in 1704, after the 
battle of Blenheim, it fell into the hands 
of the Bavarians; and in 1741 it shared 
the vicissitudes of war by the elector 
attempting to attain the imperial crown. 
For half a century it was free from war ; 



MUR 



663 



MUS 



but in 1796 the French army under 
Moreaa, obliged the elector to make a 
separate treaty. In 1800 Moreau again 
occupied Munich. 

MUNICIPAL Corporations. See 
Corporation. In 1836 and 1837 bills 
for the reform of Irish municipal corpo- 
rations were brought before parliament, 
which passed the commons, but were 
rejected by the lords. 

1840. Early in the first session of par- 
liament the subject was resumed, and the 
statute 3&4 Victoria c. 108 was passed 
August 10. It defined certain towns in 
which it was proposed to substitute cor- 
porations for those now existing, others 
in which the corporations were also to 
be abolished, but no others created, al- 
though power was given to the crown 
upon the petition of a majority of the 
inhabitants to establish corporations. 
The act gave the management of corpo- 
rate property in the towns in schedule 
B to the commissioners acting under 
9 Geo. IV., wherever that act was in ope- 
ration. It authorised the appointment 
of commissioner.s, provided the property 
was worth £100 a year ; but if it was not 
worth so much, then the act provided 
that it should be administered by the 
guardians of the poor, in aid of the poor- 
rates, and for general purposes. 

MUNRO, Major- General Sir 
Thomas, K.C.B., governor of Madras. 
He proceeded to India in the year 1778, 
as an infantry cadet, in the service of the 
East India Company, and was present 
at the fall of Seringapatam, in May, 
1779. He obtained the rank of lieut.- 
colonel in 1804 ; in 1808 he returned to 
England. He was next sent to Madras 
by the court of directors, on an important 
duty connected with the permanent set- 
tlement of the revenues of that presi- 
dency. He took his seat as governor on 
June 10, 1820. In 1819 he received the 
dignity of a knight companion ; and was 
created a baronet, June 30, 1825. He 
died in India July 6, 1827. 

MUNROE, James, president of the 
United States of America, bom 1759, 
died in India July 4, 1831. 

MUNTZER, Thomas, founder of the 
sect of Anabaptists, put to death 1525. 

MUR.\T, Joachim, brother-in-law 
of Buonapaite, made king of Naples, 
Aug. 1, 1808. Acceded to the confede- 
racy of sovereigns against Buonaparte, 
Jan., 1814. Having been defeated by 
the Austrians, he quitted Naples, April 



22, 1815. After wandering from Toulon 
to Corsica, and from Corsica to the 
coast of Calabria, he was there taken, 
tried by a military commission, and shot 
October 15. 

MURCIA, town, Spain, was taken by 
the Moors in 713, after a desperate re- 
sistance. In 1236 it was taken by Al- 
phonso X. of Castile. In the beginning 
of the 18th century it declared for the 
Bourbon branch. It was entered by the 
French April 23, 1810. 

MURPHY, Arthur, dramatic writer, 
and translator of " Tacitus," died 1819- 

MURRAY, Earl of, regent of Scot- 
land, killed Jan. 23, 1570. 

MURRAY, Dr. Alexander, the 
Orientalist, born 1775, died 1813. 

MUS^US, author of the poem of 
" Hero and Leander," flourished a. c. 
400. 

MUSEUM. The first person who 
formed a cabinet of natural and artificial 
curiosities in England was Sir John 
Tradescant, who lived in the reign ot 
Charles I. His son followed his example; 
by their joint exertions, a valuable col- 
lection was framed, which afterwards 
became the property of Mr. Elias Ash- 
mole, and was the origin of the Ashmo- 
lean Museum, at Oxford ; founded in 
1679 ; completed in 1682. 

Sir Ashton Lever opened his magni- 
ficent cabinet to the pubhc in Leicester- 
square, in 1780, which had cost him up- 
wards of £30,000, and which afterwards 
became the property of Mr. Parkinson, 
who erected a building suitable for its 
reception, near Blackfriars Bridge. The 
whole was sold by auction in several 
thousand lots, in the spring of 1806. 

Mr. Bullock, about three years after- 
wards, opened his interesting museum 
of natural history and other curiosities 
in a large apartment in Piccadilly, which 
was shortly after removed to a magnifi- 
cent edifice in the Egyptian style of ar- 
chitecture, near the end of Bond-street, 
in Piccadilly. 

ITie British Museum owes its origin 
to Sir Hans Sloane, whose collection was 
purchased by parliament, and opened in 
January 1759. See British Museum. 

MUSIC, in its ruder forms, was pro- 
bably known at the earliest periods of 
human existence. The Egyptians have 
produced more satisfactory proofs of the 
antiquity of their music than any other 
nation in the v.'orld. The monaulos, or 
single flute, called by the Egyptians 



MUS 



664 



MUS 



pliotinx, was one of the most ancient 
wind instruments used by them, or any 
other nation. But the chief music of 
the ancients was vocal, and reu;ulated 
entirely by the rhythm of the poetry. 
The hexameters of Homer were probably 
sung to melody which he hadcomjmsed. 
It has been disputed whether or not the 
ancients had any knowledge of harmony; 
that is, of music in parts. Dr. Burney 
concludes on the whole, that though 
they might employ in their music those 
chords which were most perfect and sim- 
ple, such as the octave, the fifth, and the 
third, they were ignorant of what is now 
termed regular counterpoint. 

The invention of notation and musical 
characters is ascribed to Terpander, a ce- 
lebrated poet and musician, who flourished 
about the 27th Olympiad, or a.c. 671- 
Among the Greeks this department of 
science became the source of various 
sects, and of much diversity of opinion. 
The founders of the most distinguished 
sects were Pythagoras and Aristoxenus. 
Of late the opinions of Pythagoras have 
been on some important points con- 
firmed by absolute demonstration. 

Music was early introduced into the 
Christian church. The practice of chant- 
ing the psalms was brought into the 
western churches by St Ambrose, about 
350, and improved by St. Gregory the 
Great, in 600. In England music was 
employed in the church service, first by 
St. Augustine, and afterwards much im- 
proved by St. Dunstan, who was himself 
an eminent musician, and who is said to 
have first furnished the English churches 
and convents with the organ. The first 
organ seen in France was sent from 
Constantinople in 757. In Italy, Ger- 
many, and England, it became common 
in the course of the 10th century. Guido 
Aretino, a monk of Arezzo in, Tuscany, 
is, in the general opinion, supposed to 
have entertained the first idea of coun- 
terpoint about 1022. He was also the 
inventor of the method of solmisafion, or 
singing by syllables. See Aretino, 

The invention of the time table is at- 
tributed by almost all the writers on 
music to John de Muris, who flourished 
about 1330. But in the manuscript of 
John de Muris himself, in the Vatican 
library, that honour seems to be yielded 
to Magister Franco, who lived about 
10S3. John de Muris, however, very 
much improved the art of counterpoint. 
Florid counterpoint, or figurative har- 



mony, is ascribed to the English, and in- 
dividually to John Dunstable, who died 
about 1453. 

In the l6th century music was an in- 
dispensable part of polite education : all 
the princes of Europe were instructed in 
that art. A collection is still preserved 
in manuscript, called " Queen Eliza- 
beth's Virginal Book." During the 
reign of Elizabeth the genius and learn- 
ing of the British musicians were not 
inferior to any on the continent. To- 
wards the close of the reign of James I. 
a music lecture, or professorship, was 
founded in the university of Oxford, by 
Dr. William Hychin. In the reign of 
Charles I. a charter was granted to the 
musicians of Westminster, incorporating 
them, as the king's musicians, into a 
body politic. Prior to 1600 there was 
little other music except masses and ma- 
drigals, the two principal divisions of 
sacred and secular music; but, from 
that time to the present, dramatic music 
has become the chief object of attention. 
At Rome, the first public theatre opened 
for the exhibition of musical dramas, in 
modern times, was II Torre de Nona, 
where, in 1671, "Giasone"was per- 
formed. 

The year 1710 is distinguished by the 
arrival in Britain of George Frederick 
Handel, and the sacred musical drama, 
or Oratorio, though invented early in 
the 14th centur)', was now revived under 
favourable auspices, and first brought 
into general notice. See Handel. 
During the latter part of the 18th cen- 
tury many eminent composers also flou- 
rished on the continent, as Jomelli, the 
family of the Bachs, Gliick, and Haydn ; 
but no discoveries or improvements have 
taken place in the science which merit 
particular notice. Within the last few 
years several new instruments have been 
invented. See Musical Boxes, Har- 
monica, Harmoniphon, &c. 

MUSICAL Boxes, first introduced 
1817. 

MUSICAL Glasses. See Harmo- 
nica. 

MUSICIANS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1604. 

MUSKETS, first used in France at 
the siege of Arras, 1414 ; in general use 
1521. 

MUSLINS, originally manufactured 
in India ; first worn in England 1670; 
324,352 pieces were sold by the East 
India Coinpanyin 17S9 ; they were first 



N A"I 665 

manufactured in England in 1781. They 
are made in immense quantities at Man- 
chester, Glasgow, &c., of a fineness and 
durabiUty which rival those of India, 
at the same time that they are very con- 
siderably cheaper. See Cotton. 

MUSSCHENBROECK, Peter De, 
an eminent mathematician and natural 
philosopher, was born at Leyden in 1692. 
He became professor of mathematics and 
natural philosophy at his native place, 
in which department he greatly distin- 
guished himself. He was elected a 
member of the Royal Society of London, 
and also of the Academy of Sciences at 
Paris. He died in 1761. 

MUTINY, in the army or navy, de- 
notes any insurrection against authority. 
A mutiny took place on board the fleet 
at Portsmouth for advance of wages, &c., 
April 18,1797- It partially subsided by a 
promise from the Admiralty Board, which 
being delayed, occasioned a recommence- 
ment on board the London man of war, 
when Admiral Colpoys and his captain 
were put into confinement for ordering 
the marines to fire, whereby three lives 
were lost. The mutiny subsided May 10, 
when an act passed to raise their wages, 
and the king pardoned the mutineers. 
A more considerable one broke out at 
the Nore, which blocked up the trade of 
the Thames : it subsided June 10, 1797, 
when the principal mutineers were put 
in irons, and several were executed. 

MUTINY Act, annually passed by 
parliament, to punish mutiny and de- 
sertion, and for the better payment of 
the army and their quarters. The first 
of these acts passed on April 12, 1689, 
and was to continue in force to Nov, 10, 
in the same year ; it continued as a 
matter of course, to 9 George IV., 1828. 
The following year an alteration was 
made by 10 George IV. c. 6, passed 
March 23, 1829, which diflFered from the 
last mutiny act, principally in the sim- 
plicity of its arrangement, by which it 



NAM 



was very considerably shortened; the 
former act consisting of 163 sections, and 
the latter only of 77. By section 1, the 
number of forces were reduced from 
91,075 to 89,723; and by sect. 9, the 
powers of district and garrison court- 
martial were greatly enlarged, and 
modified to suit the present time. By 
1 William IV. c. 15, March 15,1831, fur- 
ther improvements were made. By sec- 
tion 10, the powers of regimental court- 
martials were defined : " they may sen- 
tence any soldier to imprisonment, with 
or without hard labour, for any period 
under 30 days, and to solitary confine- 
ment, under 20 days," &c. 

MYSORE, province, in the south of 
India, situated between the 11th and 
15th degrees of north latitude, and now 
surrounded by the British territories, 
under the Madras presidency. The 
whole of this country was subdued by 
Hyder All, who usurped the throne of 
Mysore in 1759, madeSeringapatam his 
capital, and was engaged in a war with 
the Company. He was succeeded by 
Tippoo Sultaun, who continued his 
father's state of warfare. On the termi- 
nation of the war in 1792, Tippoo agreed 
to pay 30 lacs of rupees, and to cede 
one half of his dominions to the English 
and their allies. In 1799, a new war 
taking place, his capital was taken by the 
English on May 4, and himself killed in 
the assault. A partition of his remain- 
ing territories took place ; and on June 30 
following, Kistna Rajah, then only five 
years old, was placed by the British on the 
throne of his forefathers, and remains 
entirely dependent on their protection. 

MYSTICS, a rehgious sect, distin- 
guished by their professing pure, sub- 
lime, and perfect devotion, flourished in 
the fourth century. In the 13th century 
they were the most formidable antago- 
nists of the schoolmen ; and had, in the 
15th century, many persons of distin- 
guished merit in their number. 



N, 



NAHUM, the prophet, flourished a.c. 
758. 

NAIAD Transport, lost by strik- 
ing on the rocks oflF the coast of New- 
foundland, Oct. 23, 1805. 

NAIAD Frigate, attacked off Bou- 



logne by seven French praams, by order 
of Buonaparte, which were repulsed and 
driven under their batteries, Sept. 21, 
1811. 

NAMUR, fortified town, Belgium, 
celebrated in English history for the 
4 a 



NAP 



6G6 



NAS 



long siege which it sustained in 1692, 
against Louis XIV,, and again in 1695, 
against Willian III. of England. It was 
often taken and retaken during the wars 
of the French revolution ; and it was the 
scene of an obstinate conflict in J 815, 
between the Prussians and the French, 
under Grouchy, when retreating after 
the battle of Waterloo. 

NANTES, city, France, department of 
the Lower Loire. Its university, founded 
in 1460, has, since the revolution, been 
converted into a lyceum. It has been 
the seat of several ecclesiastical councils, 
and is noted for the celebrated edict is- 
sued there by Henry IV., in 1598, in 
favour of the protestants, which was re- 
voked in 1685. 

NANTWICH, market town, Che- 
shire. In the reign of William the Con- 
queror, a sanguinary battle between the 
English and Welsh was fought in its vi- 
cinity. In 1113 it was laid waste by the 
Welsh, and in 1146 a band of these 
mountaineers was defeated here. At the 
time of the civil wars between the king 
and the parliament, in the I7th century. 
Lord Byron besieged it for the king; 
but his army was attacked and defeated 
by the parliamentary forces under Sir 
William Fairfax. In 1438 almost every 
house in the town was consumed by 
fire. 

NAPIER, John, baron of Merchis- 
ton, in Scotland, celebrated as the in- 
ventor of the logarithms, was born in 
1550. After going through the ordinary 
course at the University of St. Andrew's, 
he made the tour of France, Italy, and 
Germany. He communicated his dis- 
covery of the logarithms to Mr. Briggs, 
mathematical professor in Gresham col- 
lege in 1615. See Logarithms. His 
last literary exertion was the publication 
of his " Rabdalogia and Promptuary," 
in 1617, containing the description and 
use of an apparatus called Napier's 
Bones. See the next article. He died 
at Merchiston, April 3, the same year, 
in the 68th year of his age. 

NAPIER'S Bones, a method of 
computation by means of marked pieces 
of wood, invented by Lord Napier, 1617. 
NAPLES, kingdom, Italy, anciently 
Capua and Campania. Great part of the 
country was inhabited in ancient times by 
the Etruscans,who built Nolaand Capua. 
Tins territory has undergone various re- 
volutions, and was distinguished from 
another division of Sicily by the title of 



the kingdom of Puglia, of which Roger,' 
count of Sicily, was the first monarch, 
II 27. Given by the pope to the Compte 
d'Anjou, inl266, in exclusion of the right 
heir, Conradin, who was taken prisoner 
and beheaded, aged 16. 

1386. Charles, king of Naples, being 
invited by the Hungarians to the crown 
of Hungary, was, when there, crowned ; 
afterwards murdered by order of the 
queen regent, who for this was soon 
after taken out of her carriage, and 
drowned in the river Boseth, 

1442. Alphonsus, of Arragon, united 
Sicily to Naples, and the sovereigns have 
been since called kings of the Two Sici- 
lies. The kingdom was taken from the 
French and annexed to Spain 1504 ; con- 
tinued with the Spaniards till 1706, when 
it was again taken by the emperor; con- 
quered by the Spaniards again 1734 ; set- 
tled on Don Ca:rlos, son of the king of 
Spain, 1736; resigned to his third son, 
Ferdinand, 1759. 

1799. The French seized on Naples, 
and compelled the king to retire to Si- 
cily, Jan. 24, but it was restored on July 
10, following, when the king returned. 
In 1806 the lawful monarch was again 
driven from Naples, and Joseph Buona- 
parte made king of it by his brother. 
1808. The crown transferred to Joa- 
chim Murat, Aug. 1 ; restored to Ferdi- 
nand 1814. 

1840. Although Naples is well situ- 
ated for commerce, since the restora- 
tion, the unwise policy of the govern- 
ment has been most unfavourable to its 
growth, and has confined it within com- 
paratively narrow limits. The annual 
imports into Naples, from Britain and 
her colonies, amount to £575,000 ; the 
e.xports £174,000. Disputes with Na- 
ples respecting the sulphur monopoly by 
a French company ; settled in April by 
the mediation of the French government. 

NARES, Dr., musical composer, born 
1715, died 1783. 

NARES, Rkv. Robert, author of 
" The Elements of Orthoepy," &c., died 
1829, aged 75. 

NARVA, a sea-port town, European 
Russia, was taken by the Russians from 
the Danes in 1558, and by the Swedes 
in 1581. Near Narva is also the spot 
celebrated for the victory which Charles 
XII., in the 19th year of his age, gained 
over the Russian army in 1700. 

NASEBY, parish, Northamptonshire. J 
On Naseby field, adjacent to this village. 



NAT 667 ■ N AT 

was fought in 1645, a memorable battle 1839- Disputes arose between Dingan, 

between the royalists and parliamenta- the Caffre chief, and the colonists, in 

rians, in which the royalists were totally which the former had carried off their 

defeated. " cattle : nevertheless, by accounts from 

NASH, John, a modern architect; Port-Natal to September 4, the new 

one of those attached to the board of colony appeared to be in a fair way of 

works. He designed tlie Pavilion, at progress, and cultivation was going on 

Brighton; the New Palace, at St. James's prosperously. Several interviews had 

Park; Regent-street; and the Regent's taken place between the chiefs of the 

Park. He died May 13, 1835. emigrant camp and Dingan, the Caffre 

• NASH, Richard, familiarly styled leader, and his envoys. Since that time 

" King of Bath," died 1761. the death of Dingan has taken place. 

NASH, Thomas, satirist and dra- NATIONAL Assembly of France, 

matist, born 1564, died 1601. instituted May 4, 1789. 

NATAL, Port, South Africa, coun- NATIONAL Debt, sums which have 
tiy of the Zoolas, on a river of the same been, from time to time, lent to govern- 
name. The country was discovered in ment. See Funds. The practice of 
1498, by Vasco de Gama, during his regular loans to defray the war ex- 
first voyage, and was frequented by the penditure, began in this country in the 
earlier navigators to India. Captain reign of William III. Before that time 
Vidal, of his majesty's vessel Barracouta, it was customary to borrow upon the 
visited the coast of Natal in 1823, and security of some tax, set apart as a fund 
explored it by order of government ; and for discharging the principal and interest 
since 1824. Port Natal has been almost of the sum borrowed. This discharge 
constantly occupied by British subjects, was, however, very rarely effected, 
who have succeeded in opening a trade The following is an account of the 
with the natives, which gradually in- progress of the national debt of Great 
creased, from the encouragement af- Britain, from the Revolution to the 
forded by the Zoolas. present time : — 

Frincipiil. Interest. 

£ £ 

Debt at the Revolution in 1689 664,263 39,855 

Excess of debt contracted during the reign of 

William III., above debt paid off 15,730,439 1,271,087 

Debt at the accession of Queen Anne in 1702. . 16,394,702 1,310,942 

Debt contracted during Queen Anne's reign 37,750,661 2,040,416 

Debt at the accession of George I. in 1714 54,145,363 3,351,358 

Debt paid off during the reign of George I. above 

debt contracted 2,053,125 1,133,807 

Debt at the accession of George II. in 1727 • • 52,092,238 2,217,551 
Debt contracted from the accession ol George II. 

till the peace of Paris in 1763, three years 

after the accession of George III 86,773,192 2,634,500 

Debt in 1763 138,865,430 4,852,051 

Paid during peace 10,281,795 380,480 

Debt at the commencement of the American war 

in 1775 128,588,635 4,471,571 

Debt contracted during the American war 121,267,993 4,980,201 

Debt at the conclusion of the American war in 

1784 249,851,628 9,451,772 

Paid during peace, from 1784 to 1793 10,501,380 243,277 

Debt at the commencement of the French war in 

1793 239,350,148 9,208,495 

Debt contracted during the French war 608,932,329 24,645,971 

Total funded and unfunded debt, Jan. 5, 1817. 

when the English and Irish Exchequers were 

consolidated 848,282,477 33,854,466 

Since 1817 a deduction has been made of the debt, and about 5,000,000 from 
of above 80,000,000 from the principal the annual charge on its account. This 



N A V 



668 



NAV 



diminution has been principally effected pay off the holders of different stocks, 
by taking advantage of the fall in rate of unless they consent to accept a reduced 
interest since the peace, and offering to payment. 

State of the Public Funded Debt of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Charge 
thereon, on January 5, 1839. 



Great Britain 


Capitals. 


Capitals standing 

in the Names 
of the Commis- 
sioners. 


Capitals unre- 
deemed. 


£729,510,658 
33,260,566 


£1,423,534 


£728,087,123 
33,260,566 


Total United Kingdom . 


£762,771,224 


£1,423,534 


£761,347,690 



NATIONAL Gallery, Trafalgar- 
square, commenced 1834, exterior com- 
pleted 1837. The structure is from the 
design and under the direction of Mr. 
Wilkins. The Royal Academy are ac- 
commodated with a part of the National 
Gallery for their exhibitions. 

NATIVITY OF THE Virgin, a feast 
established by Pope Sergius I., who was 
advanced to the see of Rome in 687, and 
observed on Sept. 8. 

NATURALIZATION, the act of na- 
turalizing an alien, or putting him into 
the condition of a natural-born subject. 
First law for, in England, 1487. Natu- 
ralization of Jews' bill passed 1753 ; re- 
pealed December following. 

NAUMBERG, treaty of, between Au- 
gustus, elector of Saxony, and the de- 
posed elector, John Frederick, 1554. The 
electorate to descend to John Frederick 
and his heirs, in default of heirs male of 
Augustus. 

NAVAL Asylum, instituted by the 
duke of Clarence, 1801. 

NAVARINO, or Navarin, seaport 
town, kingdom cf Greece, on the west 
coast of the Morea, memorable for the 
destruction of the Turkish and Egyptian 
fleets, by the English, French, and Rus- 
sians, in 1827. The battle commenced 
at two o'clock in the afternoon of Oct. 20, 
and continued with unabated fury dur- 
ing four hours. Atthe end of that period 
the Turkish and Egyptian fleets had dis- 
appeared ; the bay of Navarino was co- 
vered with their wrecks ; only a few of 
the smaller vessels, or some battered and 
useless hulks, escaped into the security 
of the inner harbour. The severest loss 
on the side of the allies was sustained 
by the British squadron, which had 75 
men killed, and 197 wounded. Nava- 
rino was taken possession of by the 



troops of the French expedition, witbout 
any resistance from the Turkish garri- 
son, Oct. 6, 1828. 

NAVARRE, a province of the north- 
east of Spain. This territory in 470 was 
seized by Euric, the king of the Goths. 
These people were expelled by the 
Moors ; but in 806 the latter were, in 
their turn, driven out by Louis, king of 
Aquitaine, a son of Charlemagne. About 
half a century after, a count of Bigorre 
established in Navarre a sovereignty, 
which lasted in his family 500 years. In 
1512 the kingdom was dismembered. 
The reigning prince seized all the part 
lying on the Spanish side of the Pyre- 
nees ; but French Navarre preserved its 
independence, and continued a separate 
state, till added to the dominions of 
France by the accession of Henry IV. to 
the throne of the latter, in the end of the 
l6th century. 

NAVIGATION. The Phoenicians 
were the first people who cultivated this 
art to any useful extent. They were the 
first who passed through the Straits of 
Gibraltar, a.c. 1250, and subsequently 
visited the western coast of Spain and 
Africa. The Carthaginians exceeded 
them in the extent of their voyages to- 
wards the west and north. The ancient 
navigation was, after all, very imperfect 
till the invention of the mariner's 
compass, said to have been known to 
the Venetians a.d. 1260. See Com- 
pass. The Portuguese were the earliest 
people who, after this period, made any 
pretensions to superior knowledge in 
marine affairs. In the reign of John I. 
1420, they discovered Madeira and the 
Canaries. Plain charts and the ma- 
riner's compass were both in use about 
1420. 

1492. Variation of the compass disco- 



NAV 



GG9 



NEC 



vered by Columbus. 1537. That the 
oblique rhomb lines are spirals, disco- 
vered by Nonius. First treatise on na- 
vigation in 1545, was published at Val- 
ladolid, by Pedro de Medina, under the 
title of " Arte de Nauegar ;" this was fol- 
lowed 1 1 years after by another work of 
the same kind, published at Seville, by 
Martin Cortes. The log first mentioned 
by Bourne in 1577- Mercator's chart 
introduced 1599. See Chart. 1600. 
Davis's quadrant, or backstaff, for mea- 
suring angles, used about this time. 
1620. Logarithmic tables applied to na- 
vigation by Gunter. 1623. Middle lati- 
tude saihng introduced. 1631. Nor- 
wood's mensuration of degrees. 1731. 
Hadley's quadrant introduced. 1764. 
Harrison's time-keeper used. See Chro- 
nometer. 1767- Nautical almanac first 
published. 1820. Barlow's theory of 
the deviation of the compass. 

NAVIGATION Lavps. The origin 
of these laws may be traced to the reign 
of Richard II. in the first navigation act, 
1381. In the reign of Henry VII., two 
of the leading principles of our later na- 
vigation laws, were distinctly recognised 
in the prohibition of the importation of 
certain commodities, unless imported in 
ships belonging to English owners, and 
manned by English seamen. In the 
early part of the reign of Elizabeth (5 
Elizabeth, c. 5.), foreign ships were ex- 
cluded from our fisheries and coasting 
trade. The republican parliament gave 
a great extension to the navigation laws, 
by the act in 16.50, which prohibited all 
ships, of all foreign nations whatever, 
from trading with the plantations in 
America, without having previously ob- 
tained a hcence. The following year, 
Oct. 9j 1651, the republican parliament 
passed the famous act of navigation ; in- 
tended not only to promote our own na- 
vigation, but also to strike a decisive 
blow at the naval power of the Dutch. 
The leading provisions of this act were 
adopted by the regal government which 
succeeded Cromwell, and formed the 
basis of the act of the 12th Car. II. 
c. 18, which continued in force till the 
late act, 3 and 4 Will. III. c. 54, passed 
Aug. 28, 1833. This statute, entitled 
" An act for the encouragement of Bri- 
tish shipping and navigation," prohibits 
the importation of certain goods from 
diflFerent parts of the world into the 
United Kingdom, except in British ships 
or ships of the country of which the 



goods are the produce, with certain ex- 
ceptions therein named, &c. 

NAVIGATORS' Isles, a cluster of 
10 islands in the Pacific Ocean, disco- 
vered by Bougainville, and explored by 
Perouse in 1787. They were visited 
several times, from 1823 to 1830, by the 
late Mr. WiUiams, the missionary, and 
particularly described in his work. 

NAVY OF England, at the time of 
the Spanish Armada, was only 42 ves- 
sels, 34 in an eflficient state, and 8 in 
dock, but none larger than frigates. At 
the death of Cromwell, the English navy 
consisted of 157 vessels. In 1756 it 
consisted of 320 vessels of various classes. 
In 1776 it consisted of 130 ships of the 
line, and 209 vessels below 50 guns. In 

1778 it was increased to 450 vessels. In 
1782 it consisted of 600 vessels, 161 
of which were line-of-battle ships. In 

1779 it consisted of of 864, of which 180 
were line-of-battle ships. In 1807 it 
consisted of 627 ships in commission, 
and 66 on the stocks. During the period 
between 1806 and 1812 the British navy, 
including ordnance and tenders, seldom 
consisted of less than 1000 pendants 
floating in the breeze. In 1834, accord- 
ing to oflScial returns, it consisted of 557 
vessels of various classes, including 12 
ships of 120 guns, and 14 from 104 to 
132. 

The naval force, during the same pe- 
riod, of the three other principal powers, 
namely, France, Russia, and America, 
were — France had 31 sail of the line, 
and 37 frigates ; Russia 36 sail of the 
line and 23 frigates ; and America 8 
sail of the line and 10 frigates. We 
have no further account since the above 
period. 

NAVY Office, founded Dec. 4, 
1644. 

NEATH Abbey, Glamorganshire, 
built 1150; castle built 1090. 

NEBUCHADNEZZAR made the 
kingdom of Judah tributary, a.c. 605; 
pillaged the temple of Jerusalem 597 ; 
took that city, after a siege of 18 months ; 
took Tyre, 572. His death took place 
562. 

NECHO,king of Egypt, began a canal 
for uniting the Nile with the Red Sea, 
A.c. 610 ; invaded Judah 608 ; ordered 
a voyage of discovery to be undertaken, 
being the first on record, 604. 

NECKER, James, the distinguished 
financier and statesman of France, was 
born at Geneva in 1732; was sent to 



i\ E L 670 

Paris in 1746. His reputation for finan- 
cial knowledge caused him, in 1776, to 
be appointed director of the French 
finances. He continued for many years 
to enjoy the confidence of the French 
monarch; but about 1781 he published 
a work, entitled the " Compte Rendu," 
which produced debates, and ended in 
his resignation. Necker was recalled in 
the month of August 1788. Conten- 
tions ensued, which terminated in an 
order for him to leave Paris within 24 
hours, July 11, 1789- As soon as his 
dismission was known, the whole city 
was in a flame. The destruction of the 
Bastile soon followed ; and the king 
was glad to send an express, urging his 
return. His entrance into Paris was 
regarded as a day of rejoicing. But the 
popularity of Necker had reached its 
summit. His personal safety was en- 
dangered, and he quitted Paris, and re- 
turned to Switzerland. This extraordi- 
nary man died August 9, 1804. 

NEEDLES were first made in Eng- 
land by a native of India in 1545, but 
the art was lost at his death; it was, 
however recovered by Christopher Green- 
ing in 1560, who was settled at Long 
Crendon in Bucks, where the manufac- 
tory has been carried on to the present 
day. 

1838. At the late meeting of the 
British Association were exhibited se- 
veral specimens, illustrating the progress 
of manufacturing needles by new patent 
machinery, invented by Mr. S. Cocker, 
Porter Works, Sheffield. The value of 
labour from the wire. No. 1 to 7 inclu- 
sive, would be Is. per thousand. The ex- 
pense by patent machinery, from No. 1 
to 5 or 6 inclusive, Id. per thousand. 
One hundred patent machines will, by 
the power of a six-horse steam-engine, be 
sufficient to produce 14,000,000 needles 
per week. 

NEEDLE Makers' Company, Lon- 
don, incorporated 1656. 

NEELE, Henry, author of "Ro- 
mance of History," &c., born 1798, 
died 1828. 

NEHEML^H, the prophet, flourished 
A.c. 450. 

NELSON, Viscount Horatio, one 
of the most distinguished commanders 
of the British navy, was born 1753, and, 
discovering at an early age strong pre- 
dilection for the naval profession, he 
was sent in 1771 to the West Indies in 
a merchantman. After several other 



NEL 



appointments he was sent again to serve 
in the West Indies, where he became 
acquainted with Prince WiUiam Henry, 
afterwards William IV., who, from that 
time, proved a friend to him through life. 
In 1783 Nelson was a third time sta- 
tioned in the West Indies, where he 
found himself senior captain, under Sir 
Edward Hughes. In 1795, as commo- 
dore, he was in the Mediterranean with 
Sir John Jervis. In the battle of St. 
Vincent, in 1797, he distinguished him- 
self by prodigies of enterprising valour. 
In the course of the action, determining 
to board the San Nicholas, he accompanied 
the party in the attack ; passing from 
the forechains of his own ship into the 
enemy's quarter-deck, he arrived in time 
to receive the sword of the dying com- 
mander, who had been mortally wounded 
by the boarders. On July 15 he was 
detached with a small squadron to make 
an attack on the town of Santa Cruz, in 
the island of Teneriff"e. Nelson, in the 
act of stepping out of the boat, received 
a shot through the right elbow, and fell. 
The same night at 10 o'clock his arm 
was amputated. 

Early in 1798 Nelson, now an admiral, 
rejoined Earl St. Vincent in the Medi- 
terranean, and on Aug. 1, the important 
engagement of the Nile took place. In 
the midst of the battle, about 10 o'clock, 
the Orient blew up with a most tremen- 
dous explosion. The firing instantly 
ceased on both sides, and the first sound 
was the fall of her shattered masts and 
yards, which had been carried to an as- 
tonishing height. The victory was so 
complete that, of 13 sail of the line, nine 
were taken and two burnt : of the four 
frigates, one was sunk and another 
burnt. In consequence, of this victory 
he was created Baron Nelson of the 
Nile, and a pension of £2000 a-year for 
three lives was confered upon him. In 
1801 he was appointed second in com- 
mand over a fleet sent to the Baltic to 
chastise Denmark, Sweden, and Russia, 
for a coalition with France against the 
maritime rights of Great Britain. In the 
engagement which took place, and which 
was entrusted entirely to Nelson's ma- 
nagement, he displayed the most un- 
daunted bravery, as well as unparalleled 
skill. After the peace of Amiens, he re- 
tired to a house which he had purchased, 
at Merton, in Surrey. In January, 1805, 
the French fleet escaped out of Toulon, 
and joining the Spanish, sailed for the 




'%(^ 



'Vid)(^(^ 



Bata«3 of Ui-afalga 



'Nelson woa-Mdod av Sar^ta Crrvz. 



T.oNDOw: •jiiOMAS kkijjY, ae*p . 



NEP 



671 



NER 



West Indies, and Nelson pursued them. 
From this unparalleled chace of more 
than 7000 miles full speed. Nelson re- 
turned to England, Aug. 1. In 1806 
he once more left his native country, to 
take the command of a fleet destined to 
achieve the greatest naval victory on re- 
cord, in which he nobly fell at the mo- 
ment of victory, Oct. 21. See Trafal- 
gar. All the honours which a grate- 
ful country could bestow, were heaped 
upon the memory of Nelson. His 
brother was made an earl, with a grant 
of £6000 a-year ; £10,000 were voted to 
each of his sisters ; and £100,000 for the 
purchase of an estate. A public funeral 
was decreed, which took place with cir- 
cumstances of unusual splendour, at the 
public expense, and he was buried at St. 
Paul's church, London, Jan. 9. 1807- 

NELSON, Earl, Duke of Bronti, 
brother of the celebrated naval hero, died 
Feb. 28, 1835, in his 78th year. The heir 
to the title, a nephew of the naval hero, 
after enjoying the honour for a few 
months, died Oct. 31. He was succeed- 
ed by his son, a boy of 10 years of age. 

NJELSON, Robert, divine, of the 
Church of England, author of "Fasts 
and Festivals," and other works, was 
born at London, in 1656. He died at 
Kensington, Jan. 1715, in his 59th year. 
He left his whole fortune to pious and 
charitable purposes, tojwhich he had de- 
voted a great part of his income during 
life. 

NEMiEAN Games, instituted by 
Adrastus, a.c. 1226; revived 568. They 
were celebrated every third year by cha- 
riot races, and the victors were crowned 
with parsley. 

NEMOURS, town, France, was the 
scene of an action between the French 
and Austrians in 1814. 

NENNIUS, an ancient British histo- 
rian, abbot of Bangor, is generally said 
to have flourished about 620, and to 
have taken refuge at Chester, at the time 
of the massacre of the monks at that mo- 
nastery. He was author of several 
works ; but the only one remaining is his 
" Historia Britonum;" or " Eulogium 
Britanniae." 

NEPAUL, important kingdom. North- 
ern Hindoostan. The Brahmins, at a 
period prior to any known records, pene- 
trated in great numbers into Nepaul, 
where their superior knowledge soon 
enabled them to act a leading part. 
They absorbed most of the civil de- 



partments of government, and effected 
the conversion of the people. The whole 
territory was made subject to the mili- 
tary government of the rajah of Gorkha. 
Sikian, the most easterly of the present 
Nepaulese dominions, was conquered in 
1788; but it was not until the com- 
mencement of the present century that 
the accession of Garhawl extended the 
empire to its western hmit, beyond the 
Jumna. The government having in- 
volved itself in war with Britain, and 
being completely vanquished, was ob- 
liged to cede these western conquests. 
This conflict terminated April 2/, 1815 ; 
the treaty of peace was signed between 
the parties, Dec. 2. War was renewed 
by an infraction of the treaty by the Ne- 
paulese, Jan. 1816. After several con- 
tests unfavourable to the Nepaulese, the 
former treaty was ratified, March 15, 
the same year. 

1840. Insurrection in Nepaul against 
the British authority. The insurgents, 
amounting to 8000 men, took possession 
of the whole of the Chumparun district. 
The indigo planters, Europeans and ci- 
vilians, fled before them. They pro- 
ceeded to the capital, and blockaded the 
British resident and his escort. The 
rajah positively disclaimed any know- 
ledge or connection with the affair. 

NEPOS, Cornelius, a celebrated 
Roman biographer and historian, who 
flourished in the reign of Julius Caesax", 
and lived, according to St. Jerome, to 
the sixth year of Augustus. As an au- 
thor, he is known by his " De Vitis Ex- 
cellentium Imperatorum," which is his 
only work that has reached modern 
times. 

NEREIDE, British frigate, stranded 
and fell into the hands of the French at 
the Cape of Good Hope, August 23, 
1810. 

NERO, Claudius DomitiusC^- 
SAR, the Roman emperor, celebrated 
chiefly for his tyranny and cruelty. He 
was adopted by Claudius, a. d. 50, and 
four years after succeeded him on the 
throne. Nero's mother, having of- 
fended him, he removed her out of the 
way by poison in 55. Many of his 
courtiers shared this unhappy fate ; and 
Nero sacrificed to his fury or caprice all 
who obstructed his pleasure or opposed 
his inclination. In 62 he divorced his 
wife, whom he banished and afterwards 
put to death. From this time, acts of 
cruelty and rapacity alone marked the 



NET 



672 



NEW 



life of Nero. In the terrible conflagration 
of Rome in 64, he caused the christians 
to be accused as the incendiaries, and 
put to death. Many conspiracies were 
formed against liim ; but they were ge- 
nerally discovered. The conspiracy of 
Galba, however, at length proved suc- 
cessful; and to avoid the consequences, 
he destroyed himself in 68, in the 32d 
year of his age, after a reign of 13 years 
and eight months. 

NESBIT. Dr., Enghsh physician, 
died 1761. 

NESBIT, AbEXAnDER, heraldic 
writer, born 1672, died 1725. 

NESTORIANS, an ancient sect of 
christians, whose distinguishing tenet is 
that Mary is not the mother of God. 
Their name originated from Nestorius, 
bishop of Constantinople in 439. In 
the 10th century, the Nestoriansin Chal- 
dea, extended their spiritual conquests 
beyond Mount Imaus, and introduced 
the christian religion into Tartary. The 
spiritual dominion of the great Nestorian 
pontiffs is still very extensive, including 
a great part of Asia. 

NETH ERLANDS. This country was 
conquered and kept in subjection by the 
Romans, till tiie decline of their 'empire 
in the fifth century ; the Franks then 
occupied it ; and for a considerable time 
it formed part of the kingdom of Aus- 
trasia, of which Metz was the capital. 
It was subsequently jilaced under the 
government of counts or earls. Hav- 
ing afterwards been incorporated 
with the possessions of the dukes of 
Burgundy, the Netherlands passed to 
Maximilian of Austria, father of the em- 
peror Charles V. The latter united the 
17 provinces into one state, and pub- 
lished, in 1549, a law that they should in 
future be all governed by the same so- 
vereign. The l)igotry of his son Phihp 
II. produced the separation of the Dutch 
provinces. The others continued under 
the Spanish crown until the middle of 
the I7th century, when the activity of 
Conde, and the more formidable tactics 
of Turenne, were both exerted to add 
them to the dominions of Louis XIV. 
" After the battle of Ramillies, in 1706, 
the Netherlands were brought under the 
power of the allies, and assigned to Aus- 
tria by the peace of Utrecht. In the war of 
the French revolution when hostilities 
commenced in 1792, Austria lost the Ne- 
therlands in the first campaign. Though 
recovered in 1/93, they passed in 1794 



to France. In 1814, in consequence of 
the revolution which replaced the sceptre 
in the hands of the Bourbons, the vvhole 
17 provinces were erected into one king- 
dom along with the grand duchy of 
Luxemburg. By the revolt of the Bel- 
gic provinces, however, this territory has 
been again divided into two separate 
kingdoms; viz. Holland and Bel- 
gium, which see. 

NETLEY ABBEY/Hants, built 1239; 
castle built 1540. 

NKUFCHATEL, canton, west of 
Switzerland, originally formed, with the 
neighbouring principality of Valengin, 
a small state, enjoying a considerable 
share of freedom. In 1707 the state ac- 
knowledged the claims of the king of 
Prussia, till, by the treaty of Tilsit, in 
1807, it was ceded to France. The 
events of 1814 relieved it from subjec- 
tion ; after which the congress of Vi- 
enna acknowledged it as a Swiss canton. 

NEVA, convict-ship, lost, with 224 
convicts on board. May 14, 1835. 

NEVIS Isle, West Indies, was dis- 
covered by Columbus, and said to have 
received its name from him, from an 
opinion that its top was covered with 
snow. An English colony from St. 
Christopher's first settled here in 1628. 
It was taken by the French February 
14, 1782; but restored to the English 
in 1783. 

NEWBURY, market town, Berks, 
was formerly celebrated for its woollen 
manufactures. In the reign of Henry 
VIII., John Winchcombe (Jack of New- 
bury), kept 100 looms at work upon his 
own premises. A new charter was 
granted in 1596, by Queen Elizabeth. 

NEWBURY Bank, robbed of pro- 
perty to the amount of £20,000, Dec. 1 1, 
1815. 

NEWCASTLE- ON-TYNE, seaport, 
Northumberland, called by the Anglo- 
Saxons, Moncaster, from its being in- 
habited chiefly by monks. Robert, son 
of William I., built a castle here, and 
gave the town its present name. In the 
reign of Edward I. it was taken and 
burnt by the Scots, but was quickly re- 
built. It was one of the principal com- 
mercial ports of England as early as the 
time of Edward I., and has continued so 
to the present time. The prosperity of 
the town has arisen chiefly from the coal 
trade ; its present importance is thus 
described in 1838- Its population, in- 
cluding Gateshead and the adjacent 



NEW 



673 



NEW 



neighbourhood, exceeds 100,000 ; and 
the tonnage surpasses that of any town 
in the kingdom, London only excepted. 
About 70 steamers are employed in 
towing vessels up and down the river, 
whose banks, in the number of manu- 
factories, rival those of the Thames 
itself. CoUiery railways exist out of 
number. The Newcastle and Carlisle 
line, the traffic of which was formerly 
estimated at £28,000 per annum, is now 
actually receiving upwards of £75,600. 

NEW Forest, in Hampshire, affo- 
rested 1031. 

NEWFOUNDLAND, island. North 
America, lying on the north-east side of 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, discovered by 
John Cabot, the Venetian, who obtained 
a commission from Henry Yll. during 
his first voyage in 1497- The abundance 
and excellency of its cod fishery soon at- 
tracted fishermen from European nations 
to visit its coasts. In 1585 a voyage was 
made by Sir Bernard Drake, who 
claimed its sovereignty and fishery in 
the name of Queen Elizabeth; and an 
attempt was made at forming a settle- 
ment in 1610; but the first permanent 
colony was established in 1623, by Sir 
George Calvert, afterwards Lord Balti- 
more. Settlements continued to be made 
all along the eastern coast of the island ; 
and the French succeeded in establishing 
themselves in Placentia Bay, on the 
south. From 1702 till the peace of 
Utrecht, in 1713, the colony was much 
disturbed by the French. The revolu- 
tionaiy war in America occasioned fresh 
disputes as to the right of fishing on the 
banks of Newfoundland ; while the im- 
perfect administration of justice amongst 
the colonists for years continued a sub- 
ject of just and constant complaint. 
Newfoundland has had a resident go- 
vernor ever since 1728. Civil and justi- 
ciary courts were soon after established, 
and a superior court was added about 
1750. In 1832 a representative govern- 
ment was given' to the colony, similar to 
that enjoyed at Nova Scotia. 

NEWGATE, built 1776 ; damaged by 
fire in the press yard, 1752 ; burned by 
the rioters 1780; restored 1781; riot 
among the convicts quelled by threaten- 
ing to withhold their allowance of food, 
xAug. 26, 1816. 

NEW Guinea. See Papua. 

NEW Holland. See Holland, New. 

NEW Inn Society, founded 14S5. 

NEW Orleans. SeeORLEANS,NEW^. 



NEW River Cut finished in three 
years' time, 1609; the manager, Mr. 
Hugh Middleton, knighted by King 
James. It runs 50 miles, and has about 
200 bridges over it ; it was brought to 
London, and the water first let into 
the basin, now called the New River 
Head, Sept. 29, 1613. The undertaking 
cost £500,000, and for the first 19 years 
after finishing the work, the annual 
profit on each share scarcely amounted 
to 125. Each of these shares was origi- 
nally sold for £100, and lately some of 
them have amounted to £10,000. 
NEW South Walks. See Wales, 
New South. 

NEWSPAPERS. The first published 
in modern Europe, made its appearance 
at Venice in 1536 ; but the jealousy of 
the government would not allow of its 
being printed ; so that for many years it 
was circulated in manuscript. News- 
papers were first issued in England by 
authority in 1588, during the alarm oc- 
casioned by the approach of the Armada, 
a copy of which is in the British Museum, 
dated July 23. From this era news- 
papers have, with a few intermissions, ge- 
nerally appeared in London; sometimes at 
regular, and sometimes at irregular inter- 
vals. During the civil wars both parties 
had their newspapers. The earliest news- 
paper published in Scotland made its 
appearance under the auspices of Crom- 
well, in 1652. The " Caledonian Mer- 
cury " was, however, the first of the 
Scotch newspapers of native manufac- 
ture; it made its appearance at Edin- 
burgh, under the title of " Mercurius 
Caledonius," in 1660; but its publica- 
tion was soon afterwards interrupted. 
Newspapers and pamphlets were pro- 
hibited by royal proclamation 1680. 
Though at the revolution prohibitions 
of this kind were done away, and the 
press set at liberty, yet newspapers were 
afterwards made objects of taxation : the 
number of them, however, has gradually 
increased to the present time. In the 
reign of Queen Anne, 18 papers were 
published in London ; but the " Daily 
Courant " was the only daily paper. In 
the reign of George I., the number was 
three daily, six weekly, and ten pub- 
lished three times a week, and the " Lon- 
don Gazette" twice a week. In 1815 
the number of newspapers published was 
252; in 1833, 369, of which 248 were 
published in England, 46 in Scotland, 
and 75 in Ireland. 

4 R 



NEW 



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Newspapers were first stamped 1713; 
stamp increased 1725, 1765, 1781, 1789, 
1793,1805, 1808; advertisements reduced 
1833. Before 1836 the stamp duty on a 
newspaper was nominally 4(1. with a 
discount of 20 per cent., which reduces 
the stamp duty actually paid to 35^. 
From the stamp office accounts it ap- 
pears, that the average number of copies 
of newspapers sold annually in Eng- 
land in 1753, was 7,411,757; in 1760, 
9,464,790; in 1790, 14,035,639; in 1792, 
15,005,760; in 1833, 27,690,929. By 6 
and 7 Will. IV. c. 76, Aug. 13, 1836, 
the stamps were reduced from 4rf. to \d. 
This act also regulated the mode of 
suing persons acting under the act, and 
the recovery and application of penal- 
ties, &c., and repealed several previous 
statutes. The duties imposed by this 
act, are for every sheet or piece of paper 
whereon any newspaper shall be printed, 
id. ; and where such sheet shall contain 
on one side thereof a printed superficies, 
exceeding 1530 inches, and not exceed- 
ing 2295 inches, the additional duty of 
id. And where the same shall contain 
a superficies exceeding 2295 inches, the 
additional duty of Id. The number of 
newspapers for which stamps were issued, 
and the number of stamps issued to 
newspapers, in the year ending Septem- 
ber 1836, were, newspapers 397, stamps 
35,576,056, duty £443,278; and in 1839, 
newspapers 519, stamps 58,516,862, 
duty £239,457. 

NEW Style, first introduced into 
Germany in 1584; Switzerland in 1584; 
Poland in 1586; Hungary in 1587; 
France, Spain, Portugal, Holland, Flan- 
ders, Denmark, and parts of Italy, 
1700; Tuscany in 1751; into Eng- 
land in 1752; Sweden in 1753; and Rus- 
sia in 1832. 

NEWTON, Dr. Thomas, an emi- 
nent prelate, was born at Lichfield, Jan. 
1704. His principal work, his " Disser- 
tation on the Prophecies," was pub- 
hshed in 1754. In 1757 he was made 
prebendary of Westminster; in 1768 
dean of St. Paul's, and bishop of Bris- 
tol. He died Feb. 1782. 

NEWTON, Sir Isaac, the most dis- 
tinguished philosopher and mathema- 
tician the world has ever produced, was 
born on Christmas Day, 1642. He was 
sent to Trinity CoUege, Cambridge, 
where he was much noticed by Dr. 
Barrow. In 1664 he took the degree of 
bachelor of arts; and in 1668 that of 



master. He had before this time dis- 
covered the method of fluxions ; and in 
1669 he was, ui)on the resignation of Dr. 
Barrow, chosen professor of mathema- 
tics in the university of Cambridge. 

About 1674 he commenced those stu- 
dies which afterwards became the won- 
der of his age. He published in 1687, 
" Mathematical Principles of Natural 
Philosophy," a work which the Marquis 
de I'Hospital said he regarded " as the 
production of a celestial intelligence ra- 
ther than of a man." In 1699 he was 
elected a member of the Royal Academy 
of Sciences at Paris, and in 1704 he 
published his Optics, which was a piece of 
philosophy so new, that the science may 
be considered as entirely indebted to 
him. In 1715 M. Leibnitz attempted to 
baffle Sir Isaac Newton's mathematical 
skill, by his famous problem of his Tra- 
jectories, which he proposed to the En- 
glish by way of challenge. The problem, 
it is said, was received by him at four 
o'clock in the afternoon ; and though he 
was extremely fatigued with business, he 
finished the solution of it before he re- 
tired to rest. He had the perfect use of 
all his senses and understanding till the 
day before he died, which was on March 
20, 1727, in his 85th year. He was 
buried March 28, in Westminster Abbey, 
where a noble monument was erected to 
his memory. 

NEWTON, Gilbert Stuart, dis- 
tinguished modern artist, was born in 
Hahfax, Nova Scotia, on Sept. 20, 1794. 
The first works by which he became ex- 
tensively known were his " Forsaken," 
and his "Lovers' Quarrels," engraved 
in the " Literary Souvenir," 1826; his 
" Prince of Spain's Visit to Catalina," 
engraved for the same work, in 1831, 
and painted for the duke of Bedford. 
He died Aug. 5, 1835. 

NEW York, state and city of the 
United States of North America. Its 
settlement was commenced by the Dutch 
in 1614, who called it New Netherlands. 
Charles II. granted his brother, the 
duke of York, a patent for a large tract 
of country, forming the present states 
of New York and New Jersey. Colonel 
Nicholls was sent out, who made a con- 
quest of the country, and changed the 
name to New York. In 1673 the'Dutch 
recaptured the colony, and held it for a 
few months ; but, with this exception, it 
has belonged to the English from the 
year 1664 to the American revolution of 




a^AA© Fmwi^c 



^<f(UiC. 




Lan.ami:I\iliIiahea.lvy Thomas JKeILy",17, TaJernDStex Kcw. 



NIA 



675 



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1775, when it formed part of the Union. 
The present constitution of the state was 
formed in 1821. The executive power 
is vested in a governor, who is elected 
by the people every two years. The 
legislative power is vested in a senate of 
32 members, who are chosen for four 
years, and an assembly of 128 members, 
who are elected annually. 

The city has increased faster than any 
other in tne United States, owing to its 
admirable situation, which has rendered 
it the greatest emporium of the New 
World : the commerce is very extensive. 
The total value of the imports into New 
York, in the year ending Sept. 30, 1832, 
was 53,214,402 dollars. In July 1S34 
there were riots at New York, in oppo- 
sition to the slavery abolitionists. Mobs, 
composed of the white populace, attacked 
the churches, the dwelling-houses, and 
the stores of the prominent abolitionists, 
which they gutted and robbed. The 
mayor called out the military, and suc- 
ceeded on the night of the 11th in put- 
ting an end to the outrages. 

NEW Zealand. See Zealand, 
New. 

NEY, Marshal, convicted of trea- 
son, Aug. 6, 1815, and shot the next 
day. 

NIAGARA, river. North America, 
forming the boundary between the 
United States and Upper Canada ; cele- 
brated for its stupendous cataract called 
the Falls of Niagara, justly regarded as 
one of the most sublime and imposing 
spectacles exhibited in nature. In Oct. 
1829 the following extraordinary exhibi- 
tions took place at the Falls of Niagara. 
The blowing up of a large projecting 
rock, near the Indian Ladder, at half- 
past 12 o'clock on Tuesday the 6 th ; the 
blowingoff a part of an island on themar- 
gin of the British Falls, at one o'clock ; 
and the bursting of the outer Terra- 
pin rock, at half-past one o'clock, on 
the margin of the American Falls, near 
the termination of the bridge which pro- 
jects out to the verge of the precipice, 
from Goat Island towards the Canadian 
shore. The same day was also exhibited, 
the descent of a schooner, at three 
o'clock, which was towed- to the foot of 
Grand Island, and left to her own guid- 
ance. Also, Mr. Samuel Patch leaped 
the cataract on the day following, at 
12 o'clock, being I60 feet deep. He sank 
down and disappeared in the whirling 
caldron, and nothing was seen of him 



till he was discovered clambering up the 
rocks in safety. 

NICE, city, Bithynia, Asia Minor, re- 
markable for the first oecumenical coun- 
cil convened, 325, by Constantine, in 
order to settle differences and controver- 
sies which had taken place among the 
Christians. 

NICE, city, on the confines of France 
and Italy, in the kingdom of Sardinia, 
founded by the Phocaeans, about a.c. 
500. It has undergone many vicissi- 
tudes in the later periods of its decline. 
The treaty of Nice, between Francis I. 
and Charles V., took place June 18, 
1538. It suffered very much in 1543, 
when it was besieged by land by the 
army of Francis I., and the Turkish fleet 
under Barbarossa, pressed on it by sea : 
it was taken, pillaged, and nearly re- 
duced to ashes. In 1792 the French 
took possession of it, but it was after- 
wards restored to Sardinia. 

NICHOLLS, Dr. Frank, an emi- 
nent physician and anatomist, born in 
London in 1699. He died on Jan. 7, 
1778, in his 80th year. 

NICHOLSON, William, author of 
many literary and scientific works, died 
1815. 

NICHOLSON, Margaret, who at- 
tempted the life of George III. in 1786, 
died in Bethlehem Hospital, May 17, 
1828, after a confinement of 42 years as 
a lunatic, having been so declared upon 
her trial. 

NICOLAI, Christopher, bookseller 
and author, born 1733, died 1814. 

NICOLL, Alexander, D.C.L., 
F. R. S., regius professor of Hebrew in 
the University of Oxford, and canon of 
Christchurch, was born in 1793, near 
Aberdeen. During his life he chiefly de- 
voted himself to the study of the Oriental 
languages. He died Sept. 25, 1828. 

NICOMEDES, the mathematician, 
inventor of the geometrical curve called 
Conchoides, flourished 220. 

NIEBUHR, Carster, a celebrated 
traveller, born 1733, died 1815. 

NIEBUHR, M., the eminent Roman 
historian and professor of history at 
Berlin, was a son of the preceding, and 
born 1778. In I8I6 he was appointed 
by the king of Prussia his minister at 
Rome, where he concluded a concordat 
with the Holy See in 1821, He died 
January 2, 1831. 

NIGER, a large river of Central Africa, 
which for many years excited an extra- 



NIM 



676 



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ordinary interest among geographers, in 
consequence of the unexplored region 
through which it flows, and their igno- 
rance of its course and termination. Mr. 
Park, ahout 1796, reached Sego, the ca- 
pital of Bamharra, where he beheld the 
river as broad as the Thames at London, 
and rolling slowly eastward. He traced 
its course downwards to Silla, and up- 
wards to Bammakoo, where it first be- 
came navigable, an extent of 300 miles. 
Beyond this, Europe was lost in uncer- 
tainty as to its real course, till the British 
government sent out R. Lander, who, in 
June 1830, accompanied by his brother, 
embarked on the Niger, at Boossa, and 
worked their way up the stream as far 
as Yaoorie; thence they proceeded south- 
ward to Rabbah, Egga, Kacunda, &c., 
and found it terminated at the Bight of 
Benin, in lat. 4'^ N. long. 6" E. Since 
then commercial expeditions have been 
made up the Niger. R. Lander, with 
two steamers, on the 18th of Sept. 1833, 
anchored before Rabbah, between 500 
and 600 miles from the sea, and sailed 
back to Fernando Po, November 3, 1833, 
where he received a wound, of M'hich he 
afterwards died. See Lander. 

1840. An expedition sailed up the Ni- 
ger, under the patronage of government, 
for which a parliamentary grant of 
£61,000 was made to meet the outfit and 
expenses. The Niger expedition was pro- 
jected by Sir Powell Buxton ; and a so- 
ciety formed for "effecting the extinction 
of the Slave Trade and for promoting the 
civilization of Africa." The principal 
objects contemplated by the mission are 
worthy of high commendation, but the 
sound policy and beneficial results of the 
expedition have been questioned. 

NIGHTLY Shelter to the house- 
less. Old Broad-street, a society formed 
in 1832. 

NIMEGUEN, a town in the kingdom 
of Holland. It is known in history for 
the treaty concluded here August 11, 
1678, between France and Holland. 
Spain acceded to the peace September 17, 
giving up Franche Compte, &c. ; the 
emperor on the 5th February following ; 
and Sweden March 29. 

NIMMO, Alexander, engineer, 
F.R.S.E. and M.R.I. A., was born at 
Kirkaldy in Scotland, 1783. He was 
employed in the construction of Dun- 
more harbour, a work of immense mag- 
nitude and utility, and in making sur- 
veys of the harbours of Ireland, and con- 



structing harbours and piers all round 
the coast. He was also the author of 
the article on inland navigation in 
Brewster's Encyclopaedia ; also, in con- 
junction with Mr. Telford, of that on 
bridges, and with Mr. Nicholson, of that 
on carpentry. He died Jan. 20, 1832, 
aged 49- 

NINEVEH, a celebrated city of anti- 
quity, and the capital of the Assyrian 
empire. The city was taken by Arbaces 
and Belesis, a.m. 3257, under the reign 
of Sardanapalus, in the time of Ahaz, 
king of Judah. It was taken a second 
time by Astyages and Nabopolassar, 
from Chynaladanus, king of Assyria, 
A.M. 3378. After this time Nineveh ditl 
not recover its former splendour. It was 
so entirely ruined in the time of Lucia- 
nus Samosatensis, who lived under the 
emperor Adrian, that no traces of it 
could be found. 

NISCHNEI-NOVOGOROD, a town 
of European Russia. Since 1816 the 
large fair of Makariev has been held at 
this city in June and July. It is fre- 
quented by crowds of dealers from dif- 
ferent parts of Russia, Poland, Tartary, 
Germany, and even Persia. The quan- 
tity of goods sold is immense. 

NISMES, or Nimes, a town of 
France. It is supposed to have been 
built by a colony of Greeks, about the 
same time as Marseilles. It fell succes- 
sively under the dominion of the Van- 
dals, the Goths, and Saracens. It was 
united to the crown of France in the 8th 
century. The remains of the amphi- 
theatre show a building nearly as large 
as the Coliseum at Rome, and in much 
better condition. The grand circle is 
entire ; the columns, porticos, and most 
of the ornaments, are in good preserva- 
tion. In 1815 the protestant establish- 
ments of this city were subjected to 
severe persecution. 

NOAH directed to build the ark 
A.M. 1536, 120 before the flood. Died 
A.c. 1998, aged 950. 

NOBLE,WiLLiAM, an English artist, 
born 1780, died 1831. 

NOLLET, John Anthony, a cele- 
brated French philosopher, was born 
November 17, 1700. In 1734 he ac- 
companied Du Foy, Du Hamel, and De 
Jussieu, on a visit to England, where he 
was admitted a foreign member of the 
Royal Society. Upon his return to 
Paris he resumed a course of lectures on 
experimental philosophy, which he had 



NON 



677 



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commenced in 1735, and which lie con- 
tinued for 25 years. After rendering the 
most important services to the world by 
the discoveries with which he has enriched 
various branches of science, but particu- 
larly electricity, he died at Paris, April 25, 
1770, aged 70. 

NOMINALISTS, a sect of school 
philosophers in France, the disciples of 
Occam, an English cordelier in the 14th 
century. They gained the appellation, 
because, in opposition to the Reahsts, 
they maintained that words, and not 
things, were the object of dialectics. In 
1473 Louis XI. issued a severe edict 
against the doctrines of the nominal- 
ists, but mitigated this edict in the fol- 
lowing year, and in 1481 granted a full 
liberty to the nominalists and their 
writings. 

NONCONFORMISTS, a term com- 
prehending all those who do not conform 
to the established worship, said to have 
had its rise from a declaration of King 
Charles I., who appointed that all the 
churches of England and Scotland should 
have the same ceremonies and discipline. 
The term is more definitely applied in 
history to those who refused to conform 
to the act passed after the restoration of 
Charles II. in 1662, called the Act of 
Uniformity, by which all who refused to 
observe the rites, and subscribe the doc- 
trines of the church of England, were 
entirely excluded from its communion. 
In consequence of this oppressive mea- 
sure, on St. Bartholomew's day, Aug. 14., 
the same year, about 2000 ministers 
quitted their preferments in the church, 
or refused to accept of any upon the 
terms of the Act of Uniformity. This, 
says Neal, raised a grievous cry over the 
nation ; for here were many men much 
valued and distinguished by their abili- 
ties and zeal, now cast out ignomi- 
niously, and reduced to great poverty. 
Thename of nonconformists is frequently 
given to the dissenters of the present 
day. 

NON-INTERCOURSE Act, against 
England and France, passed by the con- 
gress of the United States, May 1, 1810; 
revoked as to France, Nov. 1810. 

NONIUS, an instrument for gra- 
duating the divisions on a scale, quad- 
rant, &c., invented by Pedro Nunez, or 
Nonius, professor of mathematics in the 
University of Coimbra, in Portugal ; 
who described it in his treatise "De 
Arte Navigandi," 1530, and again in 



his work " De Crepusculis," 1542. He 
died in 1577. 

NONJURORS, a term originally ap- 
plied to eight bishops, who, at the revo- 
lution in 1688, refused to take the oaths 
to the government, and were deprived 
of their preferments. The term was after- 
wards applied to all persons declining 
to take the oaths to the new sovereign : 
but the king was empowered to -grant 
such of the non-juring clergy as he 
thought fit, not above 12, an allowance 
out of their ecclesiastical benefices for 
their subsistence, not exceeding a third 
part, (1 Will, and Mary, sect. 1, c. 8). 
The non-jurors, or high-church men, 
were particularly distinguished by the 
doctrine of passive obedience. Non- 
jurors were double taxed, May 27, 1723, 
and obhged to register their estates. 

NOOTKA Sound, bay. North Pa- 
cific Ocean, discovered by Captain Cook, 
in 1778, called by him King George's 
Sound. It is situated on an island, to 
which Vancouver, in 1792, gave the name 
of Quadra and Vancouver island. A few 
British merchants formed a settlement 
here ; but the Spaniards captured their 
vessels, and took possession of the set- 
tlement in 1789. 

NORBURY, Right Hon. John 
ToLER,EARLOF,ofBallyorenode,Tippe- 
rary, a privy councillor for Ireland, and 
late chief justice of the court of common 
pleas. He was called to the bar 1770, 
and in 1776 was first returned to the 
Irish house of commons. In 1781 he 
was appointed a king's counsel, and in 
1789 solicitor-general of Ireland. At the 
general election of 1790 he was chosen 
M. P. for Newborough, county Wex- 
ford. He was appointed attorney-gene- 
ral of Ireland, July 16, 1798 ; and was, 
during that year, actively engaged in the 
prosecution of the Irish rebels. He was 
advanced to be chief justice of the court 
of common pleas, Dec. 20, 1800, and 
on 29th of the same month, was created 
Lord Norbury. He retained the chief 
justiceship until 1827, when on his re- 
tirement, he was rewarded with a pen- 
sion- of £3046, and advanced to the titles 
of Viscount Glandine and Earl of 
Norbury. He died July 27, 1831, aged 
85. 

NORFOLK, maritime county, Eng- 
land, after the Norman conquest, was 
held as an earldom by Ralph de Guader, 
a follower of William I. In 1313 Tho- 
mas de Brotherton, a younger son of 



NOR 



678 



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Henry I., was created earl of Norfolk, 
and from him, through the Mowbrays, 
the dignity (augmented to a dukedom,) 
has descended to the present family of 
the Howards. 

NORFOLK, Charles Howard, 
Duke of, hereditary marshal of Eng- 
land, died Dec. 16, 1815. 

NORFOLK, Duke of, beheaded on 
Tower-hill, May 8, 1572. 

NORMAN, John, the first lord mayor 
of London that went by water from 
Westminster to be sworn, 1453. 

NORMANDY, province, France, an- 
ciently a duchy. After the loss of Gaul 
by the Romans, it formed part of the 
kingdom of Neustria. The present name 
is taken from the Normans who settled 
here in the latter part of the ninth cen- 
tury, and compelled the king of France 
to cede the country to them as a fief; 
they were governed by their own 
dukes, the most renowned of whom 
was William, who conquered England. 
It was not till 1203 that Normandy was 
wrested from the English monarch John. 
Edward HL began the memorable cam- 
paign of 1346, by overrunning Nor- 
mandy ; and in 1418, Henry V. con- 
quered the province and obtained its 
formal cession to England by the peace 
of 1420. It remained in possession 
of the EngUsh 30] years, a period to 
which the Normans still _ trace the 
foundation of many of their public in- 
stitutions. It was wrested from our 
ancestors in 1449, and enjoyed peace 
till 1815, when it submitted to Buona- 
parte, after the surrender of Paris. It 
now forms the five departments. Lower 
Seine, Eure, Orne, Calvados, and La 
Manche. 

NORRIS. Sir John, English admi- 
ral, died 1749. 

NORTH, Right Hon. Frederick, 
Lord, for many years the premier of 
England, was born April 13, 1732. In 
1770, on the resignation of the duke of 
Grafton, he was made first lord of the 
treasury. He continued in this office 
till the close of the American war. He 
died August 5, 1792. 

NORTH-EAST Passage to Russia, 
discovered 1553. 

NORTH-WEST Passage from Baf- 
fin's or Hudson's Bay to the Pacific, has 
long been a desideratum among geogra- 
phers. It was attempted by Captain 
Phillips, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, in 
1773. Alexander Mackenzie, in 1789, 



first descended the great river which so 
justly bears his name, and reached the 
waters of the Polar Sea. In 1826 Sir 
J. Franklin and Captain Back followed 
Mackenzie's course to the mouth of 
the river which bears his name, and 
coasted 370 miles of the Polar Sea to 
the westward, tracing the northern 
shores of America till within 160 miles 
of Port Barrow, which was reached by 
Mr. Elson, the master of the vessel 
under the command of Captain Beechy, 
only four days after Franklin had been 
obliged to return. 

The intermediate portion had hitherto 
remained a blank on our maps ; but the 
unexplored country between Franklin's 
Return Reef, in lat. 70° 26' N., long. 
148° 52' W., and Point Barrow, in lat. 
71" 23' 33" N., long. 156° 20' W. has 
been recently and successfully traced by 
Messrs. P. M. Dease and Thomas Simp- 
son, acting under the instructions of the 
Hudson's Bay Company. The party 
started from Fort Chipeweyan, June 1, 
1837, reached the ocean by the most 
westerly mouth of the Mackenzie, July 
9, and Franklin's Return Rief on the 
23d, where their survey commenced. 
They proceeded by sea to explore the 
coast, until they arrived, July 31, at a 
point which they subsequently named 
Boat Extreme, in lat. 71° 3' 24* N., and 
long. 154° 26' 30" W. Mr. T. Simp- 
son undertook to complete the journey 
on foot, and accordingly started Aug. 1, 
with five men. The party arrived at the 
western mouth of the Mackenzie on 
their return August I7th, and at Port 
Norman, September 4. A report to the 
Geographical Society was read, on 
May 3, ] 838, in which Sir John Barrow 
observed that it confirmed the opinion 
he had given 20 years ago, and gave 
reason to believe in the existence of a 
polar basin of 40 degrees, or 24,000 
miles in diameter. 

NORTHCOTE, James, an eminent 
English artist, born 1746, died 1831. 

NORTHESK, Right Hon. Wil- 
liam Carnegie, seventh earl of, in 
the peerage of Scotland, and admiral 
of the red, rear-admiral of Great Britain, 
G.C.B., K.C., LL.D., and governor of 
the British Linen Company's Bank. In 
the battle of Trafalgar, he look a dis- 
tinguished part in achieving the victory. 
For his brilliant services on this occa- 
sion. Lord Northesk was created a knight 
of the Bath, and received the thanks of 



NOR 



679 



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both houses of parhament. November 
21, 1821, he was appointed rear-admiral 
of Great Britain, and in May, 1827, 
commander-in-chief of Plymouth, where 
he remained until 1 830. He died May 28, 
1831, aged 73. 

NORTHUMBERLAND, a maritime 
county, England. In the second cen- 
tury, the Mfetae and Caledonians became 
so troublesome, that the emperor Severus 
built what is called the Picts' Wall, ex- 
tending from this county into Cumber- 
land. In the latter period of the Roman 
ascendency, Northumberland formed 
part of the province of Valencia. By the 
Angles it was made a part of the king- 
dom Northan-Humbra-Land. It was 
afterwards conquered by the Danes ; and 
in the time of Edred, was governed as 
an earldom, till the Norman conquest. 
Since that period, the principal events 
are connected with the struggles with 
its northern neighbours. Among the 
pitched battles fought in this county 
between the contending parties, the most 
important are those of Halidon-hill, 
west of Berwick, 1333; Flodden Field, 
on the river TUl, in 1513 j and of Hex- 
ham, in 1643. 

NORTHUMBERLAND, Earl of. 
See Dudley. 

NORWAY, kingdom, north of Eu- 
rope, belonging to Sweden. The coun- 
try was divided into a number of petty 
provinces till the 9th century, when these 
were combined into one. It was incor- 
porated with Denmark in 1397, the so- 
vereigns always bearing, as a distinct 
title, the name of sovereign of Norway, 
and the country participating for more 
than four centuries in the political circum- 
stances of its southern neighbour. The 
first severe blow to this state of peaceful 
advancement was given by the war with 
England, which followed the expedition 
to Copenhagen in 1807. After the battle 
of Leipsic, Bernadotte obliged the Danish 
court to sign (on the 14th January, 1814) 
the treaty of Kiel, stipulating the sacri- 
fice of Norway. The assembly convened 
at Christiana came to the resolution that 
Norway should be permanently governed 
by the same king as Sweden, but as an 
integral state, and with the preservation 
of its constitution and laws. 

NORWICH, a city of England, capi- 
tal of the county of Norfolk. UfFa, first 
king of East Anglia, about 575, is said 
to have erected a castle and other fortifi- 
cations at this place, then called Nordo- 



Vicus, or Northern Vill. It suffered 
from the invasion of the Danes, but was 
restored by Alfred the Great. This city 
was the scene of hostilities during the 
civil wars of King Stephen, as well as 
those between John and his barons. In 
the reign of Edward I. Norwich was 
surrounded with a wall, at the expense of 
the inhabitants ; and Edward III., in 
1339, bestowed the government of the 
castle on the sheriffs of Norfolk. In 
1505 the city was nearly destroyed by 
fire ; but it suffered much more from Ket's 
rebellion. In 1403 Henry IV. granted a 
charter, constituting the city and its 
liberties a separate county, under the go- 
vernment of a corporation. Norwich has 
long been famous for its manufactures, 
which afford employment to upwards 
of 120,000 persons. In June, 1827, 
there were such serious riots among the 
workmen, that several lives were lost. 

The jbishopric (originally that of East 
Anglia) was, in 1094, transferred to 
Norwich. The cathedral is one of the 
oldest in England, having been begun in 
1096, though not completed till 1284. 

NORWOOD, Richard, measured a 
degree in England, 1632, which was the 
first accurately measured. 

NOTTINGHAM, a county of Eng- 
land, formed part of the Saxon kingdom 
of Mercia. It was afterwards held by 
the Danes, who were driven out by Ed- 
ward the elder. A battle was fought, iij 
1487, at Stoke, near Newark, occasioned 
by the rebellion in favour of Lambert 
Simnel. The royal standard by Charles I. 
was erected here as the signal of hos- 
tilities against the parliament. 

NOTTINGHAM, the county town, 
had a fortress in the reign of Ethelred I. 
which was rebuilt on a large scale by 
William the Conqueror. After the de- 
position of Edward II., Nottingham cas- 
tle became the residence of his queen, 
Isabella of France, and her paramour, 
Roger de Mortimer, earl of March, who 
were arrested here by order of Edward 
III. The castle was afterwards made a 
garrison of the parliamentarians, and was 
unsuccessfully defended from the attacks 
of the royalists by Colonel Hutchinson. 
After the civil war it was dismantled by 
order of Oliver Cromwell, and having 
been subsequently pulled down, a castel- 
lated mansion was erected on its site by 
William Cavendish, duke of Newcastle. 
During the riots, September 8, 1831, on 
receiving intelligence of the rejection 



OAK 



680 



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of the Reform Bill, the old castle, the 
property of the duke of Newcastle, was 
burnt. Order was eventually restored 
by the presence of the military. 

NOVA Castello, in Calabria, 
Italy, and several villages near it, de- 
stroyed by an earthquake, September 
30, 1789. 

NOVA Scotia, British North Ame- 
rica. The first grant of lands here was 
made to Sir William Alexander by James 
I., from whom it received the name of 
Nova Scotia. From 1713 it was neg- 
lected, after its acquisition by England, 
and frequently harassed by the French ; 
but in 1719 adventurers were em- 
barked, with their families, for the 
colony ; parliament granted £40,000 
for their support, and they landed at 
Chebuctoo harbour, when the town of 
Halifax was erected. In 1758 a consti- 
tution was granted to Nova Scotia, con- 
sisting of a house of assembly fdr the 
representatives, a legislative council, and 
governor representing the crown. By 
the treaty of Paris, February 10, 1762, 
France resigned all further claims on 
any of her former possessions in North 
America. 

NOVA Zembla, an island m the 
Frozen Ocean, separated from the con- 
tinent of Russia by the strait of Waigatz. 
It was discovered by the English in 
1553, and has since been visited by ships 
attempting to discover a north-east pasf- 
sage. In 1595, a Dutch vessel being 
cast away on the coast, the crew were 
obliged to winter here, and with great 
difficulty preserved their lives. 

1838. The Russian government have 
lately ordered five exploratory expedi- 
tions to Nova-Zembla. The first four 
were useless : the result of the fifth has 
been so far satisfactory, that the party 
have lately explored the whole of the 
west, and part of the east coast. There 
are 100 miles of the north-east shore not 



yet explored ; but the party sailed again 
with the intention of wintering at Buck- 
lige Island, in 75° 45 N., on the west 
coast ; and in the year 1839 were ordered 
to use all their exertions to sail round 
the north-eastern point of Nova-Zembla, 
and thus complete the discoveries car- 
ried on by the Russian government. 

NOVGOROD- VELIKI, one of the 
most ancient cities of the Russian em- 
pire, having been founded as early as the 
5th century. In the 9th century the 
reigning sovereign made it the seat of 
government. At length Novgorod be- 
came a republic, under a chief magis- 
trate. In 1471 Ivan Vassilievitz com- 
pelled it to receive a governor of his no- 
mination. When Peter the Great founded 
St. Petersburg!!, in the beginning of 
the 18th century, this gave a blow to 
its prosperity from which it never re- 
covered. 

NUMA PoMPiLius, the second king 
of Rome. He established different or- 
ders of priests, and taught the Romans 
not to worship the Deity by images. He 
died in the year of Rome 82, after a 
peaceful reign of 42 years. 

NUNNERY. The first in England 
at Folkstone, 630. 

NUREMBERG, kingdom of Bavaria, 
was established as a burgrave as far back 
as 1060. The purchase of the city rights 
from the emperors dates from 1427. 
Nuremberg appears to have been most 
prosperous during the 15th and l6th 
centuries, and to have declined from 
some defects in its political constitution. 
The formation of the Confederation of 
the Rhine, in 1 806, put an end to its 
existence as a separate state, and placed 
both the town and its territory in the 
hands of Bavaria, 

NYSTATT, or Nystett, in Finland, 
treaty of, between Sweden and Russia, 
whereby Livonia and Ingria were ceded 
to Russia, August 30, 1721. 



0. 



OAK Tree, known by the name of 
Cybren-yr-Ellyl, near Marmion, sup- 
posed to have been old in the days of 
Owen Glendower, who hid in it the body 
of Howel Sale, fell from age, 1813. 

OAK OF Navarre, order of knight- 
hood, began in Spain 722. 



OATES, Titus, an informer and tool 
of parties in the reign of Charles II., 
author of the pretended popish plot, died 
1705. 

OATHS. The multipUcity of legal 
oaths in the admission to public offices, 
&c., led to the introduction of the recent 



O CO 



681 



OGD 



act, 5 and 6 William IV. c. 62, Septem- 
ber 9, 1835. This 5mj)oweis the lords 
of the treasury to substitute a declara- 
tion for an oath to the holders of any 
office under their control, formerly re- 
quired to be taken or made on the doing 
of any act, matter, or thing, or for the 
purpose of verifying any book, entry, or 
return, or for any other purpose what- 
soever. Oaths of allegiance, and in 
courts of justice, &c., are still to be 
taken. Universities of Oxford and Cam- 
bridfie, and other corporate bodies, may 
substitute a declaration in lieu of an oath. 
Declaration substituted for oaths and 
affidavits heretofore required on taking 
out a patent; by acts as to pawnbrokers, 
&c. 

OBADIAH prophesied a.c. 587- 
. OBSERVATORY, a building erected 
for the purpose of making celestial ob- 
servations. Structures of this descrip- 
tion have been common in almost every 
age and country; and some have ima- 
gined that the pyramids of Egypt were de- 
stined partly for that purpose. The most 
remarkable public observatories are the 
following: — The first in authentic history 
at Alexandria, about a.c. 300. First mo- 
dern meridionel instrument, by Coperni- 
cus, 1540. First observatory erected at 
Cassel, 1561. Tycho Brahe's, at Urani- 
bourg, 1576. Astronomical tower at 
Copenhagen, 1657. Royal (French),l667. 
Royal observatory at Greenwich, 1675. 
Berlin, erected under the direction of 
Leibnitz, 1711. Petersburgh, 1725. Ox- 
ford, 1772. Dublin, 1783. Cambridge, 
1824. 

1838. A normal observatory has been 
recently founded at St. Petersburgh, at 
the Institut des Mines, where a certain 
number of officers receive practical in- 
struction to qualify them to become ob- 
servers in the establishments in the pro- 
A-inces. Eight times a day they observe 
the atmospheric pressure, the tempera- 
ture of the air, &c. At some places they 
also observe, at the same hours, the 
magnetic dip and variation; the change 
in the variation being also observed, at 
certain times of the year, simultaneously 
with those, set on foot in different parts 
■of Europe. It is proposed also to add 
to these, observations on the temperature 
of the ground, on atmospheric electricity, 
and on the intensity of the force of ter- 
restrial magnetism. 

O'CONNOR, Dr. Chari.es, author 
of the " Letters of Columbanus," editor 



and translator of the Irish Chronicles, 
&c., and librarian to the duke of Buck- 
inoliam, died July 29, 1 828, aged (17. 
bCTAVIUS C^SAK. SeeAuGUSTUs. 
OCZAKOV, town, European Russia, 
chiefly remarkable as having been the 
scene of the most obstinate contests be- 
tween the Turks and Russians, many 
thousands of whom, on both sides, have 
fallen in its different sieges. The Rus- 
sians took it by storm in 1788, and it 
was confirmed to them by the subse- 
quent peace. 

ODESSA, sea-port town, European 
Russia, was founded in 1792 by Cathe- 
rine II., on the site of a small place 
called Kodjabeg. The emperor Alex- 
ander followed up the views of Cathe- 
rine, and numerous public establish- 
ments were set on foot under the patro- 
nage of government. In consequence 
of the imperial ukase, dated Feb. 7, 
1817, by which this was declared a free 
port, and the inhabitants exempted from 
taxation for 30 years," its increase has, 
since that time, been extremely rapid. 

ODEYPOOR, formerly caUed Chi- 
tore, town, Hindoostan, was for seve- 
ral centuries much celebrated for its 
strength, riches, and antiquity. It was 
first conquered by the Mahomedans in 
1303, during the reign of Allah ud Deen, 
emphatically called the scourge of the 
Hindoos at Delhi. It was taken by 
Acber in 1567, and again, in 1680, sub- 
dued and plundered by Azim Ushaun, 
the son of Aurungzebe. In 1790 it was 
taken by Madhajee Sindia, from Bheem 
Singh, the rebellious subject of the rana 
of Odeypoor, to whom it was restored, 
conformably to the previous agreement, 
and under whose dominion it still re- 
mains under protection of the British. 

ODOACER, the first barbarian king 
of Italy, was the son of a chieftain n the 
army of Attila, king of the Huns. In 
476 the barbarian mercenaries in the 
Roman army, proclaimed him their king. 
Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, over- 
came him in three obstinate engage- 
ments ; and in the midst of a banquet 
caused him to be stabbed in 493. 

OFFA, the Uth king of the Mer- 
cians, and the 16th monarch of Eng- 
land, began his reign 757. He died at 
Offley, June 29, 794. 

OFFA'S Dyke, made 774. 
OGDENBURG,town on the river St. 
Lawrence, taken by the British, Feb. 21, 
1813. 

4 S 



OLD 



682 



OLO 



OGLE, J., English poet, the modern- 
izer of Chaucer, died 1746. 

OGLE, Sir Chaloneb, a brave En- 
glish admiral, died 1750. 

O'HARA, Kane, Irish dramatic 
writer, died 1784. 

OHIO, one of the United States of 
North America, separated by the river 
Ohio from Virginia and Kentucky. The 
first permanent settlement of Ohio was 
commenced at Marietta in 1788; in the 
following year the country was put 
under a territorial government, and 
called the western territory, which was 
afterwards changed to the territory north 
west of Ohio; and in 1802 it was 
erected into an independent state, the 
constitution being formed at Chillicothe. 
In Feb. 1832 the river Ohio overflowed 
its banks, and produced frightful cala- 
mities in the adjacent lands, 

O'KEEFE, John, the celebrated dra- 
matic author, was born at Dublin, about 
1747. His first production, which at- 
tracted public attention, was his farce of 
" Tony Lumpkin," played successfully 
at the Haymarket in 1778. His dra- 
matic works exceed the number of 50. 
He died Feb. 4, 1838, in his 86th year. 

OLBERS, Dr., discoverer of the pri- 
mary planets, Pallas and Vesta, died 
1807. 

OLD Bailey Sessions House, 
built 1773 ; enlarged 1808. Sessions 
proved fatal to the lord mayor, one 
alderman, two judges, the greatest part 
of the jury, and numbers of spectators, 
who caught the gaol distemper and 
died. May 1750; again fatal to several 
1772 ; 28 persons killed during the exe- 
cution of Mr. Steel's murderers, Feb. 23, 
1807. 

OLDCASTLE, Sir John, called the 
Good Lord Cobham, was born in the 
reign of Edward III., and was the first 
martyr among the English nobility. He 
was apprehended and condemned for 
heresy; but escaping from the Tower, 
lay concealed for four years in Wales : 
he was at last [seized and executed in 
St. Giles's Fields, being hung in chains 
upon a gallows, and burned by a fire 
placed underneath, 1417. 

OLDENBURGH, grand duchy of 
Germany. The grand duke is a member 
of the Germanic body, and holds with 
Anhalt and Schwartzburgh, the fifteenth 
place at the smaller diet. The house of 
Oldenburgh is one of the most illus- 
trious in Europe, the kings of Denmark, 



emperors of Russia, and the late royal 
family of Sweden, being all descended 
from it. In 1810 the reigning duke was 
expelled from all his possessions by 
Buonaparte ; but after the battle of 
Leipsic, in 1813, he returned, and at the 
congress of Vienna received the title of 
grand duke. The duchess of Olden- 
burgh visited England in 1814; left Eng- 
land with the emperor of Russia and 
king of Prussia, June 27, 1814; was 
married to the duke of Wurteniburg, 
Jan. 23, 1816. 

OLDFIELD, Mrs. Ann, celebrated 
actress, died 1730. 

OLD TESTAMENT. See Bible. 

OLERON, an island of France, on the 
western coast, was formerly in the posses- 
sion of the crownof England, and hasbeen 
famous for its maritime laws, made in 
the time of Richard I. when he was 
at that island. The laws of Oleron 
being accounted the most excellent sea 
laws in the world, are recorded in the 
black book of the admiralty. 

O'LEARY, Dr. Arthur, eminent 
Cathohc priest, died Jan. 4, 1802. 

OLIVA, peace of between Sweden, 
Poland, Prussia, and the emperor. May 3, 
1660. Esthonia and Livonia were given 
up to Sweden. 

OLIVAREZ, Count De, Don'Jas- 
per De GuzMANjfavourite and minister 
of Phihp IV. of Spain. It was owing to 
his ambition and obstinacy that an almost 
general war was excited about 1627, 
which proved highly injurious to Spain. 
He was banished to Toro, where he died 
about 1645. 

OLIVENZA, fortified town, west of 
Spain, province of Estremadura, formerly 
belonging to Portugal, but was ceded to 
Spain in 1801. Surrendered to the 
French, June 22, 1810. To the allied 
array under Lord Wellington, April 15, 
1811. 

OLIVIER, Claude Matthieu, a 
celebrated French lawyer and advocate 
of the parliament of Aix, was born at 
Marseilles in 1701. He died in 1736, 
aged 35. 

OLMUTZ, town, Austria, was long a 
bishop's see, which was raised to an 
archbishopric in 1777. The university, 
was removed to Brunn in 1778, and its 
place supplied by a lyceum or high 
school. 

O'LOGHLEN, Hon. Michael, ap- 
pointed judge in the Irish court of ex- 
chequer, October 3, 1836. He was the 



OMO 



683 



OPI 



first Catholic that has sat on the bench 
in Ireland since the revolution. 

OLYMPIAD, a period of four years, 
by which the Greeks reckoned their 
time. Each Olympiad Was divided into 
the first, second, third, and fourth year; 
the first year of the Olympiad, beginning 
with the nearest new moon to the sum- 
mer solstice. They received this name 
from the games celebrated near the 
town of Olympia. The games were neg- 
lected until Lycurgus, Cleosthenes 
and Iphitus re-instituted the celebration 
of them with great solemnity, a.c. 884. 
The games were again discontinued, 
and again afterwards revived by Coroe- 
bus, A.c. 776, which is commonly 
reckoned as the first Olympiad j it took 
place about 23 years before the founda- 
tion of Rome, in the 3938th year of the 
Juhan period, and the 3208th year from 
the creation. Compared with the Chris- 
tian era the Olympiads are as follows : — 
The first a.c 776 ; second in 772; third 
in 768 ; fourth in 764 ; fifth in 760 ; 
seventh in 752 ; tenth in 740 ; thirteenth 
in 723; fifteenth in 720; sixteenth in 
7l6 ; seventeenth in 712 ; twenty-first in 
696 ; twenty-third in 688 ; twenty-fourth 
in 684; twenty-fifth in 680 ; twenty-se- 
venth in 672 ; twenty-eighth in 668 ; 
twenty-ninth in 664; thirty-ninth in 
624 ; forty-third in 608 ; forty-sixth in 
590; fifty-fifth in 560; fifty-sixth in 
556 ; sixtieth in 540 ; sixty-first in 536, 
&c. This mode of computation termi- 
nated with the 404th Olympiad, A. D. 440. 

OLYMPIC Games, solemn games 
celebrated among the ancient Greeks, so 
called from Olympian Jupiter, instituted, 
according to some, by Hercules, and re- 
established by Iphitus. They became so 
considerable, that the Greeks made them 
their epocha. Coroebus conquered in 
the 28th Olympiad from their revival 
by Iphitus, commonly called the First 
Olympiad, which was celebrated, ac- 
cording to Scaliger, on July 23, a. c. 
776. See the preceding Article. 

OMAR, the second caliph or successor 
of Mahomet, distinguished by his upright 
conduct, succeeded to the oflSce, a.d. 
634. Defeated the Emperor Heraclius 
in 636, at the bloody battle of Yermook. 
He died much and deservedly respected, 
A.H. 23, aged 63. 

OMNIBUS CoACHEsfirstintroduced 
into London, July, 1828. 

OMOA, sea-port and fort of Central 
America, province Honduras, an im- 



portant place, and considered the key of 
Honduras. Taken by the British forces 
Oct. 20, 1779; but soon after retaken 
by the Spaniards. 

OOJEIN, city, Hindoostan, is of the 
most remote antiquity. Rajas of this 
city are mentioned by Ferishta, so early 
as A.D. 1008, and it was first conquered 
by the Mahomedans about 1230. The 
celebrated raja Jeysingh held the city and 
territory of Oojein of the Emperor Ma- 
homed Shah ; but it soon afterwards fell 
under the power of the Mahrattas, and 
has been possessed for four generations 
by the Sindia family. In 1803 a war 
commenced between the British and 
Dowlet Row Sindia, but the signal vic- 
tories gained by Lord Lake and General 
Wellesley (now duke of Wellington,) 
soon compelled the Mahratta chiefs to 
sue for peace. 

OPERA, a dramatic and lyric compo- 
sition, of modern invention. In its pre- 
sent state it was not known even in 
Italy before the beginning of the l7th 
century. In the first operas, music was 
the principal object, with mythological 
characters in the fable. First introduced 
into England at the close of the ]7th 
century. The first in London was in 
York Buildings in 1692 ; thefirst InDrury- 
lane was in 1705 ; the first by Handel 
in 1735. 

OPERA-HOUSE, Haymarket, open- 
ed 1704 ; burnt 1789, and the founda- 
tion of a new one laid April 3, 1790, 
and used as a play-house, Sept. 22,1791. 

OPIE, John, late professor of paint- 
ing in the Royal Academy, was born 
May, 1761. In 1781 he came to Lon- 
don, and by the establishment of the 
Shakspeare Gallery in 1786, his merits 
were fully made known to the pu!)lic. 
He was admitted an associate of the 
Royal Academy in 1786, an academi- 
cian in the year following, and professor 
of painting in 1805. He died, after a 
lingering illness, in April 1807, and was 
honoured by an interment in St. Paul's 
Cathedral, near the grave of Sir Joshua 
Reynolds. 

OPIUM, the concrete juice of the 
white poppy, which is most probably a 
native of Asia, though now found grow- 
ing wild in the southern parts of Ei/- 
rope ; it is chiefly prepared in India, 
Turkey, and Persia. The commence- 
ment of the use of opium in China is 
not known. Up to the year 1780, the 
Portuguese supplied the Chinese with 



OPO 



684 



OPT 



foreign oinum ; and after that period the 
English trade in the drug began by 
establishing a depot for the sale of it 
to the southward of Macao. Formerly 
opium was admitted as a foreign 
article into China, on payment of a duty ; 
but towards the end of the last century 
its importation was entirely prohibited ; 
and in 1796 those found guilty of 
smoking opium were punished with the 
pillory and bamboo. In spite, however, 
of strong denunciations, the clandestine 
trade went on ; the East India Company 
were compelled to take the preparation 
of the opium in the rich districts of 
-Bengal, Behar, and Benares, into their 
own hands, farmed the whole of the 
produce, and sold it annually at Cal- 
cutta by auction to the highest bidder. 
Of late years it was found that the 
poppy grew abundantly in Malwa and 
Central India. The East India Com- 
pany entered into negotiations with the 
chiefs of those districts, to prevent the 
manufacture of the drug, but were ob- 
liged finally to grant passes for permit- 
ting the transit of the Malwa opium 
through the Bombay territories for ship- 
ment to China. 

The consumption of opium in China 
has been rapidly extending, and soon 
became the cause of serious misunder- 
standings. During the first 10 years 
of the present century, the exports from 
India to China, were about 2 SCO chests 
(of 149i lbs. each). In 1821-2, after the 
introduction of Malwa opium into the 
markets of Calcutta and Bombay, the 
exports increased to 4628 chests ; and, 
owing to the greatly increased supply, 
the exports in 1831-2 exceeded 20,000 
chests, worth above 13,000,000 dollars. 
The exports in 1836 were 26,018 chests, 
valued at 17,000,000 dollars. 

At length the enormous extent to 
which the opium trade was carried on, 
and the injurious effects of this delete- 
rious drug induced the Chinese govern- 
ment to adopt ihe strongest measures 
fur its suppression ; and particularly by 
an edict dated Jan. 26, 1836. Captain 
Elliot, the British representative, was 
forced to call on the British merchants 
to surrender the whole of their stock to 
the Chinese government, which was 
done and destroyed in great quantities. 
This circumstance occasioned the Chi- 
nese war. See China, p. 264. 

OPORTO, or Porto, city and sea- 
port, Portugal, situated on the north 



bank of the river Douro, remarkable for 
its trade in wine, of which England is 
much the largest consumer. Next to 
England, Brazil, Russia, and the north 
of Europe in general, are the principal 
consumers. Oporto was in possession 
of the French during part of 1808 and 
the spring of 1809, when Marshal Soult, 
surprised by Lord Wellington, made a 
very narrow escape. It remained ever 
after undisturbed ; for the French did 
not approach it on their second invasion 
of Portugal in 1810. The Miguelites, 
under the command of the marquis de 
Pasqueena, took possession of Oporto, 
July 3, 1828. The marquis Palmella 
and others, leaders of the constitution- 
alists, embarked for England. Don 
Pedro re-took it on landing in Portugal 
in 1832. In 1833 it was the scene of 
military operations, and an unsuccess- 
fuU attack of the Miguelites ; but has, 
since then, remained in possession of the 
new government. 

OPPELN, government, Prussia, pro- 
vince of Silesia, was governed by its 
own dukes, of the race of Piast, till 
1532; when the family becoming ex- 
tinct, it escheated to Bohemia, and was 
acquired by Prussia, with the rest of 
Silesia, in 1742. 

OPPIAN, author of poems on "Hunt- 
ing and Fishing," flourished a.c. 100. 

OPTICS, the science which explains 
the nature and laws of vision, the doc- 
trine of light and colours, and all the 
phenomena of visible objects. The first 
optical instruments invented by the an- 
cients, were burning lenses, which were 
known at Athens at least a.c. 424. Two 
of the leading principles of optics known 
to the Platonists, a.c. 300. First treatise 
on the science, by Euclid, about a.c. 
280. The magnifying power of convex 
glasses and concave mirrors, and the 
prismatic colours produced by angular 
glass.mentioned by Seneca about a. d. 50. 
Treatise on optics, by Ptolem)', about 
120; science greatly improved byAlhazen 
about 1108. Hints for spectacles and 
telescopes given by Roger Bacon about 
1280. Spectacles (said to be) invented 
by Salvinus Armatus, of Pisa, before 
1300. Camera obscura, said to have 
been invented by Baptista Porta, 1560. 
Telescopes invented by Leonard Digges, 
about 1571. Telescopes made by Jansen, 
(who is said also to have invented the 
microscope), about 1609. The same in- 
strument, constructed by Galileo, with- 



ORA 



685 



ORI 



out using the production of Jansen. 
Astronomical telescope, suggested by 
Kepler, 16II. Microscope, according 
to Huygens, invented by Drebbel, about 
1621. Law of refraction discovered by 
Snellius, about 1624. Motion and ve- 
locity of light, Roeiner, and after him 
Cassini, (velocity 190,000,000 miles in 
sixteen minutes), about 1667. Double 
refraction explained by Bartholinus 
1669- Newton's discoveries 1674. See 
Newton. Telescopes with a single 
lens, by Tschirnhausen, about I690. 
Polarization of light, suggested by Huy- 
gens, about 1692. Structure of the eye 
explained by Petit, about 1700. Achro- 
matic telescope constructed by Mr. 
Hall, (but not made public), in 1733. 
See Achromatic Glassks. 

Polarization of light after having been 
neglected since the time of Huygens, 
re-discovered, and more fully developed 
by M. Malus, colonel of the imperial 
corps of engineers in France, in 1810. 
" The phenomena," says Sir John Hers- 
chel, " are so singular and various, that 
to one who has only studied the common 
branches of physical optics it is like en- 
tering into a new world, so splendid, as 
to render it one of the most delightful 
branches of experimental inquiry." Ra- 
mage's front-view reflecting telescope 
erected at Greenwich, 1820. Optical 
glasses of the late Dr. Ritchie described 
at a meeting of the Astronomical Society 
on June 14, 1839, in which a disc of 
flint-glass, Jh inches in diameter, is 
made sufficiently perfect for the con- 
struction of a good achromatic telescope. 

ORAN, a maritime city of Algiers, 
was taken by the Spaniards under Car- 
dinal Ximenes in 1509 ; recovered by 
the Moors in 1708 ; and retaken by the 
Spaniards in 1732 : but they afterwards 
restored the town, retaining only the 
castle of Mers el Kebir. In the recent 
occupation of Algiers by the French it 
has shared the fate of the rest of this 
territory. See Algiers. 

ORANGE, a city of France, depart- 
ment Vaucluse. It was long the capital 
of a principality of the same name, given 
by Charlemagne to William An Cornet, 
as a reward for his military services. It 
was successively possessed by the houses 
of Baux, Chiilons; and Nassau ; and, on 
the death of William III. of England, in 
1702, Frederick William of Prussia 
claimed the succession; but in 1713 it 
was ceded to France. 



ORANGE, William, first prince of, 
assassinated June 30, 1584. 

ORATORIO. Its origin ascribed to 
San Filippo Neri, who was born at Flo- 
rence in 1515, and who founded the con- 
gregation of the priests of the oratory at 
Rome. The first in London was per- 
formed at Lincoln's-inn playhouse, Por- 
tugal-street, 1732. See Handel. 

O'REILLI, the British consul at Gua- 
temala, murdered by his servants, Jan. 2, 
1828. The principal perpetrator, Bo- 
nilla, was subsequently tried, convicted, 
and executed. 

ORGAN, the largest and most harmo- 
nious of all musical instruments, appears 
to have been borrowed from the Greeks, 
and was an imi)rovement on the hydrau- 
lic organ of the ancients, which Dr. 
Burney says was played, or at least 
blown, by a cataract, or fall of water. 
Organs were known in France in the 
time of Louis le Debonair, 815, when an 
Italian priest taught the use and con- 
struction of them, which he himself had 
learned at Constantinople ; but they 
were not generally introduced into 
churches till after the time of lliomas 
Aquinas, 1250. Soon after, they were 
introduced into Italy, Germany, and 
England. Father Smith, the celebrated 
organ builder, flourished in 1672. About 
this time the contest between Smith and 
the younger Harris was carried on with 
great spirit, and the point of preference 
between them was finally determined by 
that exquisite piece of workmanship ol 
Smith, the organ in the Temple church. 

In the present century many improve- 
menis have been made in the construc- 
tion of organs ; particularly in assign- 
ing greater power and compass to the 
diapasons, in the perfection of the ma- 
chinery, &c. 

ORI GEN, one of the most celebrated 
of the early ecclesiastical writers, was 
born at Alexandria in 185. In 213 he 
took a voyage to Rome, and on his re- 
turn, appl3'ing himself closely to stud)', 
he published many works, by \vhich 
he acquired great reputation. He re- 
mained at Alexandria till 228, wher 
he was ordained presbyter at Caesarea. 
During the persecution of the Chris- 
tians in the reign of Decius, none 
were used with greater severity than 
Origen. He died and was buried at 
Tyre in 254, aged 69. 

ORISSA, a province of Hindoostan, 
in the Deccan. Raja Anang Bheera Deo, 



ORM 



686 



ORR 



who ascended the throne of Orissa 1174, 
erected the great temple of Juggernauth. 
In 1/43 Orissa was invaded by a large 
army of Mahrattas, who continued an- 
nual plundering incursions until about 
1750. From this time Orissa experienced 
a complication of misrule, anarchy, and 
violence, till conquered by the British 
arms in 1803. 

ORKNEY Islands, Scotland, called 
by the Romans the Orcades, were disco- 
vered and conquered by Julius Agricola, 
about A.D. 80. At the subversion of the 
kingdom of the Picts by Kenneth II., 
king of Scotland, he obtained the so- 
vereignty, which, in 1099, was trans- 
ferred to the king of Norway. The Nor- 
wegians retained possession till the mid- 
dle of the 13th century, when Magnus, 
king of Norway, restored them to Alex- 
ander III. of Scotland. They continued 
to be the object of contest between these 
powers till 1470, when James III. of Scot- 
land having married Margaret,the daugh- 
ter of the king of Norway, obtained the 
Orkneys as the dowry of that princess. 

ORLEANS (AURELIANA CiVITAS), 

town, interior of France, is a place of 
great antiquity, having been besieged by 
Attila in 450. In the middle ages it 
was the occasional residence of the kings 
of France ; and it has been the seat of 
several ecclesiastical councils. Since 
the 14th century it has conferred the 
title of duke, which is commonly held 
by a prince of the blood. 

ORLEANS, Duke of, or Egalite', 
father of Louis Phillipe, the present 
king of the French, was guillotined 
Nov. 5, 1793. 

ORLEANS, New, city. North Ame- 
rica, United States, capital of Louisiana. 
In the last American war, the British 
made an unsuccessful attack upon it, 
Jan. 8, 1815, and lost in killed, wounded, 
and prisoners, 2000 men. Generals 
Pakenham and Gibbes were also killed, 
and General Keane wounded. 

ORMOND, Butler, Duke of, 
impeached June 21, 1715; retired to 
France, August following ; £10,000 of- 
fered by Ireland for taking him, Jan. 19, 
1718-19 ; £5000 offered by the English, 
March 1718-19. Died in France, and 
was brought to England and buried at 
Westminster, May 22, 1749. 

ORMUTZ, island, Asia, in the Per- 
sian gulf. On this island was built a 
city and fort, once the most celebrated 
of all Asia ; but the city is now one mass 



of ruins. In 1505 the Portuguese first 
formed a settlement on this island, and 
it was afterwards frequented by a num- 
ber of rich merchants. In 1622 the Per- 
sians, by the assistance of the English, 
expelled the Portuguese and demolished 
the buildings. It is still the key of the 
gulf of Persia, on account of the com- 
modiousness of the harbour. 

ORNITHOLOGY, that part of zo- 
ology which treats of birds. Of the an- 
cients, Aristotle and Pliny are the only 
two who entered into any details on this 
subject. Among the more modern or- 
nithologists who cultivated this science, 
according to methodical distribution, one 
of the earliest is Belon ; his " History of 
Birds" was published at Paris in 1555, 
His principle of classification was chiefly 
founded on the varieties of habitation 
and food. WiUoughby made great pro- 
gress towards a more accurate arrange- 
ment. His work, which appeared in 
1676, was revised and edited by his 
friend, the celebrated Ray. Linnaeus, in 
1776, published the I2th edition of his 
" Systema Naturae," which contains the 
most valuable arrangement of his time, 
as it respects the feathered tribes. In 
1781 Dr. Latham commenced his " Ge- 
neral Synopsis of Birds," a work of 
much accurate detail. There are nume- 
rous writers who have treated of the 
birds of particular countries, as Her- 
nandez, a Spanish physician, who has 
described those of Mexico; M. Brun- 
nich, who published in 1764, an account 
of the birds of Denmark, &c. Several 
of our countrymen have ably expounded 
or delineated, the birds of their native 
country. 

1 838. Among the more recent illus- 
trators of this department of zoology, 
which are very numerous, may be men- 
tioned the following : Mr. and Mrs. 
Gould lately sailed for Australia with 
the object of preparing for publication 
the ornithology of that continent. A 
recent part of Mr. Gould's work con- 
tains an admirably executed representa- I 
tion of the Apteryx, two excellent speci- | 
mens of which, supposed to be male and 
female, have lately been presented by 
the Association for colonizing New Zea- 
land, to the museum of the Zoological 
Society. 

OROSIUS, the author of the " His- 
tory of the World," flourished in the 
fourth century of the christian era. 

ORRERY, the first constructed was 



OST 



687 



OTT 



by Mr. Grattan in 1670 : it is called 
after Lord Orrery. 

ORSATO, Sertorio, the antiqua- 
rian, poet, and historian, was born 1617, 
died 1678. 

ORTON, Job, an English dissenting 
minister, author of " Letters to a Young 
Clergyman," and the biographer of Dr. 
Doddridge, was born 1717, died July 
19, 1783. 

OSBORNE, Francis, historian, born 
1590, died 1659- 

OSMA, an ancient town, Spain, was 
taken by Pompey, a.u.c. 682 ; by the 
Moors in the 11th century, but after- 
wards retaken. Here also General Gra- 
ham defeated a detachment of the French 
army in 1813 

OSNABURGH, or Osnabuck, prin- 
cipality of the kingdom of Hanover, was 
formerly the territory of a bishop, and the 
see is of very remote antiquity. After 
the Reformation, many of the inhabi- 
tants embraced the Lutheran faith ; and 
it was agreed at the treaty of West- 
phalia, that the bishop should be alter- 
nately a Catholic and a Lutheran, but 
limited, on the election of a Protestant, 
to the family of Luneburg. In 1802 it 
was agreed that the bishopric should 
devolve in perpetuity on the house of 
Hanover, as a compensation for certain 
territorial cessions. It was annexed in 
1807 to the kingdom of Westphalia, but 
restored to Hanover in 1814. 

OSSIaN, a celebrated celtic bard, 
and the son of Fingal. Ossian was mar- 
ried early in life to Everallin, daughter 
of Branno, king of Lego, in Ireland. Ac- 
cording to Mr. Macpherson, he flou- 
rished at the latter end of the third and 
the beginning of the fourth century. 
The life of Ossian is represented as a 
continued scene of warfare. At what 
period he died cannot be ascertained. 
See Macpherson. 

OSSORY, an ancient bishopric, Ire- 
land, province of Leinster, founded in 
the fifth century at Saigir, removed 
thence to Aghaboe, and settled at Kil- 
kenny after 1178. The bishopric of 
Ferns, in virtue of the Irish Church 
Temporalities Act, was united to that of 
Ossory, July 12, 1835. 

OSTEND, town, kingdom of Belgium, 
was at first a small village ; became a 
town in 1072 ; and was encompassed 
with walls in 1445 by Philip the Good ; 
regularly fortified in 1583, by the prince 
of Orange. In 1601 it was besieged by 



the archduke Albert ; and in September, 
1604, above three years after it had been 
first invested, the garrison and inhabi- 
tants, after a sacrifice of 100,000 brave 
soldiers, obtained the most honourable 
terms of capitulation. In 1706 it was 
besieged by the allied army, and after an 
obstinate resistance, the garrison sur- 
rendered on capitulation. In 1722 the 
court of Vienna established an East 
India company at Ostend ; but in 1731 
it was dissolved. In 1745 Ostend was 
taken by the French, but evacuated in 
the following year. Since the peace of 
1814, the regular communication be- 
tween Ostend and Dover, has been re- 
newed. Post-office packets convey the 
mails twice a week, and other packets 
sail regularly to Dover, London, &c. 

OSTROGOTHS. See Goths. 

OTAHEITE, or Tahiti, island. 
South Pacific Ocean, was discovered in 
1767, by Captain WaUis, who called it 
George IIL's Island. It was visited 
in 1768 by Captain Cook, who came 
here to observe the transit of Venus, 
and sailed round the island in a boat ; 
it was afterwards visited twice by that 
celebrated navigator. In 1799, king 
Pomare ceded the district of Matavia, 
north of the island, to some of the mis- 
sionaries belonging to the London Mis- 
sionary Society, through whose labours 
the inhabitants of Otaheite and many of 
the neighbouring islands have been in- 
duced to renounce idolatry. A general 
reformation of manners has been eflfected, 
numbers of schools established, the use- 
ful arts introduced, and civilization is 
now rapidly advancing. 

OTHO THE Great, crowned king 
of Germany, 936 ; defeated the Scla- 
vonians, and made Bohemia tributary, 
950 ; expelled the Hungarians from 
Bohemia, 955 ; was crowned emperor 
of the west, 962 ; took Rome, 964 ; 
caused his son, Otho II., to be crowned 
emperor, 967, and died 973. 

OTTLEY, William Young, F.R.S., 
and S.A., keeper of the prints in the 
British Museum, known as an artist, a 
collector, and an author. His " Fall of 
Satan," eight feet by six, was exhibited 
at Somerset House. His collection of 
engravings, which he continued to 
enrich up to within a few years of his 
death, is supposed to be one of the most 
complete and best selected in Europe. 
He died may 26, 1836, in his 65th year. 

OTTO, John, of Nuremburgh, the 



OVI 



688 



OXF 



first bookseller who made bargains for 
copyrights of MS. literature. * without 
being himself a printer, died 1516. 

OTWAY.Thomas, author of "Venice 
Preserved," &c., born 1651, died 1685. 

OUDE, province or kingdom, Hindoo- 
stan, celebrated in Hindoo history as 
the kingdom of Dasaratha, the father 
of the great Rama, who extended his 
empire to the island of Ceylon. One of 
bis descendants, Asoph ud Dowlah, who 
.succeeded to the throne in 1775, reigned 
until 1797, when the dignity was usurped 
by Vizier Ali. He was dethroned by 
Lord Teignmouth, and the government 
confided to Saadet Ali, who was pro- 
claimed nabob of Oude, January 21, 
1798. Ever, since, this territory has 
been protected by a British subsidiary 
force, the expense of which was defrayed 
by the nabobs of Oude. In 1801 a treaty 
was concluded by which certain districts 
were ceded to the British government. 
Saadet Ali died July 11, 1814, and the 
accession of the nabob Ghazi ud Deen 
Hyder took place without the smallest 
interruption. He confirmed all the sub- 
sisting treaties, and acceded to the ad- 
justment of many questions long pend- 
ing with the British government. In 
1819 he renounced all subservience to 
the throne of Delhi, assuming the title 
of king. In 1837, in consequence of 
the death of the reigning monarch, dis- 
putes arose with the British, which led 
to hostilities. See India. 

OUDENARDE, town, Belgium, 
known in history by the memorable vic- 
tory obtained over the French in 1708, 
by prince Eugene and the duke of Marl- 
borough. 

OUGHTRED, Rev. William, a 
distinguished mathematician, was born 
at Eton in 1573. About 1628 he was 
appointed by the earl of Arundel to in- 
struct his son in the mathematics ; and 
the most celebrated mathematicians of 
that age owed most of their skill to him. 
He died in l660, aged 88. His principal 
works were " Clavis Mathematica ; " "A 
Description of the Double Horizontal 
Dial ; " " Opuscula Mathematica," and 
others. 

OVERBURY, SirThomas, poisoned 
in the Tower, Sept. 17, 1613, aged 32. 

OVID, Publics Ovidius Naso, 
one of the most celebrated of the Ro- 
man poets, was born at Sulmo, about 
A.c. 43. Virgil, Properlius, Tibullus, 
and Horace, honoured him with their 



correspondence, and Augustus patro- 
nized him with the most unbounded 
liberality ; he was Ijanished to Tomos, 
a city on the Pontus Euxinus, when 50 
years of age. He died a.c. 15, in his 
57th year. His " Metamorphoses," in 
15 books, relate agreat variety of mytho- 
logical traditions. 

OWEN, Dr. John, a learned non- 
conformist divine, was born in 1616, at 
Haddenham, in Oxfordshire, where his 
father was vicar. In 1642 he published 
his book entitled " A Display of Armi- 
nianism," which laid the foundation of 
his fame. He was promoted to the 
deanery of Christchurch in 1651 ; and 
Cromwell, when chancellor of the uni- 
versity, nominated him his vice-chancel- 
lor, and he was created doctor of divinity 
by diploma. Dr. Owen filled this office 
five years ; during which he behaved 
with the greatest moderation. On the 
death of Cromwell he was removed 
from the vice-chancellorship ; and at the 
Restoration was ejected from his dean- 
ery of Christchurch. He therefore re- 
tired to his estate at Haddenham. He 
died at Ealing in 1683, in his 67th year. 

OWEN, Rev. J., divine, one of the 
founders of the Bible Society, died 1822. 

OWHYHEE, or Hawii, island, Pa- 
cific Ocean, the largest of the Sandwich 
islands. Here Captain Cook fell a vic- 
tim (in 1779) to a sudden resentment of 
the natives, with whom he unfortunately 
had a dispute. The inhabitants of this 
island, formerly devoted to the most de- 
grading superstition, have, within a few 
years, wholly renounced idolatry, and 
some missionaries are settled among 
them. The king and chiefs ceded it to 
Great Britain in 1794. This island is 
remarkable for itshigh mountains, Mowna 
Kaah,Mowna Roa, and others, which were 
ascended and described by Mr. Douglas 
in 1834. Mowna Kaah, or the White 
Mountain, according to Mr. Douglas's 
observations, is 13,587 feet above sea 
level, Mowna Roa 13,175 feet. 

OXENHALL, near Darlington. 'Hie 
earth here suddenly rose to an eminence 
resembling a mountain; remained so 
several hours, then sunk in as suddenly 
with a horrible noise, leaving a deep 
chasm, a.d. 1179. 

OXFORD, an inland county, England, 
during the Saxon heptarchy, formed a 
part of the kingdom of Mercia. It was 
the seat of frequent hostilities between 
the rival sovereigns ; and after Egbert 



OXF 



689 



OXF 



was established king, suiFered much 
from the incursions of the Danes, who 
defeated the Enghsh near Hook-Norton. 
In the civil wars between the houses of 
York and Lancaster, an engagement took 
place near Banbury, 1469, when the 
Yorkists were defeated by the earl of 
Warwick, and Edward IV. was made 
prisoner. When hostilities occurred be- 
tween Charles I. and the parliament, 
Oxford became the heau-quarters of the 
Royahsts : and the skirmish at Chal- 
grove-field, near Wathngton, in 1643, is 
memorable for the death of Hampden. 

OXFORD, capital of the above 
county. Its origin is uncertain. Its 
axithentic history cannot be traced 
further than the reign of Alfred the 
Great. In the time of Ethelred II., 
Oxford was burnt by the Danes. It was 
surrendered to Sweyn in 1013, and was 
burnt a second time, it is said, in 1032. 
After the battle of Hastings, Wilham I. 
gave it to Robert D'Oyley, one of his 
officers. He founded or rebuilt a strong 
castle in 1074, part of which is still 
standing. Henry I. built a hall or pa- 
lace here called Beaumont, of which 
some part remained till 1834. Several 
meetings of parliament are recorded as 
having taken place here (in Christ- 
church-hall,) the last of which was in 
the reign of Charles II. In 1555 the 
bishops, Latimer and Ridley, were burnt 
here for heresy; and in the following 
year Cranmer shared the same fate. 

The bishopric of Oxford owes its origin 
to Henry VHL, who, in 1542, having 
separated the county of Oxford from the 
diocese of Lincoln, erected it into a new 
bishopric, and converted the church of 
Oseney-abbey into a cathedral, to which 
were attached a dean and six prebenda- 
ries, to form a chapter for the bishop of 
Oxford. About four years afterwards, 
the king removed the see from Oseney 
to Christchurch, built on the site of St. 
Frideswide's, the conventual church of a 
nunnery founded in the eighth century. 
The present cathedral church is a large 
cruciform structure, partly Norman and 
partly Gothic. 

OXFORD University, Itsearlyhis- 
tory is obscure, but there does not appear 
to be evidence of any regular establish- 
ment for learning earlier than the time 
of Alfred the Great, who founded at 
Oxford three halls, or schools. Under 
Henry I., surnamedBeauclerc, the infant 
university prospered. In 1286 Edward I. 



gave the chancellor of the university 
authority to decide all pleas and disputes 
between the students and the burgesses. 
About this time the title of university 
was formally conferred upon the incor- 
porated schools of Oxford by the pope ; 
and Edward II. granted letters patent, 
ratifying all the immunities, rights, and 
privileges which had been previously 
conferred on the institution. The alter- 
ations in the ecclesiastical government 
in the reign of Henry VII L, were advan- 
tageous to the university, which obtained 
a good share of the property of the sup- 
pressed monasteries. When the civil 
war broke out between Charles and the 
parliament, the university favoured the 
royal cause, and made great, though 
ineffectual efforts to support it. 

The university was incorporated in the 
13th of Elizabeth, under the style of the 
chancellor, master, and scholars of the 
university of Oxford ; the laws by which 
it is now governed were compiled by its 
own members in the reign of James I., 
and ratified by authority of the 14th of 
Charles I., by whom was granted a char- 
ter, which confirmed and extended the 
various grants of preceding monarchs. 

The colleges of this university are, — 
1. University, founded in 1232, by Wil- 
liam, archdeacon of Durham. 2. Bal- 
liol, founded about 1264, by Sir John 
Balliol, father of Balliol, made king of 
Scotland by Edward I. 3. Merton, by 
Walter de Merton, lord chancellor, about 
1280. 4. Exeter, by Walter Stapledon, 
bishop of Exeter, in 1315. 5. Oriel, by 
Adam de Brome, in 1326. 6. Queen's, 
in 1340, by Robert de Eglesfield, chap- 
lain to Philippa, queen of Edward III. 
7. New College, in 1386, by William of 
Wykeham. 8. Lincoln, founded by 
Richard Flemming, bishop of Lincoln, 
in 1427. 9. All Souls, founded in 1437, 
by Henry Chichele, archbishop of Can- 
terbury. 10. Magdalen, by William of 
Weynfleet, bishop of Winchester, in 
1456. 11. Brazennose, founded in 1509, 
by William Smyth, bishop of Lincoln. 
12. Corpus Christi, in 1516, by Fox, 
bishop of Winchester. 13. Christ- 
churcbf commenced by Cardinal Wolsey, 
and completed by Henry VIIL, in 1532. 
14. Trinity, was founded by Sir Thomas 
Pope, in 1554, but the chapel was re- 
built in 1694. 15. St. John's, in 1557, 
by Sir Thomas White, lord mayor of 
London. 16. Jesus College, founded in 
1571, by Dr. Hugh Price. 17. Wadham, 

4 T 



PAC 



690 



PAD 



erected by the widow of Nicholas Wad- 
ham, Esq., in 1613. 18. Pembroke, in 
1624, by Thomas Tesdale, Esq. nnd 
Rev. Richard Wightwick ; named from 
the earl of Pembroke, then chancellor. 
19- Worcester, originally a seminary 
for educating the novices of St. Peter's 
Abbey, Gloucester, restored under the 
name of Gloucester Hall, and in 1714 
established in its present form. There 
are five halls : — 1. Alban Hall, belong- 
ing to Merton College. 2. Edmund 
Hall, formerly belonging to Osney Ab- 
bey, but now attached to Queen's Col- 
lege. 3. St. Mary's Hall, formerly the 
parsonage house of the rectors of St, 
Mary's church, but given to Oriel Col- 
lege in 1 325. 4. New Inn Hall, origin- 
ally a Bernardine convent, given to New 
College by the founder in 1391. 5. Mag- 
dalen Hall, founded in 1480 by bishop 
Waynfleet, but removed in 1822 to the 
buildings of Hertford College. 

Chancellors of the University 
since the Revolution : — 

James, duke of Ormond, installed 
1688. 

Earl of Arran, 1715. 

John, earl of Westmoreland, 1759. 

George Henry, earl of Lichfield, 1762. 

Frederick, Lord North, late earl of 
Guilford, 1772. 

William Heniy, duke of Portland, 
1792. 

William Windham Granville, Lord 
Granville, 1809. 

Arthur, duke of Wellington, 1834. 

OXFORD Assizes, memorable by 
the death of the sheriffs and 300 persons, 
who caught the infection from prisoners, 
1577. 

OXFORD, Edward, attempted to 
shoot the queen, June 10, 1840. About 
six o'clock, her majesty, accompanied by 



her royal consort, left the palace in an 
open carriage, with four horses, and only 
two attendants. They drove up Consti- 
tution-hill, and at about 120 yards be- 
tween the palace and the triumphal arch 
at Hyde-Park-corner, Edward Oxford 
drew a pistol from his breast, and, when 
nearly opposite him, he discharged it at 
the carriage. The ball was heard to whiz 
along, but it missed its object. Oxford 
was immediately taken into custody. His 
trial for high treason came on, Thurs- 
day, July 9, following, and terminated 
next day; verdict, " guilty, but being at 
the time insane." The sentence was, 
that " Edward Oxford be confined in 
strict custody during her majesty's 
pleasure." 

OXUS, a river of Central Asia, the 
course of which is chiefly through Inde- 
pendent Tartary. Its exact source lately 
discovered by Lieut. Wood, who served 
under Captain Sir A. Burnes, F R.S., in 
his expedition to Cabul in 1832. It 
rises in the elevated region of Pameer, 
in Sinkoal, from a sheet of water, en- 
circled on all sides, except the west, 
by hills, commencing its course at the 
great elevation of about 15,600 feet 
above the sea. 

OXYGEN-GAS, discovered by Dr. 
Priestly, August 1, 1774, and named by 
him dephlogisticated air ; discovered also 
by Scheele the following year, and after- 
wards named oxygen gas by Lavoisier; 
found to be a component part of atmo- 
spheric air, 1777. 

OXYMURIATIC Acid, a peculiar 
gaseous substance, discovered by Scheele 
in 1774, and now called chlorine. 

OZANAM, James, an eminent ma- 
thematician, born 1640, died 1717- 

OZELL, John, the translator of "Don 
Quixote," died 17-13. 



P. 



PACIFIC Ocean discovered by 
Vasco Nunez de Balboa, September 26, 
1513, who nramed it the South Sbea. It 
received the name of Pacific from Ma- 
gellan, who, when he entered this ocean 
through the strait which bears his name, 
enjoyed for three months calm and 
gentle weather, with fair winds. A new 
group of islands in the Pacific was dis- 
covered in the spring of the year 1837 by 



her majesty's ship Actaeon, captain lord 
Edward Russell, while on the passage 
from Tahiti to Pitcairn's island. This 
group lies in the Dangerous Archipelago. 

PACUVIUS, Marcus, a Roman poet, 
flourished about a.c. 154. 

PADERBORN, a city and bishopric 
of Prussia, province of Westphaha. The 
bishopric was erected by Charlemagne 
towards the close of the eighth century, 



PAI 



691 



PAI 



and the cathedral was consecrated by 
pope Leo in person in 796, Paderborn, 
the chief town, was one of the Hanse 
towns, and, till 1604, an imperial city. 
The university was founded in 1592. 

PADLOCKS were first invented at 
Nuremburg, 1540. 

PADUA, an ancient city of Italy, the 
birthplace of Livy, was destroyed by 
Attila, repaired by Narses, and again 
destroyed by the Lombards ; it was often 
ravaged, and as constantly re-established. 
In 1406 it was taken from the dukes of 
Milan by the Venetians. The university 
was founded by Charlemagne, and much 
enlarged by the emperor Frederick II. 
and pope Urban IV. ; but it has recently 
dechned much from its former reputa- 
tion. The city Avas taken by the Arch- 
duke John, and re-taken by the French, 
1809. 

PAGAHM, a town, kingdom of Ava, 
formerly the residence of the kings. In 
1825 it was captured by the British 
under Sir A. Campbell ; and, hke the 
surrounding country, presented a heap 
of ruins. 

PAINE, Thomas, the celebrated au- 
thor of the " Rights of Man," born at 
Thetford, in Norfolk, 1737, died at New 
York in North America, June 8, 1809. 

PAINTING. The earliest authentic 
account in profane history of the exist' 
ence of painting is in the reign of Ninus 
and Semiramis, king and queen of As- 
syria, about A.c. 2000. Several travel- 
lers who have visited Thebes and the 
sepulchral grottos of Upper Egypt, have 
described the paintings of the Egyptians. 
Pliny states that about the l6th Olym- 
piad, or little better than 700 years be- 
fore the Christian era, Candaules, king 
of Lydia, purchased a picture painted 
by Bularchus, called the battle of the 
Magnetes, and gave for it its weight in 
gold. 

But this art may be considered as 
little advanced from infancy till about 
A.c. 400, when Zeuxis and Parrhasius 
flourished. By Apelles, Protogenes, and 
Euphranor, it was carried to the greatest 
height of perfection. See Apelles. 
Painting was first introduced at Rome 
from Etruria by Quintus, who on that 
account was called Pictor, a.c. 291. The 
first excellent pictures were brought from 
Corinth to Rome by Mummius a.c. 146. 
Painting in oil is said to have been in- 
vented by John Van Eyck, who, with 
his brother Hubert, were the founders 



of the Flemish school, a.d. 1415. About 
the same time with Van Eyck flourished 
Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, 
Titian, Bartholomew de St. Marc, and 
RafFaell. 

The following is an alphabetical list of 
the most eminent painters between the 
15th and I7th centuries : — 
School. Name. 

Lorn. Albano, born ] 578, died 1660. 
Flem. Albert Durer, born 1471, died 

1528. 
Rom. &\ Andrea del Sarto, born 1471, 
Flor. J died 1520. 
Rom. Baroccio, born 1528, died 1612. 
Ven. Bassano, James, born 1510, 

died 1592. 
Ven. Belhni, John, born 1422, died 

1512. 
Fr. Bourdon, born 1616, died 1671- 

Fr. Brun, Le, born 1619, died 

1690. 
Ven. Claude Lorraine, born 1600, 

died 1682. 
Lom. Caracci, born 1560, died 1609. 
Lom. Coreggio, born 1494, diedl 534. 
Rom. DanieldeVolterra, born 1509, 

died 1566. 
Flem. Diepenbeck, born 1607, died 

1675. 
Lom. Domenichino, born 1581, died 

1641. 
Rom. Giulio Romano, born 1492, died 

1546. 
Ven. Giorgione, born 1477, diedl 511. 
Lom. Guercino, born 1 590, died 1666. 
Lom. Guido, born 1574, died 1642. 
Flem. Holbein, born 1498, died ] 544. 
Flem. Jorddens, James, born 1594, 

died 1678. 
Flem. Luca Giordano, born 1629, died 

1704. 
Lom. Lanfranco, born 1581, diedl 647. 
Rom. Leonardo da Vinci, born 1445, 

died 1520. 
Flem. Lucas of Leyden, born 1404, 

died 1533. 
Rom- Michael Angelo Buonarotti, 

born 1474, died 1563. 
Lom. Michael de Caravaggio, born 

1569, died l609. 
Ven. Mutiano, born 1528, died 1589. 
Flem. Otho Venius, born 1556, died 

1634. 
Ven. Palma, the elder, born 1460, 

died 1556. 
Ven. Palma, the younger, born 1544, 

died 1628. 
Rom. Parmegiano, born 1503, died 
1540. 



PAI 



692 



PAL 



Ven. Paul Veronese, born 1532, died 

1588. 
Rom. Pierino del Vaga, born 1500, 

died 1547. 
Rom. Pietro de Cortona, born 1596 

died 1669. 
Rom. Pietro Pe rugino, born 1446, 

died 1524. 
Rom. Polidore de Caravaggio, born 

1495, died 1543. 
Ven. Pondenone, born 1484, died 

1540. 
Fr. Poussin, Nich., born 1594, died 

1665. 
Rom. Primaticcio, born 1490, died 

1570. 
Rom. Raffaelle, born 1483, died 

1520. 
Flem. Rembrandt, born 1606, died 

1674. 
Flem. Rubens, born 1577, died 1640. 
Rom. Salviati, Fra., born 1510, died 

1563. 
Fr. Sueur, Le, born 16 17, died 

1655. 
Flem. Teniers, born 1582, died 1649. 
Rom. Testa, Pietro, born 1611, died 

1650. 
Ven. Tinteretto, born 1512, died 

1594. 
Ven. Titian, born 1477, died 1576. 
Flem. Vandyck, born 1599, died 

1641. 
Rom. Vanni, born 1563, died 1610. 
Rom. Zucchero, Taddeo, born 1529, 

died 1566. 
This art was revived in England in 
the 18th centur)'. The first step towards 
it was the establishment of a school for 
drawing from the living figure, by Sir 
James Thornhill, in conjunction with 
Sir Godfrey Kneller. After a while they 
were visited by Hogarth and others, 
and a large body was formed, who es- 
tablished themselves in Peter's Court, 
St. Martin's Lane, in 1739- The result 
was the institution of the Royal Academy, 
in 1768, under the more immediate 
patronage of his majesty ; Sir Joshua 
Reynolds being nominated the first pre- 
sident. Of those who have practised in 
the higher style of painting in this coun- 
try may be mentioned the names of 
Reynolds, Romney, Opie, Barry, West, 
Martin, Lawrence, &c. 

1839. M. Leipmann, of Berlin, has 
invented a machine for copying paintings 
in oil with perfect exactness. This dis- 
covery is stated to be the result of ten 
years' incessant study; M. Leipmann 



having been a regular attendant at the 
museum at Berlin, where he selected a 
portrait by Rembrandt, as the object of 
his experiment. Fixing single features and 
parts of this picture in his memory, by 
hours of daily and incessant observation, 
he contrived to reproduce them at home, 
with perfect fidelity ; and by the aid of 
a machine, in what manner is not known. 
The discovery, however, is so complete, 
that he has produced, in the presence 
of the directors of the museum, 110 
copies of the painting in question. These 
copies are said to be perfect, and to 
retain the most delicate shades of the 
original picture, confessedly one of the 
most difficult to copy in the usual 
way. 

PALERMO, city, island Sicily, fell 
under the dominion of the Romans, who, 
soon after the first Punic war, allowed 
it to be governed by its own laws, and 
conferred on it many privileges. The 
Saracens afterwards made it the capital 
of the part of Sicily which they occiipied, 
and since their time it has generally 
been considered the capital of Sicily. 
The court of Naples resided here from 
1806 to 1815. It is now the seat of the 
viceroy of the Sicilian parliament. 

PALEY, Dr. William, an eminent 
moral and theological writer, was born 
at Peterborough, in 1743. After he had 
completed his i5th year, he was ad- 
mitted a sizar of Christ's College, Cam- 
bridge. In 1782 he was made arch- 
deacon of Elphin, Ireland, and soon after 
published " The Elements of Moral and 
Political Philosophy." His " Horse 
Paulinae" was published in 1790 ; in 
1794 his "View of the Evidences of 
Christianity," and his " Natural Theo- 
logy," appeared in 1801. He died May 
25, 1805. 

PALISSY, Bernard De, a French 
artist, who discovered the method of ap- 
plying enamel to stone ware; born about 
1524,'died 1590. 

PALLADIO, Andrea, the Italian 
architect, was born at Vicenza in 1518. 
To Palladio is chiefly attributed the clas- 
sic taste which reigns in so many of the 
buildings of Italy. His master-piece is 
reckoned the Olympic theatre at Vicenza; 
in imitation of that of Marcellus at 
Rome. He died in that city in 1580. 

PALLAS, Peter Simon, M.D., the 
Russian traveller, and author of " Na- 
tural History," died Sept. 8, 1811. 

PALMYRA, an ancient city of Syria, 



PAN 



693 



PAP 



now entirely in ruins, supposed to have 
been the " Tadmor in the wilderness," 
built by Solomon. It continued inde- 
pendent till the time of Trajan, who re- 
duced it, and it became a part of the 
Roman dominions. From Adrian to 
Aurelian, for about 140 years, it con- 
tinued to flourish and increase in wealth 
and power. It was taken by Aurelian 
A.D. 273, after a long siege, and he de- 
stroyed it, putting to death most of 'the 
inhabitants, without regard to age or sex. 
It then recovered, so that in the 12th 
century, there were 2000 Jews in it. 
But it gradually sunk into an obscure 
town, and at length a miserable village. 
The ruins consist of temples, palaces, 
and porticos of Grecian architecture ; 
and lie scattered over an extent of several 
miles. They were accidentally discovered 
by some English travellers from Aleppo 
at the beginning of the 11th century. 

PALSGRAVE, John, English dra- 
matic writer, flourished 1531. 

PAMPLONA, or PAMPELUNA,town, 
Spain, supposed to have been built by 
Pompey. The city was taken by the 
French on their invasion of Spain ; but 
it surrendered to the allied forces in 
1813. 

PANAMA, province of Columbia. Or- 
nis d'Avila settled a colony here about 
1517, and in 1521 it ivas constituted a 
city by the emperor Charles V., with 
numerous privileges. In 1670 it was 
sacked and burnt by John Morgan, an 
English adventurer. It was consumed 
by fire in 1737. After this accident it 
was rebuilt about three miles west of the 
former situation. Its present position, 
by a recent observation, is in lat. 8° 57' 
north long. 79° 30' west of Greenwich, 
on a tongue of land shaped nearly hke a 
spear-head, extending a considerable dis- 
tance out to sea. 

PANDOUR, village, north of Hun- 
gary, chiefly noted as giving name to the 
Servian or Rascian foot soldiers, called 
Pandours, who formerly distinguished 
themselves for their activity against rob- 
bers. They came into notice as regular 
troops in 1741, when Baron Trenk 
marched 1000 of them against the Prus- 
sians. 

PANIPUT, town, Hindoostan, cele- 
brated for the shrine of a Mahomedan 
saint of high repute. Two important 
battles have been fought near Paniput ; 
in the first (1525), the army of Sultan 
Baber routed that of Ibrahim Lodi, who 



was slain ; in the second (l76l), the 
Mahomedan army under Ahmed Shah 
Abdalli, conquered the Mahrattas under 
Sedasiva Bhow. 

PANTHEON, an ancient temple at 
Rome, dedicated to all the gods ; sup- 
posed to have been erected by Agrippa, 
son-in-law to Augustus, about the time 
of the birth of Christ. This is the most 
ancient edifice that now remains" in a 
state of preservation. 

PANTHEON, London, opened Janu- 
ary 28, 1772, destroyed by fire January 
14, 1792. 

PAOLI, General Pascal, the 
celebrated Corsican chief, died Feb. 1, 
1807. 

PAPER, a word derived from Papy- 
rus, the name of that celebrated Egyp- 
tian plant which was much used by the 
ancients in all kinds of writing. It was 
an important branch of commerce to the 
Egyptians, which continued to increase 
towards the end of the Roman republic, 
and became still more extensive in the 
reign of Augustus. St. Jerome informs 
us that it was as much in use in the fifth 
century, when he flourished. An an- 
cient manuscript of this paper, which 
Father Montfaucon saw in the French 
king's library, was written a.d. 1050. 

The modern paper now manufactured 
from linen rags was unknown to the an- 
cients. It is supposed to have been dis- 
covered in the 12th century, but was not 
in general use till about the beginning 
of the 14th. The oldest German paper- 
mill was estabhshed in 1390, at Nu- 
remburg. The first paper-mill in Eng- 
land was established at Dartford, by a 
German, jeweller to Queen Elizabeth, 
about 1588. Scarcely any but brown 
paper was made in England till 16 90, 
when white paper was first made. A pa- 
per was made of the asbestos at Dan- 
l)ury, in Connecticut, in North America, 
by Mr. Beach, who discovered a fine kind 
there in 1792. 

About the middle of last century the 
paper engine was invented in Holland, by 
which the mode of making paper was 
entirely changed ; since then the ma- 
chinery of the mills has gone on pro- 
gressively improving. Messrs. Fourdri- 
niers took out a patent which expired in 
1822; since then the number of mills 
has increased. There are in Great Britain 
800 paper mills, most of which are 
worked by machinery. 

Latterly Fourdriniers have taken out a 



PAR 



694 



PAR 



new patent, and made great improve- 
ments. From a technical description of 
their invention, which was given in the 
house of commonSjit appeared that 1000 
yards, or any given quantity of yards of 
paper, could be continuously made by it. 
By the revolution of the great cylinders 
employed in the process, an extraordi- 
nary degree both of quickness and con- 
venience in the production was secured. 
It has caused a remarkable increase in 
the revenue. In 1800, when this ma- 
chine was not in existence, the amount 
of the paper duty was £195,641 ; in 1821, 
when the machinery was in full opera- 
tion, the amount of duty was £579,867 ; 
in 1835 it was £833,822. 

1839. 2 and 3 Victoria, c. 23, June 19, 
consolidates and amends the laws for 
collecting and securing the duties of ex- 
cise on paper. This statute also directs 
the mode in which paper makers are to 
make up, tie up, and weigh their paper, 
in which the export of paper is to be 
conducted, and the allowances and draw- 
backs procured. It also repeals several 
previous acts ; and amongst others, 
6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 52. 

PAPIN, the inventor of "The Di- 
gester," and the first person who made 
experiments on the power of steam, died 
1694. 

PAPISTS. See Catholics. 

PAPPUS, mathematician, flourished 
in the fourth century. 

PAPUA, or New Guinea, island. 
South Pacific Ocean, the largest mass of 
southern continent next to New Hol- 
land. With the natives the British have 
as yet had very httle intercourse. In 
1778 it was visited by Captain Thomas 
Forest, in a large Malay prow, on a spe- 
culation of his own ; and from his narra- 
tive our chief information has been de- 
rived respecting the natives. In 1791, 
when the Panther, a Bombay cruizer, 
was off the coast of New Guinea, the na- 
tives decoyed the surgeon into their ca- 
noes, and murdered him. About 1796 
it was partly surveyed by Captain 
M'Cluer, who discovered the deep inlet 
named after him, which penetrates so far 
as almost to cut the island in two. The 
Dutch, in 1828, formed a settlement in 
Triton bay, in lat. 3° 33'. 

PARA, capital of the province of the 
same name, in the empire of Brazil ; the 
inhabitants were massacred by the In- 
dians in 1835. See Brazil. 

PARACELSUS, a celebrated physi- 



cian who flourished in the 1 6th century, 
was born at Einfidlen in Switzerland. 
He read lectures on medicine, in the 
German tongue, at Basil, and by the bold 
use of some active medicines, especially 
mercury and opium, he effected many 
cures ; yet the barbarism, vanity, and 
extravagance of his lectures at length 
disgusted the students. He died at 
Saltzberg in 1541, aged 48. 

PARAGUAY, extensive district. South 
America, now included in the province 
of Buenos Ayres, republic United Pro- 
vinces of La Plata. In 1515 the Spa- 
niards discoA'ered this country by sail- 
ing up the Rio de la Plata ; and in 1535 
founded the town of Buenos Ayres. In 
1580 the Jesuits found their way hi- 
ther ; and, in the next century, founded 
the missions of Paraguay. In 1757 
Spain exchanged the colonies on the east 
shore of the Uruguay for the Portuguese 
colony of St. Sacrament. In 1767 the 
Jesuits were expelled by the court, 
and the natives placed upon the same 
footing as the other Indians of Spanish 
South America. In 1810, at the revolt 
of the Spanish possessions, it was united 
to the new republic of La Plata. 

PARCHMENT, invented byAttalus, 
king of Pergamus A.c. 198. 

PARENT, Anthony, mathematician, 
born 1666, died 1716. 

PARGA, seaport town, Albania, me- 
morable for its opposition to the tyrant 
Ali Pacha, was built in the decline of the 
Roman empire. In 1401 it entered into 
an alliance with Venice, which continued 
nearly four centuries, until the subver- 
sion of the latter in 1797. Being then 
independent of the tyrant of Albania, it 
afforded an asylum to refugees from his 
violence, and was the seat of frequent 
cabals against his government. In 1798, 
when he found means to reduce other 
fortified places on the adjacent coast, 
Parga alone bade defiance to his arms. 
In 1814 Ali marched against it with a 
military force ; the Pargiots withstood 
the attack, but applied to the British in 
Corfu, and received a garrison from 
them. But the dread oif continued dis- 
sensions with the Albanians led to a nego- 
tiation with England, for its surrender, 
on Ali paying a pecuniary indemnity to 
those of the inhabitants who should 
refuse to remain after a change of go- 
vernment. In 1819, to the great grief 
of the inhabitants, Parga was ceded to 
the authorities of the Porte, according to 



PAR 



695 



PAR 



the treaty of Vienna, by which the whole 
continent of Albania and Greece was 
placed under the Turkish rule. The 
evacuation soon after took place, most 
CI the inhabitants removing to the Ionian 
islands. 

PARIAN Chronicle. SeeARUN- 
DELiAN Marbles. 

PARIS, capital of France, and one of 
the finest cities in Europe, owes its 
foundation to the means of defence af- 
forded by the insular position of the 
spots now called the Cite, and lie de St. 
Louis. Under the same of Lutetia, it 
afforded a short residence to the Roman 
detachment sent against it by Caesar. 
The houses were then merely of mud, 
with straw roofs, and without chimnies. 
When the Gauls (a. c. 53) revolted, La- 
bienus was sent against Lutetia, but the 
inhabitants burnt their houses and de- 
stroyed the bridges, and many bloody 
conflicts ensued ; they were at last com- 
pelled to submit. The Romans improved 
the fortifications, and built an aqueduct ; 
but the town was so insignificant that 
no further mention is made of it for 
nearly 400 years, when the emperor 
Julian spent the winter there, occupying 
the palace now called the Palace des 
Thermes. He changed the name from 
Lutetia to Parisii, or Parisea. 

Towards the close of the fifth century 
it was taken by the Franks, and in 508 
constituted the capital of their kingdom. 
Under Charlemagne the city was much 
improved and partly walled, and the 
suburbs began to be formed Under 
the third, or Capetian dynasty, Paris 
began to extend more rapidly ; and, 
in the reign of Louis VI., was sur- 
rounded by a wall, which included the 
suburbs. Philip II. rebuilt the churches, 
ordered the streets to be paved, built 
the castle of the Louvre, and greatly 
enlarged the extent of the wall. In 
1356 the fortifications were again en- 
larged and improved, and the Bastile 
built. The calamitous times of Charles 
VI. and VII. put a stop to all public im- 
provements ; but after the accession of 
Louis XL, the work again went on 
rapidly, and in the long reign of Louis 
XiV., took place the grand improve- 
ment of levelling the Boulevardes, filling 
up the moat, and planting the whole 
with rows of trees. 

During the massacres of the revolu- 
tion, in which Paris tock so conspicuous 
a part, the city suffered considerable de- 



lapidation . But on the accession of Buo- 
naparte, he greatly enlarged and improved 
it. After his fall, Paris was entered 
by the emperor of Russia at the head of 
his troops, March 31, 1814, and the 
treaty of Paris signed by the ministers 
of the allied sovereigns for the protec- 
tion of France, May 30, 1814. It was 
occupied by the allied army, July 3, 1815. 

1830. The most eventful period in the 
recent history of Paris, was the revolu- 
tion of this year, during the reign of 
Charles X., when in the short space of 
one week (the closing week in July) de- 
servedly styled La grand Semaine), this 
city was the scene of another remarkable 
convulsion. July 26, a report addressed 
to the king of France, appeared in the 
•' Moniteur," signed by Prince Pobgnac, 
and the other ministers, recommending 
the suppression and restriction of the 
periodical press, and the re-construction 
of the Chamber of Deputies, on the 
ground of its present democratical ten- 
dency. In the same paper also appeared, 
the ordinances in conformity with the 
above report, dated the 25th, signed by 
the king and countersigned by the respec- 
tive ministers. July 27th, attempts be- 
ing made to publish several of the French 
newspapers in opposition to the ordi- 
nances issued, the printing-presses and 
types were seized and destroyed by the 
gendarmerie. Paris was in a dreadful 
commotion ; the workshops were closed, 
the populace assembled in great masses, 
and testified by every means in their 
power their dissatisfaction at the late 
attempt to circumscribe their liberties. 

July 28 to 30. Continued conflicts in 
the streets of Paris. The National Guard 
resumed their arms and uniforms, of 
whom General Lafayette took the com- 
mand ; and, joining the populace, were 
uniformly successful in repelling the re- 
gular troops ; several regiments of whom, 
however, joined the popular cause to- 
ward the close of the contest, in which 
many lives were lost. Charles X. left 
Paris, and retired to Rambouillet. 

July 31. The recently elected depu- 
ties assembled in Paris, and voted that 
the ordinance for their dissolution being 
a contravention of the charter, were 
legally constituted. They then resolved 
that the safety of the nation requiring 
an immediate governor, the duke of Or- 
leans be requested to accept the oftice 
of lieutenant-general of the kingdom. 
Aug. 7, in a sitting of the cbamljer of 



PAR 



696 



PAR 



deputies, it was resolved that on agree- 
ing to certain stipulations the duke of 
Orleans should be acknowledged sove- 
reign of France, under the title of king 
of the French. Aug. 9th, in the sitting of 
the chamber of deputies, Louis Philip I. 
attended, and notified his acceptance of 
the crown of France on the terms pro- 
posed to him. 

PARIS, Treaties AT. Feb. 10, 1763, 
})eace of Paris concluded between France, 
Spain, Portugal, and Great Britain. Ces- 
sion of Canada by France, and of Flo- 
rida by Spain. May 15, 1796, between 
the French republic and the king of 
Sardinia, the latter ceding Savoy, Nice, 
the territory of Tende and Benil, and 
granting a free passage for troops through 
his states. Jan. 6, 1810, peace of Paris, 
between France and Sweden, whereby 
Swedish Pomerania, and the island of 
Rugen, were given up to the Swedes, 
who agreed to adopt the French prohi- 
bitory system against Great Britain. 
April 11, 1814, the treaty of Paris rati- 
fied on the part of Napoleon and the 
allies, by which Napoleon renounced his 
sovereignty over France; stipulating that 
the island of Elba should be his domi- 
nion and residence for life, with a suit- 
able provision for himself and Maria 
Louisa, who was to have vested in her 
the duchies of Parma and Placentia ; the 
same to descend to her son. April 23, 
1814, a convention signed at Paris, be- 
tween the Count d'Artois on the one 
part, and the Allied Powers on the other, 
stipulating that all hostilities should 
cease by land and sea ; that the confe- 
derated armies should evacuate the 
French territory, leaving its boundaries 
the same as they were on Jan. 1, 1792. 
May 30, 1814, peace of Paris ratified 
between France and the Allied Powers, 
in a supplemental article of v/hich Louis 
XVIII. stipulated that he would exert 
his endeavours with the continental pow- 
ers to ensure the abolition of the slave 
trade, in conjunction with Great Britain. 
July 20, a treaty of peace signed be- 
tween France and Spain, at Paris, con- 
firming the stipulations of previous trea- 
ties, which had existed on Jan. 1, 1792. 
March 13, 1815, the eight powers who 
had ratified the treaty of Paris, issued a 
manifesto after the escape of Napoleon 
from Elba, declaring him a common 
enemy to the repose of the world. July 3, 
the convention of St. Cloud entereil 
into between Marshal Davoust on the 



one part, and Wellington and Blucher 
on the other, by which Paris was sur- 
rendered to the Allies, who entered it 
on the 6th, Aug. 2, a convention 
signed at Paris between Great Britain 
Austria, Russia, and Prussia, styhng Na- 
poleon the prisoner of those powers, and 
confiding his safeguard particularly to 
the British government. June 10, 1817, 
treaty of Paris between Great Britain, 
France, Spain, Russia, and Prussia, con- 
firming the treaties of Chaumont, as 
well as those of Vienna. 

PARIS, Matthew, a British historian 
of considerable eminence, was a monk 
of St. Alban's. He died in the monas- 
tery of St. Alban's in 1259. He bore 
an excellent moral character ; and, as an 
historian, is remarkable for integrity. 

PARISH, the precinct of a parochial 
church. Of the first division of parishes 
in this sense, there is no certain informa- 
tion ; but in the early ages of Christianity, 
parishes signified the same that a diocese 
now does. Camden says England was 
divided into parishes by archbishop 
Honorius, about 630, and the distinction 
occurs in the laws of King Edgar, about 
970. Camden, about 1700, reckons 
9284 parishes in England. In 1835 
England and Wales contained 11,077 
and Ireland 2450. 

PARISH Clerks' Company, Lon- 
don, incorporated 1232. 

PARK, Rev. John, author of the 
Hebrew and Greek le.xicons, died 1812. 

PARK, Sir James Allan, one of 
the judges of the court of common pleas, 
died Dec. 8, 1838, in his 76th year. 

PARK, MuNGO, the African travel- 
ler, was born near Selkirk, Scotland, 
September 10, 1/71. In 1790 he re- 
paired to London, and was introduced 
to Sir Joseph Banks, who recommended 
him to the members of the African As- 
sociation, as a fit person to undertake a 
journey to the interior of Africa. He 
undertook his first voyage in 1795. 
After innumerable hardships and pri- 
A'ations, and an absence of more than 
two years and a half, he arrived in Eng- 
land in December, 1797- In January, 
1805, he undertook a second expedition 
marked with as many painful and dis- 
astrous circumstances as the former, 
and which terminated his life. By the 
following November, he had reached the 
banks of the Niger. His last letter was 
dated the 19th of that month, when he 
was committed, in a nearly defenceless 



PAR 



G97 



PAR 



state, to the river, to the Moors, and to 
the immensity and perils of an un- 
known region, where he perished at the 
end of the same year. 

PARK, Thomas, editor of "Wal- 
pole's Royal and Noble Authors," died 
Nov. 26, 1834, aged 78. 

PARKES, Samuel, the author of 
" Chemical Catechism," born 1761, 
died 1816. 

PARKHURST, Rev. John, author 
of Greek and Hebrew lexicons, born 
1728, died Feb. 21, 1797- 

PARLIAMENT, a grand assembly, 
or convention, of the three states of the 
kingdom. Parliaments began in some 
form under the Saxon government. 
There are instances of their assembling 
to order the affairs of the kingdom so 
early as the reign of Ina, king of the 
West Saxons, Offa, king of the Mercians, 
and Ethelbert, king of Kent, in the 
several realms of the heptarchy. King 
Alfred ordered, for a perpetual usage, 
that these councils should meet twice 
in the year, or oftener if needful. The 
word parliament was first applied to ge- 
neral assemblies of the state under Louis 
Vin. of France, about the middle of the 



12th century. The first mention of the 
name inourstatutelawisin the preamble 
to the statute of West. 1.3 Edw. L 1272. 

llie constitution of the house of com- 
mons has subsisted, in fact, from 1265 
(49 Hen. HL) there being still extant 
writs of that date, to summon knights, 
citizens, and burgesses to parliament. 
Since then it has undergone several 
changes. A bill passed for triennial 
parliaments, November 1694; the first 
British parliament met October 24, 
1707; triennial act repealed. May 1, 
1716 ; act passed for septennial ones 
1716; the first imperial parliament met 
1801. 

Parliamentary Reform, mo- 
tion lost in the house of commons 1830 ; 
first reform bill brought in March 1, 
1831 ; second reading of the reform 
bill, carried by a majority of one, March 
24 ; reform bill lost on Gascoigne's 
amendment, April 20, 1831 ; thrown out 
of the lords, Oct. 7; reform act passed 
1832. See Reform Act. 

Proportion of members sent to par- 
liament by the counties, cities, boroughs, 
&c., according to the reform act, passed 
1832:— 



26 counties, 4 members each ; 7 counties 3 members 

each ; Yorkshire, 6 members ; Isle of Wight, 1. . . . 144 

133 cities and boroughs, 2 members each 266 

England. . . <( 53 boroughs, 1 member each , 53 

I London 4 

(_Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, 2 members each 4 
r 3 counties, 2 members each; 9 counties, 1 member 

■ . < each 15 

L 14 districts of boroughs, 1 member each ,. 14 

r 33 counties 30 

, ■< Edinburgh and Glasgow, 2 members each 4 

L 18 boroughs and districts of boroughs 19 

r32 counties, 2 members each 64 

J 6 counties, 2 members each ; 27 boroughs, 1 member 

■ I each 39 

LThe University of Dublin, 2 members 2 



Wales', 



Scotland 



Ireland . 



>47I 

I 
I 

[ 29 
[ 53] 

^105 



PARLIAMENT, Houses of,' burnt 
down October 16, 1834. In this con- 
flagration were destroyed nearly all the 
various offices, the old painted chamber, 
associated with a thousand historical 
reminiscences, &c. In less than half an 
hour from the first discovery of the 
flames, the whole interior of the build- 
ing from the ground-floor to the roof, 
presented through the numerous win- 
dows with which it was studded, one 
entire mass of fire. The libraries and 
state- papers, with much other valuable 



property in 'the houses of lords and 
commons, as well as in the official resi- 
dence of the speaker, were preserved ; 
but both the houses were completely 
ruined, with the exception, in the lords, 
of the library and adjoining rooms, with 
some ofiices and committee-rooms; and, 
in the commons, of four committee- 
rooms, which admit of being repaired. 
The speaker's house was partly de- 
stroyed, and the remainder much da- 
maged. The most probable explanation 
of this disastrous conflagration was, 
4 u 



P AR 



698 



PAR 



that the fire originated from the flues 
used for warming the house of lords 
having been unusually heated, by a large 
fire made by the burning of the old 
wooden exchequer tallies, which had 
been improperlyentrusted by the clerk of 
the works to a workman named Cross. 

New Houses of Parliament. 
The first contracts for the commence- 
ment of the works were entered into, 
September, 1837. They comprehend 
the formation of an embankment, 
886 feet in length, projecting into the 
river 98 feet ; the front in a line with 
the inner side of the third pier of West- 
minster-bridge, in four feet of water 
at low-water ; the whole surrounded by 
a river wall, 30 feet high from the base, 
and 1141 feet in length, with a curvi- 
linear batten, and faced with granite ; a 
terrace 673 feet long next the river, and 
35 feet wide, is formed in the front of 
the new houses, with an esplanade at 
each end 100 feet square, and landing 
stairs from the river 12 feet wide. 

PARMA, city, Italy, capital of the 
duchy of the same name, was founded by 
the ancient Etrurians, but was seized 
by the Gauls, and afterwards by the 
Romans. On the decline of the Roman 
power, it asserted its independence, but 
feeing torn by factions, it fell into the 
hands of the popes, and was given by 
Paul III. to his son, Luigi Farneise, 
whose descendants continued to govern 
it till the extinction of the male line. 
In 1714 Elizabeth Farnese married Phi- 
lip V. of Spain, and her son, Don 
Carlos, took possession of it in 1731, 
Four years afterwards, the duchy was 
ceded to the emperor of Austria, who 
governed it till 1748, when it was ceded 
to Don Philip II. son of Philip and 
Elizabeth. In 1801 the duke of Parma, 
was raised to the throne of Tuscany, 
under the title of Etruria, but Buona- 
parte united it to France. In 1814 Parma 
and Placenza were ceded to the e.x-em- 
press, Maria-Louisa, devolving, on her 
death, to Austria and Sardinia ; but 
subsequent arrangements have decreed 
that this territory shall eventually de- 
volve on Spain. 

1831. An insurrection broke out at 
Parma, Modena, &c., February 10, A 
deputation of insurgents waited on the 
duchess, and informed her it was neces- 
sary she should withdraw. Her high- 
ness refused ; and after some demon- 
strations of the insurgents, a provisional 



government was formed. At length the 
insurrection was -suppressed by an Aus- 
trian force. The governments of Mo- 
dena and Parma were restored. The 
duchess of Parma granted a free pardon 
to all the persons who had appointed 
the provisional government ; only ex- 
cluding them for three years, from 
public offices. 

PARNELL, Rev. Thomas, author 
of the "Hermit," &c., died 1718. 

PAROCHIAL Assessment. See 
Poor Law^s. 

PAROS, island, kingdom of Greece ; 
anciently owed its celebrity to its mar- 
ble, remarkable for its whiteness and 
hardness. The Apollo Belvidere, Venus 
de Medicis, and other celebrated statues 
are sculptured of it. Antiquities are 
scattered over the island, and the Arun- 
delian marbles were brought from hence, 
and presented to the university of 0.x- 
ford in 1667- See Arundelian 
Marbles. 

PARR, Catherine, married to 
Henry Villi, 1 543, afterwards the wife 
of Sir Thomas Seymour, lord high ad- 
miral, died Sept. 1548. 

PARR, Samuel, one of the most ce- 
lebrated literary characters of the present 
day, was born at Harrow-on-the-Hill, 
in January, 1747. In 1752 he was sent 
to the free school at Harrow, and en- 
tered at Emanuel College, Cambridge, 
in 1765. In 1768 he was ordained by 
the bishop of London. In 1780 he was 
preferred to the rectory of Asterby, in 
the diocese of Lincoln ; which he after- 
wards exchanged for the perpetual curacy 
of Hatton, in Warwickshire. In addi 
tion to this, he obtained a prebend in 
St. Paul's, and the wealthy living of 
Graffham, inHuntingdonshire. Towards 
the close of 1824 his health began to 
decline ; and after a long and pro- 
tracted illness, he died Feb. 26, 1825, 
in his 78th year. 

PARR, Thomas, aremarkable instance 
of longevity ; he lived in the reign of 10 
kings and queens. He was born at 
Alderbury, Salop, in 1483. In 1634 he 
was brought to London, and introduced 
at court to King Charles I., as a prodigy ; 
but the change of air and new mode of 
living, occasioned his death in the same 
year, aged 152. 

PARRY, J. H., a writer of Welsh 
biography, died Feb. 12, 1825. 

PARTH[A, anciently an extensive 
empire of Asia, afterwards a province of 



PAS 



699 



PAT 



the Persian empire. Its capital was 
named Hecatompolis, from the circum- 
stance of its having 100 gates. Parthia 
was first subject to the Medes, then to 
the Persians, and afterwards to Alexan- 
der the Great. After his death the pro- 
vince fell to Seleucus-Nicator, and was 
held by him and his successors till the 
reign of Antiochus Theus, about a.c. 
250, when the kingdom of Parthia began 
under Arsaces. From this prince all the 
other kings of Parthia took the surname 
Qf Arsaces. The Parthian conquests in 
Armenia, about a.c. 70, brought them 
acquainted with the Romans ; and they 
generally lost ground in Armenia and 
Mesopotamia, during the time of the Ro- 
man emperors . In a . d . 245 Persis,or Per sia 
Proper, which had for some ages ranked 
as a province of Parthia, gained the as- 
cendency; and, under Artaxerxes, put 
an end to the dynasty of the Arsacidae, 
and restored the ancient name of Persia 
to the empire, after that of Parthia had 
existed nearly 500 years. 

PASCAL, Blaise, an eminent ma- 
thematician and philosopher of France, 
was born at Clermont, in Auvergne, in 
1623. When about 23 years old, having 
Seen Torricelli's experiments respecting 
a vacuum and the weight of air, he as- 
certained the fact of the general pressure 
of the atmosphere, and composed a large 
treatise, in which he fully explained the 
subject. Incessant application at length 
occasioned the loss of health; in 1647 
he was seized with a paralysis ; and in 
1654, having gone to take an airing on 
the Pont de Neuillyin a coach and four, 
the horses suddenly took fright, and he 
narrowly escaped a sudden and violent 
death. From this time he determined 
tQ employ his remaining days in reli- 
gious meditation ; for this purpose he 
entered a monastic institution at Port 
Royal. • In the disputes between the Je- 
suits and Jansenists, he became a parti- 
san of the latter, and wrote his celebrated 
" Provincial Letters," published in 1656 ; 
but his bodily infirmities became severe, 
and he expired Aug. 19, 1672. 

PASHA, one of the largest steam ves- 
sels ever built in England, was launched 
at Limehouse, May 7, 1834 ; length 211 
feet, six inches ; breadth 56 feet ; depth 
32 feet 6 inches ; burden nearly equal to 
that of a 74 gun-ship ; two engines, each 
of 120 horse power. 

PASSAGE Boat, lost on the Frith of 
Dornoch, by which 40 out of 127 pas- 



sengers were drowned, Aug. 13, 1809. 
Another on the Ardrossan canal, between 
Paisley and Johnstone, heeled on one 
side, and precipitated 100 persons into 
the water, of which 84 were drowned, 
Nov. 10, 1810. 

PASSAU, town, kingdom of Bavaria. 
In 1552 was concluded here the peace 
which is considered by all German pro- 
testants as the charter of their liberties. 

PASSOVER, instituted on Monday, 
May 4, A. c. 1491, celebrated in the 
New Temple, April 18, a.c. 515. 

PATAGONIA, country. South Ame- 
rica, was discovered in 1519, by Ferdi- 
nand Magellan, who passed through the 
narrow sea that separates it from Terra 
del Fuego, called after him the Straits of 
Magellan. 

PATENTS granted for titles, first 
used 1344; first granted for the exclu- 
sive privilege of publishing books, 1591. 

PATNA, city, Hindoostan, capital of 
the province of Bahar, on the southern 
banks of tiie Ganges. Here are the re- 
mains of a British factory, where a 
dreadful massacre of 200 prisoners was 
perpetrated in 1763, by the German ad- 
venturer, Sormo, then in the service of 
Meer Cossin ; immediately after which 
the city was captured by the British 
troops under Major Adams, and has ever 
since remained in their possession. 

PATRAS, a seaport town, Greece, 
north-west of Morea. After the Greek 
war it surrendered, by capitulation, to a 
detachment of the French army, under 
General Schneider, Oct. 5, 1828. Since 
the establishment of the kingdom, Patras 
has a more extensive trade than any 
other port of Greece. The exports of 
currants from thence, at an average of 
three years, ending with 1831, amounted 
to about 50,000 cwt. a year, worth about 
£33,000. 

PATRICK, St., the apostle and tute- 
lary saint of Ireland, was born in 373 at 
Kirkpatrick, nearDumbarton, Scotland. 
Pope Celestine having consecrated him 
bishop, and given him a commission to 
convert the Irish, he landed in the coun- 
try of the Evolein, or at Wicklow, in 441. 
His first convert was Sinell, eighth in 
descent from Cormac, king of Leinster. 
After labouring several years indefati- 
gably in his great work, he visited the 
Isle of Man, which he converted in 440, 
when the bishopric was founded ; and in 
448 returned to Ireland. He spent the 
remainder of his life between the monas- 



PAU 



700 



PAV 



teries of Armagh and Saul, superintend- 
ing and enforcing the great plan of doc- 
trine and discipline which he had estab- 
lished. After having instituted schools, 
he closed his hfe and ministry at Saul 
Abbey, in the 120th year of his age, 493. 

PATRICK, St., benevolent Society 
of, instituted 1783. The 52d anniversary 
was celebrated at the Freemasons' Ta- 
vern, Great Queen-street, March 4, 1835. 
There were about 300 noblemen and 
gentlemen assembled ; the subscriptions 
amounted to £1185 3s. 

PATRICK, Simon, a learned Eng- 
lish prelate, was born at Gainsborough, 
in Lincolnshire, in 1626. In 1644 he 
was admitted into Queen's College, Cam- 
bridge, and entered into holy orders. 
In 1678 he was presented to the dea- 
conry of Peterborough ; in 16S9 he was 
nominated to fill the vacant see of Chi- 
chester. In 1691 he was translated to 
the see of Ely, and died tbere in 1707, 
in the 81st year of his age. His works 
were numerous, among which the most 
distinguished are his " Paraphrases and 
Commentaries on the Holy Scriptures," 
in three volumes folio. 

PATTEN Makers' Company, Lon- 
don, incorporated 1670. 

PAUL, St., converted 33, wrote his 
epistles between 51 and 66 ; he died in 
the year 67. 

PAUL, St., order of knighthood 
begun at Rome 1540. 

PAUL, Father, or Peter Sarpi, 
a monk of the l6th century, celebrated 
for his opposition to the Roman see, was 
born at Venice, Aug. 14, 1552. The 
most active part of his life began about 
1615; when Pojie Paul V., exasperated 
by some decrees of the senate of Venice, 
laid the whole state under an interdict. 
On this occasion Father Paul was dis- 
tinguished by his defence of the rights 
of the supreme magistrate. In conse- 
quence of this, several attempts upon his 
life obliged him to confine himself to his 
convent, where he was engaged in writing 
the " History of the Council of Trent." 
In this and other works he spent the 
remaining part of his life. He died in 
1623, in the 7lst year of his age. " He 
was hated by the Romans as their most 
formidable enemy, and honoured by all 
the learned for his abilities, and by the 
good for his integrity." 

PAULINUS, Pontius Meropius, 
a, celebrated prelate and ecclesiastical 
writer in the fifth century, born at Bour- 



deau.x in 353, was baptized by Delphi- 
nus, bishop of Bourdeau.x, in 391. In 
409 he was ordained bishop ofNola. He 
died in 431, in his 78th year. 

PAULINUS, who flourished in the 
eighth centurj^ was honoured by the 
Catholics with the title of saint. The 
emperor Charlemagne, in 776, promoted 
him to the patriarchate of Aquileia. He 
became celebrated as a writer in defence 
of the Trinity. 

PAULINUS, called the apostle of 
Yorkshire, an English bishop, who flou-> 
rished in the early part of the seventh 
century. He was the first archbishop of 
York about 626. He built a church at 
Almondbury, and dedicated it to St. 
Alban, where he preached to and con- 
verted the Brigantes. 

PAULO, or Polo, Marco, the Venetian 
traveller and historian, born about 1255. 
Having learned the different dialects of 
Tartary, he was employed in embassies 
which gave him the opportunity of tra- 
versingTartary, China, and other eastern 
countries, and he returned in 1295. A 
short time after, serving his country at 
sea against the Genoese, his galley, in 
a great naval engagement, was sunk, and 
himself taken prisoner and carried to 
Genoa,]where he composed the history of 
his voyages, which appeared at Venice 
in 8vo., 1496. 

PAUL'S, St., cathedral, London, built 
on the foundation of an old temple of 
Diana, 610; burnt 964; rebuilt 1240; 
having been 1 50 years building ; the steeple 
fired by lightning 1443 ; church rebuilt, 
having been in great part burnt down 
1631 ; totally destroyed by fire 1666; first 
stone of the present building laid 1675 ; 
finished 1710, and cost £1,000,000; first 
service performed December 2, 1697. 
The ball and cross renewed 1823. The 
iron balustrade round the churchyard 
extends three furlongs and one-fifth. 

PAUL'S, St., School, built 1510; 
rebuilt 1825. 

PAUSANIAS, a learned Greek his- 
torian, who flourished in the second 
century, under the reign of Antoninus 
the philosopher. He declaimed both at 
Athens and Rome, in which last-named 
city he died at an advanced age. He 
wrote an excellent description of Greece, 
in ten books. 

PAVEMENT. The first act of par- 
liament to regulate pavement, passed 
in 1762; prior to this, each inhabi- 
tant paved before his own door, with 



PEA 



701 



PEE 



any material he chose to select. Wood 
pavement for roads introduced 1838. 

PAVIA (ancient Ticinum or Papia), 
town, Austrian Italy. Tlie university is 
said to be the most ancient in Europe, 
having been founded by Charlemagne in 
791. In 1525 Francis I. was made pri- 
soner by the imperialists, in a battle 
fought near this place. The town was 
afterwards taken by the imperialists ; but 
after 60 years, restored to the French, 
who kept it till 1814, when it fell under 
the Austrian dominion. 

PAWNBROKERS. The practice of 
advancing money to the poor, either with 
or without interest, was occasionally 
followed in antiquity. But the first pub- 
lic establishments were founded in Italy, 
imder the name of Monti di Pieta, in 
the 14th and 15th centuries. From 
Italy these gradually spread over the 
continent. The Mont de Piete, in Paris, 
was established by a royal ordinance in 
1777 ; and after being destroyed by the 
Revolution, was again opened in 1797. 
The Mont de Piete receives annually 
about 1,200,000 articles, upon which it 
advances upwards of 20,000,000 francs ; 
it has generally about 650,000 articles in 
its possession. 

The first law in England in relation to 
pawnbrokers was 30 Geo. II. c. 24, 
amended by 25 Geo. III. c. 48, 1785 ; 
but the act 39 and 40 Geo. III. c. 99, 
contains the latest and most complete 
regulations on the subject. By this 
statute, every person exercising the trade 
of a pawnbroker must take out a licence, 
renewable annually, ten days at least 
before the end of the year, for which he 
shall pay, within the cities of London 
and Westminster, and the hmits of the 
twopenny post, £15, and everywhere else 
£7 10s., &c. The number of pawn- 
brokers licensed in the metropolis and 
in the country in the year ending Janu- 
ary 5, 1830, was as follows : — London: 
rate£l5, 295 ; rate £7 10s., 7- The coun- 
try : rate £15, 4 ; rate £7 10s., 1038. 

PEARLS were in the highest possible 
estimation in ancient Rome, and bore an 
enormous price. One of the most re- 
markable pearls of which we have any 
authentic account was bought by Taver- 
nier, at Catifa, in Arabia, a fishery famous 
in the days of Pliny, for the enormous 
sum of £110,000. The pearl oyster is 
fished in various parts of the world, par- 
ticularly on the west coast of Ceylon ; at 
Tuticoreen, in the province of Tinne- 



velley, on the coast of Coromandel ; at 
the Bahrein Islands, in the gulf of Per- 
sia ; at the Sooloo Islands ; off the 
coast of Algiers ; off St. Margarita, or 
Pearl Islands in the West Indies, and 
other places on the coast of Colombia ; 
and in the Bay of Panama, in the South 
Sea. Pearls have sometimes been found 
on the Scotch coast, and in various 
other places. The pearl fisheries on the 
coast of Colombia were, at one time, of 
very great value. In 1587 upwards of 
697 lbs. of pearls are said to have been 
imported into Seville. Phillip II. had 
one from St. Margarita, which weighed 
250 carats, and was valued at 150,000 
dollars. But for many years past the 
Colombian pearl fisheries have been of 
comparatively little importance. In 
1825 two joint, stock companies were 
formed ; one on a large scale for prose- 
cuting the pearl fisheries on the coast of 
Colombia ; and another on a smaller 
scale, for prosecuting it in the Bay of 
Panama and the Pacific. Both were 
abandoned in 1826. 

PECKHAM, John, archbishop of 
Canterbury, the first writer on perspec- 
tive, 1279- 

PEDESTRIANS, Remarkable. 
Powell, a lawyer, walked from London 
to York, and back again, in six days, 
being a distance of above 402 miles, 
Nov. 1773. Again, when at the age of 
57, June 1788. Captain Barclay, at 
Newmarket, walked 1000 miles in 1000 
successive hours, walking one mile only 
in each hour, April 1809. Thomas Stan- 
den completed a more arduous task, by 
walking 1100 miles in as many succes- 
sive hours, July 1811. Baker, of Ro- 
chester, performed lOOlf miles in 20 
days, Nov. 20, 1815. Eaton completed 
the task of walking 1100 miles in 1100 
successive hours, walking a mile in each 
hour, upon Blackheath, Dec. 17, 1815. 

PEDRO, Don, eldest son of John VL 
of Portugal, was elected emperor of 
Brazil, Oct. 12, 1822 ; abdicated April 7, 
1831 ; landed on the shores of Portugal, 
July 8, 1832; was appointed regent 
Aug. 28, 1834 ; died Sept. 22, the same 
year. See Brazil and Portugal. 

PEEL Castle, in the Isle of Man, 
built before 1245. 

PEEL Castle, Lancashire, built 
1140. 

PEEL, Sir Robert, father of the 
ex-premier, was born at Peel's-cross, 
near Lancaster,' April 25, 1750, and was, 



PEL 

l)rought up to the cotton trade. In 1780 
he published a pamphlet entitled, " The 
National Debt productive of National 
Prosperity," which laid him open to cri- 
ticism. He was created a baronet by 
patent, dated Nov. 29, 1800. He died 
May 3, 1830, aged 80. 

PEGU, or Begu, in the l6th century 
a kingdom in India, beyond the Ganges, 
but since the middle of the l7th century, 
a province of the Burmese empire. Pegu 
produces abundance of teak timber, and 
so early as 1707, the Arabs of Muscat 
were accustomed to build teak ships 
here. For procuring this valuable tim- 
ber, a great intercourse has always sub- 
sisted between Pegu and the British pro- 
vinces ; and a garrison was stationed at 
Rangoon, an important port of Pegu. 
The capital city of Pegu was nearly de- 
stroyed at its capture by the Burman 
emperor, Alompra, in 1757 : he caused 
parts of the walls to be levelled, and the 
houses to be destroyed. After the Bur- 
mese war in 1826, Rangoon was evacu- 
ated by the British garrison, and the 
place delivered over to the Burmese au- 
thorities. Immediately after this the 
Peguers revolted, and commenced hos- 
tilities against their former masters, but 
were defeated with great slaughter. 

PEKIN, or Peking, city, China, and 
capital of the whole empire. By early 
travellers it is mentioned under the 
name of Cambalu, built by the Tartar 
monarchs, adjacent to the Chinese city 
of Taydu, about three centuries ago. 
An earthquake, which happened here in 
1731, buried above 100,000 persons in 
the ruins of the houses which were 
thrown down. 

PELAGIANS, a sect who appeared 
in the Christian church about the end of 
the fourth or beginning of the fifth cen- 
tury. They derived their name from Pe- 
lagius, called also Morgan, a monk of 
Bangor. His heresy made such rapid 
progress, that it attracted the attention 
of the Roman see. Pelagius, to avoid 
the danger which threatened him, in 409 
passed over to Sicily. His followers 
were condemned by the council of Ephe- 
sus in 431 ; and the Gauls, Britons, and 
Africans, by their councils, and emperors 
by their edicts and penal laws, demo- 
lished this sect in its infancy. 

PELHAM, Henry, English states- 
man, died 1754, aged 60. 

PELICAN, the vessel in which Drake 
circumnavigated the globe, 1577 — 1580, 



702 PEM 

of the relics of which a chair was made, 
and presented to the University of Ox- 
ford, and still preserved. 

PELLEW, Sir Edward. See Ex- 

MOUTH. 

PELLEW, Admiral Sir Israel, 
brother to Lord Exmouth, a brave and 
judicious naval officer, born 1761, died 
1832. 

PELLEW,or Pelew Islands, in the 
Pacific Ocean, between the Philippine and 
Caroline islands. The Jesuits of Manilla, 
in the Philippines, endeavoured in I696 
to reduce these islands, and effected a 
landing in 1710. Those who landed were 
never more heard of. In 1783 Captain 
Wilson, commander of the Antelope 
packet, in the service of the East India 
Company, was wrecked on this coast. 
The king entertained so great an esteem 
for Captain Wilson, that he entrusted 
his son, Prince Lee Boo, to his care, who 
died of the small-pox at Captain Wil- 
son's house, in London, in 1784. In 
return for the kindness shown by the 
prince of Pellew to the crew of the Ante- 
lope in 1791, the East India Company 
sent him a present of cattle which had 
greatly increased in 1802, with the ex- 
ception of the sheep, which had failed. 
At that time several Europeans resided 
on the islands, for the purpose of col- 
lecting biche de mar, &c. 

PELOPONNESIAN War began 
A.c. 431 ; ended by the taking of Athens 
404. 

PELOPONNESUS. See Morea. 

PEMBROKE, South Wales, is of 
great antiquity, was anciently fortified 
and protected by a magnificent castle, 
founded in 1092, by Arnulph De Mont- 
gomery, son of the earl of Shrewsbury. 
During the wars with the Welsh it 
was frequently besieged, but owing to 
its great artificial strength, and almost 
impregnable natural position it resisted 
successfully nearly all the efforts of the 
assailants to reduce it. Oliver Crom- 
well, however, besieged it in person, and 
compelled its garrison to surrender. In 
one of its apartments Henry VII. was 
born. 

PEMBROKESHIRE formed part of 
the kingdom of Demetia, or Dyvet, 
which subsisted as an independent 
monarchy till conquered by Ethelwolf, 
knig of England. In the time of the 
Danish incursions, this county suffered 
more injury than any other in the 
principality. During the civil wars in 



PEN 



the reign of Charles I., several of its 
castles, particularly those of Pembroke 
and Roch, were garrisoned for the king, 
and withstood long and obstinate sieges 
in the royal cause. So late as 1797, 
Fishguard is rendered memorable by the 
landing of a French force of 1400 men 
in its immediate vicinity. 

PENANCE first enjoined as a punish- 
ment 157. ?' 

PENDRAGON Castle, Westmore- 
land, destroyed 1341 ; repaired 1660. 

PENDULUM. The first notion of 
measuring time by means of the vibra- 
tions of a pendulum has been ascribed 
to Gahleo, about 1649. Christian Huy- 
gens contested the priority of this dis- 
covery, and made a pendulum clock 
before 1658. He proved, in a satisfac- 
tory manner, that if the centre of motion 
were perfectly fixed, and all friction, re- 
sistance of the air, &c. perfectly removed, 
then the pendulum, being set in motion, 
would continue to vibrate for ever ; and 
all its vibrations would be perfectly 
isochronal ; that is, they would all be 
performed in equal times. The com- 
pensation pendulum, in which the rod 
consists of two or more wires with other 
apparatus, so connected as to remedy the 
inconveniences of expansion and con- 
traction, by heat and cold, was one of 
the most important improvements of the 
18th century. These were of several 
kinds; the three following were the prin- 
cipal: — The mercurial pendulum, in- 
vented by Mr. Graham, about 1715; 
the gridiron pendulum, invented by Mr. 
John HaiTison about 1725, and em- 
ployed by him in the construction of 
his time-keeper; and the lever pendu- 
lum first employed about 1737, the inven- 
tion of which is ascribed to Mr. Graham. 
See Chronometer. 

Numerous other modifications of the 
compensation pendulum have been made. 
The following is one of the most recent: 
— Frodsham's, described in the Proceed- 
ings of the British Association, 1839. 
It is an ordinary pendulum, with a steel 
rod ; over this, Mr. Frodsham slips a 
zinc tube, which passes through a brass 
bob, and rests on the adjoining screw of 
the lower end of the rod. As the steel 
rod expands downwards, and is length- 
ened by heat, the zinc tube expands up- 
wards in the same degree ; and, there- 
fore, if the length of the rod and the tube 
be rightly proportioned, the pendulum 
may be regarded as of invariable length. 



703 PEN 

PENITENTIARY House, Milbank 
for the imprisonment of convicts. The' 
act for its erection passed in 1812; con- 
victs were removed into it, June, 1816. 
From the report of 1828, it appears that 
on December 31, 1827, there were 471 
male prisoners, and that 177 had been 
received during the year. The earn- 
ings of the prisoners during the year 
were valued at £4191 13s. 6d. The net 
prison expenses at £19,194 10s. 8d. 
The act 7 Will. IV. c. 13, June 8, 
1837, empowers his majesty to direct 
the removal to Milbank of any person 
imprisoned in any place within Great Bri- 
tain under sentence of any court for any 
offence, there to remain under such sen- 
tence, or untilfurther orders shallbegiven. 

PENN, Sir William, brave En- 
glish admiral, born 1621, died 1670. 

PENN, William, founder of Penn- 
sylvania, the son of the preceding, was 
born in London in 1644. About 1668 
he became a public preacher among the 
Quakers; and that year was committed 
close prisoner to the Tower, where he 
wrote several treatises. Being dis- 
charged after seven months' imprison- 
ment, he went to Ireland, where he also 
preached among the Quakers. Return- 
ing to England, he was in 1670 com- 
mitted to Newgate, for preaching, and 
suflPered various other persecutions. In 
1681 King Charles II., in consideration 
of the services of Mr. Penn's father, and 
several debts due to him from the crown, 
granted Mr. Penn and his heirs, the pro- 
vince lying on the west side of the river 
Delaware in North America, which from 
thence obtained the name of Pennsyl- 
vania, which see. He died July, 1718. 
PENNANT, Thomas, an eminent 
tourist and naturalist, was born in Flint- 
shire, North Wales, about 1726. In 
1754 he was elected a fellow of the So- 
ciety of Antiquaries. He began, in 1761, 
to prepare his " British Zoology," which 
he afterwards published for the benefit 
of the Welsh charity-school in London. 
In 1767 he was elected fellow of the 
Royal Society, and from this time pub- 
lished several valuable works. He died 
in 1798, in his 72d year. 

PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United 
States of N. America, granted by Charles 
II. to William Penn, by patent, dated 
March 4, 1681. In 1682 William Penn, 
together with about 2000 settlers, most 
of whom, like himself, belonged to the 
Society of Friends,arrived in the country; 



PER 704 

rnd in the following year he laid out 
the plan of the city of Philadelphia. 
He established a friendly intercourse 
with the Indians, which was not inter- 
rupted for more than 70 years. The 
first constitution of Pennsylvania was 
adopted in 1776 ; the present constitu- 
tion in 1790, by which the legislative 
power is vested in a general assembly, 
consisting of a senate and house of re- 
presentatives. 

PENNY-PIECES, and twopenny, of 
copper, first coined in England 1797. 

PENROSE, Thomas, poet, born 1743, 
died 1779. 

PENSACOLA, the capital of West 
Florida, United States, was discovered 
by Sebastian Cabot in 1497, was esta- 
blished by the French, and ceded to 
Great Britain in 1763. In 1781 it was re- 
duced by the Spaniards under Don Ber- 
nardo Galvez, and with the whole pro- 
vince was confirmed to the Spaniards 
by the treaty of 1783, and finally trans- 
ferred to the United States, 1821. 

PENSION of £20 granted to a lady 
for national services, 1514; another, 
£6 13s. 4c/. per annum, 1536; another, 
£13 6s. 8d. for the maintenance of a 
gentleman in studying the laws of Eng- 
land, 1558. 

PENSIONERS, Band of Gentle- 
men, the noblest sort of guard to the 
sovereign's person, consisted of 40 gentle- 
men, who received a yearly pension of 
£100. First instituted by King Henry 
VII., about 1509. 

PENTATEUCH, or the five books 
of Moses, written A.c. 1452. 

PEPPER, early known in Europe as 
growing in Hither India; black pepper 
vines discovered in Jamaica in 1793. 

PEPUSCH, J. Christopher, Ger- 
man musician, born 1667, died 1752. 

PEPYS, Samuel, naval historian, 
died 1703. 

PERA., a suburb of Constantinople, 
fire at, in which the hotels of the ambas- 
sadors of England, France, and Hol- 
land, which belonged to those nations, 
and the residences hired by the ministers 
of Russia, Prussia, Sardinia, and Naples, 
together with a number of churches, and 
5000 houses, fell a prey to the flames, 
Aug. 2, 1831. 

PERCEVAL, Spencer, prime mi- 
nister of England, assassinated in the 
lobby of the house of commons, by John 
Bellingham, May 11, 1812. 

PERCEVAL, Thomas, M.D., author 



PER 



of the " Father's Instructions," &c., died 
1804. 

PERCY, Dr., bishop of Dromore, in 
Ireland, author of " Relics of Ancient 
Poetry," died Oct. 1, 1811. 

PERCY, Henry, earl of Northum- 
berland, last male heir of that family, 
died 1669. 

PERE La Chaise, building, Paris, 
laid out as apubhc cemetery in 1804. It 
was formerly the chief seat of the Jesuits' 
establishment in France, and was pre- 
sided over by Pere La Chaise, confessor 
of Louis XIV. 

PERGAMUS, anciently a small king- 
dom of Asia, formed out of the ruins of 
the empire of Alexander the Great, com- 
menced about A.c. 283. Attalus III., 
the last king, at his death, left the Ro- 
man people heirs of all his goods ; upon 
which they seized on the kingdom, 
and reduced it to a jjrovince of their em- 
pire by the name of Asia Proper, A.c. 
133. The country remained subject to 
the Romans while their empire lasted, 
but is now in the hands of the Turks.' 

PERICLES, one of the greatest states- 
men of ancient Greece, was born at 
Athens ; and after the death of Cimon, 
was raised to the supreme authority. He 
made himself master of Euboea a.c 447, 
and soon after concluded a truce of 
thirty years with the Lacedaemonians. 
In 432 began the memorable plague of 
Athens, which carried olF his eldest son, 
Xantippus, and his sister. He died in 
429. 

PERIGAPATAM, town, Hindoostan, 
province Mysore. In the Mysore war, 
the army of Tippoo Saib was defeated in 
the neighbourhood of this jjlace by the 
British, under General Stuart. Here 
was formerly a strong fort, but it was 
destroyed by order of Tippoo. 

PERIPATETIC Philosophy, a sys- 
tem of philosophy introduced among the 
Athenians in the early part of the fourth 
century before Christ. This name was 
given them, as some assert, because they 
received the philosopher's lectures, not 
in a sitting or reclining posture, butwalk- 
ing. This philosophy was introduced 
into Germany A. D. 1144. 

PERJURY, the crime of swearing 
falsely, in some judicial proceeding, was 
anciently death ; afterwards banishment, 
or cutting out the tongue, then forfei- 
ture of goods. The punishment of the 
pillory was first inflicted by statute 
5 Eliz. c. 9, 1563.] 



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705 



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PERNA MBUCO, province, empire 
of Brazil. There was a revolutionary in- 
surrection in thisprovince, inMarchl8l7. 

PEROUSE, J. F. G. De La, a cele- 
brated but unfortunate French navigator, 
was born at Toulouse in 1741. With 
two frigates he sailed from Brest in 
August, 178 5, on his voyage of discovery. 
They proceeded round Cape Horn into 
the South Sea, and in February, 1786, 
cast anchor in the bay of Conception, on 
the coast of Chili. They arrived at the 
Navigators' islands in December, where 
they were attacked by the natives, and 
M . de Langle and eleven of his men lost 
their lives. Quitting this place without 
any attempts at vengeance, Perouse 
proceeded to New Holland, and arrived 
in Botany Bay in Januarj', 1788; and 
here terminates all that is known of the 
voyage of this navigator. The Research, 
Captain Dillon, sent out by the East 
India Company, arrived at Calcutta, 
April 7, 1828, after ascertaining the loss 
of the French ships, commanded by De 
La Perouse. The Research had found 
and brought to Calcutta various articles 
of the wrecks of these vessels. 

PERRAULT, Charles, French 
writer, bom 1628, died 1703. 

PERRAULT, Claude, architect, 
born 1613, died 1688. 

PERRIER, M. Casimir, prime mi- 
nister of France, died of cholera morbus. 
May 16, 1832, aged 54. 

PERROU, ANauETiL Du, French 
orientalist, died Oct. 30, 1805. 

PERSECUTIONS of the primitive 
christians. The first was under Nero, 
64 ; under Domitian, 93 ; under Trajan, 
107 ; under Adrian, 118 ; under Marcus 
Aurelius, 164; under Severus, 202 ; un- 
der Maximus, 235 ; under Decius, 250 ; 
underValerian, 2575 under Aurelian,272 ; 
under Diocletian, 302 ; by the Arians, 
under Constantius, 337 ; under Sapor, 
340 ; under Julian, the apostate, 361. 

PERSECUTIONS of the protestants 
by the papists. In Franconia 50,000 
of Luther's followers were killed by 
William de Furstemburg, 1525. In 
England, when Cranmer, archbishop of 
Canterbury, and above 300 protestants 
were burnt, and great numbers perished 
in prison, 1556. Of the Protestants in 
France, on St. Bartholomew's day, &c,, 
1572. See Massacre, p. 638. Also 
again in 1723, when great numbers were 
hanged, their assemblies prohibited, 
iheir places of worship pulled down, &c. 



PERSIA, an ancient and extensive 
empire of Asia, the limits of which have 
varied greatly according to the vicissi- 
tudes ot conquest or revolution, though 
it has been a monarchy for above 2000 
years. Cyrus founded the' empire a.c. 
557, which lasted about two centuries 
under a race of kings, among whom were 
Darius Hystaspes, who was elected king 
A.c. 522; Xerxes, who ascended the 
throne A.c. 485 ; Artaxerxes, supposed 
by some to be theAhasuerus of Scripture, 
A.c. 464. The kingdom having sunk into 
the imbecility common to eastern na- 
tions, yielded after a very feeble strug- 
gle, to Alexander the Great, a.c. 333, 
when that prince pushed his conquests 
over the whole of Western Asia. After 
his death his dominions were divided, 
but the Greek princes continued to rule 
over Asia, Seleucus holding the whole of 
modern Persia. Artaxerxes, about a.c. 
200, asserted the independence of his 
country, and founded the monarchy of 
the Parthians, which lasted several cen- 
turies. See Parthia. 

Early in the third century, a.d. an in- 
ternal convulsion placed the dynasty of 
the Sassanides on the throne, and re- 
stored the name as well as the laws of 
ancient Persia, till the Mahomedan in- 
vaders succeeded in placing a descendant 
of the prophet on the throne of Cyrus. 
Some centuries afterwards, the succes- 
sive invasions by the descendants of Gen- 
ghis Khan, by Timur, and by the Turks, 
changed the face of Western Asia ; and 
Persia being the chief seat of war, suf- 
fered deplorably. In 1506 a native dy- 
nasty arose ; Shah Abbas raised himself 
from obscurity to the throne, delivered 
his country from a foreign yoke, and ex- 
tended its limits on all sides. His reign 
forms the most brilliant era in the his- 
tory of Persia ; for, though ambitious 
and even sanguinary, he caused justice 
to be strictly administered, maintained in- 
ternal peace, and promoted every species 
of improvement. 

In the beginning of the last century, 
Persia was overrun by the Afghans, who 
carried devastation through its whole 
extent, and reduced its capital to ashes. 
These atrocities were revenged, and the 
independence of Persia vindicated by 
Nadir Shah ; but though the victories of 
this chief threw a lustre upon his coun- 
try, his death, in 1747, left it a prey 
to civil war, till the fortune of arms 
established the right of Kurreem Khan. 
4X 



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706 



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Similar disputes arose after his death 
in 1779, till Aga Mahommed, a eunuch, 
raised himself to the throne in 1796, and 
not only filled it during his life, but left 
it in peace to his nephew, the late sove- 
reign, who assumed the title of Futteh 
Ali Shah. 

During his reign, although he had 
severe contests to maintain with the 
Russians in 1827 and 1828, who wrested 
from Persia extensive provinces, internal 
peace was preserved, and considerable 
exertions were made to improve the con- 
dition of the country. Attempts were 
also made, particularly under the aus- 
pices of his third son. Prince Abbas 
Meerza, to introduce European improve- 
ments. In 1827 hostilities commenced 
with Russia ; Erivan was besieged and 
taken by the Russians. In 1828 preli- 
minaries of peace were signed, but the 
Shah refused to ratify them. At length 
peace was concluded between Russia and 
Persia, at Turkoman Ischan, Feb. 22 ; 
by this treaty the provinces of Erivan 
and Nakhetchevan were ceded by Persia, 
and afterwards by an ukase of the em- 
peror Nicholas, annexed to the Russian 
empire by the title of the province of 
Armenia. 

1835. Intelligence arrived of the death 
of Futteh Ali Shah. After a contest 
among his sons respecting the succes- 
sion, Mohammed Mirza, who had been 
nominated by the late deceased king as 
his successor, was maintained on the 
throne. Persia was at first implicated in 
the^ late disputes between this country 
and India, in 1838 and 1839; but has 
.atterly assumed a more peaceable cha- 
racter. See Cabool. 

PERSIUS, Flaccus, a Latin poet, in 
the reign of Nero, author of " Satires," 
was born at Volterra, in Tuscany, in 34. 
At the age of 15 he removed to Rome, 
where he studied philosophy under Cor- 
nutus, the celebrated stoic. He died at 
the early age of 30. As a poet, Persius 
is only known by his " Six Satires," 
which were in high reputation among his 
countrymen. 

PERSPECTIVE, a branch of mixed 
mathematics, teaching correctly how to 
dehneate visible objects on a plane sur- 
face. Agatharchus, a painter of Athens, 
who flourished a.c. 470, was the earliest 
writer on this subject ; the principles 
were afterwards taught more distinctly 
by Anaxagoras, a.c 420, and by Demo- 
critus, of Abdera, a.c. 348. After these. 



Euclid wrote a treatise on the subject, 
a.c. 300. The art fell into disuse with 
the decline of painting and sculp- 
ture, after the subversion of the east- 
ern empire, but was revived by Bartho- 
lomo Bramantino and Pietro Del 
Borgo, about 1440, and the principles 
fully laid down in two treatises, by 
Dr. Brook Taylor, secretary to the Royal 
Societ)', published in 1715 and 1719- 
The more modern treatises are those of 
Ferguson, Emerson, Nicholson, &c. 

PERTH, royal burgh, Scotland. The 
Picts, after their conversion to Chris- 
tianity, erected a church here, and dedi- 
cated it to St. John the Baptist. About 
1210 it was strongly fortified, and was re- 
garded as the capital city of the kingdom 
of Scotland ; it now ranks next in im- 
portance to Edinburgh and Glasgow, 
and was formerly the usual residence of 
the Scottish kings. Fourteen parliaments 
were held here between 1201 and 1459. 
At Perth the reformation of the church 
of Scotland may be said to have com- 
menced. In 1559, John Knox having 
preached a sermon in the parish church, 
the people broke down the altars and 
images, and then destroyed all the mo- 
nasteries in the town. In 1715 this 
town was the head-quarters of the Pre- 
tender and the earl of Mar ; and on the 
subsequent attempt to restore the house 
of Stuart, in 1745, Perth was for some 
time occupied by the forces of Charles 
Edward, the young pretender. 

PERU, new republic of South Ame- 
rica, formerly one of the five viceroyal- 
ties while under the Spanish govern- 
ment. When the Spaniards landed in 
this country in 1530, it was governed by 
Incas, who were regarded almost as dei- 
ties by their subjects. The inhabitants 
were soon subdued by the Spaniards 
under Pizarro. After his assassination, 
civil contentions continued till 1562, 
when Tupac Amaru, the son of Manco 
Capac, who had taken refuge in the 
mountains, was attacked by the viceroy 
Toledo. The Inca was forced to surren- 
der, and was led to the scaflfold amidst 
the tears of the people. The royal au- 
thority thus established, continued till 
1781, when a descendant of Amaru be- 
gan an insurrection. After two years of 
varied success, he was taken prisoner 
with his family, and all were executed. 

After the commencement of the revo- 
lution in South America, Peru remained 
tranquil for some time. In 1809 juntas 



i 



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707 



PET 



were established in La Paz and Quito ; 
but Peru sent out troops which sup- 
pressed tliem. In 1817 the Peruvian 
army was compelled to evacuate Chili, 
and Chili, in return, sent an army into 
Peru, under General San Martin ; which, 
in conjunction with Lord Cochrane, suc- 
ceeded in liberating it from the Spanish 
yoke in 1821. Since that period Peru 
has had to contend with much internal 
discord. For some time the authority of 
Bolivar, styled the liberator, was the 
only government ; but, on his leaving, a 
new republic was formed in 1826, on the 
model of the other South American 
states. In 1827 the departments of 
Cusco and Puno separated themselves 
from the republic, and joined Bolivia. 
The city of Arequipa claimed to be de- 
clared the capital in place of Lima, and 
threatened to desert the confederation if 
its claims were not admitted. 

1828. The Peruvian army under Go- 
marra, attacked Bolivia; the Peruvians 
revolted against Bolivar, who, as presi- 
dent of Columbia, declared war against 
them. A new Peruvian constitution, 
signed by the president of that republic, 
March 21. This change overturned the 
influence of Bolivar in Peru. In 1832 
an adjustment of the disputes between 
Peru and Bolivia took place, and the two 
governments entered into treaties of 
amity and commerce. 

1836. An assembly of deputies from 
the southern departments of Peru was 
held at Sicuani on the l7th March,when 
the independence of these departments 
was declared, and a new state formed, 
called South Peru, composed of the de- 
partments of Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cuzco, 
and Puno. The chief power was in- 
trusted to General Santa Cruz, as " Su- 
preme Protector of South Peru." The 
northern departments, Junin, Lima, 
Libertad, and Amazonas, formed them- 
selves into an independent state, under 
the name of North Peru. Soon after, 
the two new Peruvian states agreed to 
form with Bolivia a federative common- 
wealth, at the head of which, by common 
consent, was placed General Santa Cruz, 
who announced this event in a circular, 
dated August 20. 

1837. The constitution of the new 
Peru-Bolivian republic made its appear- 
ance. It gave to each of the three states 
a separate assembly ; a general congress 
composed of two chambers was to meet 
once in two years. On the 5th of June 



a treaty of commerce and navigation was 
executed between the Peru-Bolivian 
confederation and Great Britain. It pro- 
vided for "a recipi'ocal freedom of trade 
between the two nations, and was fully 
calculated to establish on a more satis- 
factory and equitable footing their com- 
mercial realation to each other. By the 
14th article the government engaged to 
co-operate with Great Britain for the 
total abolition of the slave trade. The 
same year war with Chili. Chilian ex- 
pedition against Peru. See Chili. 

1838. Revolution at Lima against 
General Santa Cruz. Generals Obregoso 
and Nicto, at the head of the enterprise, 
proclaimed the independence of Peru, the 
suppression of the Peru-Bolivian Con- 
federation, and the protectorate of Ge- 
neral Santa Cruz. 1839. The protector 
General Santa Cruz, having been beaten 
by the Chihans near Yungay, resigned 
the presidency. March 4. Proclamation 
of the president {pro tern.) of Peru (Gene- 
ral Gomarra), dated at Lima, announcing 
the termination of the war. 

PERUGINO, PiETRO, of Perugia, 
painter (master of Raphael), born 1446, 
died 1524. 

PERUKE. The first used in France, 
1620; introduced into England, 1660. 

PESCHIERA, a town of the Lom- 
bardo- Venetian kingdom. The fortress, 
built by the Venetians in 1549, is small, 
but strong. Taken from the French, with 
90 pieces of cannon, &c.. May 6, 1799. 

PEST, a city of Hungary. Inn703 
it received its grant of privileges as a 
city ; in 1724 the two courts of appeal 
were ti.Ked here ; and in 1777 the univer- 
sity was removed hither from Buda. 

PESTALOZZI, M., inventor of the 
Pestalozzian, or interrogative system of 
education, died 1827. 

PETARD, a kind of ordnance in shape 
of a high-crowned hat. The invention 
is ascribed to the French Huguenots in 

1579. . , 

PETER, St., wrote his first epistle, 
60; his second epistle, 65; died, as is 
supposed, by crucifixion, by order of 
Nero, 7Q- 

PETER I., of Russia, called The 
Great, was born 1672; proclaimed czar 
when but 10 years of age. In 1698 he 
sent an embassy to Holland, and went 
incognito in the retinue, in order to learn 
the art of ship-building. At Amster- 
dam he worked in the yard as a private 
ship-carpenter, under the name of Peter 



PET 



708 



RET 



Michaelof. In the same year he came over 
to England, where he was treated with 
great attention by King Wilham III. He 
returned to Holland, taking with him a 
number of naval officers. 

Being strengthened by the alliance of 
Augustus, king of Poland, about 1700 
he took the field against Charles XII., 
king of Sweden. He afterwards gained 
considerable advantages, and founded 
St. Petersburgh in l703. In 1709 he 
gained a complete victory over the Swedes 
at Pultava. In 1712 he was enclosed by 
the Turks on the banks of the Pruth, 
and seemed inevitably lost, had not the 
czarina Catherine bribed the grand vizier, 
and the czar's prudence completed his 
deliverance. Peter, being at peace, was 
left to pursue his designs ; and in the 
years 1713 and 1714 he effected a total 
reduction of Finland ; and a victory of 
the Russian fleet over the Swedish ren- 
dered him master of the isle of Oeland. 
About 1719 a rupture ensued between 
Russia and England, but a peace was 
concluded with Sweden, under the medi- 
ation of France, in 1721. On this occa- 
sion the senate of Russia requested the 
czar to assume the title of Peter the 
Great. He died January 28, 1725, in 
his 53d year. 

PETER II., of Russia, married his 
prime minister's daughter, NovemberSO, 
1729. He died of the smaU-pox, Janu- 
ary 19, 1730, 

PETER III. was deposed and mur- 
dered, July 16, 1762. 

PETER BoTTE, mountain, isle of 
Mauritius. The conical, or rather per- 
pendicular summit was ascended by Cap- 
tain Lloyd, and Lieutenants PhiUpotts, 
Keppel, and Taylor, Sept. 1, 1833. 

PETERBOROUGH, Northampton- 
shire, was anciently called Peter 'sBurgh, 
from the saint to whom the abbey church 
was dedicated. Peterborough and the 
whole county in which it is situated 
were included in the diocese of Lincoln 
previously to 1541, when Henry VIII. 
constituted it a new and distinct bishop- 
ric, appropriating the conventual church 
of the then recently suppressed monas- 
tery for a cathedral, and appointing the 
last abbot of Peterborough to be the 
first bishop. 

PETERBOROUGH, Earl of, one 
of the great masters of the art of mili- 
tary strategy, born 1658, died 1735. 

PETERPence granted 689; first 
paid to Rome, 790; abolished 1534. 



PETER'S, St., cathedral at Rome, 
begun 1514, finished I629. 

PETERSBURGH, St., a city of Eu- 
ropean Russia, owes its origin to the ge- 
nius and perseverance of Peter the Great- 
Previously to the year 1703 its site con- 
tained only two small huts ; and after 
the battle of Pultava, in 1709, and the 
permanent acquisition of Livonia, that 
monarch assembled on this spot (which 
he designed to make his capital) a great 
number of workmen, who built the citadel 
in a few months. After the erection of the 
city it suffered frequently from fire and 
other disasters. It had 2000 houses 
destroyed by fire August 12, 1736; re- 
ceived damage to the amount of 1,000,000 
of roubles by an inundation and storm, 
September 23, 1777 ; also to the amount 
of 2,000,000, by a fire, August 26, 1780 ; 
again it had 11,000 houses destroyed by 
a fire occasioned by lightning, Novem- 
ber 28, the same year ; and a large ma- 
gazine of naval stores, and between 90 
and 100 vessels in the harbour were 
destroyed, June 7, 1796. 

Notwithstanding these disasters, its 
commerce and population have yearly 
increased. In 1703 the first merchant 
ship that ever appeared on the Neva 
arrived from Holland, and the czar, to 
mark his sense of the value of such visi- 
tors, treated the captain and crew with 
the greatest hospitality, and loaded them 
^vith presents. In 1714, 16 ships ar- 
rived at Petersburgh ; in 1730 the num- 
ber had increased to 180; and so rapid 
has been the progress of commerce and 
civilization in Russia since that period, 
that, at present, from 1200 to 1500 
ships annually enter and clear out from 
Petersburgh. 

PETION, chief of Hayti, defeated 
with great slaughter, and his flotilla de- 
stroyed by Christophe, February 1808 
See Hayti, p. 555. 

PETIT, Peter, mathematician, bom 
1598, died 1667. 

PETITOT, John, famous for enamel, 
born at Geneva, 1607, died 1691. 

PETRARCH, Francis, one of the 
most celebrated ItaUan poets, was born 
at Arezzo, in Tuscany, about 1304. 
When about 23 years of age he con- 
tracted an intimacy with JacopoColonna, 
afterwards bishop of Lombes ; this 
led to the attachment that he preserved 
during his whole life to the beautiful 
Laura, which gave a caste to all his 
literary productions, and was undoubt- 



PHI 



709 



PHI 



edly a source of great unhappiness to 
the poet. After receiving various ho- 
nours, in 1352, being at Milan, Galeas 
Visconti made him counsellor of state. 
Petrarch spent nearly all the rest of his 
life in visiting the different cities in Italy. 
He was archdeacon of Parma, and 
canon of Padua, but never received the 
order of priesthood. He died at Arcqua, 
in 1374. He vi^rote many works that 
have rendered his memory iimnortal. 

PETRONIUS, Arbiter, a celebrated 
critic and polite writer of antiquity, the 
favourite of Nero, by whom he was made 
proconsul of Bithynia. Being accused 
of a conspiracy against the emperor, 
which threatened his life, he ordered his 
veins to be opened, and bled to death, 
A,D, 66. 

PETTY, Sir William, one of the 
earliest writers on political economy, 
born 1623, died 1687- 

PEVER, THE River, in Gloucester- 
shire, suddenly altered its course, and 
10 acres of land, with every thing upon 
its surface, were removed with the cur- 
rent, 1773. 

PEWTERERS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1474. 

PHiEDRUS, the Roman fabulist, 
born A.c. 47, died a.d. 31. 

PHALARIS, tyrant of Crete, inventor 
of the brazen bull, died a.c. 563. 

PHARAMOND, the first French 
monarch, died 428. 

PHAROS, a small island off the coast 
of Egypt, nearly opposite Alexandria, 
chiefly noted for its tower, which was so 
high as to have been seen 100 miles off; 
considered one of the seven wonders of 
the world. It was built a.c. 283, by the 
famed architect Sostrates, a native of 
Cnidos, and cost Ptolemy Philadelphus 
800 talents. 

PHARSALIA, battle of, a.c. 48, at 
which Pompey was totally routed by 
Caesar, and afterwards assassinated by 
order of Ptolemy Dionysius, king of 
Egypt. 

PHERECYDES, a phUosopher of 
Scyros, who flourished about a.c. 560. 
Pythagoras was one of his disciples. 

PHIDIAS, the most celebrated Athe- 
nian sculptor, flourished in the 83d 
Olympiad. He made the famous statue 
of Minerva, at the request of Pericles, 
which was placed in the Pantheon ; also 
that of Jupiter Olympius, which was 
reckoned one of the wonders of the world. 
He died a.c. 432. 



PHILADELPHIA, the capital of 
Pennsylvania, United States, was founded 
in 1682, by the celebrated William Penn, 
who, in October 1701, granted a charter 
incorporating the town with city privi- 
leges. It is now the second city in the 
Union, and is more regularly built than 
any other. The institutions and general 
aspect of Philadelphia are still influenced 
by the character and conduct of Frank- 
lin, who died in 1790, The commercial 
prosperity of the city was greatly pro- 
moted by the generous and persevering 
efforts of Stephen Girard, who died in 
1831, and who bequeathed large sums to 
various charitable purposes. 

PHILANTHROPIC Society. Lon- 
don, commenced 1788. 

PHILEMON, of Athens, comic poet, 
flourished a.c. 274. 

PHILETUS, of Cos, grammarian, 
flourished a.c. 280. 

PHILHARMONIC Society, com- 
menced 1813. 

PHILIDOR, musician and chess- 
player, born 1726, died 1795. 

PHILIP, king of Macedon, and father 
of Alexander the Great, was ^ son of 
Amyntor, and began to reign about a.c. 
360 ; the same year he invaded the Pe- 
loponnesus ; gained his second battle 
over the lUyrians 359 ; concluded the 
second war 348 ; conquered Thrace 343 ; 
became master of Greece 338 ; was as- 
sassinated by Pausanias 336. 

PHILIPPINE Islands were dis- 
covered by Magellan in 1521, but were 
not taken possession of till three years 
afterwards. In 1570 a settlement was 
effected at the mouth of the Manilla 
river, which was in the following year 
constituted the capital of the Spanish 
possessions in the Phihppines. In 1574 
the colony was attacked by a fleet of 
Chinese pirates ; but they were repulsed 
after a bloody engagement. The Spa- 
niards attacked the island of Sooloo in 
1590, but were repulsed. From this 
period various intestine wars disturbed 
the Philippines, till in 1757, the viceroy 
of the islands despatched all the Chinese 
settlers to their own country. Manilla 
was taken by the English in 1762, but 
given up to the Spaniards by the peace 
of 1764. See Manilla. 

PHILIPS, Ambrose, dramatic poet, 
died 1748. 

PHILIPS, John, an EngUsh poet, 
author of " The Splendid ShiUing," died 
Feb. 15, 1708, aged 30. 



PHCE 



710 



PHR 



PHILIPSBURGH, town, duchy of 
Baden, was formerly one of the strongest 
places in Germany ; but was completely 
dismantled during the wars of the French 
revolution; was taken by theFrenGhl734. 

PHILLIPS, Sir Richard, formerly 
sheriff of London and Middlesex, and 
founder of the Sheriff's Fund, for the 
relief of distressed prisoners, born in 
1767. He was universally known in the 
literary world as the projector, and for 
many years the conductor and proprietor 
of the " Monthly Magazine. " He was 
also the author and publisher of many 
books connected with an improved sys- 
tem of education on the interrogative 
plan, which will remain honourable tes- 
timonials of his great industry, extensive 
knowledge, and powerful understanding. 
He died March 24, 1840, at Brighton, in 
his 73d year. 

PHILO, a Jewish writer, flourished 
at Alexandria during the reign of Cali- 
gula. He was the chief of an embassy 
sent to Rome about a.d. 42, to plead the 
cause of the Jews against Apion, of 
which he wrote an entertaining account. 
The best edition of Philo is that of 
" Mangey," two vols, folio, London, 
1742. 

PHILOPCEMEN, a celebrated gene- 
ral of the Achaean league, was born in Me- 
galopolis, in Peloponnesus ; took Sparta 
A.c. 121 ; abrogated the laws of Lycur- 
gus 188 ; was defeated and slain 183. 
, PHILOSTRATUS, Flavius, a Greek 
writer, a teacher of rhetoric, first at 
Athens and then at Rome, from the reign 
of Severus to that of Philippus, who 
obtained the empire a.d. 244. 

PHILPOT, John, an alderman of 
London, stabbed Wat Tyler in Smith- 
field, 1381. 

PHLOGISTON, in chemistry, for- 
merly considered as the principle of in- 
flammabihty. The doctrine was intro- 
duced by Stahl, born 1660 ; exploded by 
the discoveries of Lavoisier, 1770. See 
Chemistry. 

PHOCAS, a Roman emperor of the 
East, by his concessions founded the 
temporal power of the popes, a.c. 606 ; 
was put to death by Heraclius, Oct. 5, 
610. 

PHOCION, Athenian general, put to 
death a.c. 318. 

PHOi^NICIA, or Phcenice, an an- 
cient country of Asia, called in scripture 
the land of Canaan. The Canaanites, 
afterwards called Phoenicians, descended 



from Canaan, the son of Ham. When 
the Israelites were carried into captivity 
by Salmanasar, a.c. 921, the Phoenicians 
and Philistines were so united that they 
were considered as the same people, and 
the whole coast was known by the name 
of Phoenicia. The Phoenicians were 
governed by kings ; and their territorj% 
though small, included several king- 
doms : as those of Sidon, Tyre, Aradus, 
Berytus, and Byblus. They were great 
merchants, navigators, and planters of 
colonies in foreign parts. They acquired 
the power of the Mediterranean a.d. 826. 

PHOSPHORUS, a pecuhar solid in- 
flammable substance, discovered acci- 
dentally by Brandt, an alchemist of 
Hamburg, in 1669, while he was in 
quest of the philosopher's stone. 

PHOTIUS, a patriarch of Constan- 
tinople, in the ninth century. The em- 
peror Basil expelled him in 869 : on the 
death of Ignatius he resumed his dig- 
nity in 879. In 886 Leo caused him 
again to be deprived, and confined in a 
monastery, where he died in 891. He 
was the author of several valuable works, 
and, among others, " Biblietheca," con- 
sisting of an abstract of 280 different 
writers in the departments of history, 
oratory, theology, &c. 

PHOTOGENIC Drawing, a me- 
thod invented by M. Daguere, a French 
painter. See Daguerreotype. 

PHRENOLOGY, a term now used 
for the new science of Gall and Spur- 
zheim, at first known by the name of 
Craniology, which see. Since the 
first development of their principles, 
many writers in this country have de- 
voted their attention to the subject. The 
ingenious but eccentric Abernethy, who 
died in 1831, while he admits that the 
brain in animals is an organ by which 
the percipient principle becomes variously 
affected, remarks, in relation to phren- 
ology, "Though the possession of ori- 
ginal dispositions, faculties, and senti- 
ments, may create a tendency to certain 
actions, yet Gall and Spurzheim admit, 
that it is education which produces 
knowledge and character : it is the dis- 
position and ability to do what has been 
repeatedly done, and with progressive 
improvement, that gives us talents and 
habits of thinking, feeling, and acting 
in a particular manner. It is repetition, 
or education, by which, also, motives 
are rendered so predominant that we feel 
the indispensable necessity of imphcit 



PIA 



and energetic obedience to their com- 
mands, which is called enthusiasm, and 
which has given rise to glorious deeds, 
dignifying and exalting human nature 
far above animal existence." 

PHYSIC. See Medicine. 

PHYSICIANS, College of. See 
College. 

PHYSIOGNOMY, orthe art of know- 
ing the disposition and character of 
persons by the lines of the face, was 
seldom in modern times mentioned, 
except in conjunction with the exploded 
arts of magic, alchemy, and judicial as- 
tronomy, till the appearance in 1770 of 
Lavater's great work. See Lavater. 
In this work the author does not profess 
to give a complete synthetical treatise on 
physiognomy, but exhibits fragments 
only, illustrative of its different parts. 
In the " Berlin Transactions " for 1 775, 
there appeared a formal attack upon 
Lavater's work by M. Formey. 

PIANOFORTE, a keyed instrument, 
in which the tone is produced by ham- 
mers instead of quills, as in the harpsi- 
chord. Early in the last century, the 
hammer harpsichord was invented at 
Florence, of which there is a description 
in the "Giornale d'ltaha, l7ll." The 
invention made but a slow progress. The 
first that was brought to England was 
made by Father Wood, an English monk 
at Rome. The first attempts were always 
on a large size, till Zumpe, a German, 
constructed small pianofortes of the 
shape and size of the virginal. Large 
pianofortes afterwards received great 
improvement in the mechanism by Mer- 
lin, and in the tone by Broadwood, 
Stoddard, Clementi, &c. A modern 
alteration of the exterior shape is found 
in the upright or cabinet pianoforte. 

1839. At the late Exhibition of the 
Produce of French Industry, 6/ masters 
sent nearly 200 pianos, amongst which 
were several of an entirely new shape ; 
such as table, gueridon, oval, hexagon, 
and consol. These new instruments 
were made at the manufactory of Mr. 
Pape, pianoforte maker to the king, who 
also exhibited a square piano, justly 
considered as a masterpiece of its kind, 
veneered with sheets of ivory, part of 
which is carved and inlaid, and forms 
a most beautiful mosaic design. M. 
Pape also exhibited a grand piano of a 
small size. The most remarkable im- 
provement in this instrument is the 
sounding-board, which is so disposed 



711 PIE 

that the tension of the string stretches 
and i keeps the sounding-board level. 
The consequence is, that the sound im- 
proves in the course of time, whilst in 
pianos of the ordinary construction the 
contrary will happen. 

PIAZZI, Joseph, the discoverer of 
the planet Ceres, died 1826. 

PICART, John, the mathematician 
and astronomer, died 1693. 

PICCINI, Nicholas, musical com- 
poser, died 1800. 

PICHEGRU, General, found dead 
in his prison, supposed to be privately 
murdered by order of Buonaparte, April 
5, 1804. 

PICKEN, Andrew, author of " Do- 
minie's Legacy," died 1833, aged 45. 

PICKETT, William, reviver of 
painted glass, died October 14, 1795, 
aged 65. 

PICTON, Sir Thomas, lieutenant- 
general in the British army, and mem- 
ber of parliament for the borough of 
Pembroke; born at Poyston in Pem- 
brokeshire, in August, 1758; died at 
Waterloo June 18, 1815. A monument 
was erected to commemorate his death 
and services in 1827. 

PICTS, a people who anciently inha- 
bited the eastern part of Scotland, first 
particularly mentioned in history about 
the third century. St. Columba con- 
verted Brudius, king of the Picts, to 
the Christian faith, in the sixth century. 
They were defeated and nearly extirpated 
by the Scots in 838. Upon the death 
of Bred, the last Pictish king, 843, Ken- 
neth, the son of Alphin, king of Scots, 
obtained the Pictish government, when 
the union of the Picts with the Scots 
conjoined the separate dominions of 
both. 

PICTS' Wall, between England and 
Scotland, built by Agricola 85 ; repaired 
by Urbicus 1 44 ; Adrian built one from 
Newcastle to Carlisle 121 ; Severus from 
sea to sea 203. 

PICUS, Prince 'of Mirandola, Mo- 
dena, Italy, memorable for his extraordi- 
nary genius -and memory in language, 
being master of 22 languages, and of all 
the science of his time, died 1494. 

PIEDMONT, province, north-east of 
Italy. The southern division was, in 
1794 and 1795, the scene of miUtary 
operations between the French and alhes, 
long maintained without decided ad- 
vantage on either side ; but in 1796 the 
arrival of Buonaparte obliged the court 



PIN 



fl2 



PIR 



of Turin to make a separate peace, which 
was followed, two years after, by the de- 
position of the king and the incorpora- 
tion of Piedmont into the French ter- 
ritory. Piedmont surrendered to the 
French 1798; was recovered in 1799. 
On the reinstatement of the Sardinian 
monarch in 1816, this territory was in- 
corporated with his dominions under 
the title of the kingdom of Piedmont 
and Sardinia. 

PIERRE, St. Bernardin. See 
St. Pierre. 

PILATE, or Pontius Pilate, the 
Roman governor at the death of Christ, 
was placed over Judea in the room of 
Gratus, a.d. 26 or 27, and governed 
that province for 10 years. He is re- 
presented both by Philo and Josephus 
as a man of an impetuous and obstinate 
temper, and as one who, in his capacity 
as judge, used to pronounce any sentence 
that was desirecl, provided he was paid 
for it. He was at length deposed by 
Vitellius the proconsul of Syria in 38, 
and sent to Rome to give an account of 
his conduct, but before he arrived, the 
emperor, Tiberius, was dead. His suc- 
cessor, Caligula, banished him to Vi- 
enna, in Gaul, where he put an end to 
his existence a.d. 40. 

PILLORY, an ancient mode of 
punishment, noticed in England in the 
time of Henry III. ; abolished, except 
in case of perjury and subornation 
of perjury, 1816 ; totally abolished by 
1 Victoria, c. 23, June 30, 1837. 

PILNITZ, village. Saxony. Here is 
a royal palace, celebrated as the spot 
where the king of Prussia, the emperor 
of Germany, and other sovereigns con- 
cluded, in 1791, the treaty for the sup- 
port of the Bourbons in France, which 
gave rise to the wars of the revolution. 

PINDAR, the celebrated lyric poet of 
ancient Greece, was born at Thebes, 
about A.c. 520. There is no great poet 
in antiquity whose character has been 
less censured than that of Pindar. His 
works abound with precepts of the 
purest morality. According to the chro- 
nology of Dr. Blair, he died a.c. 435, 
aged 86. 

PINELLI, John Vincent, a Ge- 
noese of distinguished character, was 
born at Naples in 1535. Died in 1603, 
aged 68. 

PINKERTON, John, author of 
"Modern Geography," &c., died 1826, 
aged 67. 



PINNEY, the mayor of Bristol, was 
tried for negligence and pusillanimity 
during the memorable riots, and acquit- 
ted, Nov. 1, 1832. See Bristol. 

PINS were formerly made of iron 
wire, which being blanched, passed for 
brass ; but the ill effects of those pins 
discarded their use. The French, how- 
ever, could not be driven off from them 
without several arrets of parliament. By 
a sentence of the lieutenant de police, 
July, 1695, the seizure of some millions 
of those pins was confirmed, and the 
pins condemned to be burnt by the 
common executioner. Pins were brought 
from France, in 1543, and were first used 
in England by Catherine Howard, queen 
of Henry VIII. Before that invention, 
both sexes used ribands, loop-holes, 
laces with points and tags, clasps, hooks 
and eyes, and skewers of brass, silver, 
and gold. 

PIN-MAKERS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1636. 

PIOZZI, Mrs., the friend of Dr. 
Johnson, known as Mrs. Thrale, the 
author of " Enghsh Synonymes," died 
1821. 

PIPES of lead for the conveyance of 
water invented 1538. 

PIRACY consists in committing those 
acts of robbery and violence upon the 
seas, which, if committed upon land, 
would amount to felony. Piracy was 
almost, universally practised in the heroic 
ages. Instead of being esteemed in- 
famous, it was supposed to be honour- 
able. The prevalence of this piratical 
spirit in these early ages may, perhaps, 
be explained by the infinite number of 
small independent states into which the 
country was divided, and the violent 
animosity constantly subsisting amongst 
them. Cilicia was, at all times, the 
great stronghold of the pirates of anti- 
quity; so that it became necessary to 
send Pompey against them, with a large 
fleet and army. During the anarchy of 
the middle ages, piracy was universally 
practised. The famous Hanseatic league 
was formed chiefly for the purpose of 
protecting the ships of the confederated 
cities from the attacks of the pirates. 
See Hanse Towns. 

The most daring pirates of modern 
times were the Buccaneers of the 17th 
century. See Buccaneers. The most 
remarkable recent piracies were those 
during the late Greek war, of which 
many instances are recorded. In Janu- 




WSILILirAM IPITT, 




i^.,^^^-^/!.. 



London.: PoblUted by Thomas Ki-lly Paternoster Rdw. JB36 



PIT 



713 



PIT 



ary, IS^S, Carabusa, in the isle of Can- 
dia, which sheltered the pirates, was 
attacked by Sir Thomas Staines, in the 
Isis frigate, with vessels, French and 
British, under his command, the Greeks 
having been first summoned, but in vain, 
to give up the chiefs of the pirates and 
their vessels. The forts were evacuated 
and put into the possession of a chief 
appointed by the President Capo d'Istria, 
and the vessels in the port were sunk 
or taken possession of. In March fol- 
lowing the Greek Admiral, Miaulis, de- 
stroyed or captured at ScopeIo,41 vessels 
suspected of piracy; 38 more were seized 
by him on the same grounds a few days 
afterwards at Skiatho. 

By the ancient common law of Eng- 
land, piracy, if committed by a subject, 
was held to be a species of treason, but 
since the statute of treasons (25 Edw. III. 
c. 2) it is held to be only felony in a 
subject. Formerly, this offence was 
only cognisable by the admiralty courts, 
but the statute 28 Hen. VIII. c. 15 
established a new jurisdiction for this 
purpose, which proceeds according to 
the course of common law. At a very 
early period of our history, a law was 
made for the restitution of property 
taken by pirates, if found within the 
realm, whether belonging to strangers or 
Englishmen. The stat. 6 Geo. IV. c. 49 
enacts, that vessels and other property 
taken from pirates, proved to have be- 
longed to any of his majesty's subjects, 
are to be delivered up to them, on their 
paying a sum of money as a salvage, 
equal to one-eighth part of the true value 
of the same. 1 Victoria, c. 88, July 17, 
1 8 37> remits the punishment of death, 
except where murder is attempted. 

PISA, city, Italy, in a province of the 
same name, grand duchy of Tuscan)^ is 
a place of great antiquity, though it did 
not become famous till the 10th century, 
when it took the lead of the commercial 
republics of Italy. In the 13th century, 
the ascendency of Genoa cast Pisa into 
the shade. The treachery of its princes, 
with the interference and deceitful poli- 
tics of France, undermined its freedom, 
and, at length, the intrigues of the Me- 
dici completed its ruin, and enslaved it 
to its rival Florence, about 1428. 

PISTOLS first used by cavalry 1544. 

PITCAIRNE, Dr. Archibald, an 
eminent physician, born in 1652. The 
university of Leyden in 1691 solicited 
him to fill the medical chair, at that time 



vacant. He accepted the invitation, and, 
on April 26, 1692, delivered his inau- 
gural oration. He was universally con- 
sidered as the first physician of his time. 
He collected one of the finest private 
libraries in Europe ; which was purchased 
after his death by the Czar of Russia. 
He died Oct. 23, 1713. 

PITCAIRN'S Island, Pacific Ocean, 
remarkable as having afforded a^ refuge 
to the mutineers of the Bounty in 1790. 
After abandoning their captain (Bligh) 
to the waves, eight of the mutineers 
fixed on this island as their residence. 
In ten years 13 men had been killed, 
and there remained alive only one, named 
Adams, with 6 women and 19 children. 
Captain Beechy, in 1825, found 36 
males and 30 females, forming a happy 
little society, well instructed, orderly, 
and friendly. In 1833 they had greatly 
increased in numbers and improved in 
manners, and are useful to vessels 
touching there. 

PITT, William, the great earl of 
Chatham. See Chatham. 

PITT, The Right Honourable 
William, the distinguished statesman, 
and son of the first earl of Chatham, was 
born May 28, 1759. About 1780 he 
entered parliament as member for Ap- 
pleby. Having espoused the popular 
side in regard to the American war, his 
opening talents were displayed to great 
advantage, and he was regarded as 
destined, at some future period, to rank 
high in the councils of his native country. 
In 1783 the oflSces of first lord of the 
treasury and chancellor of the exchequer 
were bestowed on him ; and he thus 
became prime minister before he was 
full 24 years of age. Having now at- 
tained the summit of power Mr. Pitt 
exercised every function of his important 
offices, without any check or control. 
Possessed of a great majority in both 
houses of parliament, as well as in the 
cabinet, his principles as well as his 
whole deportment were changed. 

Soon after the commencement of the 
French revolution, his policy became 
unpopular, and he was thought to mani- 
fest too much eagerness to enter into a 
war, which must bring numerous evils 
on the country. Having held the reins 
of government during 18 years, both he 
and all the members of the cabinet sud- 
denly retired from office in 1 80 1 . On this 
occasion all parties appeared to rejoice 
at the appointment of Mr. Addington. 
4 Y 



PI z 



714 



PLA 



But the talents of the new minister 
were soon fovind unequal to the contest 
in which he had embarked, and Mr. Pitt, 
in 1804, resumed his post as first lord 
of the treasury. In December, 1805, 
his health began to fail, and he died 
Jan. 23, 1806, in his 47th year. Public 
monuments have been since raised to 
his memory in Westminster Abbey, in 
Guildhall, and by many public bodies 
in different parts of the kingdom. 

PITT, John, earl of Chatham, the 
son of the first and the brother of the 
second William Pitt, died Sept. 1, 1835, 
in his 80th year. This title is now 
extinct. 

PITT, Rev. Christopher, trans- 
lator of Virgil, born 1699, died 1748. 

PITT, Thomas, governor of Fort 
St. George, proprietor of the famous 
diamond, and grandfather of the first 
earl of Chatham, died 1726. 

PITTA CUS, Grecian sage, born about 
A. c. 650 ; died a.c. 579. 

PIUS VII., whose history is rendered 
memorable by its connection with the 
French revolutionary wars, was raised to 
the dignity of pope, after the death of 
Pius VI., 1799. By a convention ra- 
tified Sept. 10, 1801, Buonaparte, as 
first consul, was not only acknowledged 
to possess all the privileges of the ancient 
French monarchj%but new and essential 
immunities were obtained for the Gal- 
ilean church ; and by a concordat, agreed 
to soon after, the apostolical and Roman 
faith was declared to be the religion of 
the state. This concordat was ratified 
by the legislature of France in April, 
1802. For a considerable time Pius 
VII. was placed in circumstances the 
most perplexing and distressing : but 
early in the year 1813 a reconciliation 
was effected between the head of the 
Romish church and the emperor of 
France. The consequence of this was 
a new concordat, by which Napoleon 
agreed to restore Pius VII. to his tem- 
poral power, and to reinstate him in his 
former dignity. The complete restora- 
tion of the papal see did not, however, 
take place till after the fall of the Napo- 
leon dynasty in 1815, when Pius VII. 
resumed his authority. He died at 
Rome Aug. 20, 1823, at the age of 81. 

PIX, or Box, to contain the host, 
ordered by the Lateran council 1215. 

PIZARRO, Feanci.s, a celebrated 
Spanish general, the discoverer and con- 
queror of Peru. In 1524, with Diego 



de Almagro, and Hermando Liique, he 
entered into an association for discovering 
the countries on the coast of the South 
Sea. Pizarro made several successful voy- 
ages ; and with his associates, in 1532, ef- 
fected the conquestof Peru. Atlength the 
conquerors quarrelled among themselves, 
and in April 1538, a battle was fought 
between the forces of Pizarro and Al- 
magro, which ended in the total defeat 
of the latter. Almagro himself being 
taken prisoner, was soon after executed 
by Pizarro. A conspiracy was formed 
against the life of Pizarro, and on June 
26, 1541, he was assassinated by Her- 
roada, one of the principal of the Alma- 
grian officers, at the head of 18 deter- 
mined associates. 

PLAGUE, a very acute, malignant, 
and contagious fever, which has at times 
visited most nations in different ages of 
the world. These raging epidemics have 
consisted of different maladies in different 
instances ; but in more modern times 
the various forms of pestilence having 
been more accurately defined, the true 
plague has been more readily distin- 
guished, and its form and character well 
recognised. Ethiopia and Egypt haA^e 
been stigmatized in every age as the ori- 
ginal source and seminary of the plague. 
One of the most extensive and fatal in- 
stances was that which depopulated the 
earth in the time of Justinian and his 
successors; it first appeared about a.d. 
542, in the neighbourhood of Pelusium, 
between the Serbonian bog and the 
eastern channel of the Nile. From 
thence tracing as it were a double path, 
it spread to the east, over Syria, Persia, 
and the Indies ; and, penetrating to the 
west, along the coast of Africa, and over 
the continent of Europe, the disease al- 
ternately languished and revived. But 
it was not till the end of 52 years that 
mankind recovered their health, or the 
air resumed its pure and salubrious qua- 
lity. At-one time during three months, 
from five to ten thousand persons died 
each day at Constantinople, many cities 
of the east were left vacant, and in seve- 
ral districts of Italy the harvest and the 
vintage withered on the ground. 

The following are some of the most 
remarkable plagues since the above 
period. 

1348. In Germany, &e., which cut off 
90,000 people. 

1349, when 50,000 people died in 
London, 1 500 in Leicester, &c. 



PLA 



715 



PL I 



1407. In London, which killed 30,000 
people, 

1477- Again, when more were de- 
stroyed than in 15 years war before. 

1499- Again, when 30,000 died in 
London. 

1604, Again in London, which carried 
off a fourth part of its inhabitants. 

^1611. At Constantinople, when 
200,000 persons died. 

1625 and 1631. At London, when 
35,000 people died. 

1665-6. Again at London, which de- 
stroyed 68,000 persons. This was a ca- 
lamity so vast and awful, as to have 
erased all the jjreceding ones from popu- 
lar memory, and to be called alone, in 
ordinary speech, The Great Plague. 

1773. In Persia, when 80,000 persons 
perished at Bassorah. 

1784. At Smyrna, that carried off 
about 20,000 inhabitants, and at Tunis 
32,000. 

1792. In Egypt, where near 800,000 
died. 

1799. At Fez, 247,000 died. 

1800. In Morocco, in one day^l800 
died. 

1814. In Lesser Asia, Syria, and the 
adjacent islands, by which Smyrna is 
computed to have lost 30,000 persons. 

1816. In the kingdom of Naples, 
where it committed considerable ra- 
vages. 

1837. At Constantinople, more fatal 
than for many years. AH family ties 
were dissolved by fear of the disorder : 
parents forsook their children, children 
their parents. 

PLASSEY, town, Bengal, on the 
river Hooghly, chiefly celebrated as the 
scene of the decisive battle fought in 
June, 1757, which decided the fate of 
Bengal, and ultimately of India. In this 
engagement the British forces, under 
Colonel Clive, consisting of about 3000 
men, put to the rout the army of the 
Nabob Seraje ud Dowlah, estimated at 
50,000, 

PLASTERERS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1500. 

PLATA, La. See Buenos Ayres, 

PLATE-GLASS Company, incor- 
porated 1773, when it erected its exten- 
sive works at Ravenhead, near St. He- 
len's, in Lancashire. 

PLATINA, a metal found in various 
parts of South America, in the island of 
St. Domingo, and in the province of Es- 
tramadura, in Spain. First brought into 



England in 1741, by Charles Wood. He 
obtained it in Jamaica, and pubhshed an 
account of his experiments on it in the 
Philosophical Transactions for 1749 and 
1750. 

PLATO, the illustrious philosopher 
of Athens, was born in the island of 
Egina, about a.c, 430. At the age of 
20 he applied himself to the study of 
philosophy, attaching himself wholly to 
Socrates, and remaining with him eight 
years as a scholar. His school of philoso- 
phy soon became celebrated, and its mas- 
ter was ranked among the most eminent 
philosophers. Having enjoyed the ad- 
vantage of an athletic constitution, and 
lived all his days temperately, he arrived 
at the 81st year of his age, and died 
through the mere decay of nature, in the 
first year of the 108th Olympiad, about 
A.c. 359. 

PLATOFF, General count, Cossack 
general, died April, 1818. 

PLATTSBURG, Lake Champlain, ex- 
pedition against, by Sir George Prevost, 
abandoned after a naval defeat, Sept. 11, 
1814. 

PLAUTUS, the Roman comic poet, 
died A.c. 184. 

PLAYFAIR, John, a celebrated 
Scottish mathematician and natural phi- 
losopher, was born March 10, 1748, and 
entered the University of St. Andrew's 
at the age of 14. In 1785 he was ap- 
pointed professor of mathematics. In 
1789 succeeded Dr. Gregory, as secre- 
tary to the physical class of the Royal 
Society. The death of Dr. James Hut- 
ton in 1797, gave a new direction to his 
studies ; and the rest of his life was chiefly 
devoted to geological investigation. Af- 
ter five years' labour, Mr. Playfair pro- 
duced in 1802, his "Illustrations of the 
Huttonian Theory," in one volume 8vo. 
In 1815 he undertook a journey to the 
continent, for the purpose of examining 
the geology of the Alps, and returned to 
Edinburgh in the end of 18 16, Some 
time after his return he read to the Royal 
Society a paper on volcanos, which ex- 
cited great interest. He died July 19, 
1819, in his 72d year. 

PLAYFORD, John, English musi- 
cian and composer, born I6l3, died 
1693. 

PLEURES, in Switzerland, destroyed 
by the falling of part of a mountain, 
when 2000 persons perished, Aug. 28, 
1618. 

PLINY THE Elder, or Caius Pli- 



PLU 



716 



PN E 



Nius SECUNDUs,oneof themostlearned 
Roman writers, was born at Verona in 
the reign of Tiberius, a.d. 23. He bore 
arms in a distinguished post, and was 
employed in several important affairs by 
Vespasian and Titus, who honoured him 
with their esteem. He had the com- 
mand of the fleet stationed at Misenum, 
when in the month of August, a.d. 79, 
a great eruption of Vesuvius broke out. 
On its first appearance he steered di- 
rectly to the spot, where he was sufibcated, 
being then in the 56th year of his age. 

PLINY THE Younger was born 
A.D. 62, at Novocomum, a town upon 
the lake Larius. He was the son of L. 
Caecilius, by a sister of the elder Pliny. 
He held the offices of quaestor and tri- 
bune, through the reign of Domitian; 
was promoted to the consulate by Tra- 
jan when 38 years of age, and afterwards 
made proconsul of Bithynia ; whence he 
wrote to Trajan that well-known letter 
concerning the primitive christians, which 
with Trajan's rescript, is extant among 
his epistles. He died about a.d. 116. 

PLOT, Dr. Robert, antiquarian and 
historical writer, born 1641, died 1696. 

PLOWDEN, Francis, author of the 
" Historical Review of the State of Ire- 
land," Sic, died 1829. 

PLUMBERS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1611. 

PLUMTREE, Rev. James, author 
of the " Collectionof Songs, Moral," &c., 
died 1832. 

PLURALITY OF Benefices or 
Livings, is where the same clerk is pos- 
sessed of two or more spiritual prefer- 
ments with cure of souls. A remedy 
was attempted for this abuse at the coun- 
cil of Lateran, under Alexander III. and 
Innocent III. in 1215 j but the same 
canon granting the pope a power to dis- 
pense with it in favour of persons of dis- 
tinguished merit, the prohibition became 
almost useless. Pluralities were also re- 
strained by statute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13 ; 
but the same statute provides for dis- 
pensation in certain cases. 

The act 1 and 2 Vic. c. 106, Aug. 14, 
1838, is designed to abridge the holding 
of benefices in plurality, and to make 
better provision for the residence of the 
clergy. It repeals the 21 Hen. VIII. 
c. 13, and 57 Geo. III. c. 99, except as 
to penalties already incurred, or licences 
already granted under them ; and enacts 
that not more than two preferments 
shall be held together (except as therein 



specified); nor two benefices, unless 
withinlO miles of each other ; nor if the 
population of one such benefice is more 
than 3000, or their joint yearly value 
shall exceed £1000. A licence or dis- 
pensation to hold together any two be- 
nefices under this act, must be obtained 
from the archbishop of Canterbury ; but 
previous thereto the bishop of the dio- 
cese must certify. 

PLUTARCH, an eminent philosopher 
and biographer of antiquity, was born at 
Chseronea, of Bceotia, in Greece, about 
the commencement of the reign of Nero. 
He was placed under the care of Ammo- 
nius, an Egyptian, under whom he made 
great advances in knowledge, travelled 
into Egypt, visiting in his way all the 
academies and schools of the philoso- 
phers, gathering from them many of 
those observations with which he has 
abundantly enriched posterity. He was 
several times at Rome to make ob- 
servations upon men and manners, and 
to collect materials for writing the lives 
of the Roman worthies, in the same 
manner as he had already written those 
of the Grecian, He died in the fifth 
year of Adrian, at the age of 70. 

PLYMOUTH, seaport, Devon, is a 
place of considerable antiquity, and now 
one of the largest maritime towns in 
England. Until the reign of Henry II. 
it was principally inhabitedby fishermen ; 
since that period, owing to the goodness 
of the haven, it has attained its present 
eminence. In the time of the civil 
wars, this town adhered to the parlia- 
ment, and in 1643 was besieged for 
several months by the royal army. It 
is defended by several strong batteries, 
and a citadel, erected by Charles II. 
about 1670. Plymouth is chiefly distin- 
guished for the capaciousness of its 
harbour. The gigantic work called the 
Breakwater, has added much to the 
safety of the Sound. See Breakwater. 

PLYMOUTH Dock. See Devon- 
port. 

PNEUMATICS, that branch of na- 
tural philosophy in which are investi- 
gated the weight, pressure, and elasticity 
of elastic fluids. The pressure of the 
air was discovered by Torricelli, 1645. 
Found to vary with the height by Pascal, 
1647. The air-pump, invented by Otto 
Guericke, 1654. Air-pump improved 
and rendered more manageable by Boyle, 
after the publication of " Mechanica 
Hydraulic© Pneumatica," by Schottus, 



PO L 



717 



POL 



in which Guericke's experiments were 
described, 1657. The mechanical pro- 
perties of air are those only about which 
this branch of science is concerned ; 
their nature and chemical properties 
belong to chemistry ; and the investiga- 
tion of these constitutes a very important 
part of the valuable improvements that 
have been introduced into that science 
since the middle of the 18th century. 
See Chemistry, p. 254. 

POACHING prohibited by act 28 
Geo. II,, passed 1753; reduced to a 
trespass by 2 William IV., 1831. See 
Game Laws. 

POCOCKE, Dr. Richard, bishop 
of Meath, the traveller, died 1765. 

POGGIO, the reviver of Greek and 
Latin literature, born 1380, died 1459. 

POICTIERS, town, France, depart- 
ment La Vienne, province Poitou. Near 
this place Edward the Black Prince 
gained a decisive victory over the French 
in 1356, taking King John and his son 
prisoners, whom he afterwards brought 
over into England. The army of the 
Enghsh amounted only to 12,000 men, 
and the French to 60,000. 

POINT Db Galle, fortified sea- 
port town, south-west of the isle of 
Ceylon, was taken possession of by the 
Portuguese in 1517, and taken from 
them by the French in 1640. In 1796 
it came into possession of the British, 

POISSONNIER, Peter Isaac, phy- 
sician, first lecturer on chemistry at 
Paris, born 1720, died 1798. 

POLAND, formerly an independent 
kingdom, but now almost annihilated 
from among the nations of the earth. 
In its highest prosperity it contained an 
area of 284,000 square miles, and a po- 
pulation of about 15,000,000; but it has 
gradually been reduced in extent, and 
incorporated with its more powerful 
neighbours. The kingdom began, by 
favour of Otho III., emperor of Ger- 
many, under Boleslaus, 999- Red Rus- 
sia was added to it, 1059. Pomerania, 
that had been separated 180 years, was 
again united v/ith it, 1465. 

Poland was, from this time, governed 
by a race of kings, among whom the 
most remarkable was Sigismund I., who 
ascended the throne in 1507. This mo- 
narch, having reformed some internal 
abuses, determined on rendering the 
kingdom as formidable as it had for- 
merly been. Sigismund III., surnamed 
De Vasa, who in 1587 became master of 



the throne of Poland, waged a successful 
war with the Tartars, and was otherwise 
prosperous ; but as he succeeded to the 
crown of Sweden, he found it impossible 
for him to retain both kingdoms, and he 
was formally deposed from the Swedish 
throne. 

From this time the following are the 
kings of Poland : — Sigismund III., 
whose reign began 1587; Uladislaus 
VII., 1632 ; John II., 1648 ; Michael, 
a Russian prince, 1669; John III, So- 
bieski, 1671 ; Frederick II,, elector of 
Saxony, 1698 ; Stanislaus I., 1704; Fre- 
derick II. again, 1710; Frederick III., 
1733; Stanislaus II., Count Ponia- 
towski, 1764, 

In 1772 a partition, projected by the 
king of Prussia, was effected, by that 
monarch, in conjunction with the empress 
of Russia and emperor of Germany, By 
this one-third of the country was wrested 
from the kingdom. The partitioning 
powers also forcibly effected a great 
change in the constitution; but in 1791, 
the king and the nation established ano- 
ther constitution, the throne being de- 
clared hereditary, in the house of 
Saxony. A scond partition, which 
took place in 1793, roused the spirit of 
the nation, and General Kosciusko ap- 
peared in the following year at the head 
of a Polish army to assert the indepen- 
dency of his country. He was, however, 
overpowered by numbers, taken pri- 
soner, and sent, with many other pa- 
triots, into confinement at Petersburgh, 
The king, Stanislaus II., Tormally re- 
signed his crown at Grodno in 1795, and 
was afterwards removed to Petersburgh, 
where he remained a kind of state pri- 
soner till his death in 1798. The whole 
of this unfortunate country was divided 
among the three powers. Austria had 
Little Poland, and the greater part of 
Red Russia and Podolia, now called the 
kingdom of Galicia : Prussia had Great 
Poland, Polish Prussia, a small part of 
Lithuania, and Podlachia : and Russia 
had Samogitia, the remainder of Lithua- 
nia, Polynia and Podolia. 

At the settlement of the continent in 
1815, after the overthrow of Buonaparte, 
a small portion of the original territory 
of Poland, with an area of about 47,000 
square miles, and a population of 
3,000,000, was erected into a separate 
kingdom, subject to the emperor of Rus- 
sia, but governed by its own laws. By 
the liberal policy of the emperor Alex- 



POL 



718 



POL 



ander, a constitutional charter was framed 
to combine, as far as possible, the ancient 
forms of the Polish constitution with the 
modern improvements in legislation. On 
the accession of the emperor Nicholas, 
his despotic policy aroused the Poles 
again to resistance. In 1833 they flew to 
ariBS, and made a noble effort to gain their 
independence ; but the overwhelming 
force which Russia was able to bring 
against them rendered the struggle in- 
effectual, and only ended in their de- 
struction. Exasperated by the resistance 
which they made, the line of policy 
adopted by Nicliolas seemed calculated, 
if possible, to destroy their existence as 
a nation, and they have been gradually 
incorporated with Russia. 

POLAR Regions have, at all times, 
since the extension of geographical know- 
ledge, been the object of eager curiosity, 
but various circumstances have given a 
more intimate and profitable connection 
with the northern than with the opposite 
extremity of the globe. After the dis- 
coveries of Vasco De Gama and Colum- 
bus, at the close of the 15th and beginning 
of the l6th centuries, had stimulated the 
enterprise of commercial adventurers, it 
was suggested that shorter routes might 
be found to the regions of wealth jby 
pursuing a northerly navigation. To 
this we are indebted for the voyages of 
Martin Forbisher, who, in 1578, made 
three voyages towards the north-west, 
under the auspices of Queen Elizabeth ; 
also that of Davis, who, about 1586, added 
much to hydrographic knowledge, and of 
Henry Hudson, in 1607, and Baffin in 
the early part of the I7th century. For an 
account of the more recent expeditions 
see the following articles ; Arctic Ex- 
pedition, America, and North 
West Passage. 

With regard to the southern Polar 
regions much less is known. In 1838 
Captain Washington read to the British 
Association a paper "on the recent ex- 
peditions to the antarctic seas," illus- 
trated by a south circumpolar chart on a 
large scale, showing the tracks of all for- 
mer navigators to these seas, from Dirk 
Gherritz, in 1599, to M. D'Urville, in 
1838; including those of Tasman, in 
1642; Cook, in 1773; Bellingshausen, 
in 1820 ; Weddell, in 1822 ; Biscoe, in 
1831 ; and exhibiting a large basin, nearly 
in extent to the Atlantic Ocean, unex- 
plored by any ship, British or foreign. 
The writer pointed out that the ice in 



these regions was far from stationary ; 
that Bellingshausen had sailed through a 
large space within the parallel of 60'*, 
where Biscoe found ice that he could 
not penetrate ; that where D'Urville had 
lately found barriers of field ice, Wed- 
dell, in 1822, had advanced without 
difficulty to the latitude of 74?*, or 
within 16'^ of the pole; and that it was 
evident from the accounts of all former 
navigators, that there was no physical 
obstacle to reaching a high southlatitude. 

An expedition to the Antarctic Ocean, 
consisting of two vessels, chiefly fitted out 
under the direction of Mr. Charles En- 
derby, sailed from London July 16, 1838, 
and returned in Sept. 1839, with a most 
successful issue. The two vessels crossed 
the equator in 22° 40' west longitude, 
touched at the island of Amsterdam, 
and, on December 3, anchored in Chalky 
Bay, near the south-western angle of the 
southern island of New Zealand. On 
January 7, 1839, the vessels sailed for 
the southward. On February 9, the ap- 
pearance of land was seen to] the south- 
west, lat. 66° 22' S. ; long. 163° 49' E., 
which proved to be a group consisting 
of five islands, three large and two 
small, which were named respectively 
after Messrs. Young, Borradaile, Buckle, 
Sturge, and Row, the spirited merchants 
who united with Mr. Enderby in sending 
out this expedition. 

POLARIZATION of Light. Disco- 
very matured by Malus in 1810. See 
Optics. 

POLE, Reginald, a distinguished 
statesman and cardinal, was born in 
Staffordshire in 1500. Having been sent 
nuncio to different parts of Europe, in 
1543 he was appointed legate at the coun- 
cil of Trent, and was afterwards em- 
ployed by the pope as his chief counsel- 
lor. Pope Paul IIL dying in 1540, Pole 
was twice elected his successor, and 
twice, it is said, refused the papal dignity. 
On the accession of Queen Mary, he 
was sent legate to England, where he 
arrived in 1554. He had now the sole 
management of ecclesiastical affairs in 
England ; and from this time the perse- 
cution became more violent, and the exe- 
cutions more frequent. He was m"ade 
archbishop of Canterbury the day after 
Cranmer's execution, and before the end 
of the same year (1556) he was made 
chancellor of Oxford and Cambridge. 
He died in 1558, a few hours after the 
queen,|at the age of 58. 



POL 



719 



POM 



POLICE, Metropolitan, formerly 
regulated by various statutes for enforc- 
ing the duty of watch and ward ; as the 
statute of Winton, 13 Edward Lj 14 
George IIL c. 90, s. 14. for regu- 
lating the watch of the metropolis; 
7 George IV. c. 142, s. 73, for con- 
solidating the turnpike trusts near 
London, and various other acts of parlia- 
ment for similar objects. 

The New Police Act, 10 Geo. IV. 
c. 44, passed June 19, 1829, after recit- 
ing that offences against property have 
lately increased, and the local establish- 
ments of nightly watch and police have 
been found inadequate, enacts that a new 
police office be established in Westmin- 
ster, and two fit persons appointed as 
justices of the peace for the counties of 
Middlesex, Surrey, Hertford, Essex, and 
Kent, and all the liberties therein, to 
conduct the business of the said office, 
under the directions of the Secretary of 
State. The whole of the city and liber- 
ties of Westminster, and such parishes, 
townships, &c. in Middlesex, Surrey, 
and Kent, as are enumerated in this act, 
to constitute one district, to be called 
" The Metropolitan Police District." 

The most important feature of the new 
act is the establishment of a police force, 
separate from the control of the local 
magistracy, and independent of the pa- 
rochial authorities, to whom the'appoint- 
ment and regulation of the nightly watch 
had been hitherto entrusted. The pre- 
vention and detection of offences within 
the districts included in the act de- 
volves on the newly-appointed " Com- 
missioners of Police," whose functions 
are exclusively confined to the attain- 
ment of these objects ; while the ex- 
amination of persons charged with of- 
fences continue to be exercised by the 
magistrates of the metropolitan offices as 
before. ! 

1839. 2 and 3 Vic. c. 71, Aug, 24, 
continues the present police courts and 
police magistrates ; but empowers her 
majesty, by order in council, to alter 
their number and situation, so as there 
are never more than 27 magistrates, &c. 
Similar acts passed to amend the police 
at Manchester, by 2 and 3 Vic. c. 87, 
Aug. 26, 1839, and Birmingham by 
2 and 3 Vic. c. 88, Aug. 26, 1839. 

I'OLIGNAC, Prince, the minister 
of Charles X. of France, tried and con- 
demned to perpetual imprisonment, 
Dec. 21, 1830. After several years of 



imprisonment was banished France, 
Nov. 23, 1836. His colleagues had been 
previously set free, 

POLITIAN,Angelus, eminent scho- 
lar, born 1454, died 1494. 

POLITICIAN, the term first intro- 
duced in France, 1569. 

POLLIO, a Roman orator and poet, 
who occasioned the first library being 
opened at Rome for public use, died4n42. 

POLL-TAX, first levied in England 
1378. Abolished by William III. 

POLTAVA, European Russia, me- 
morable for the battle fought near this 
town in 1709, when the Swedes, under 
Charles XII., were completely defeated, 
and the king obliged to take refuge in 
Turkey. 

POLYBIUS, a celebrated Greek his- 
torian, was born at Megalopolis, a city 
of Arcadia, about] a. c. 205. He arose 
to considerable honours in his own coun- 
try, but was compelled to visit Rome 
with other principal Achaeans, who were 
detained there as pledges for the sub- 
mission of their state. He accompanied 
Scipio Jj^milianus into Africa, and was 
materially aided by his counsel. His his- 
tory extends from the second Punic war 
to the subversion of the Macedonian 
kingdom, a period of 53 years. He died 
aged 82. 

POLYCARP, one of the most ancient 
fathers of the christian church, and an 
early martyr to the cause of Christianity, 
was born toward the end of the reign of 
Nero. He was unqviestionably a disci- 
ple of St. John the Evangelist, and is 
said to have conversed familiarly \nth 
other of the apostles. He governed the 
church, of Smyrna with apostolic purity, 
till he suffered martyrdom a.d. 148, in 
the persecution which happened in the 
seventh year of Marcus Aurelius. 

POLYGAMY was frequent in the 
Roman empire, till the reigns of Theodo- 
sius, Honorius, and Arcadius, who first 
prohibited it by express law in 393. 

POMBAL.MaruuisDe, eminent Por- 
tuguese statesman, born 1699, died 1782. 

POMERANIA, province, Prussia, was 
ceded by Sweden to Denmark in 1814, 
as a partial indemnity for Norwaj^ but 
afterwards came to Prussia by exchange 
for Saxe Lunenburg. 

POMFRET, Rev. John, author of 
the "Choice," died young, in 1709. 

POMPEII, or PoMPEiA, the ruins of 
an ancient city of Italy, at the foot of 
Mount Vesuvius, was burned in an erup- 



PON 

tion of the volcano, a.d. 79 ; and, like 
Herculaneuin, not discovered till the be- 
ginning of the 18 th century. The vol- 
canic matter covering Pompeii, being 
much less hard than that of Hercula- 
neum, a great part of the city has been 
cleared, and new discoveries illustrative 
of the manners and customs of the an- 
cients are continually being made among 
the ruins. These are particularly de- 
scribed by Sir William Gell in his "Pom- 
peiana," published in 1819. 

In June 1827, an excavation was made 
at Pompeii, in the presence of the king 
and queen of Naples, which was one of 
the most successful ever remembered, on 
account of the abundance and quality of 
the objects discovered: particularly a very 
beautiful fountain in mosaic, in which 
was a genius of bronze holding in his left 
hand abird, with its wings expanded, from 
the beak of which the water issued, and 
then fell back into the basin. In 1837 
the excavations were prosecuted with 
much activity. Near the street of the 
tombs were found, in the vestibule of a 
house, four mosaic pillars about 15 feet 
high, in very good preservation, beingthe 
first discovered of the kind. 

POMPEY THE Great, Cneius 
PoMPETUs Magnus, an illustrious Ro- 
man commander, and the rival of Julius 
Caesar, was born a.c. 107. Caesar a.c. 
49, being by a decree of the senate pro- 
claimed a public enemy, Pompey was 
required to take upon himself the de- 
fence of the state. The result was the 
famous battle of Pharsaha, which took 
place A.c. 48, in which Pompey was en- 
tirely defeated, and, attempting to escape, 
he was slain, in the 59th year of his age, 
leaving behind him a name among the 
most illustrious of antiquity. 

POMPONIOUS, Mela, the geogra- 
pher, died in the vear 40. 

PONDICHERRY, city, Hindoostan, 
province Carnatic, formerly a village, was 
purchased by the French from the king 
of Bejapore, in the year 1672. It was 
taken by the Dutch in 1693, who con- 
siderably improved the town, and en- 
larged the fortifications, but were obliged 
to return it four years afterwards. In 
1761 it was taken, after a long siege, by 
the British army vinder Colonel Coote. 
At the peace of 1763 it was restord to 
the French, and, though afterwards re- 
taken by the British, was at length 
finally restored at the conclusion of the 
late war. 



720 



POO 



PONIATOWSKI, Prince, drowned 
in the Elster, after the battle of Leipsic, 
Oct. 19, 1813. 

PONS, Louis, celebrated Florentine 
astronomer, died Oct. 14, 1831. 

PONSONBY, George, an eminent 
Irish la^vyer, and upright statesman, 
born March 5, 1755, died July 6, 1817. 

PONT Cyssylter, the superb aque- 
duct of, over the vale o^ the Dee, erected 
1815. 

PONTIUS Pilate. See Pilate. 

PONTOPPIDAN, Bishop, author of 
•' Origines Haymenses," died 1764. 

PONZA, island, Mediterranean, be- 
longing to the Pontian group, kingdom 
of Naples, has a harbour defended by 
batteries, but was taken by the British 
in 1813. 

POOLE, Matthew, a learned bibli- 
cal writer, was born at York in 1624. 
He succeeded to the rectory of St. Mi- 
chael de Quern, in London, about 1648, 
but in 1662 he was ejected from his 
living for nonconformity. In 1669, 
the first two volumes of his Synopsis, 
were published in London, and these 
were afterwards followed by three others. 
Besides this great work, Poole pubhshed 
several other pieces. He died in 1679- 

POONA, city, Hindoostan, province 
Aurungabad, formerly capital of the 
Mahratta empire. In 1802, a treaty of 
alliance was ratified between the peshwa 
and the British, and the connection was 
kept up for nearly 1 5 years ; but in 1 8 1 9, 
the peshwa was obliged to resign his 
office, leaving the British in quiet posses- 
sion of the western Mahratta empire. 

POOR Laws. Formerly the main- 
tenance of the poor was chiefly an eccle- 
siastical concern, and a fourth part of 
the tithes in eveiy parish was set apart 
for that purpose : hence naturally sprung 
the parochial settlement. But upon 
the total dissolution of the monasteries, 
abundance of statutes were made in the 
reign of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and 
Ehzabeth, for their relief. The statute 
of the 43d of Elizabeth was the basis of 
all the poor laws in England ; yet expe- 
rience has now proved, that it was not 
so salutary as was expected. In the 
year 1744 parliament instituted an in- 
quiry into the amount of the poor-rates, i 
in England and Wales, and again in f 
1783. In the year 1680 the poor rates 
had produced no more than £666,390. 
In 1764 they stood at £1,200,000, and in 
1773 they were estimated at £3,000,000, 



POO 



721 



POP 



and for many years past they have 
amounted to the enormous sum of 
£8,000,000. 

The subject of the poor laws from 
this time frequently employed the at- 
tention of parliament ; numerous com- 
mittees were appointed to investigate 
the subject, and partial amendments 
proposed. At length in 1832, the com- 
mission of poor law inquiry was insti- 
tuted, in March. In that year the 
amount expended for the relief of the 
poor was £7,036,969. 

The Poor Law Amendment Act, 
4 and 5 Will. IV. c. 76, passed Aug. 14, 
1834, was designed as a remedy for the 
evils produced by the previous condition 
of the poor. It empowers his majesty to 
appoint three commissioners to carry the 
act into execution, to be styled "The 
Poor Law Commissioners for England 
and Wales ;" who may sit as a board, 
with power to summon and examine 
witnesses, and call for production of pa- 
pers on oath. Administration of relief 
to the poor to be under control of the 
commissioners, who are to make rules 
and regulations for the management of 
the poor, and administration of the laws 
for their relief, &c., the apprenticing of 
the children, &c., and the direction of 
vestries and parish officers, &c.; and 
the commissioners may suspend or alter 
such rules, but they may not interfere in 
any individual case for the purpose of 
ordering relief. General rules to be sub- 
mitted to the Secretary of State forty 
days before coming into operation. If 
disallowed by the sovereign in council 
during the forty days, not to come into 
operation ; and if disallowed afterwards, 
they are to cease, but without prejudice 
to all under the same previously to such 
disallowance. When a union of parishes 
shall be proposed, commissioners to in- 
quire the expense of the poor belonging 
to each parish for three years preceding ; 
and after the union, the several parishes 
therein shall be assessed to a common 
fund for jjurchasing, buildmg, hiring, or 
providing, altering or enlarging any 
workhouse, &c. Power to commission- 
ers to dissolve, add to, or take from any 
union ; and thereupon to make rules 
adapted to its altered state, &c. LTnions 
are to have guardians elected by a ma- 
jority of the rate-payers, whose number, 
duties, and qualifications are to be fixed 
by the commissioners ; but each parish 
is to have one, and each guardian is to 



be elected annually, but may be re- 
elected. It empowers the commissioners 
to regulate the relief to able-bodied pau- 
pers, and their families out of the work- 
house ; and relief contrary to their re- 
gulations shall be disallowed ; but over- 
seers may delay the operation of such 
regulations, under special circumstances, 
for thirty days, and make report thereof 
to the commissioners, &c. 

Poor Law, Ireland. 2 Victoria, 
c. 56, July 31, 1838, entitled an act for 
the more effectual relief of the destitute 
poor in Ireland, authorises the poor law 
commissioners for England to carry this 
act into execution, and to examine wit- 
nesses, and to call for papers, &c., upon 
oath. Administration of relief to the 
poor shall be under the control of the 
commissioners, who may make and sus- 
pend aud rescind all such orders for the 
government of workhouses, houses of 
industry, and foundling hospitals, and of 
the poor therein, and for the guidance 
and control, appointment and removal 
of the officers thereof, and for the guid- 
ance and control, according to the in- 
tention of this act, of all guardians, 
wardens, and other officers, paid or un- 
paid, acting in the management or relief 
of the destitute poor, and for the keep- 
ing, examining, auditing, and allowing 
or disallowing of accounts, and for the 
making of contracts in all matters re- 
lating to such management or relief, or 
to any expenditure for the relief of the 
destitute poor, and for carrying this act 
into execution in all other respects as 
they shall think proper. One commis- 
sioner to reside in Ireland for the execu- 
tion of this act, when required by the 
secretary of state. 

2 Vic. c. 1, March 15, 1839, amends 
the act of last session, extends the act 
to any place in Ireland, whether known 
as a town land or not ; and by s. 2, 
directs that all cities and towns, &c., 
with a population exceeding 10,000, may 
be constituted electoral divisions, and 
that such electoral divisions, may be 
divided into wards. 

POPE, Alexander, one of the most 
eminent British poets, was born in Lon- 
don, June 1688. When seven or eight 
years old, he became a lover of books, 
and early exhibited a taste for poetry. 
The earliest of his productions was his 
" Ode on Solitude," written before he 
was twelve. His pastorals, begun in 
1704, first introduced him to the wits of 
4 Z 



POP 722 

the time ; among which were Wycherly 
and Welsh. In 1704 he wrote the first 
part of his "Windsor Forest," though 
the whole was not published till 1710. 
In 1708 he wrote the "Essay on Cri- 
ticism/' and in 1712, the "Rape of the 
Lock." The pubhcation of his "Iliad" 
was completed in 1720, and soon after 
his " Odyssey." His " Essay on Man" 
was completed in 1734. He died May 
30, 1744. " Of his intellectual charac- 
ter," says Dr. Johnson, " the consti- 
tuent and fundamental principle was 
good sense, a prompt and intuitive per- 
ception of consonance and propriety. 
He saw immediately, of his own con- 
ceptions, what was to be chosen, and 
what to be rejected ; and, in the works 
of others, what was to be shunned, and 
what copied." 

POPE, Sir Thomas, founder of 
Trinity College, Oxford, born 1 508, died 
1588. 

POPERY, a term frequently applied 
to the doctrines and practices of the 
church of Rome, on account of the su- 
premacy claimed by the bishops of 
Rome. Their power began about 60G, 
when the emperor first confined the 
title to them. It was carried to its 
highest pitch under Gregory VII., and 
his successors from 1013 to 1500. See 
Gregory VII.; Pius VII.; and 
Church of Rome. 

POPULATION of England is taken 
by a census every ten years. See Cen- 
sus. 

Population of England and Wales dur- 
ing the present century. 

Year. No. of persons. 

1801 9,168,000 

1811 10,502,500 

1821 12,218,500 

1831 14,594,500 

Scotland. 

1801 1,652,400 

1811 1,865,900 

1821 2,135,300 

1831 2,365,807 

Ireland. 

1821 6,846,949 

1831 7,767,401 

The Metropolis. 

1801 900,000 

1811 1,050,000 

1821 1,274,800 

1831 1,474,069 

The total population of England, 
Wales, Scotland, and Ireland in 1831, 



POR 

was 24,027,782. Grand total of Great 
Britain, &c., and her Colonies, in the 
year 1832, 138,704,589. 

The population of the world is esti- 
mated (by Balbi 1826) as follows : — 

Europe 227,700,000 

Asia 390,000,000 

Africa 60,000,000 

America 39,000,000 

Oceanica 20,300,000 

PORCELAIN. See China Ware. 
PORLIER, Juan Diez, Spanish 
general, having been condemned to a 
year's imprisonment in the castle of 
Antonio, by Ferdinand VII., revolted, 
and entered Corunna with an armed 
force, Sept. 18, 1815. Apprehended by 
treachery, Sept. 22. Tried by court- 
martial, and suiFered death by the cord, 
Oct. 3, following. 

PORPHYRY, or Porphyrius, a 
celebrated Platonic philosopher, and 
an inveterate enemy to the christian 
faith, was born at Tyre, a.d. 233, in the 
reign of Alexander Severus. His trea- 
tises against Christianity are now lost. 
Many of them were extant in the fifth 
century, and were known to Jerome, 
who made large extracts from them. 
Porphyry died at Rome, in the reign of 
Dioclesian, about a.d. 303. 

PORSON, Richard, an eminent 
scholar, was born Dec. 25, 1759. He 
was sent to Eton in 1774, where he dis- 
played great superiority of intellect, and 
facility in the acquirement of his lessons. 
About the close of the year 1777 he was 
entered at Trinity college, Cambridge, 
and in every branch of study to which 
he applied, his progress was so rapid as 
to astonish every observer. In 1791 he 
was elected Greek professor at Cam- 
bridge, by a unanimous vote of the 
seven electors. In 1793 he published a 
beautiful edition of Heyne's Virgil, to 
which he prefixed a short preface. On 
the establishment of the London Insti- 
tution he was elected the principal li- 
brarian. He died Sept., 1808, in his 49th 
year. " Professor Porson is generally 
allowed to have been the first Greek 
scholar of the age in which he lived. 
Few, if any, even among those familiar 
with literary pursuits, combined so much 
solidity of judgment, with acuteness in 
discovering the corruption of a text, and 
at the same time restoring the true 
reading." 

PORTA, Baptista Della, inventor 
of the camera obscura, died 1515. 



POR 



723 



POR 



PORT-AU-PRINCE, the capital of 
Hayti, or St. Domingo, was founded 
in 1749 ; since which, with few inter- 
vals, it has been the capital of French 
St. Domingo, as it is now of the entire 
island. 

PORT EssiNGTON, a port and ter- 
ritory of North Australia, situated on the 
north side of the Cobourg Peninsula. 
It was examined in the recent survey of 
Major Campbell, formerly commandant 
of Melville Island ; also by Captain King 
in 1818, and named by him after Vice- 
Admiral Sir William Essington. There 
is no harbour yet known (Port Jackson 
excepted) to be compared to it in the 
whole extent of Australia, and it may be 
entered in safety, as well during the 
night as by day. 

PORT Royal, seaport town, island 
of Jamaica, was destroyed by an earth- 
quake, June 7, 1692; by a fire in 1703 
and by a hurricane, Aug. 28, 1722 
again by storm, Oct. 20, 1744 and 1784 
by a fire, July 13, 1815. 
' PORTER, Maria Ann, the novelist, 
died 1832. 

PORTEUS, Beilby, a distinguished 
prelate of the church of England, was 
born at York in 1731. He entered at 
Christ's College, Cambridge, where, in 
1752, he was admitted to the degree of 
bachelor of arts. His earliest prose pub- 
lication was a sermon preached before 
the university of Cambridge in 1761, 
entitled " The Character of David, king 
of Israel, impartially stated," to which 
the future fortunes of Mr. Porteus may 
be attributed, for it obtained for him the 
patronage of Dr. Thomas Seeker, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, He, on every 
occasion, pleaded the cause of the Negro 
slaves, was a warm friend to the instruc- 
tion of the poor, and everywhere encou- 
raged the establishment of Sunday- 
schools. Upon the death of Bishop 
Lowth in 1787, Dr. Porteus was trans- 
lated from the see of Chester to that of 
London. He died in May, 1808, in his 
78th year. 

PORTEUS, Captain, whose death 
is known in Scottish history as forming 
the foundation of Scott's tale, " The 
Heart of Midlothian." While attending 
an execution at Edinburgh, apprehending 
a rescue, he ordered the soldiers to fire, 
April 14, 1736; was accused of murder, 
and convicted, but respited by Queen 
Caroline, June 22 ; was put to death by 
the mob at Edinburgh, Sept. 7- 



PORTLAND Isle, nearly opposite 
Weymouth, noted in history as the scene 
of several important transactions. In 
787 a party of the Danes landed here, 
and put to death the governor, Gerela. 
In 1052 it was again seized upon and 
plundered by Godwin, the banished earl 
of Kent. Its castle, in 1142, was taken 
possession of by Robert earl of Glou- 
cester, in the name of the Empress Maud. 
The present fortress was erected by 
Henry VIII. In 1665 the great pier 
was entirely demolished, and the channel 
filled up with rubbish, and nearly 100 
yards of earth slid into the sea. In De- 
cember, 1734, about 150 yards on the 
east side of the isle gave way, and fell 
into the ocean. But the greatest slide 
occurred in 1792, the extent of ground 
that moved being a mile and a quarter 
from north to south, and 600 yards from 
east to west. 

PORTO Bello, seaport town, re- 
public of Columbia. In 1739 Admiral 
Vernon, with six ships, entered the har- 
bour, and made himself master of the 
place, after demolishing the forts ; but 
it has since been strongly fortified. 

PORTO Rico, island. West Indies, 
the smallest of the greater Antilles, has 
suffered much from hurricanes ; those 
of 1742 and 1825 having been particu- 
larly destructive. Since the breaking up 
of the old Spanish colonial system, the 
progress of Porto Rico has been most 
rapid. The population in 1778 was esti- 
mated at 80,650, in 1827 to 288,473, 
of which only 28,408 were slaves. 

PORTO Santo, island, Atlantic 
Ocean, near Madeira, frequented for the 
purpose of repairs and refreshments, by 
ships passing to and from India. It was 
discovered by Vaz and Zarco, Portu- 
guese, in 1418. 

PORTSEA, Island of, in the 10th 
century was part of the royal demesnes. 
It was subsequently transferred to Win- 
chester college, the warden and fellows 
of which still hold much of the land. 

PORTSMOUTH, seaport, county of 
Southampton, an ancient borough; which 
together with the modern town of Port- 
sea, are situated near the south-western 
extremity of the island of Portsea. Ed- 
ward IV. erected fortifications for the 
defence of this port ; Richard III. made 
additions to them ; Edward VI. improved 
the fortifications, and for the defence of 
the harbour erected a town on each side 
of the entrance, from which might be 



POR 



'24 



POR 



extended a vast iron chain, which was 
raised on the appearance of a French 
fleet in the channel during the American 
war. The works for the defence of this 
place were extended and impi'oved by 
Charles II. and his successor, and also 
by William. III. ; but, especially since 
1770, vast additions of various descrip- 
tions have taken place, which have ren- 
dered the united towns of Portsmouth 
and Portsea one of the principal naval 
arsenals of the kingdom. On the plat- 
form battery was erected, in 1823, a se- 
maphore, or improved species of tele- 
graph, by which intelligence may be 
transmitted to the Admiralty, London, 
in three minutes. In the royal Dock- 
yard is the Royal Naval College, founded 
in 1720, for the education of young gen- 
tlemen intended for the sea-service. 

PORTUGAL, the most westerly king- 
dom of Europe ; from its maritime ad- 
vantages was known to the Phoenicians, 
and Carthaginians ; and, following the 
fortunes of Spain, was, after a long strug- 
gle, reduced to a province by Augustus. 
It continued so till the fifth century, 
when it was invaded by tribes of Alani, 
Suevi, and Visigoths. The Moors over- 
ran the greater part of Portugal early in 
the eighth century; but the mountainous 
nature of the country favouring the in- 
habitants, the northern part was soon 
recovered ; and in 1093, Henry duke of 
Burgundy obtained the sovereignty of 
that part of Portugal that was in the 
hands of the Moors. His son and suc- 
cessor assumed the title of king in 1139. 

In the 13th century the Moors were 
expelled from the south of the kingdom ; 
and in the 14th the Portuguese made 
occasional descents upon the coast of 
Africa. In 1497 Vasco de Gama suc- 
ceeded in doubling the Cape of Good 
Hope, and reaching the coast of Ma- 
labar ; and for many years the naviga- 
tion by the Cape was considered the ex- 
clusive property of the Portuguese. Bra- 
zil was colonised about the middle of the 
l"Cth century; and in 1580 Philip II. of 
Spain united the crown of Portugal to 
his own. In 1640, however, a success- 
ful insurrection led to the expulsion of 
the Spaniards, and the crown of Por- 
tugal was conferred on the duke of Bra- 
ganza, in whose family it has remained. 
The following are the kings and queens 
from this time : John IV., whose reign 
began 1640 ; Alphonso 1646 ; Peter II. 
^683; John V, 1706; Joseph 1750; 



Mary, the late queen, 1777 ; John VI. 
1816. 

In 1807 the king, John VI., and the 
royal family, removed to Brazil, a French 
army occupying Lisbon. After the ex- 
pulsion of the French from Portugal, and 
the general pacification of Europe (1814), 
the king returned ; but this country 
continued to be the scene of internal 
discord, chiefly through the machina- 
tions of Don Miguel, the youngest son 
of John VI., who, after the death of his 
father in 1826, assumed the reins of go- 
vernment, which he exercised in the 
most cruel and despotic manner for se- 
veral years. In 1828, the young queen 
Donna Maria, daughter of Don Pedro, 
eldest son of John VI., arrived from 
Brazil. After touching at Gibraltar, the 
royal suite proceeded to England, where 
her majesty was received with the respect 
due to her rank. The year 1830, and 
following year, witnessed in Portugal 
little diminution of the tumult and dis- 
order which had characterised hitherto 
the reign of Miguel. 

In 1832 Don Pedro arrived from Bra- 
zil, and Portugal became the scene of a 
civil war, maintained by two opposite 
parties, at the head of which were the 
two brothers; Don Pedro maintaining 
the right of his daughter, and Miguel 
feebly supporting his usurpation. In 
the beginning of 1833 Don Pedro, as re- 
gent for his daughter, confined himself 
within the walls of Oporto, at the head 
of his army of foreign adventurers and 
volunteers, with whom he was supplied 
from France and Great Britain ; but on 
June 21a large division of the army on 
board the fleet, landed in the Algarves, 
the most southern province of the king- 
dom. The troops were well received by 
the people, and the young queen was 
proclaimed amid loud acclamations. On 
July 24 she was also proclaimed at Lis- 
bon ; and Don Pedro, as regent, saUed 
from Oporto to assume the government. 
Great Britain and France immediately 
acknowledged Donna Maria, who ar- 
rived at Lisbon on September 23. Be- 
fore the month of May, 1834, all Por- 
tugal had submitted to the queen's go- 
vernment. May 26, a convention was 
signed by which Don Miguel was com- 
pelled to leave Portugal within 15 days, 
and engage never to return to any part 
of the Spanish provinces, or the Portu- 
guese dominions ; nor in any way concur 
in disturbing the tranquillity of those 



POS 



7-25 



POS 



kingdoms. On June 2, he went on board 
a British vessel of war, which carried 
him to Genoa, 

The civil war being brought to an end, 
and the authority of the queen acknow- 
ledged all over the kingdom, Don Pedro 
issued a decree, convoking an extraor- 
dinary meeting of the cortes, to assemble 
on Aug. 15, by whom the regency of 
Don Pedro was renewed without restric- 
tion; but he died on Sept. 22. On 
Dec. 1, the marriage of the queen to the 
duke of Leuchtenberg was celebrated at 
Lisbon ] also a bill to exclude Don Mi- 
guel and his descendants from the throne 
of Portugal was passed by the deputies 
without one dissentient voice, and re- 
ceived the sanction of the peers. 

1835. Death of the queen's husband, 
March 28. The queen's second marriage 
with the prince of Saxe-Coburg, Dec.|7. 
In 1836, a military insurrection took place 
at Lisbon, Sept. 9 ; the queen was com- 
pelled to proclaim the constitution of 
1822. Protest of the peers against the 
forced constitution, and attempt at a 
counter-revolution, Nov. 1 ; proposals 
on the part of the court to modify the 
revolutionary charter, which were ac- 
cepted. 

1840. Insurrection of the military at 
Lisbon ; suspension of the laws for pro- 
tecting individual liberty and the liberty 
of the press ; the soldiers suspecting that 
their leaders were about to desert them, 
shot their commander, and laid down 
their arms in submission to the queen's 
forces, at the end of the month. The 
same year disputes with Spain com- 
menced. 

POST, or Post-Office. Regular 
posts or couriers were instituted at a very 
early period, for the safe, regular, and 
speedy transmission of public intelli- 
gence. In Persia, men and horses were 
kept at certain stations along the public 
roads ; and the despatches being given 
to the first courier, were by him carried 
to the second, and so on, with an expe- 
dition that neither snow, nor rain, nor 
heat, nor darkness, could check. A simi- 
lar institution, under the name of Cur- 
sus Publicus, was established at Rome 
by Augustus, and was extended and im- 
proved by his successors. 

Posts were established, for the first 
time in modern Europe, in 1477, by 
Louis XL They were originally intended 
to serve merely as the ancient posts, for 
the conveyance of public despatches, and 



of persons travelling by authority' of 
government. Subsequently private in- 
dividuals were allowed to avail them- 
selves of this institution ; and govern- 
ments, by imposing higher duties or 
rates of postage on the letters and par- 
cels sent through the post-office, have 
rendered it productive of a considerable 
revenue. 

The post-office for the general convey- 
ance of letters, &c., was established in 
England in the reign of Charles I., who 
erected a letter-office for England and 
Scotland in 1635 ; but this extended only 
to a few of the principal roads, and did 
not succeed. At length, an establish- 
ment for the weekly conveyance of letters 
to all parts of the kingdom, was insti- 
tuted in 1649, by Mr. Edward Prideaux, 
attorney-general for the Commonwealth ; 
the immediate consequence of which 
was, a saving to the public of £7000 a- 
year on account of post-masters. In 
1657» the post-office was established 
nearly on its present footing, and the 
rates of postage that were then fixed 
were continued till the reign of Queen 
Anne. 

So late as 1784 mails were conveyed 
either on horseback, or in carts made for 
the purpose, which accomplished the 
journey between London and Bath in 
17 hours. About this time Mr. John 
Palmer, of Bath, comptroller-general of 
the post-office, suggested the plan of 
contracting with the proprietors of the 
coaches for the carriage of the mail ; the 
latter being bound to perform the jour- 
ney in a specified time, and to take a 
fuard with the mail for its protection. 
Ir. Palmer's plan encountered much 
opposition, but was at length carried into 
effect. On August 2, 1784, the first 
mail-coach left London for Bristol ; 
others to different parts followed, and, 
before many days had elapsed, it became 
evident that the plan would be success- 
ful. For the nine years ending 1774, the 
average net amount of revenue had been 
£162,534 65.; for the nine years ending 
1783 (prior to the commencement of the 
new system), the net amount was only 
£149,333 18s., showing a decrease of 
£13,198 135. In 1793 the net revenue 
was £391,508; and in 1797 it was 
£541,833. Up to that period not a 
single robbery of the mails had taken 
place. The number of newspapers car- 
ried free had increased from 2,000,000 
to 8,000,000. The rates of postage were 



POS 



726 



POS 



raised in 1784 to 2d. for the ktters, 
which had been previously id., Zd. for 
those which had been 2a., and so on 
generally through the scale. In the 
same year the Irish post-ofBce was esta- 
blished independent of that of England, 
but the two have been now for several 
years consolidated. 

In 1795 the abuses of franking at- 
tracted the attention of the legislature ; 
franked letters were now only to carry 
one ounce, and they were only to pass 
free when posted within 20 miles of the 
place where the members concerned were 
on that or the preceding day. No more 
than ten were to be sent, or 15 received 
daily. Two years after, by 37 George 
III., the rates of postage were again 
raised, an additional Id. being levied 
upon the lower priced classes of letters, 
2c?. on the higher. In 1799 the post- 
master was empowered to send foreign 
letters by any vessels ; to charge 4c?. 
upon ship letters received, for which the 
shipowner was to be allowed 2c?. In 
1801 the rates of the higher priced classes 
of letters were considerably increased : 
8c?. had been hitherto the maximum, 
even for distances of 500 miles ; the 
maximum was now made Is. In 1805 
an additional] Id. was charged upon all 
classes of letters; and again in 1812 on all 
but the two or three lowest priced clas- 
ses. In 18l6the gross revenue amounted 
to £2,418,741, the charges of collection 
of which amounted to £704,639, leav- 
ing a net revenue of £1,619,196, since 
which time no material increase has 
taken place. The total net produce in 
the year 1838 was £1,659,511. 

Two-Penny Post. The establish- 
ment of a post for the delivery of let- 
ters in London, originally at lo?., arose 
from the enterprise of a private indivi- 
dual (Mr. WilUam Dowckra) about the 
close of the Protectorate. It was ex- 
tended to the towns and villages round 
London on the application of the inha- 
bitants, who voluntarily agreed to pay an 
additional penny on the receipt of their 
letters. The charge of this additional 
penny was not authorised by law till 
1727. The penny post became a two- 
penny post in 1801, under the 41 Geo. 
III. c. 7; and in 1805 the postage on 
letters delivered beyond the limits of the 
city of London, Southwark, and West- 
minster, was advanced to threepence. 
In 1831 the boundaries of the twopenny 
post were extended to include all places 



within three miles of the general post- 
office ; and, in 1833, the boundaries of 
the threepenny post were extended to 
places not exceeding 12 miles. 

General Reduction of Postage. 
A commission of inquiry having been 
appointed at the suggestion of Mr. R. 
Hill and others, supported by numerous 
petitions, they gave their judgment in 
1838, that the evidence taken before 
them proved the high rates of postage to 
be injurious to all classes, produced 
serious injury to commerce, and, conse- 
quently, to national prosperity. This 
gave rise to the act 2 and 3 Victoria, 
c. 52, 1839, for the further regulation 
of the duties on postage, which enacts 
that the rates of inland postage shall be 
reduced to one uniform rate of a penny 
on every letter of a given weight ; and 
that meanwhile a temporary power shall 
be given to the lords of the treasury till 
October 5, 1840. In pursuance of this, 
their lordships directed that all letters 
posted on or after the 5th of December 
1839 should be subject to the following 
regulations : — Letters not exceeding half 
an ounce, one postage, at the former 
rate ; ditto, one ounce, two postages ; 
ditto, two ounces, four postages ; ditto, 
three ounces, six postages ; and so on, 
adding two postages for every ounce up 
to 16 ounces; beyond which no packet 
subject to postage should be received. 

1840. The uniform penny postage 
came into full operation Jan. 10. An 
act was passed, 3 and 4 Vic. c. Q6, Aug. 10, 
entitled " An act for the regulation of 
the duties on postage." By this the 
price of a postage must be prepaid, either 
by money or the use of a stamp, or it 
will be charged double ; and if the weight 
of the letter should exceed the value of 
the stamp attached, the excess will be 
charged double : thus, a letter weighing 
more than half an ounce, but not exceed- 
ing an ounce, if bearing one penny stamp 
only, will be charged an additional two- 
pence on delivery. Stamps, covers, and 
envelopes, are to be purchased at every 
post-office, as well as at most stationers; 
the covers and envelopes at I5C?. each. 
There are also stamps, covers, and en- 
velopes for a doijble postage, price 2c?. 
and 2id. each. Newspapers, to go the 
same day, must be put into the general 
post office before six o'clock ; but those 
put in before half-past seven o'clock will 
go the same evening by paying a half- 
penny with each. The uniform single 



POT 

rate on all letters conveyed by packet 
between the United Kingdom and the 
British colonies and possessions to be 
one shilling, with the exception of let- 
ters between the United Kingdom and 
Malta. 

1841. The penny postage, which it 
was feared would not pay its expenses, 
yielded £441,000 net revenue the first 
year of its establishment. 

New Post-office. This elegant 
building, erected under the direction of 
Mr. Smirke, architect, was 14 years in 
completion, dating from the time of the 
passing of the act in 1815. Much of 
this period was consumed in the pur- 
chase and removal of the houses which 
were crowded upon its site. It is 389 
feet long, 130 wide, and 64 high, stand- 
ing in an inclosed area of irregular 
figure, of very scanty dimensions, at the 
junction of St. Martin's-le-Grand with 
Newgate-street, in a situation as central 
and perhaps as convenient to the metro- 
polis as possible. The edifice is exter- 
nally of Portland stone. The fagade of 
St. Martin's-le-Grand is the only one in 
which there is any architectural display ; 
and this is confined to three porticos of 
the Ionic order, one at each end of four 
columns, and one in the centre of six ; 
the last surmounted by a pediment. 
On the frieze over the column is the 
inscription, " Georgio Quarto Rege, 

MDCCCXXIX." 

POTASSIUM, the metallic base of 
potash, was discovered by Sir Humphry 
Davy in 1807. 

POTATOES, the roots of the sola- 
num tuberosum, of innumerable varie- 
ties. Some authors affirm that this 
plant was first introduced into Europe 
by Sir John Hawkins, in 1545 ; others 
that it was introduced by Sir Francis 
Drake in 1573; but this is supposed to 
have been the sweet potato (convolvulus 
battatas). The common potato was first 
brought here fromVirginia by SirW alter 
Raleigh ; who, on his return homeward 
in the year 1623, stopping at Ireland, 
distributed a number of potatoes in 
that kingdom. From thence they were 
brought into England by a vessel wrecked 
on the western coast, called North Meols, 
in Lancashire. The Royal Society, March 
18, 1662-3, recommended the planting 
of potatoes in all parts of the kingdom to 
prevent famine. Previously to 1684 
they were raised only in the gardens of 
the nobility and gentry ; but in that year 



727 P O U 

they were planted, for the first time, in 
the open fields in Lancashire. 

Potatoes wei-e not raised in Scotland, 
except in gardens, till 1728, when they 
were planted in the open fields by a day 
labourer of the name of Prentice, at Kil- 
syth, who died at Edinburgh in 1792. 
In Sweden, notwithstanding the indefa- 
tigable industry of Linnaeus, the culture 
of potatoes was only introduced in 1764, 
when a royal edict ivas published to en- 
courage their general cultivation. The 
extension of the potato cultivation has 
been particularly rapid during the last 
half century. They were introduced 
into India 60 or 70 years ago, and are 
now successfully cultivated in Bengal, 
and have been introduced into the Mad- 
ras provinces, Java, the Philippines, and 
China. So rapid an extension of the 
taste' for, and the cultivation of, an ex- 
otic, has no parallel in the history of in- 
dustry ; it has had, and will continue to 
have, the most powerful influence on the 
condition of mankind. 

POTOSI, city. South America, ca- 
pital of a department of the same name, 
republic Buenos Ayres, celebrated for its 
silver mines, is situated on a river also of 
the same name. The mines were first dis- 
covered by an Indian peasant in 1545. 
In 1547 was founded the town of Po- 
tosi ; a royal mint was established in 
1562; and in l6ll the town contained 
160,000 inhabitants; but latterly the 
mines are much exhausted, and the po- 
pulation has continually decreased. The 
town was evacuated by the royalists, and 
entered by the Buenos Ayres army, un- 
der General Rondeau, April 5, 1815. 

POTSDAM, town, Prussia, near which 
is the palace of Sans Souci, the favourite 
retreat of Frederick II., three quarters 
of a mile to the north-west. It was en- 
tered without opposition by the French 
on Oct. 24, 1805, soon after the fatal 
battle of Jena. The French carried away 
with exultation the sword and scarf of 
Frederick, which he wore during the 
seven years' war. 

POTTER, John, archbishop, author 
of "Antiquities of Greece," died 1747, 
aged 73. 

POTTER, Robert, the translator of 
"iEschylus," "Euripides," and "So- 
phocles," died Feb. 1804. 

POULTERERS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1503. 

POUSSIN, Nicholas, an eminent 
French painter, was born in 1594, at 



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Andel, in Normandy. After studying 
the paintings of the best masters, he 
went to Rome, where in 1624 he was 
favoured with the patronage of Cardinal 
Barberini, nephew of Pope Urban VIII. 
His fame, and many of his Italian pic- 
tures, having reached his native coun- 
try, Louis XIII. invited him to return, 
with which, after much hesitation, Pous- 
sin comphed, and arrived in France in 
1640. None of his designs have been 
more generally admired than that of the 
" Death of Germanicus. " He returned to 
Rome in 1642, and never more revisited 
his native country. He died in 1695 in 
his 72d year. 

POWELL, George, English actor 
and dramatic writer, died 1714. 

POWIS Castle, Montgomeryshire, 
built 1110. 

PR^MUNIRE, Statutes of, may 
be traced to the time of Edward I., who 
made a law against papal provisions, 
which was the foundation of them all. 
16 Rich. II. c. 15, called by way of emi- 
nence, the statute of praemunire, enacts, 
that whosoever procures at Rome, or 
elsewhere, any translations, processes, 
excommunications, bulls, &c., shall be 
put out of the king's protection, their 
lands and goods forfeited to. the king's 
use. The penalties of a praemunire were 
inflicted on some persons for refusing to 
take the oath of allegiance in the reign of 
Charles II. 

PRAGMATIC Sanction, a rescript 
or answer of a sovereign to some college 
or body of people, upon consulting him 
on some case of their community. The 
term is chiefly used among the modern 
writers, for that famous ordinance of 
Charles VII. of France, drawn up at 
Bourges, and published in 1438, con- 
taining a regulation of ecclesiastical dis- 
cipline, conformable to the canons of the 
council of Basil, since used by the Gal- 
hcan church, as a barrier against the en- 
terprises and encroachments of the court 
of Rome. This statute still held in 
force till the concordat, held between 
Pope Leo X. and Francis I. in 1517, 
when the pragmatic sanction was abo- 
lished. The most recent ordinances of 
this nature is the pragmatic sanction 
of the emperor Charles VI., published 
April 17, 1713, whereby in default of 
male issue, his daughters were to suc- 
ceed in preference to the sons of his 
brother Joseph I. 

PRAGUE, capital of the kingdom of 



Bohemia, is an ancient city, and has 
often been exposed to the calamities of 
war, particularly in the 15th century, 
during the troubles excited by the per- 
secution of the Hussites. In 1620, a 
memorable battle was fought on the 
White mountain, about two miles from 
this city, between the imperialists and 
Bohemians, in which the latter were 
defeated. In 1757 Prague underwent 
a siege and heavy bombardment, until 
relieved by the defeat of the Prussians 
at KoUin. 

PRATT, poet, and author of " Glean- 
ings," &c., born 1749, died Oct. 4, 1814. 

PRAXITELES, a celebrated Greek 
sculptor, who flourished about a.c. 360, 
at the time of the reign of Alexander the 
Great. Many of his performances were 
in the Ceramicus of Athens, among the 
rest of the statues of Harmodius and 
Aristogiton, which Xerxes carried away, 
and Alexander afterwards restored. 

PRESBURG, town, Hungary, was 
declared by a royal decree of 1536 the 
capital of Hungary, but the viceroy and 
palatine reside in ihe more central situa- 
tion of Buda. A treaty was concluded 
here between France and Austria, after 
the short but eventful campaign of 1805. 

PRESBYTERIANISM, the estab- 
hshed discipline of the church of Scot- 
land, was introduced there as soon as it 
began to assume a regular form, about 
1560. See Church of Scotland, 
p. 284. In 1580 the general assembly 
declared diocesan episcopacy to be un- 
scriptural and unlawful. 

The first presbyterian church in Eng- 
land was established at Wandsworth, 
near London, in 1572; and others 
were afterwards formed in neighbouring 
counties. Under the commonwealth in 
1649, the Presb)i;erian government was 
declared by the house to be the estab- 
lished form ; it continued under the 
protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, and 
till after the restoration of Charles II., 
when episcopacy was re-established. 

PRESTER, or Presbyter, John. 
See Abgillus. 

PRETENDER, James Francis Ed- 
ward, eldest son of James II., of Eng- 
land, born June 10, 1688; married, 1719, 
Mary Clementina, grand-daughter of 
John Sobieski, king of Poland, and died 
Jan. 1, 1766. 

PRETENDER, the Young, 
Charles Edward, son of the Pre- 
tender, commonly called the Chevalier 



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St. George, born Nov. 31, 1720, died 
Jan. 31, 1788, without male issue. 

PRICE, Dr. Richard, a distin- 
guished writer and divine, was born at 
Tynton, in Glamorganshire, in 1723. At 
the request of Mr. Pitt, he proposed the 
sinking fund for liquidating the national 
debt, which was established in 1786. 
He died on the 19th of iVIarch 1791. 

PRIDEAUX, Dr. Humphrey, his- 
torian and M'riter, was born at Padstow 
in Cornwall, in 1648. In 17] 5 he pub- 
lished his most celebrated work, entitled 
" The Old and New Testament, con- 
nected in the History of the Jews and 
neighbouring Nations." He died Nov. 1, 
1724, in his 77th year. 

PRIESTLY, Dr. Joseph, a distin- 
guished philosopher and divine, was 
born March 24, 1 733, at Field-head, near 
Leeds. His history of electricity made 
its appearance at Warrington in 1767. 
About ] 768 he was chosen pastor of a 
large and respectable congregation of 
protestant dissenters at Leeds, where his 
attention was first excited to the pro- 
perties of fixed air. The first of Dr. 
Priestly's publications on pneumatic 
chemistry was in 1772, announcing a 
method of impregnating water with fixed 
air. In 1774 he made a full discovery 
of dephlogisticated air, which he pro- 
cured from the oxides of silver and lead. 
In 1778 Dr. Priestly pursued his ex- 
periments on the properties of vegetables 
growing in the light to correct impure 
air, and the use of vegetation in this part 
of the economy of nature. From this 
time till his death he was the author of 
numerous works, both on experimental 
philosophy and in favoiir of the Socinian 
contro^versy. He chose for his abode 
the vicinity of Birmingham, as the re- 
sidence of several men of science, and 
the artificers necessary to the carrying on 
of his experiments. The celebration of 
the anniversary of the destruction of the 
Bastile, by a public dinner on July 14, 
1791, gave the signal for those well- 
known riots in Birmingham, which did 
irreparable injury to the town, and by 
which his house, library, manuscripts, 
and apparatus, were made a prey to the 
flames. In 1794 he took leave of his 
native country, and embarked for North 
America, where he was received with 
great respect. He died at Philadelphia, 
Feb. 6, 1804, in the 7lstyear of his age. 

PRINCE, John, English historian, 
born 1643, died 1723. 



PRINCE Edward's Island, Bri- 
tish North America, formerly called St. 
John's, situated in the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence. It was discovered by Cabot, in 
1497, being the first land seen after his 
departure from Newfoundland. In 1758 
it was taken po£ses.«ion of by the English, 
and at the conclusion of the peace in 
1763, annexed to the governuient of 
Nova Scotia. 

PRINGLE, Thomas, poet and fihilan- 
thropist, editor of "Blackwood's Ma- 
gazine," during the first six months of its 
existence, and for many years secretary 
to the London A nti- Slavery Society, died 
in London, Dec. 5, 1834. 

PRINTING was early practised by 
the Chinese on wooden blocks, but the 
art of printing letter- press from types 
is generally ascribed to John Faust, who 
invented it at Strasburg in 1440. Metal 
types were used by John Gottenburgb, 
of Mentz, 1444, by whom the first book 
was printed, 1450. The first printers 
who settled at Rome were Conrad Sweyn- 
heim and Arnold Pannartz, who intro- 
duced the present Roman type in 1466, 
in Cicero's " Epistolse Familiares." The 
first whole book in Greek was the Gram- 
mar of Constantine Lascaris, in quarto, 
revised by Demetrius Cretensis, and 
printed by Dionysius Palavisinus, at 
Milan, 1476. Venice soon followed the 
example of Milan ; and in 1486 were 
published in that city the Greek Psalter 
and the " Batrachomyomachia." In 
1488 a fine edition of Homer's works at 
Florence, in folio, was printed by Deme- 
trius, a native of Crete. Aldus has been 
erroneously supposed to be the first 
Greek printer ; his characters in general 
were more elegant than any before used, 
and he printed many valuable works, 
but they were subsequent to the pre- 
ceding. He was born in 1445, and died 
in 1515. The art was brought to Eng- 
land by William Caxton, a mercer of 
London, 1472. See Caxton. 

Stereotype. Animpeifect kind was 
invented by J. Vander Mey, who resided 
at Leyden about the end of the l6th 
century, but the invention was dropped, 
the process being too expensive. Stereo- 
type plates, on the present principle, 
were simultaneously invented by Ged 
and Tilloch from 1725 to 1727, after 
which Didot, a French printer, published 
several Latin classics in the same man- 
ner, about 1790, and to whom some of 
his countrymen wished to ascribe the 
5 A 



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730 



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merit of the invention. About 1800 Mr. 
Wilson, a printer in London, engaged 
with Earl Stanhope, for the purpose of 
bringing the stereotype art into general 
practice ; by this means it was intro- 
duced to the two universities, and soon 
became general. A few years after this, 
printing machines were introduced which 
were wrought by steam, and first adopted 
by the Times newspaper, November 28, 
1814. 

PRIOR, Matthew, an eminent En- 
glish poet, was born at London in 1664. 
Upon the revolution, he was brought to 
court by his patron, the earl of Dorset, 
by whose interest he was introduced to 
public employment. In 1690, he was 
made secretary to the earl of Berkley, 
])lenipotentiary to King William and 
Queen Mary at the congress at the 
Hague. Being opposed to the Hano- 
verian succession, in June, 1715, Robert 
Walpole moved the house against him, 
and Prior was ordered into close custody. 
In 1717 he was discharged from his 
confinement, but withdrew from all pub- 
lic employment. He died in 1721 at 
AVimple, then a seat of the earl of Oxford. 
His remains were interred in West- 
minster-abbey, where a monument was 
erected to his memory. 

PRISCIAN, Priscianus, an eminent 
grammarian, was born at Caesarea, and 
taught grammar and rhetoric at Con- 
stantinople, with great reputation, about 
525. The grammatical fame of this 
author may be inferred from the pro- 
verbial phrase of "breaking Priscian's 
head," applied to a violation of grammar. 

PRISONS. The subject of the con- 
struction and management of prisons 
has frequently engaged the attention of 
philanthropists. Howard commenced 
his career of investigation in 1774. See 
Howard. He was followed by Nield, 
one of his majesty's acting justices of 
the peace for the counties of Bucking- 
ham, Kent, and Middlesex, and for the 
city and liberty of Westminster, who 
published in 1812 the result of his ob- 
servations. The cause of the prisoner, 
and of society in general, has also more 
recently found an able advocate in Sir 
F. Buxton, who inspected many of the 
prisons, and gave to the world the result 
in 1818, in his " Inquiry, whether Crime 
and Misery are produced or prevented, 
by our present System of Prison Dis- 
cipline. Illustrated by Descriptions of 
the Borough Compter ; Tothill Fields; 



the gaols of St. Alban's, and at Guilford ; 
the gaol at Bury ; the Maison de Force 
at Ghent ; the Philadelphia Prison ; the 
Penitentiary at Milbank: and by the 
Proceedings of the Ladies' Committee at 
Newgate." Mr. Gurney describes the 
state of the gaols of Scotland, derived 
from the benevolent tour of inspection, 
undertaken by him in the summer of 
1818. About the same time a warm 
interest began to prevail in Ireland, prin- 
cipally through the exertions of the 
Dublin Association for the Improvement 
of Prisons, formed in 1818, under the pa- 
tronage of the Right Hon. Charles Grant. 
The improvement of the prisons and 
of the prison laws, has formed the sub- 
ject of some important legislative enact- 
ments, among which an act extending 
the abolition of gaol-fees to Ireland, is 
of signal importance. The following, 
of more recent date, have also in view 
the benevolent object of ameliorating 
the condition of the prisoners. 

5 and 6 Will. IV. c.38, Aug. 25, 1835, 
"An act for effecting greater uniformity 
of practice in the government of the 
several prisons in England and Wales ; 
and for appointing inspectors of prisons 
in Great Britain." The latter are ap- 
pointed by one of her majesty's principal 
secretaries of state, to inspect all books 
and papers relating to gaols, to make a 
separate report in writing of the state 
thereof, and transmit the same to one 
of the principal secretaries of state ; and 
a copy thereof shall be laid before par- 
liament within 14 days. 

6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 51, Aiigust 31, 
1836, is applied to the prisons of Ireland. 
The grand jury of the county of the city 
of Dublin are empowered to appoint a 
board of superintendence, as in other 
counties, under the 7 Geo. IV. c. 74 ; and 
by sect. 7, the provisions of that act with 
respect to the support of poor prisoners, 
are extended to prisoners confined in 
the Marshalsea, Dublin. 

1 Victoria, c. 76, August 4, 1838, 
enables her majesty in council, and the 
governor and council of any colony, to 
make rules for the government of the 
prisons of each colony in the West 
Indies ; empowers her majesty to appoint 
or to authorise the governor to apj)oint 
inspectors of prisons, who are not to be 
obstructed in their office, under a penalty 
of £20. No person shall be imprisoned 
in any prison which the governor shall 
have certified to be unfit. 



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PRITCHARD, Mrs., celebrated 
actress, died 1769. 

PRIVY-COUNCIL, in ancient times, 
was about 12. Afterwards it increased 
to so large a number, that it was found 
inconvenient for secrecy and despatch; 
and therefore Charles II., in 1679, 
limited it to 30. By the act of settle- 
ment, 12 and 13 Will. Ill .c. 2, it is en- 
acted, that no person born out of the do- 
minions of the crown of England shall 
be capable of being of the privy-council. 
To prevent the inconvenience of having no 
council in being at the accession of a new 
prince, it is enacted, by 6 Ann. c. *] , that 
the privy-council shall continue for six 
months after the demise of the crown, 
unless sooner determined by the suc- 
cessor. 

PROCLUS,theplatonist,diedA.c.500, 

PROCLUS, the theologian, died a.c. 
445. 

PROCOPIUS, author of the " His- 
tory of the Reign of Justinian," flou- 
rished A.c. 600. 

PROCTUS, Platonic philosopher, 
born 410, died 485. 

PROME, town, kingdom of Ava, on 
the Irawady river, was captured by the 
British in 1825, during the Burmese 
war. On this occasion, the houses and 
property of the natives who had fled 
were taken care of, and proclamations 
issued, inviting them to return ; so that 
it soon recovered from the devastating 
system of the Burmese leaders. 

PROMETHEUS, the son of Japetus, 
supposed to have been the first dis- 
coverer of the art of striking fire by flint 
and steel, which gave rise to the fable of 
his stealing fire from heaven. He flou- 
rished about A.c. 1687. 

PROMISSORY Notes, subject in 
general to the same regulations as bills 
of exchange. See Bills. 

PRONY, Baron De, one of the most 
distinguished engineers of France ; and 
one of the most voluminous writers of 
the present age, generally upon mathe- 
matical and other subjects connected with 
his professional pursuits. He died 
1839- 

PROPAGATION of the Gospel, 
society for. See Missions, p. 653. 

PROPERTIUS, author of "Elegies," 
died A.c. 16. 

PROPERTYTax. See Income Tax. 

PROPYLEUM,at Athens, built a.c. 
432. 

PROTAGORAS, Greek sophist, origi- 



nally a porter, born at Abdera, flourished 
A.c 620. 

PROTECTORATE. Tiiat of the 
earl of Pembroke began October, 1216, 
at the death of Henry III. ; ended by 
his death the same year. Of the duke 
of Bedford, began 1422 at the death of 
Henry VI. ; ended by his death, Sept. 
1435. Of the duke of Gloucester,, began 
April, 1483, at the death of Edward V. ; 
ended by his assuming the royal dignity, 
June, 1483. Of Somerset, began 1547, 
at the death of Edward VI. ; ended by 
his resignation, 1549. Of Oliver Crom- 
well, began Dec. 1643, at the death of 
Charles I.; ended by his death, 1658. 
Of Richard Cromwell, began 1658 ; 
ended by his resignation, April, 1659. 

PROTESTANTS, a name first given 
in Germany to those who adhered to the 
doctrine of Luther; because, in 1529, 
they protested against a decree of the 
emperor Charles V., and the diet of 
Spires. They were tolerated in Ger- 
piany 1624 ; in Bohemia 1707 ; in Hun- 
gary 1784; in France 1792; in Portu- 
gal 1801. See Reformation. 

PROTOGENES, a celebrated ancient 
painter, was born at Caunas, a city of 
Caria, subject to the Rhodians, and 
flourished a.c. 300. The finest of his 
pictures was that of Jalisus. This pic- 
ture saved the city of Rhodes when be- 
sieged by Demetrius, king of Macedon ; 
being able to attack it only on that side 
where Protogenes worked, he chose 
rather to abandon his design than to 
destroy so fine a piece. 

PROVIDENCE, or Old Provi- 
dence, island, Carribbean sea. West 
Indies, in former times was much noted 
as the haunt of the Buccaneers, who long 
infested that part of the New World. 
See Buccaneers. In 1664, when the 
Spaniards were in quiet possession of 
the island, Mansvelt, celebrated alike for 
his daring and crimes, took this island, 
considering it well adapted for the head 
quarters of the lawless band of which 
he was the leader. At his death, Morgan 
assumed the command, and took pos- 
session of it in December, 1670. After 
this, little mention is made of the island 
till 1795, when a few families from 
Blewfields, on the Mosquito coast, set- 
tled, by permission of the Spaniards. 
From this time it remained quite tranquil, 
until the arrival of an adventurer named 
Aurey in 1817-18 ; when the South 
American colonies, separating from the 



PRU 



732 



PRU 



mother country, presenteLl an opening 
for privateering, he established a go- 
vernment, repaired the principal fort, 
and his vessels, commandel by adven- 
turers like himself, annoyed the Spanish 
trade very successfully. At his death in 
1821-2, the privateers dispersed, and the 
island resumed its present quiet state 
under the republic of Granada. It was 
examined at the government survey of 
the eastern coast of Central America, 
and of the island and quays adjacent, 
under the direction of Captain Owen, in 
1835, when his majesty's schooner. Jack- 
daw, was wrecked on the morning of 
March 11. 

PROVISIONS, Price of, at diffe- 
rent periods, as follows : — A fat o.\ I2d.; 
sheep 4d. ; provender for 20 horses 4(/. ; 
bread for 100 men I2d., 1177- Wheat 
V2d. the quarter; beans and oats 4d., 
1216. Goose 4d. ; lamb at Christmas 
6d., all the rest of the year 4d. ; two pul- 
lets lid., 1299. Wheat 30/. the quarter, 
1315. Wine 20s. the tun, "1316. Barley 
Is. the quarter, 1317. Wheat Is. the 
quarter; malt l6d., 1454. Wheat 3s. 
the bushel, 1486. Wheat 20c?. the bushel, 
1491. Wheat I5s. the quarter, 1527. A 
barrel of beer, with a cask, 6d. ; and four 
great loaves for id., 1553. Wheat 14s. 
the quarter, 1558, and £6 in 1726. Flour 
10s. the bushel, 1596, and 18s. in 1796. 
Living seven times cheajjcr in 1066 ; six 
times cheaper 1381; ten times cheaper in 
1403; four times cheaper in 1440; three 
times and a half cheaper in 1 498 ; near 
five times cheaper in 1500, — than in 1796. 

PRUSSIA, kingdom, Europe. This 
territory was anciently possessed by the 
Venedi, whose kings were descended 
from Athirius, first king of the Heruli, 
on the Baltic, a.c. 320. Tlie Venedi 
were conquered by the Borussi, who in- 
habited the Riphsean mountains; thence 
the country was called Borussia, or 
Prussia, which was subdued by the 
Mercian knights sent by the emperor 
Frederick II., a.d. 1215. 

The royal house of Prussia originally 
held only the office of burg-grave, or 
governor of the castle of Nuremburg. 
This office they found means to render 
hereditary, and to succeed in 1248 to the 
principality of Bayreuth and Anspach. 
One of their number, purchased in 1417 
from the reigning emperor, the marqui- 
sate of Brandenburg, with the rank of 
elector. In 1473 it was agreed that the 
marquisate should remain undivided ; a 



determination which led to the subse- 
quent greatness of the house. 

The Teutonic knights, the masters of 
Prussia Proper, being engaged in a mili- 
tary contest with Poland, Albert, mar- 
grave of Brandenburg, grand-master of 
the order, in 1525 concluded a treaty 
with Poland, by which he obtained East 
Prussia as a hereditary duchy for his 
family. About 1620 a further accession 
was obtained by inheritance, viz. the 
duchy of Cleves, and the counties of 
Mark and Ravensberg. Frederick Wil- 
liam, elector of Brandenburg, adhered 
faithfully to the protestant cause, and at 
the j)eace of Westphalia, in ] 648, ob- 
tained the bishoprics of Minden, Hal- 
berstadt, and Magdeburg. His succes- 
sor, a weak and vain prince, directed all 
his efforts towards obtaining from the 
emperor the royal dignity, in which he 
at last succeeded in 1700, as Frederick I. 
He died in 1713. 

His son Frederick II., surnaraed the 
Great, ascended the throne in 1740; 
he invaded Silesia, and after an eventful 
but in general successful contest, he ob- 
tained, in 1745, the cession of this va- 
luable province ; by which, with pieced- 
ing acquisitions, the kingdom was esta- 
bhshed. In 1756 a coalition was formed 
that threatened the total overthrow of 
the Prussian monarchy. It was then 
that his personal abilities, the discipline 
of his army, and the financial aid of Eng- 
land, were the means of saving his king- 
dom. He died in 1786. His successor, 
Frederick William II., sometimes called 
Frederick IV., in the part which he took 
in the war with the French republic, by 
no means added to the reputation of the 
Prussian arms. 

Frederick William III., the late king, 
came to the crown in 1797, and acted for 
several years in concurrence wiih France. 
At last, in 1806, war against France was 
determined on, and the army led to the 
western frontier. The result was the 
battle of Jena ; the cajjture, in succes- 
sion, of almost ev^ery corps of the army; 
the loss of the capital ; and, soon after, 
of every province of the kingdom except 
Prussia Proper. The peace of Tilsit re- 
stored little more than half the Prussian 
states ; during six years all the cala- 
mities attendant on foreign occupation 
were accumulated on this kingdom. This 
roused them to arms in 1813 ; their cou- 
rage was displayed in Silesia, next in 
Saxony, and finally in Champagne. By 



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the peace of Paris in 1814, confirmed by 
that of 1815, the territory and powers of 
this kingdom were consolidated. Al- 
though Prussia lost some of its acquisi- 
tions in Poland, &c., it received an ample 
equivalent in Saxony and the Lower 
Rhine, &c. Frederick Wilham III. died 
June7,1840. SeeFREDERiCKWiLLiAM. 

PRUSSIAN Blue, a well known 
blue pigment obtained from a combina- 
tion of prussic acid with iron. It was 
discovered by accident in 1709. Berg- 
man, in 1775, first ascertained that this 
colouring matter was a peculiar acid ; 
but its nature and composition were first 
explained by Scheele in 1782. 

1 839. The gold isis medal was awarded 
by the Society of Arts to Mr. Lewis 
Thompson, of Lambeth, for an improved 
mode of manufacturing Prussian blue. 
In the usual mode the requisite carbon 
and nitrogen are obtained by decompos- 
ing animal matter in contact with potash. 
Mr. Thompson conceiving that tlie at- 
mosphere might be made to supply, in a 
very economical manner, the requisite 
nitrogen, if allowed to act on a mixture 
of carbon and potash under favourable 
circuijistances ; the experiment proved 
correct, for the carbonaceous matter em- 
ployed may be worked over again many 
times, and is even improved by each ope- 
ration. By the former method six ounces 
of pearlash, containing 45 per cent, of 
alkali, yielded only 295 grains of Prus- 
sian blue ; while one pound of the same 
pearlash, by his method, yielded 1355 
grains. 

PRYNNE, William, a learned En- 
glish lawyer and antiquarian, distin- 
guished in the civil commotions imder 
Charles I., was born at Swanswick in 
Somersetshire in I6OO. In 1632 he 
published an elaborate work, entitled 
" Histrio-matrix." This book contain- 
ing some reflections that oflfended the 
court, he was sentenced by the star- 
chamber to pay a fine of £5000, to stand 
in the pillory, to lose his ears, and to 
perpetual imprisonment. During his 
confinement, he wrote several other 
books; particularly, in 1636, one en- 
titled "News from Ipswich," which, 
reflecting severely on the bishops, he 
■was again sentenced by the star-chamber 
to another fine of £5000, to lose the 
remainder of his ears in the pillory, and 
to be branded on both cheeks with S. L. 
for seditious libeller. In 1640, being 
set at liberty by the house of commons, 



he entered London in a kind of triumph, 
and was elected into parliament for New- 
port in Cornwall. Notwithstanding the ill 
usage he had received, when parliament 
had become victorious in the civil wars, 
and in its turn became arbitrary, he used 
all his influence to promote an accommo- 
dation with the king. Being restored to 
his seat after Cromwell's death,, he as- 
sisted in promoting the restoration. He 
died in 1669. 

PSALMODY, Metrical, first intro- 
duced by John Huss, Jerome of Prague, 
the Bohemian brethren, and Martin 
Luther, and published by them in the 
German language for the use of the 
common people. Clement Marot, about 
1540, versified and dedicated to Francis 
I., of France, about 50 of the Psalms. 
Theodore Beza versified the rest shortly 
after, and the whole 150 were pub- 
lished at Strasburg in 1545. The first 
edition of Sternhold's, consisting of 51 
Psalms, was printed in 1549, the second 
in 1553. The entire version of the 
Psalms was published in 1562. 

PTOLEMY, Claudius, Egyptian 
astronomer, author of the Ptolemaic 
system of the universe, was born at Pe- 
lusium, about a.d. 70. In his system 
he has adopted and exhibited the ancient 
notion, which placed the earth in the 
centre of the universe. He was also the 
author of a " Canon of the ancient 
Kings." See Canon. 

PTOLEMY Lagus, or Soter, king 
of Egypt, was brought up to arms, and 
became one of the most celebrated 
officers of Alexander the Great, whom 
he accompanied in all his expeditions. 
He died a. c. 283, aged 84. 

PTOLEMY Philadelphus, son 
of the preceding, began to reign A.c. 
281. He estabhshed and augmented 
the celebrated Alexandrian library, and 
granted considerable privileges to the 
Jews, from whom he obtained a copy of 
the Old Testament, which he caused to 
be translated into Greek, and deposited 
in his library. This is supposed to have 
been the version called the Septuagint. 
He died a.c. 246. 

PUFFENDORF, Samuel, a learned 
historian, was born in 1631 at Fleh, a 
village in Upper Saxony. In I66O he 
published his "Elementa Jurispruden- 
tiae Universalis," which recommended 
him to the elector Palatine, who invited 
him to the university of Heidelberg, 
where he founded a professorship of the 



PYE 



734 



P Y T 



law of nature and nations. He died in 
1694- His works are numerous. 

PUGIN, Augustus, well known to 
all admirers of the fine arts by his nu- 
merous publications relative to architec- 
ture. He was a native of France, but 
may be considered an Enjrlish artist, 
having resided in this country upwards 
of 40 years. He died Dec. 19, 1832. 

PULTAWA. See Poltava. 

PUMP. See Air Pump. Vitruvius 
ascribes the invention of the common 
water pump to Ctesibius, an Athenian 
mathematician, who flourished at Alex- 
andria, A.c. 135. 

PUNIC Wars. See Carthage. 

PUNISHMENTS. See Capital 
Punishments, and Criminal Law. 

PURCELL, Henry, an Enghsh mu- 
sician, was the son of Henry and nephew 
of Thomas Purcell, both musicians, and 
gentlemen of the chapel royal, at the 
restoration of Charles II. He sung in 
the king's chapel till he was 1(5 or 17 
years of age ; after this, it appears he 
had a few lessons in composition from 
Dr. Blow. At 24 he was advanced to 
the place of organist of the royal chapel. 
He produced many admirable composi- 
tions for the church and chapel of which 
he was organist. He was also early in 
life solicited to compose for the stage, 
and chamber, in both which undertak- 
ings he was greatly superior to all his 
predecessors. He died in 1695, in the 
37th year of his age, and was interred 
in Westminster-abbey. 

PURCHAS, S., author of "Collec- 
tion of Voyages," born 1577, died 1628. 

PURGATORY, in the Romish church, 
was partly introduced towards the close 
of the fifth century, and by Gregory the 
Great in the si.\'th century ; but it was 
not positively confirmed till al)OUt 1 140, 
nor made an article of faith till the 
council of Trent. 

PURIFICATION OF the Virgin, 
festival of, appointed 542. 

PURITAN, an appellation given in 
the primitive church to the Novatian 
schismatics, because they would never 
admit to communion any one who, from 
dread of death, had apostatized from the 
faith. About 1556 it was applied to the 
nonconformists of Great Britain. See 
Nonconformists. 

PURPLE. See Dying. 

PUTNEY Bridge, budt 1726. 

PYE, Henry James, poet laureate, 
died August 11, 1813. 



PYM, John, lawyer, born 1584, died 
1643. 

PYRAMIDS OF Egypt. According 
to Herodotus and Diodorus, the first 
pyramid was erected by Clieops, or 
Chemmis, a king of Egypt, who em- 
ployed 360,000 men for 20 years in the 
structure. Cephren,brother and successor 
to the former king, is said to have been 
the founder of the second pyramid ; 
and the third is said to have been built 
by Mycerinus, the son of Chemmis, ac- 
cording to Diodorus, but according to 
Herodotus, of Cheops. Greaves places 
the third king who erected those pyra- 
mids in the twentieth dynasty ; Cheops 
having begun his reign a. c. 1266. Ce- 
phren, the builder of the second, reigned 
56 years ; and Mycerinus, the builder 
of the third, seven years. 

The opening of the first pyramid has 
been long ago effected ; it is ascribed to 
the caliph Mohammed, in the ninth 
century. The second pyramid, or that 
of Cephrenes, had defied all attempts to 
enter it, till the enterprise was recently 
achieved by Belzoni about 1818. 

PYRENEES, a range of lofty moun- 
tains, south of Europe, which flivide 
France from Spain. The passages over 
them are not so diflScult as those over 
the Alps ; one of the most frequented 
is that from Pampeluna to St. Jean de 
Pied de Port, by which the French, 
under marshal Soult, marched to attack 
the British in 1813. 

PYRRHO, a Greek philosjpher, 
born atElea in Peloponnesus, about a.c. 
300. A great part of his life was spent 
in solitude ; and he always preserved a 
settled composure of countenance, un- 
disturbed by fear, joy, or grief. He 
died about a.c. 288. 

PYRRHUS, king of Epirus, began to 
reign A.c. 295; lost 20,000 men in battle 
with the Romans, a.c. 280; he was 
killed by a woman's throwing a tile at 
him A.c. 272. 

PYTHAGORAS, a celebrated philo- 
sopher of antiquity, was the son of a 
lapidary at Samos, and flourished about 
AC. 500. He first distinguished him- 
self in Greece at the Olympic gatnes, 
where, besides gaining the prize, he is 
said to have excited the highest admira- 
tion by the elegance and dignity of his 
person, and the brilliancy of his un- 
derstanding. He spent many years 
in travelling in search of knowledge. 
He visited Egypt, where he became 



QUA 



acquainted with geometry and the solar 
system ; India, where he acquired a 
knowledge of the philosophy and litera- 
ture of the East ; and Crete, where he 
was initiated into the sacred mysteries 
of Greece. Having thus added to ^his 
stores of learning, he returned toSamos, 
and instituted a school of philosophy. 
About the beginning of the 59th Olym- 
piad he passed over into Italy, and at- 
tempted to establish his school among 
the colonies of Magna Graecia. His 



735 QUA 

doctrine raised a powerful party against 
him, which obliged him to retire to Me- 
tapontum, and take refuge in the temple 
of the Muses, where he died about a.c. 
497. 

PYTHIAN Games, instituted a. c. 
1263; revived 591. They were cele- 
brated in honour of the conquest of 
Apollo over Python, a monstrous ser- 
pent, and were observed at first, every 
ninth year, but afterwards every fifth : 
the reward was a laurel wreath. 



Q. 



QUADRANT, an optical instrument, 
used in astronomy, navigation, &c., said 
to have been in use before the Christian 
era. Among the more modern improve- 
ments are the following : — Davis's qua- 
drant, commonly called the back-staff, 
invented about 1590, by Captain John 
Davis, and formerly much used at sea 
for taking the sun's^altitude and zenith 
distance. Gunter's quadrant, invented 
about I6l7, by the Rev. Edmund 
Gunter, B.D., professor of astronomy at 
Gresham College. Hadley's quadrant, 
now universally preferred to any other, 
for making nautical and other observa- 
tions, ascribed to John Hadley, Esq., 
who, having laid down the principles of 
its construction in a clear and vivid 
manner, first introduced it to public 
notice in the Philosophical Transactions 
for 1731. 

QUADRUPLE Alliance, the 
treaty of alliance between Great Britain 
France, and the Emperor, signed at 
London, August 2, 1718. This alliance, 
on the accession of the states of Holland, 
was for the purpose of guaranteeing the 
succession of the reigning families of 
Great Britain and France, and settling 
the partition of the Spanish monarchy. 

QUAKERS, a peculiar society of 
Christians, who received this denomina- 
tion in 1650, from Gervas Bennet, a 
justice of peace in Derbyshire, partly on 
account of the exhortation addressed to 
this magistrate by Fox and his com- 
panions, who, when they were called 
before him, desired him with a loud 
voice and a vehement emotion of body, 
" to tremble at the word of the Lord." 
In 1660 the quakers held their first 
general meeting, for the care of their 
poor, and other concerns of the society. 



at Skipton in Yorkshire ; within a few 
years after which, meetings for discipline 
were established throughout England 
and Ireland, which have been continued 
annually. About the above period the 
society received a considerable accession 
of respectability by the conversion of 
Wilham Penn and Robert Barclay. 

The quakers, as a body, have been 
long relieved from actual persecution, 
though they are still involved by their 
principles in occasional trouble as indi- 
viduals. Their aflfirmation was first ac- 
cepted as an oath 1702 ; they were first 
admitted to a seat in parliament Feb. 14, 
1833 

QUALIFICATION for members of 
parliament, act passed 1711 ; for justices 
of the peace, act passed 1732. 

QUARANTINE, a regulation by 
which all communication with indivi- 
duals, ships, or goods, arriving from 
places infected with the plague, or other 
contagious disease, is interdicted for a 
certain definite period. The regulations 
upon this subject were issued for the first 
time at Venice about 1484 ; they have 
since been gradually adopted in other 
countries : their introduction into Eng- 
land was comparatively late. Various 
preventive regulations had been previ- 
ously enacted ; but quarantine was not 
systematically enforced till after the alarm 
occasioned by the dreadful plague at 
Marseilles in 1720. The existing qua- 
rantine regulations are embodied in the 
act 6 Geo. IV. c. 78, and the different 
orders in council issued under its autho- 
rity. 

QUARLES, Francis, an English 
poet, was born in 1592, educated at Cam- 
bridge, and became a member of Lin- 
coln's Inn. He obtained the place of 



RAB 



736 



RAB 



cup-bearer to the queen of Bohemia, 
daughter to James 1. ; and upon his re- 
turn he was appointed secretary to arch- 
bishop Usher, in Ireland, from which 
country he made his escape on the break- 
ing out of the revolution in 1641, after 
the loss of his property. He died in 1644, 
aged 52. 

QUEBEC, city, British North Ame- 
rica, capital of Lower Canada. A settle- 
ment was formed here in 1608 bj the 
French. Its progress was slow, owing to 
the liostihty of the Indians. In 1759 
Quebec was taken by the English, under 
the command of the brave General Wolfe, 
who fell in the engagement; in 1763 it 
was ceded, with the rest of Canada, to 
the conqvierors. In 1775 it was attacked 
by the Americans, under General Mont- 
gomer)', who ,was slain, and his army re- 
pulsed. The castle of St. Louis, situated 
on the summit of the roclc, was burnt 
down in 1834. 

QUEEN'S To\VN,Conada,takenbythe 
troops of the United Slates, Oct. 13, 1812. 
Re-taken by the British the same day. 

QUESNE, Abraham Du, admiral of 
the naval forces of France, and one of the 
greatest men of the I7th century, was 
descended from an ancient family in 
Normandy, and born 1610/ In 1682 he 
was sent with a fleet to awe the piratical 
states of Barbary ; and in the following 
year he sailed to Algiers, and bombarded 
the town. He struck equal terror in the 
states of Tripoli and Tunis, which were 
likewise compelled to jjurchase peace 
with France by submission. He died in 
1688. 

QUESNOY surrendered to Prince 
Frederick, of the Netherlands, June 29, 
1815. 

QUEVEDO DeVillegas, Fran- 
cisco, a celebrated Spanish poet, was 
born at Madrid in 1570. He composed 
several treatises on rebgious subjects, 
and translated some authors into Spa- 
nish. He died in 1644, aged 74. 



QUICK, John, the celebrated come- 
dian, born in 1748. Before he was 18 
he performed Hamlet, Romeo, Rich- 
ard, George Barnwell, Jaffier, Tancred, 
and many other characters, in the high- 
est walk of tragedy. In 1798 he quitted 
the stage, after 36 years of its toils ; and 
e.xcepting a few nights at the Lyceum,, 
after the destruction of Covent Garden 
Theatre, he did not again act. He died 
April 4, 1831. 

QUIN, James, a favourite performer 
on the English stage, was born at Lon- 
don, in 1693, was admitted into Drury 
Lane company in 1715. In 1720 he dis- 
played his comic powers in the character 
of FalstafF. He continued a performer 
at Lincoln's Inn Theatre, where he had 
engaged himself till 1748, when he re- 
tired to Bath, where he died in 1766. 

QUINCY, Dr. John, eminent En- 
glish physician, died 1723. 

QUINCY, Le Marcq, French engi- 
neer and military author, died 1720. 

QUINTILIANUS, Marcus Fa- 
Bius, a celebrated orator among the 
Romans, was educated under Domitius 
Afer, who died a.d. 59. He was ap- 
pointed preceptor to the young princes 
whom Domitian destined for his succes- 
sors on the throne. He died about the 
year 95. 

QUIRINI, CARDINAL, the learned 
traveller, died 1755. 

QUITO, city. South America, repub- 
lic Columbia, was erected into a bishop- 
ric in 1545. Earthquakes are not un- 
common, and are usually violent ; that 
of 1775 was very destructive. The great 
earthquake on Feb. 4, 1797, changed the 
face of the whole province, and in one 
instant destroyed 35,000, or 40,000 per- 
sons. An insurrection took place here, 
May 1810, which was suppressed, and 
39 persons j)unished with death ; among 
whom were four marquesses and counts, 
eight ecclesiastics, 14 lawyers, and the 
president. 



R. 



RAAB, city, Hungary, capitulated to 
the French, June 24, 1S09. 

RABELAIS, Francis, a celebrated 
French writer, was born at Chinon in 
Touraine about 1483. He went to 
Rome, in quality of physician to Cardi- 



nal John Du Bellay, archbishop of Paris, 
where his wit much interested the pope 
and cardinals. In 1537 he took his 
doctor's degree in physic at Montpelier. 
He published several works, but his 
chief performance is " A History of Gur- 



RAD 



737 



RAI 



gantua and Pantagruel," being asevere 
satire upon the monks. He died in 1553. 

RACES, either on foot, on horseback, 
or in chariots, &c., were among the 
ancient Grecian games. Horse-races 
were known in England in very early 
times. In the days of Henry n.,the citi- 
zens of London took great delight in the 
diversion; and in the reign of Queen 
Elizabeth they were carried to such 
excess as to injure the fortunes of the 
nobility. In 1607 there were races near 
York, and the prize was a little golden 
bell. Newmarket was also then a place 
for the same purpose, though it was first 
used for hunting. Racing was revived 
soon after the Restoration, and much 
encouraged by Charles II., who ap- 
pointed races for his own amusement at 
Dachet Mead. Newmarket now became 
the principal place. The king attended 
in person, and gave a silver bowl or 
cup, value 100 guineas. Instead of the 
cup or bowl, the royal gift is now 100 
guineas. Races are regulated by 13 
Geo. II. c. 19, and 18 Geo. II. c. 34. 

RACINE, John, one of the most dis- 
tinguished French poets, was born in 
1639. In 1664 he brought upon the 
stage his first tragedy, entitled "La 
Thebaide, ou les Freres Ennemis." Be- 
tween the years 1670 and 1678 he pub- 
lished several plays. His popularity and 
reputation excited a very strong party 
against him : and he underwent much 
chagrin from the artifices of his enemies. 
Having drawn up a memorial upon the 
miseries of the people, it so displeased 
the king, Louis XIV., that he excluded 
him from the court ; this so preyed upon 
his mind, that he fell into a state of me- 
lancholy, of which he died 1699, aged 60. 

RADCLIFFE, Dr. John, an eminent 
physician, was born at Wakefield in 
Yorkshire, in 1650. He completed his 
studies at University College, Oxford, 
and took the degree of master of arts in 
1672. In 1675 he proceeded bachelor of 
medicine, and immediately began to 
practise at Oxford. He continued there, 
increasing alike in wealth and reputa- 
tion, until 1684, when, having previously 
taken the degree of doctor, he removed 
to London. In 1687 the princess Anne 
of Denmark, made him her physician. 
In 1714 he incurred some censure for 
his treatment of Queen Mary, who died of 
the small-pox ; and he soon after lost the 
favour of the princess Anne. He died 
at Carshalton, Nov. 1, the same year. 



Dr. RadclifFe has perpetuated his 
memory by founding a library, whidh 
bears his name, at Oxford. This build- 
ing was finished in 1747, and is a great 
ornament to the university. From 
the surplus of the same funds, the trus- 
tees erected and furnished the public 
infirmary, Oxford, called "The Rad- 
clifFe Infirmary." Although his manners 
and conversation were marked by con- 
siderable eccentricity. Dr. Radchffe was 
the most celebrated physician of his time, 
and was generally considered the most 
successful practitioner. 

RADCLIFFE, Mrs. Anne, known 
and admired by the world as the able 
authoress of some of the best romances 
that have ever appeared in the English 
language, was born in 1761. Her prin- 
cipal production was the famous " Mys- 
teries of Udolpho," published in 1793, 
for which the bookseller gave her £1000. 
She died Feb. 7, 1823. 

RADSTADT. See Rastadt. 

RAGUSA, capital of Dalmatia, was 
founded in the seventh century, and, 
after being for some time subject to the 
Roman and Greek empire, became inde- 
pendent, and continued so till Buona- 
parte made Marshal Marmont Duke of 



RAIKES, Robert, inventor of the 
Sunday-school system, died 1811, aged 
76. See Schools, 

RAILWAYS, or Railroads. The 
earliest account of their introduction is 
about 1670, when they were made use 
of at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Early in 
the present century, there were nume- 
rous railways in Derbyshire, Shropshire, 
Lancashire, and many other parts of the 
country. The first railway act which 
received the sanction of parliament, was 
in 1801, for the incorporation of the 
Surrey iron railway company. The 
application of steam, as a propelling 
force, as a further improvement, was 
first brought into full operation in the 
railway, from Liverpool to Manchester, 
and from the former place to Birming- 
ham. About 1822 a number of gentle- 
men in Liverpool and Manchester en- 
tered into a subscription for the purpose. 
The plan was suffered to sleep until the 
year 1824, when it was renewed with 
increased activity and spirit, and the 
railway was opened Sept. 15, 1830. The 
Liverpool and Birmingham railway was 
projected at a public meeting held at 
Birmingham in August, 1824. 

5 B 



RAI 



738 



RAI 



1341. Since the opening of the Liver- 
pool and Manchester railway, upwards 
of 1100 miles of railway for the transit 
of passengers and merchandize, by means 
of steam power, have been constructed 
and brought into operation in this coun- 
try. Nearly the same length is now in 
progress : the investment of capital 
in these improvements amounting to 
£60,000,000. On the chain of railroads 
connecting London with Birmingham, 
Liverpool, Manchester, and Preston, 
which, with the branch to Aylesbury, 
amounts to an aggregate length of 
260 miles, the total receipts from about 
July 1, 1839, to June 30, 1840, were 
£1,467,562 19*. 8f/.s the expenses during 
the same period, including interest on bor- 



rowed money, being £820,893 19*. lOrf., 
or nearly 56 per cent. This gives an 
average daily income of £4020 14s. 4^d., 
or £15 9s. 3zd. per mile. By the recent 
railway act, 3 and 4 Vic. c. 97, Aug. 10, 
1840, two months' notice must be given 
to the Board of Trade before a railway, 
or any part of one, can be opened, in or- 
der that it may be carefully examined. 
Returns of traffic and other matters are 
also required by this act, which will en- 
sure a most important mass of materials 
for any future account. 

The principal railways in GreatBritain 
and Ireland, in which steam power is em- 
ployed, with the time of the incorporation 
of the companies, their, length, &c., are 
as follow : — 



Liverpool & Man- ' 

Chester 

Dundee and New- ' 

tyle 

Garnkirk & Glas- ' 

gow 

Johnstone & Ar- 

drossan 

Clarence ■ 



Name. 



Llanelly 

Kenyon and Leith Y 
Junction J 

Warrington and "1 
Newton / 

Newcastle upon \ 
Tyne& Carlisle/ 

Wisha w and Colt- 



Wigan Branch. . ■ 

Leicester& Swan- 
nington 

Leedp and Selbyj 

St. Helen's andf 
Runcorn Gap J 

Preston &Wigan, 
now N. Union 

Manchester and \ 
Bolton J 

Dublin & Kings- 
town 

Bodmin & Wade- 
bridge 



Date of 


Date 


Length 


earliest 


of 


of 


Acts. 


opening. 


Miles. 


1826 &"! 

1827 J 


Sept. "1 
1830 J 


31 


1826 &1 
1830 J 


Dec. \ 
1831 / 


lOi 


1826 &■! 

1827 / 


1831 


8J 


1827 &"! 
1840 J 


.. 


22^ 


1828 &\ 

1829 / 


.. 


36 


1828 &"l 
1833 J 


1833 


26 


1829 




n 


1829 &1 

1830 / 


1833 


4^ 


1829&\ 
1832 / 


1839 


61 


1829 & I 
1834 J 


.. 


13 


1830 &■! 
1834 J 


Sept. \ 
1832 J 


7 


1830 &\ 
1833 J 


July 1 
1832 / 


16 


1830 &T 
1835 J 


Sept. \ 
1834 J 


20 


1830 &T 
1834 J 


•• 


12 


1831 &~1 
1834 J 


Oct. \ 

1838 J 


15i 


1831 &"1 
J 832 J 


May "I 
1838 / 


10 


1831 &"1 
1834 / 


Dec. "1 
1834 J 


51 


1832 &\ 
1835 / 


1834 


12 



Power usod. 



J Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 
r Locomotive and 
X fixed engines 
J Chiefly locomo- 
\ tive engines. 
f Chiefly locomo- 
\ tive engines, 
f Chiefly locomo- 
\ tive engines, 
f Chiefly locomo- 
1 tive engines. 
/ Locomo. en- \ 
t gines. J 

/Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 
/Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 
r Chiefly loco. 1 
\ engines. J 
/ Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 
/ Chiefly locomo- 
\ tive engines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 
/ Locomotive and 
\ fixed engines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 
/Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
t gines. 
/Locomotive en- 
t gines. 



Remarks. 



Passengers, 
&c. 

Passengers, 
&c. 

Coal & passen- 
gers. 

Coal, passen- 
gers, &c. 

Coal, passen- 
gers, &c. 

Coals & other 
minerals. 

A single track. 

Passengers & 
gen. traffic. 

Passengers, 
&c. 

Minerals. 

Passengers, 

&c. 
Coals, lime, 

pass., &c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
For coals, and 
but few pass. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Minerals, pas- 
sengers, &c. 



RA I 



739 



RAI 



Name. 



Hartlepool -j 

Grand Junction . -! 

London and Bir- \ 
mingham .... J 

London & Green- \ 
wich / 

Durham Junction -| 

Hayle ...» 

London & South "1 
Western J 

Durham and Sun- \ 
derland . . 

London and 
Croydon 

Slamannan -| 

Preston & Wyre V 

Brandling Junc-\ 
tion J 

Paisley and Ren- \ 
frew J 

Great Western. . 

Dundee and Ar- 
broath 



'.} 



Ulster 

Arbroath & For. 

far 

Birmingham and \ 

Derby Junct. . / 

Bristol and Exe- \ 

ter J 

Aylesbury 



Date of 

earliest 

Acts. 



Deptford Pier "1 
Junction .... j 

South Eastern. . -j 

Newcastle-on.Tyne "I 

& NorthShields J 

Cheltenhem and\ 

Gt.Westr.Un.J 

Midland Coun- "I 

ties J 

Hull and Selby.' 

York and North "1 
Midland...... / 

TafFVale / 



1832 &"1 
1834 J 

1833 &1 

1834 j 
1833 &1 

1835 J 

1833 &"1 
1837 J 

1834 &\ 
1837 J 
1834 &\ 

1836 J 
1834 &\ 

1837 J 

1834 &■! 
1837 J 

1835 &\ 

1836 J 
1835 &\ 

1837 J 
1835 &1 

1837 J 

1835 &\ 

1836 / 

1835 { 
1835 

1836 { 

1836 { 

1836&\ 
1840 J 
1836 &1 

1838 J 
1836 &1 

1838 J 

1836 I 

1836 &i 

1839 J 

1836 & 'I 

1837 J 
1836 &1 

1840 j 
1836 & "I 

1838 J 
1836 &1 
1838 J 

1836 I 

1836 & "I 

1837 J 
1836 & 
1837 



Date 
of 

opening. 



1836 

July\ 
1837/ 
Sept. \ 
1838 J 
Dec. 1 
1838 J 

Aug.-l 
1838 J 



May \ 
1840/ 

1836 

June\ 
1839 J 

1840 

July! 
1840/ 
Sept. \ 
1839 J 
Apl. 1 
1837/ 



Apl. 1 
1840/ 
Aug.\ 
1839/ 
Jan. "1 
1839/ 
Aug.! 
1839/ 



June 1 

1839 J 

Not yet 
made 

In pro- L 
gress. / 

June"! 
1839/ 

In pro- L 
gress. j 
June"l 

1840 J 
July -[ 
1840/ 
June") 
1840/ 
Oct. \ 
1840/ 



Length 
of 

Miles. 



15 

82i 
112 
3J 

12 

76f 
16 

8j 

I2i 

15i 
3i 
117^ 
16J 
36 
15j 
48i 

754 

7 

783 
yards 

66 
61 
43i 

57 

30j 
23A 

24i 



Power used. 



r Locomotive en- 
1 gines. 
J Locomotive en- 
L gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 

{Locomotive en- 
gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
L gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
1 gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 

Fixed engines. 

/ Locomotive en- 
L gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
l gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
l gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
l gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
L gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
i. gines. 
r Locomotive en- 
l gines. 
r Locomotive en- 
l gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
1 gines, 
r Locomotive en- 
L gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
l gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
1 gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
L gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
l gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
l gines, 
/ Locomotive en- 
l gines, 
/Locomotive en- 
l gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
L gines. 



Remarks. 



Chiefly for 

coals. 
Passengers, 

&c. - 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Chiefly for 

passengers. 
Chiefly for 

coals. 
Chiefly for mi- 
nerals. 
Passengers, 

&c. 

Chiefly coal. 

Passengers & 

gen. traffic. 
Chiefly mi- 
nerals. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

coal, &c. 
Pass, to steam 

boats, &c. 
Passengers & 

traffic. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 



&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Minerals, pas- 
sengers, &c. 



RAI 



Uo 



RAI 



Name. 



Date of 
earliest 
Acts. 



Norfhern &East- \ 
em / 

London Grand \ 
Junction .... J 

Great North En- \ 
gland / 

Eastern Counties -j 
North Midland.,./ 

Thames Haven... 

Sheffield & Ro-\ 

therham j 

Manchester and \ 

Leeds J 

Dublin and Dro-\ 

gheda j 

ISheffield & Man- ^ 

Chester ...... J 

Lancaster and "I 
I Preston Junct. J 

Chester & Crewe < 

Manchester and "f 
Birmingham. . J 

Gt. North of Eng. 
Clarence, and 
Hartlepooljun. 

Maryport& Car- 
lisle 

Great Leinster & ' 
Munster .... 

Chester & Birk-" 
enhead 

Cork & Passage 

Glasgow, Paisley, \ 
& Greenock . . J 

Glasgow,Paisley, 
Kilmarnock & 
Ayr 

London & Brigh- "1 
ton J 

Bolton & Preston -I 

Bishop Auckland "[ 
and Weardale. / 

Taw Vale (and\ 
Dock) J 

Edinburgh and 1 
Glasgow .... J 

Gosport Branch 

Bristol and Glou- "1 
cester J 

West Durham, . 



1836 &- 
1839 J 

1836 ■\ 

1836 &" 

1837 . 
1836 &' 

1838 ^ 

1836 &' 

1837 . 

1836 - 

1836 &■ 
1840 

1836 &" 

1837 . 

1836 &" 

1837 . 

1837 

1837 &' 
1840 
1837 &■ 
1840 
1837 &■ 

1839 . 

1837 



1837 ■ 

1837 

1837 &' 
1840 

1837 

1837 &' 
1840 

1837 & 
1840 

1837 

1837& 
1838 

1837 { 

1838 -f 



Date 

of 
opening. 



0-1 
5. j- 



Sept. "I 
1840 J 

Not \ 
made_ J 

In pro" \ 
gress. j 

July "1 
1840/ 

July \ 

1840 J 

Not \ 
made, j 

Oct. \ 

1838 J 
Oct. \ 
1840 J 
In pro- 
gress 

In pro- \ 
gress. j 

June \ 
1840 J 
Oct. \ 
1840 J 
June\ 
1840 J 



July 1 
1840 J 



Sept. 1 
1840/ 



Sept. 1 
1840/ 

Aug. I 
1840 J 

May 1 
1840 / 



Length 1 

of 
Miles. 



Power used. 



1838 
1840 

1839 
1839 
1839 



In pro 
gress 



In pro 
gress 

In pro 
gress 

In pro 
gress. 

fn pro- \ 
'• / 






gress 
In pro 



June"! 
1840/ 



30 

2i 
76 
126 
72h 
15i 
5i 
50j 
32 
40 
20j 
20^ 
38i 

7J 
28 

7H 

14§ 

22# 

40 

414 
14* 

2^ 
46 
151 
22 



/ Locomotive en- 
1 gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
1. gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
L gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
1. gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
L gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
L gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
1 gines. " 
/ Locomotive en- 
\ gines. 
/ Locomotive en- 
L gines. 

/ Locomotive en- 
l gines 

/ Locomotive en- 

l gines. 

/ Locomotive en- 

\ gines. 

/ Locomotive en- 

L gines. 

/ Locomotive en- 

L gines. 

/ Locomotive en- 

1 gines. 

i/ Locomotive en- 
1 gines. 

/ Locomotive en- 

1 gines 

/ Locomotive en- 

l gines. 

/ Locomotive en- 

\ gines. 

/ Locomotive en- 

1. gines. 

/ Locomotive en- 

l gines. 

/ Locomotive en- 

\ gines. 

/ Locomotive en- 

l gines. 

/ Locomotive en- 

l. gines. 



Remarks. 



Passengers &| 

gen. traffic 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 

Passengers, 
&c. 

Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 

Passengers, 
&c. 

Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Passengers, 

&c. 
Chiefly mine- 
rals. 



RAL 



741 



RAP 



RAINBOW, the theory of, given by 
De Dominis, 1611. Des Cartes (in 
1637) was the first who applied the ma- 
thematics to the investigation of this 
phenomenon, or who gave a tolerably 
correct theory of it; bnt philosophers 
remained ignorant of the causes of the 
diflferent colours of the rainbow, till Sir 
Isaac Newton, about 1689, gave the so- 
lution of this problem. 

RAINE, Matthew, D.D., master of 
the Charter-house school, born 1760, and 
died in 1810. 

RALEIGH, Sir Walter, a distin- 
guished officer and courtier of the reigns 
of Elizabeth and James I., was born in 
1552. In 1580 he obtained a captain's 
commission, and under the command of 
the earl of Ormond, governor of Mun- 
ster, he surprised the Irish Kerns at 
Rakele, and made them prisoners. On 
his return to England he was quickly 
introduced to the queen's notice, and by 
his own merits obtained a large share in 
her favour. He fitted out two vessels, 
which sailed for America in 1584, and 
took possession of an island near the 
mouth of the Albemarle river, in what 
is now called North Carolina. He after- 
wards planted a new colony in Virginia. 
In 1589 the queen showed her conti- 
nued approbation of his services by 
making him gentleman of her privy 
chamber, and augmenting the profits of 
his other places. From this period to 
1594 he was continually engaged in pro- 
jecting new expeditions, sending suc- 
cours to the colonies abroad, and trans- 
acting parliamentary business with equal 
ability and resolution. When James I. 
came to the crown. Sir Walter Raleigh 
fell into disgrace. A conspiracy was 
formed for placing upon the throne Lady 
Arabella Stuart, in which Raleigh par- 
ticipated ; for this he was apprehended, 
and brought to trial on a charge of high 
treason. After 12 years' confinement, 
he obtained his liberation, and employed 
all his resources in fitting out an expe- 
dition for Guiana, with 12 armed ves- 
sels, m July, 1617. This expedition 
proved entirely unsuccessful, and King 
James having assured the Spanish court 
that he had forbidden Raleigh to commit 
any act of hostility, this brave officer 
was sacrificed to the resentment of the 
Spanish monarch. In July, I6l8, Sir 
Walter arrived at Plymouth, but on his 
journey to London he was arrested, car- 



ried back to Plymouth, and after a mock 
trial executed, Oct. 29 following. 

RALPH, James, English historian 
and poet, died 1762, 

RAMEAU, J. P., musical composer, 
born 1683, died 1767. 

RAMSAY, Andrevp Micha^el, ge- 
nerally known as the Chevalier Ramsay, 
was a Scotch writer, born in 1686. He 
was sent to Rome by the Pretender, to 
undertake the education of his children, 
in 1724. He died in 1743. 

RAMSAY, Allan, the author of 
the " Gentle Shepherd," died 1743. 

RAMSDEN, a celebrated mathema- 
tical and astronomical instrument maker, 
was born at Salterhebble, near Halifax 
in Yorkshire, in 1735. He was the 
originator of many important inventions, 
which led his friends to propose him as 
a member of the Royal Society, and he 
was elected in 1786. He died Nov. 5, 
1800, in his 66th year. 

RAMSGATE, seaport, Kent, belong- 
ing to the cinque ports, has risen to im- 
portance in modern times. In the reign 
of Queen Elizabeth it contained but 
25 houses, and it continued to be an 
obscure fishing village till the latter part 
of the I7th century. In 1750 the con- 
struction of the harbour was commenced. 
The pier, built of Purbeck and Portland 
stone, and of Cornish granite, is one of 
the most magnificent structures of the 
kind in the kingdom. The harbour was 
made a royal port in honour of the visit 
of his late majesty, George IV., in 1821. 

RAMUS, Peter, French writer, born 
1515, died 1573. 

RANDOLPH, Thomas, English 
historian, born 1605, died 1634. 

RANGOON, city and seaport, Bur- 
mese empire- In May, 1824, it was 
captured by the British, who, however, 
delivered it over to the Burmese autho- 
rities two years afterwards. 

RAPHAEL, or Raffael, Sanzio, 
the greatest and most celebrated painter 
of modern times, was born at Urbino in 
1483. In 1508 he was summoned to 
Rome by Julius II., and immediately 
employed in the decoration of the Va- 
tican, where the series of apartments, 
ennobled by his pencil, are still called by 
his name ; among these are the School of 
Theology, the School of Athens, the 
Parnassus, painted in 1512, &c. He was 
employed by LeoX. to make the Cartoons 
(now at Hampton Court,) as exemplars 



RAT 



742 



RAY 



for works in tapestry, to be executed in 
Flanders ; these were completed at the 
expense of 70,000 crowns. He died on 
Good Friday, 1520, aged 37- 

RAPIN De Thoyras, Paul, the 
well known historian of England, was 
born at Castres in Languedoc in 1661. 
He followed the prince of Orange into 
England in 1688 ; was present at the 
battle of the Boyne, and wounded at 
the siege of Limerick. He died in 1725. 
His " History of England" was origi- 
nally written in French ; it was printed 
at the Hague in 1726, and reprinted at 
Trevoux in 1728. 

RAROTONGA, island. South Pacific 
Ocean, the most important of the group 
called the Hervey Islands, discovered 
by Mr. Williams the missionary, in 1823. 
He resided some time on the island, and 
was the means of effecting the most 
sudden and beneficial change ever pro- 
duced in the annals of discovery. Ra- 
rotonga was again visited by Mr. Wil- 
liams in 1827. The missionaries after- 
wards introduced a code of laws into 
these islands. In 1832 Mr. Williams 
landed a cargo, consisting of several 
barrels of flour, together with horses, 
asses, and cattle. 

RASK, Erasmus, a learned Danish 
philologist and grammarian, author of 
an Icelandic grammar and lexicons, an 
Anglo-Saxon grammar, &c. In 1822 
he was master of no less than 25 lan- 
guages and dialects. He died in 
1833. 
RASTADT,orRADSTADT,town, duchy 
of Baden. In the campaign of 1796 the 
French here obtained an advantage over 
the Austrians. March 6, 1714, peace of 
Rastadt between France and the em- 
peror. On Dec. 9, 1797, congress of 
Rastadt commenced its labours to treat 
concerning a general peace with the 
Germanic powers. 

RATHCORMACK, Ireland, a san- 
guinary tithe affray took place here, 
Dec. 18, 1834. A number of persons 
assembled, and attempted to obstruct the 
magistrates, and the civil and military 
force which accompanied them. The 
riot act was then read. The troops were 
assailed by volleys of stones, the magis- 
trates ordered the troops to fire, and 
many of the mob were wounded and 
several killed. 

RATISBON, city, Bavaria, formerly 
known as the place of meeting for the 
diet of the empire. On Oct. 30, I630, 



the peace of Ratisbon between France and 
the emperor, terminated the war for the 
Mantuan succession. Ratisbon was long 
the see of an archbishop, but in 1817 
was reduced to a bishopric. In April, 
1809, this vicinity was the scene of ob- 
stinate contests between the French and 

A II of I*! an Q 

RAVENNA, States of the Church, 
was made a Roman colony by Augustus. 
Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, hav- 
ing, in the latter part of the fifth century, 
made himself master of Italy, fixed the 
seat of his empire here, and erected 
several public buildings. In the reign 
of Justinian the Goths in Italy were van- 
quished by the talents of Behsarius and 
Narses Longinus. The successor of the 
latter took the title of exarch, but the 
exarchate was brought to a close in the 
eighth century, when Pepin, father of 
Charlemagne, took Ravenna and made 
it over to the see of Rome. 

RAVITZ, Prussian Poland, was erected 
by fugitives from Germany, during the 
thirty years' war. Charles XII. quar- 
tered here in the winter of 1704. In 
1802 the greater part of the town was 
burnt by an accidental fire. 

RAY, Rev. John, the most cele- 
brated naturalist of his age, was born at 
Black Notly in Essex, in 1628. In I66O 
he published his " Catalogus Planta- 
rum," &c. ; and in the following year 
he accompanied Mr. Willoughby, and 
others, in search of plants and natural 
curiosities, into the north of England 
and Scotland. In 1663 he set out with 
his friend Willoughby on a tour to the 
continent. An account of their observa- 
tions was pubUshed by Ray a few years 
afterwards. It had been mutually agreed 
between them, before they began their 
travels, that they should endeavour to 
reduce the various tribes of things to 
some method of classification. Wil- 
loughby undertook the animals, and 
Ray the vegetables; but the untimely 
death of the former, left his plans to be 
completed by the latter. He applied his 
system to practical use in a general 
"Historia Plantarum," of which the 
first volume was published in 1686, and 
the second in 1687- The third volume 
came out in 1704. The work, however, 
which proved the great corner-stone of 
his reputation in this department of 
science, was the " Synopsis Methodica 
Stirpium Britannicarum." After pub- 
lishing many other valuable works on 



REA 



743 



REF 



natural history, he died Jan. 17, 1705, 
in his 77th year. 

RAYNAL, ABBE',author of the "His- 
tory of the East and West Indiesj" died 
March, 1796, aged 84. 

RE', small island, off the west coast 
of France. In 1388 it was ravaged by 
the EngUsh. An attempt was made on 
it by an army under Villiers, duke of 
Buckingham (1627,) but the resistance 
was so vigorous that the British troops 
were obliged to re-embark. 

READING, market town, Berks, is 
not mentioned in history till the 9th 
century, when it was taken by the Danes. 
Elfrida founded a nunnery here, which 
was burnt with the town in 1006, by 
order of Sweyn, king of Denmark, in 
revenge for the massacre of his coun- 
trymen. The town was soon rebuilt, and, 
in 1121, Henry I. erected a noble mo- 
nastery for Benedictine monks. Stephen 
built a castle here, but it was demolished 
by order of Henry II. In 1213 a council 
was held here before the papal legate 
Pandulphus, in order to effect a recon- 
ciliation between King John and the 
prelates and nobles who opposed his 
tyranny. A grand national council was 
also held at Reading in 1385, and par- 
liament sat here in 1439, 1452, 1453, 
and 1467 ; on the last occasion it was 
removed from Westminster on account 
of the plague. In the reign of Henry 
VIIL Reading suffered much from the 
suppression of its rich and splendid mo- 
nastery. A considerable part of the 
conventual buildings (which originally 
covered a space of nearly half a mile in 
circumference,) was standing till the civil 
war under Charles I., when Reading was 
occupied as a garrison by the royalists 
and parliamentarians, and the abbey 
almost reduced to a heap of ruins. 

REALISTS, a sect of school philoso. 
phers formed in opposition to the nomi- 
nalists. See Nominalists. 

REAUMUR, Rene-Antoinb Fer- 
CHAULT, a celebrated French philoso- 
pher and naturalist, was born at Rochelle 
in 1683. In 1703 he went to Paris, and 
so distinguished himself in a few years, 
that in 1708 he was admitted into the 
academy of sciences. His experiments 
on the art of turning iron into steel ob- 
tained him a pension of 12,000 livres. 
In 1722 he published a work which con- 
tained a minute and scientific account of 
the processes employed in that branch of 
manufacture. He rendered his name 



celebrated by his peculiar method of 
graduation on the thermometer, which 
is still the only one used in France, and 
many parts of the continent. But he 
acquired his greatest fame as an ento- 
mologist. Besides a number of curious 
papers on this subject in the meinoirs of 
the academy, he published a very elabo- 
rate work,entitled "Memoires pour servir 
a I'Histoire Naturelle des Insectes," in 
six volumes 4to., 1734 — 1742. He died 
October 18, 1757, in his 76th year. 

RECULVER Abbey, Kent, built 669. 

RED-EAGLE, in Prussia, military 
order revived 1792. 

RED Sea, called by the ancients the 
Arabian Gulf, a sea much celebrated in 
sacred history. It extends about 1470 
miles from the straits of Babelmandel to 
Suez. It terminates in two branches, 
the western being extensive, and the 
eastern ascending a little beyond the 
parallel of Mount Sinai. The passage 
of the Israelites took place, according to 
Niebukr,a fewmilesfromSuez, A.c. 1 491. 
The western channel was chosen in the 
days of the Ptolemies for the track of 
the Indian and African commerce. These 
monarchs erected a great number of 
cities along the western coast. The Red 
Sea was for many ages the channel of 
communication between Egypt and other 
countries bordering on the Mediterranean 
and India ; but after the passage to In- 
dia by the Cape of Good Hope was dis- 
covered by Vasco de Gama at the close 
of the 15th century, its commerce de- 
cayed. Early in the l6th century the 
Portuguese became possessed of a mo- 
nopoly of the trade with India, and the 
Red Sea lost its importance as a channel 
of communication between the western 
and eastern parts of the globe. 

REDES DALE, Lord, formerly 
speaker of the house of commons, and 
afterwards lord chancellor of Ireland, 
died January 16, 1830, aged 88. 

REECE, Dr. Richard, author of the 
"Domestic Medical Guide," died 1831, 

REES, Dr., editor of the " New Cy- 
clopaedia," died 1825, aged 84. 

REEVE, Clara, author of "The 
Old English Baron," &c., died January 
1808, aged 70. 

REEVES, John, author of the " His- 
tory of the Common Law," died 1812, 
aged 11. 

REFORM Act, Parliamentary. 
See Parliament. This statute, 2d 
William IV. c. 45, 7th June, 1832, after 



REF 



744 



REF 



reciting that it is expedient to take effec- 
tual measures for correcting divers 
abuses that have long prevailed in the 
choice of members of parliament, &c., 
disfranchises certain boroughs in the 
schedule A, Boroughs in schedule B to 
return one member only. Boroughs in 
schedule C to return two members, and 
to include the places respectively com- 
prehended within their boundaries. Bo- 
roughs in schedule D to return one 
member. Places in schedule E to share 
with other places mentioned in conjunc- 
tion therewith, &c. 

The Reform Act for Scotland, 2 and 3 
William IV. c. 65, I7th July, 1832, en- 
acts that there shall be 53 representatives 
for Scotland, of whom 30 shall be for 
several or conjoined shires or steward- 
ries, and 23 for cities, burghs, and towns, 
or districts of cities, burghs, and towns, 
hereinafter enumerated, &c. 

The Reform Act for Ireland, 2 and 3 
Wilham IV. c. 88, 7th August 1832, 
confers the right of voting in counties at 
large on leaseholders with other provi- 
sions applying the principles of the 
English act. 

REFORM, Municipal. See Cor- 
porations. 

REFORMATION. Waldus, in the 
12th century, Wickliffe, in the 14th, and 
Huss, in the 15 th, inveighed against the 
errors of popery with great boldness; 
but all their attempts proved abortive. 
The reformation of religion, called, by 
way of eminence, the Reformation, was 
begun by the elector of Saxony, at the 
solicitation of Luther, about the begin- 
ning of the l6th century: the rise of 
it in Switzerland was at least as early as 
in Germany ; for Ulric Zuiugle had, in 
1516, begun to explain the scriptures to 
the people, and to censure, though with 
great prudence and moderation, the er- 
rors of a corrupt church. In 1524 Nu- 
remberg, Frankfort, Hamburgh, and se- 
veral other cities in Germany of the first 
rank, openly embraced the reformed 
religion, and by the authority of their 
magistrates abolished the mass and 
other superstitious rites of popery. The 
progress of the reformation in Germany 
was also promoted by the proceedings of 
the diet held at Spire in 1526 and 1529. 
At the diet held in 1530, the Augsburg, 
or Augustine confession, was presented 
to the emperor Charles V., and rejected 
by him. After various negotiations be- 
tween the emperor and the protestant 



princes, terms of pacification were agreed 
upon at Nuremberg in 1532, and ra- 
tified afterwards solemnly in the diet of 
Ratisbon. In this treaty it was stipu- 
lated that universal peace be established 
in Germany until the meeting of a ge- 
neral council. After many evasions and 
delays, it was proposed to assemble a 
council at Trent, which met in 1546. 
The fathers assembled promulgated 
their decrees, and the protestant princes 
in the diet of Ratisbon again protested 
against their authority. See Protest- 
ants. This produced thewarofSmalcald, 
which was prosecuted with various suc- 
cess on both sides till 1552,when Charles 
was constrained to conclude at Passau 
the famous treaty of pacification with the 
protestants, which is considered by those 
of Germany as the basis of their reli- 
gious liberty. 

The reformation in England com- 
menced about 1533, when Henry VIII., 
having sued in vain for a divorce from 
Catherine of Arragon, his brother's 
vddow, at the court of Rome, determined 
to apply to another tribunal ; and Cran- 
mer, by a sentence founded on the au- 
thority of universities, doctors, and 
rabbles, annulled the king's marriage 
with Catherine. This circumstance pro- 
duced a rupture with the pope, the effect 
of which was that the reformation made 
great progress during this and the fol- 
lowing reigns, and the Scriptures were 
translated. See England, page 444 — 
447. It had not been long estabhshed 
in Britain, when the Belgic provinces 
withdrew from their spiritual allegiance 
to the Roman pontiff; the nobility formed 
themselves into an association ; and in 
1566 roused the people, who, under the 
heroic conduct of William of Nassau, 
prince of Orange, seconded by the suc- 
cours of England and France, delivered 
this state from the Spanish yoke : in 
consequence of which the reformed re- 
ligion, as it was professed in Switzerland, 
was established in the United Provinces. 

1835. Oct. 4. This day, happening to 
fall on a Sunday, was pretty generally 
celebrated over this country in the dif- 
ferent churches and chapels, as a cente- 
nary of the Reformation, the printing of 
the first English Bible (that of Bishop 
Coverdale) having, as appears from the 
Colophon, been finished on Oct. 4, 1535. 

REFUGE FOR THE Destitute, 
Hackney, commenced 1806. There are 
two establishments ; that for the males 



REG 



745 



regt 



is near'Hoxton-square. The female estab- 
lishment is in Middlesex-house, Hackney 
Road. The concerns of the institution 
are conducted by a committee, consist- 
ing of the president, vice-president, trea- 
surer, and 30 governors, chosen annually, 
who meet twice a week. 

REGENT'S Street, London, com- 
menced building 1815. 

REGENT'S Canal, from Padding- 
ton to Limehouse, opened Aug. 1, 1820. 

REGGIO, town, Italy, capital of a 
duchy of the same name, was the birth- 
place of the poet Ariosto. Buonaparte 
made Marshal Oudinot duke of Reggio. 
It suffered dreadfully in the earthquake 
which took place in Calabria, March, 
1832 

REGIMONTANUS, JohnMuller, 

astronomer and mathematician, poisoned 
at Rome, 14/6. 

REGISTER, Registration. Parish 
registers were first enjoined to be kept 
on the dissolution of the monasteries. 
But this did not become a national mea- 
sure in England till 1538. The 12th 
article of Cromwell's injunctions to the 
clergy that year directs that every cler- 
gyman shall, for every church, keep a 
book, wherein he shall register every 
marriage, christening, and burial; and 
the injunction directs the manner and 
time of making the entries in the register 
book weekly — any neglect being made 
penal. This measure created great ex- 
citement. It was surmised that the 
registry was preliminary to a new levy 
of taxes. In the first year of Edward 
VI. (1547.) all episcopal authority was 
suspended for a time, while the ecclesi- 
astical visitors then appointed went 
through the several dioceses to enforce 
different injunctions, and, among others, 
that respecting the keeping of parish 
registers, issued by Cromwell nine years 
previously. One of the canons of the 
convocation of Canterbury in 1603 
(which were confirmed by James I., but 
never received the sanction of parlia- 
ment) prescribes minutely in what man- 
ner entries were to be made in the parish 
registers. 

An act was passed in 1694, having for 
its object a general registration of births, 
marriages, and deaths, 6 and 7 Will. III. 
c. 6, entitled "An act for granting to 
his majesty certain rates and duties 
upon marriages, births, and burials, and 
upon bachelors and widowers, for the 
term of five years, for carrying on the 



war against France with vigour." A 
supplementary act was passed (the 9th 
Will. III. c. 32) entitled " An act for 
preventing frauds and abuses in the 
charging, collecting, and paying the 
duties upon marriages, births, burials, 
and widowers." Considerable excite- 
ment prevailed in 1753, respecting a 
registration bill which had been intro- 
duced into the house of commons> but 
was rejected by the lords. The 52 Geo. 
III. c. 146, made some alterations of the 
law respecting parish registers. This 
act, which received the royal assent on 
July 28, 1812, directed that the registers 
of parishes, and of chapelries should be 
kept in books of parchment, or of good 
and durable paper, on which should be 
printed the heads of information required 
to be entered ; and that the register- 
book should be kept in a dry, well 
painted iron chest, in the residence of 
the officiating minister, or in the parish 
church or chapel. The reason of this 
law will appear from the fact, that one 
half of the registers anterior to a.d. 
1600 have disappeared. 

Partial attempts at registration were 
made by the registry of births kept by 
the Dissenters at Dr. Williams's Library, 
Red-cross street, Cripplegate, &c. ; but 
the defect in regard to national registra- 
tion began to be felt when the question 
in relation to the law of marriage was 
agitated about 1824. This led to the 
recent registration act, 6 and 7 Will. IV. 
c. 86, Aug. 17, 1836. This statute re- 
citing that it is expedient to provide 
the means for a complete register of the 
births, deaths, and marriages of his 
majesty's subjects in England, repeals 
so much of recited acts as relates to the 
registration of marriages, and appoints a 
general registry office to be provided in 
London or Westminster, and that an 
annual abstract of registers is to be laid 
before parliament. To each district a 
registrar of births and deaths has been 
appointed, also a registrar of marriages, 
and in each union there is a superin- 
tendent registrar. 

By the first Annual Report for 1839, 
the total number of registrars of births 
and deaths at the end of September, 
1838, was 2193. The number of places 
of religious worship not belonging to the 
church of England, and registered under 
the Marriage Act, was 1332, on Dec. 31, 
1838. In the fii'st year under the new 
system ending July, 1838, there were 
5 c 



REG 

registered in England and Wales, births, 
399,712; deaths, 335,956; marriages, 
111,814. The probable number of deaths 
registered would have been about 29 1,715, 
while the number of deaths registered 
under the new system exceeded this 
number by 44,241. 

By the second Annual Report for 
1840, the numbers registered for the 
first and second years, ending respec- 
tively June 30, 1838 and 1839 were as 
follows : — 



Births... 
Marriages 
Deaths. . . 



1838. 

399,712 
111,814 
335,956 



1839. 

480,540 
121,083 
331,007 



80,828 incr. 
9,602 incr. 
4,949 deer. 



The decrease of registered deaths in 
the second yearis to be ascribed to dimi- 
nished mortality, the mortality of the year 
ending June, 1838, having exceeded 
that of average years. 

1841. Deaths at different ages in Eng- 
land and Wales, out of 1000 registered 
deaths, abstracted from various tables in 
the last Report : — 



Ages. 1 


Males. 


Fe- 
males. 


Mean. 


Under ] ^ 


y^ear 


239"3 


197-8 


218-5 


1 and under 3 


1239 


126-7 


125-3 


3 


— 


5 


50-5 


527 


51-6 


5 


— 


10 


47*4 


47-8 


47-6 


10 


— 


15 


25-9 


28-7 


27-3 


15 


— 


20 


32-1 


38-8 


35-5 


20 


— 


25 


39-5 


43-9 


41-7 


25 


— 


30 


35-8 


40-3 


380 


30 


— 


35 


321 


36-5 


34-3 


35 


— 


40 


321 


35-0 


33-6 


40 


— 


45 


31-1 


32-2 


31-6 


45 


— 


50 


32-5 


300 


31-3 


50 


— 


55 


31-8 


30-4 


31-1 


55 


— 


60 


32-9 


30-8 


31-8 


60 


— 


65 


40-5 


38 9 


39-7 


65 


— 


70 


410 


40-7 


40-9 


70 


— 


75 


41-2 


44-4 


42-8 


75 


— 


80 


396 


42-3 


40-9 


80 


— 


85 


28-8 


32-6 


30-7 


85 


— 


90 


• 16-2 


20-1 


18-2 


90 & up 


vards 


5-8 


9-4 


7-6 



REGISTRY, in commercial naviga- 
tion, the registration or enrolment of 
ships at the Custom-house, so as to 
entitle them to be classed among, and 
to enjoy the privileges of, British built 
ships. The registry of ships was first 
introduced into this country by the 
Navigation Act (12 Car. 2 



U6 REM 

spect to it by 7 and 8 Will. 3. c. 22 ; 
and the whole was reduced into a system 
by the 27 Geo. III. c. 19- The existing 
regulations, as to the registry of ships, 
are embodied in the act 3 and 4 Will. IV. 
c. 55, commencing from Sept. 1, 1833. 
Under this statute no vessel is entitled 
to any of the privileges or advantages of 
a British registered ship, unless the 
person or persons claiming property 
therein shall have caused the same to 
have been registered in virtue of the act 
6 Geo. IV. c. 110, or of the act 4 Geo. 
IV. c. 41, or until such person or 
persons shall have caused the same to 
be registered according to the provisions 
of the statute. 

REGNIER, Mathhrin, French 
writer, born 1573, died 1613. 

REGULUS, M. Attilius, a cele- 
brated Roman general. During the first 
Punic war he was elected consul, a.c. 
256. He was taken prisoner and put to 
death about a.c. 251. 

REICHSTADT, Due De, son of Na- 
poleon and of the Archduchess Maria 
Louisa, of Austria, born at Paris, March 
20, 1811, died at the palace of Schoen- 
brunn, near Vienna, July 22, 1832. 

REID, Dr. Thomas, author of the 
" Inquiry into the Human Mind," &c., 
died 1796, aged 87. 

RELICS, the remains of the bodies or 
clothes of saints or martyrs. The super- 
stitious regard for relics originated in 
a very ancient custom that prevailed 
among christians, of assembling at the 
cemeteries or burying-places of the mar- 
tyrs, for the purpose of commemorating 
them, and of performing divine worship. 
The rage for procuring relics became so 
excessive in 386, that the emperor Theo- 
dosius the Great was obliged to pass a 
law forbidding the people to dig up the 
bodies of the martyrs, and to traffic in 
their relics. 

RELIGIOUS Houses. See Mo- 
nasteries. 

REMBRANDT, Van Rhin, a dis- 
tinguished Flemish painter and engraver, 
was born at a village near Leyden, in 
1606. Without study, and almost with- 
out assistance from masters, he formed 
rules for a certain practical method of 
colouring, by which his style will always 
be distinguished from that of any other 
painter. He died in 1674. 

REMONSTRANTS, a title given to 
the Arminians in consequence of the re- 



c. 18. 1660.) 
Several provisions were made with re- monstrance made by them in l6lO to the 



REN 



747 



REV 



states of Holland, against the sentence 
of the synod of Dort, which pronounced 
them to be heretics^ 

RENCHEN, town, duchy of Baden, 
gives name to the Rencherloch, a pass 
which the imperial general, Montecu- 
culi, maintained against Turenne in 
1675. In 1796 Moreau here obtained 
an advantage over the Austrians, which 
opened his passage into Suabia. 

RENI, orRHENi, GuiDO. SeeGuiDO. 

RENNELL, John, member of the 
Royal Institute of France, of the Impe- 
rial Academy of St. Petersburgh, of the 
Royal Society of Gottingen, and sur- 
veyor-general of Bengal, was born at 
Chudleigh, in Devonshire. At the age 
of 24 he was sent upon active service to 
India, as an officer of engineers. There 
he distinguished himself greatly, was 
favourably noticed by the government, 
and speedily promoted to a majority. 
His maps and charts have rendered 
great service to geography. In 1798 he 
gave his aid to Mr, Park, in the arrange- 
ment of his " African Travels." His 
greatest work was his " Geographical 
System of Herodotus," 1800. He died 
March 29, 1830, aged 88. 

RENNIE, John, engineer, of Ply- 
mouth Breakwater, Waterloo-bridge, 
BeUrock Lighthouse, &c., born 1760, 
died 1821. 

RENSSELAER, Major-General 
Stephen Van, distinguished for his 
wealth, his munificent charities, and ex- 
emplary and christian virtues, both in 
pubhc and private hfe. He was born in 
the city of New York, in Nov. 1764, and 
was graduated at the University of Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts, in 1782; was 
elected a member of the New York se- 
nate in 1795 : he was six years lieutenant- 
goveribr of Yew- York ; a member of 
congress from 1822 to 1829; was ap- 
pointed in 1810, one of the canal com- 



missioners ; and for the last 14 years of 
his life was president of the board. 
During the last war with England, he 
commanded with reputation as major- 
general in the Niagara frontier. He died 
Jan. 26, 1839, in his 75th year. 

REVEL, town, European Russia, was 
founded by the Danes in 1218, conquered 
afterwards by the Swedes, and taken 
from the latter by the Russians in"l7lO. 
REVENUE of England, from the 
Conquest to the reign of George III : — 

William the Conqueror £400,000 

William Rufus 350,000 

Henry 1 300,000 

Stephen 250,000 

Henry II 200,000 

Richard 1 150,000 

John 100,000 

Henry III 80,000 

Edward 1 150,090 

Edward II 100,000 

Henry IV 100,643 

Henry V 76,000 

Henry VI 64,966 

Edward IV 

Edward V 100,000 

Richard III 

Henry VII 400,009 

Henry VIII 800,000 

Edward VI 400,000 

Mary 450,000 

EUzabeth 500,000 

James 1 600,000 

Charles 1 895,819 

Commonwealth 1,517,247 

Charles II 1,800,000 

James II 2,001,855 

William III 3,895,205 

Anne (at the Union) ..... 5,691,803 
George I. (including Scot- 
land) 6,762,643 

George II. (including Scot- 
land) 8,522,540 

George III. 1788, (including* 
Scotland) 15,572,971 



Revenue of the United Kingdom, for the Years ending January 1840 and 1841. 



Customs and excise 


1840. 


1841. 


£31,792,465 

6,574,461 

3,711,794 

1,519,000 

160,000 

86,610 


£32,328,902 

6,735,902 

3,946,444 

44 1,000 

167,500 

78,116 


Stamps 

Assessed and land taxes 


Post office 

Crown lands 


Other ordinary revenues and resources 

Total Income 


£43,844,330 


43,697,864 



See Civil List, Funds, and National Debt. 



REY 



748 



RHI 



REVOLUTIONS, Remarkable, in 

history. 

A.c. 546. The Assyrian empire de- 
stroyed, and that of the Medes and Per- 
sians founded by Cyrus the Great. 

A.c. 331. The Macedonian empire 
founded on the destruction of the Per- 
sian, on the defeat of Darius Codoraanus, 
by Alexander the Great. 

A.c. 47. The Roman empire established 
on the ruins of the Macedonian or Greek 
monarchy, by Julius Caesar. 

A.D. 306. The eastern empire founded 
by Constantine the Great, on the final 
overthrow of the Romans. 

302. The empire of the western 
Franks began under Charlemagne. This 
empire underwent a new revolution, and 
became the German empire, under Ro- 
dolph of Hapsburg, the head of the 
house of Austria, 1273, from whom it is 
also called the monarchy of the Aus- 
trians. 

1300. The eastern empire passed into 
the hands of the Turks. 

1668. Revolution in England on the 
accession of William III. 

1704, 1709, and 1795. Revolution in 
Poland. 

1730, and 1808. Revolutions in 
Turkey. 

1748 and 1753. Revolutions in Persia. 

1682, 1740, and 1762. Revolutions in 
Russia. 

1772 and I8O9. Revolutions in Sweden. 

1775- Revolution in America; revolt 
of the colonies. 

1789. Revolution in Francfe, com- 
menced by the destruction of the Bas- 
tile. 

1795. Revolution in Holland. 

1797, May 17, Revolution in Venice. 

1797, Feb. 26. Revolution at Rome. 

1810, April 19- Revolution in South 
America ; revolt of the Spanish colonies. 

1830. Second revolution in France. 

1830. Revolution in Brussels. 

1830, Sept. Revolution at Warsaw. 

1831, April. Revolution in Brazil. 
1836. Revolution at Lisbon, when the 

constitution of 1820 was proclaimed, 
Sept. 9: counter revolution attempted 
Nov. 8. 

1836. Revolution throughout Spain, 
when the constitution of 1812 was pro- 
claimed. 

REYNOLDS, Sir Joshua, one of 
the most celebrated Britisli painters, was 
born at Plympton, Devonshire, in 1723. 
In Oct. 1741 he first visited the capital. 



and was placed with Mr. Hudson, the 
most renowned portrait painter of that 
time. He accompanied captain (after- 
wards Lord) Keppel, into Italy, in 1749, 
to visit the schools of the great masters. 
On his return he painted a portrait of 
Lord Edgecumbe, which introduced him 
to the first business in portrait painting, 
and he soon became the favourite pain- 
ter in England. Upon the foundation 
of the Royal Academy of painting, sculp- 
ture, and architecture, Reynolds was 
appointed president. His majesty also 
conferred on him the honour of knight- 
hood, and he delivered his first discourse 
at the opening of the academy, on Jan. 2, 
1769. In the course of 21 years, viz. 
from 1769 to 1790, inclusive, he com- 
posed 15 discourses, replete with the 
soundest principles and the most useful 
information concerning the art he prac- 
tised, that ever have been given to the 
world. The last eflFort of his pencil was 
the portrait of Charles James Fox, which 
was executed in his best style. In Oct. 
1791, his spirits began to fail him, and 
he died at his house Leicester- square, 
Feb. 23, 1792, aged 69. A just and 
pleasing tribute was made to his me- 
mory in 1813, by a public exhibition of 
a selection of his works at the gallery of 
the British Institution, Pall-Mall. 

RHEES, the last king of South Wales, 
killed 1094. 

RHEIMS, one -of the most ancient 
and celebrated cities of France, in the 
department of the Marne, seated on the 
Vesle. Before the revolution it was the 
see of an archbishop, who was the first 
duke and peer of France, and always 
crowned the king. The University of 
Rheims was founded in 1547, and in the 
following year, authorized by theparlia- 
ment of Paris. This city was ta^^ and 
re-taken several times by the French and 
allied armies in 1814. 

RHINE, river of Germany, celebrated 
both in ancient and modern history. 
Caesar is the most ancient author who has 
traced the course of this river from its 
source in the Alps to its discharge into 
the sea. By the treaty of Paris in 1814, 
the Rhine is to remain as the boundary 
of France and Germany, and the main 
stream of this river constitutes the fron- 
tier. It is by the Rhine that the timber 
of Suabia is conveyed to Belgium. The 
passage boats up and down the Rhine 
also afford commodious conveyances. 
In 1820 a steam navigation was intro- 




SEM, JJO^IHlilJik MIE¥M(D)ILID)< 




Eondfln.PiMahea."b-v T Jiom as Zeibr.'iZ^EstEmostsrJ&cm 



• '\ 



RIC 



749 



RIC. 



duced ; and a canal has recently been 
projected for uniting the Rhine with the 
Danube, passing through the Black Fo- 
rest. See Danube. 

RHINE, Confederation of the. 
See Confederation. 

RHODE Island, one of the states of 
North America. Its settlement was com- 
menced at Providence in 1636, by Roger 
WiUiams; and in 1638 the settlement of 
the island from which the state is named 
was begun by Williams, Coddington, 
and others. In 1764 a charter was ob- 
tained from England, by which the set- 
tlements of Rhode Island and Providence 
Plantation were united under one go- 
vernment, which continued in force till 
1663, when a new charter was granted 
by Charles II., which has ever since 
formed the basis of the government. 
Rhode Island was taken from tRe Ame- 
ricans by the British forces, Dec. 6,1776. 

RHODES, island of Asiatic Tur- 
key, was anciently a celebrated state of 
Greece, distinguished by its commerce 
and naval power ; though it was not till 
after the death of Alexander that Rhodes 
appeared in its full glory. Demetrius 
undertook the siege of Rhodes, but was 
obhged to raise it after a year's perse- 
verance, A.c. 303. The celebrated Co- 
lossus of Rhodes was reckoned one of 
the seven wonders of the world, but was 
overthrown by an earthquake, A.c. 224. 
See Colossus. In the time of Cicero 
and Caesar the schools of Rhodes were 
among the most frquented by those who 
aspired to scientific distinction. Rhodes 
was among the last states which yielded 
to the Roman arms, and is not heard of 
in history till the downfall of the eastern 
empire, when the island became one of 
the last retreats of the knights of St. 
John of Jerusalem. This little band of 
heroes rendered it illustrious by their 
resistance to the Ottoman emperors; 
they were subdued by Solyman the 
Great, after one of the most memorable 
sieges recorded in history. The city of 
Rhodes was taken by the Turks, 1521, 
when the knights quitted it, and settled 
at Malta. See Malta. From this time 
the island of Rhodes has been subject to 
the Turks ; and, like other countries 
under that tyrannical yoke, has lost its 
former importance. 

RIALTO, a celebrated bridge at Ve- 
nice, begun 1588, finished 1591. 

RICARDO, David, the author of 
" PoUtical Economy," died 1823. 



RICCI, Lawrence, the last general 
of the society of Jesuits, born August 2, 
1703 ; made general of the order May 21, 
1758; imprisoned at Rome, September 
22, 1773; died November 24, 1776, 
aged 72. 

RICHARD I., king of England, was 
born at Oxford, 1157 ; crowned at Lon- 
don, September 3, J 189; set out on 
the crusade June 29, 1190; returned 
to England March 29, 1194; was 
wounded with an arrow at Chalons; 
died April 6, 1199, and was buried at 
Fonteverard. 

RICHARD II., born at Bourdeaux, 
January 6, 1367; created prince of Wales, 
1376 ; succeeded his grandfather, Ed- 
ward III., June 21, 1377; resigned his 
crown, September 29, 1399 ; was mur- 
dered in Pomfret Castle, February 13, 
1400, and buried at Langley, but after- 
wards removed to Westminster. 

RICHARD III., duke of Gleucester, 
brother to Edward IV., born 1453 ;made 
protector of England May 27, 1483; 
elected king June 20, and crowned July 
6 following; again at York, September 8. 
Skin in battle at Bosworth, Au2;ust 22, 
1485, aged 32. Was buried at Lei- 
ccstcr 

RICHARDSON, Samuel, a cele- 
brated novel writer of the l7th century, 
was born in 1689. After the expiration 
of his apprenticeship, he passed several 
years as ajourneyman in a printing-office, 
and then set up in business for himself. 
He published his "Pamela" in 1740, 
which procured him much repute. His 
" History of Sir Charles Grandison," 
his concluding work, appeared in 1753. 
He died July 4, 1761, at the age of 72. 

RICHELET,C^sARPETER,aFrench 
writer, born in 1631. He applied him- 
self to the study of the French language, 
and compiled a dictionary. He died at 
Paris in 1698, at the age of 67 ■ 

RICHELIEU, John Abmand Du 
Plessis, a celebratedcardinal,and states- 
man of France, was born at Paris in 
1585. In 1624, in the reign of Louis 
XIII., he was made prime minister, and 
found means to possess himself of the 
whole authority of the crown. In 1627 
war broke out with England, and the 
Rochellers, with whom an accommoda- 
tion had been made, were induced to 
favour the English. Richelieu in person 
took the command of the siege of Ro- 
chelle, which, after a noble resistance of 
eleven months, submitted to famine, and 



RIC 



750 



RIE 



the protestants were rendered incapable 
of again acting as an armed party. Riche- 
lieu died in December 1642, at the age 
of 58. 

RICHMOND, village of Surrey, has 
belonged to the crown since the reign of 
Edward I. Edward II. also resided here, 
and founded a convent of Carmelite 
friars, which was afterwards removed to 
Oxford. Edward III. either erected or 
improved a royal palace here, where he 
often resided, and in which he died in 
1377. Here also Ann' of Luxemburg, 
the first wife of Richard II., died ; he 
was so much affected by the misfortune, 
that he abandoned the palace, and suf- 
fered it to fall to decay. Henry V. re- 
stored it, and erected near it a Carthu- 
sian monastery, which was richly en- 
dowed. Edward IV. also resided here ; 
and it was the favourite residence of 
Henry VII., in whose reign a grand 
tournament was held at Richmond in 
1492. A few years afterwards it was 
burnt down, and the king having 
rebuilt it, gave it the name of Richmond, 
from the title of nobility borne by him 
before his accession to the crown. In 
the park is an observatory, built by Sir 
William Chambers in 1769- 

RICHMOND, a market-town, York- 
shire, celebrated for the still magnificent 
remains of its ancient castle, which was 
founded by Alan, the first earl of Rich- 
mond, about 1070. During the reigns 
of our Norman kings, this title and 
property were possessed by several dif- 
ferent families. By Henry VIII., Rich- 
mond was constituted a duchy in the 
person of his natural son, Henry, who 
died without issue in 1535. 

R1CHTER,Jean Paul Frederick, 
a distinguished m.odern German writer, 
was born May 21, 1763, at Womsiedel 
in Bavaria. In his I7th year he wrote 
two essays entitled, " How our Concep- 
tion of God arises," and " On the Har- 
mony between Time and erroneous Pro- 
positions." In 1781 he went to the 
university of Leipsic, where he felt him- 
self abandoned by all human society, 
and had to struggle, for 12 months, 
against ever increasing poverty. In 1787, 
after having written several works to 
little advantage, he accepted the place of 
tutor in the family of a nobleman in the 
vicinity. At the end of 1789 he relin- 
quished his tutorship. About this time 
he wrote the " Invisible Lodge," an 
unfinished romance, and sent it, in 1 792, 



to Moritz, bookseller of Berlin, who pro- 
nounced it to be a work of great excellence, 
" beyond even Goethe." He oflfered him 
iOO ducats for the book, and sent 30 
immediately. 

From this time he began to be .intro- 
duced to more public notice. In 1804 
he settled himself in Baireuth, where 
he passed the remainder of his days, 
honoured and respected by all men. On 
the occasion of the war in 1806, he 
stepped forth as a political writer, and 
strove to rouse the spirit of his country- 
men, at the same time, that, with the 
keenest humour, he ridiculed many long- 
standing prejudices. He received from 
the prince primate Von Del berg, a pen- 
sion of 1000 guilders, which was con- 
tinued in 1815 by the king of Bavaria. 
The loss of his only and beloved son, 
in 1820, shook his constitution, and he 
died Nov. 14, 1825. His funeral was 
attended by all the distinguished families 
in Baireuth, and accompanied with a 
solemnity and sympathy worthy of the 
departed. 

RIDLEY, Nicholas, an eminent 
English prelate, who became a martyr to 
the cause of the Reformation, was born 
in the beginning of the l6th century, 
and sent to Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, 
in 1518. In 1547 he was promoted to 
the bishopric of Rochester ; and in the 
following year he was employed in 
reforming the liturgy, in conjunction 
with Cranmer, five other prelates, and 
some learned divines. Soon after he 
was translated to the see of London, and 
was nominated one of the commissioners 
for examining Gardiner, bishop of Win- 
chester. When the parliament assem- 
bled in 1553, the king, Edward VI., who 
was languishing under decline, ordered 
the two houses to attend him at White- 
hall, where bishop Ridley preached 
before him. Upon the death of Edward 
VI., having assisted in attempting to 
set Lady Jane Grey on the throne, he 
was immediately committed to the Tower, 
and afterwards, with Cranmer and Lati- 
mer, sent to Oxford ; when they arrived 
there in March 1554, they were closely 
confined in the common prison. With 
bishop Latimer, he was burnt, Oct. 15 
following. He was a man of great 
learning, and was the author of several 
works. 

RIENZI, Gabrini, whose proper 
name was Nicholas, an extraordinary 
political character, was born in the 14th 



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century at Rome. His first post was 
that of a public scribe or notary in 1346. 
In 1347 he usurped the sovereign power, 
under pretence of restoring the tribuneate 
at Rome, May 19, and ruled with so- 
vereign authority for seven months. 
Finding that he had lost the affection 
and confidence of the people, he with- 
drew from Rome ; and, in the beginning 
of the year 1348, took refuge in the king- 
dom of Naples, and was obliged to live 
concealed in a hermit's cell till the com- 
mencement of 1350. Upon the acces- 
sion of Innocent VI., he was released 
from confinement, and he recovered his 
former authority, which, however, he 
held but a short time. The nobles found 
means to excite a sedition against him, 
in which he was slain, Oct. 1354. 

RIGA, city, European Russia, was, 
in regard to commerce, the second city 
in Russia before the rapid increase of 
Odessa. Riga has, at different times, 
suffered by sieges. Of these the most 
remarkable were those sustained from 
the Russians in 1656 ; from the Saxons 
and Poles in 1700 ; from the Russians in 
1701; and from the French in 1812, 
when its suburbs were burned. Owing 
to the advantageous situation of Riga, 
at the mouth of the Dvvina, its popula- 
tion and trade have lately increased. 
The ships despatched from Riga, during 
the six years, ending with 1832, were 
1483. 

RIGAUD, Professor, F.R.S, to 
whom was confided the care of the Ob- 
servatory at Oxford, was the author of 
many valuable communications to the 
"Transactions of the Royal Astrono- 
mical Society," and to other scientific 
journals, on subjects connected with 
physical and astronomical science. There 
was no other person of his age who was 
equally learned on all subjects connected 
with the history and literature of astro- 
nomy. He died in 1839- 

RIGHTS, Bill of. See Bill. 

RINGS. Their antiquity is known 
both from Scripture and profane authors. 
AVhen Pharaoh committed the govern- 
ment of all Egypt to Joseph, he took his 
ring from his finger, and gave it to 
Joseph, Gen. xli. 42. The Romans 
were contented with iron r ngs a long 
time ; and Pliny assures us, that Marius 
first wore a gold one in his third consu- 
late, which was in the year of Rome 650. 
The episcopal ring was esteemed a pledge 
of the spiritual marriage between the 



bishop and his church. The fourth 
council of Toledo, held in 633, appoints, 
that a bishop, condemned by one coun- 
cil, and found afterwards innocent by a 
second, shall be restored, by giving him 
the ring, staff, &c. 

RIO De Janeiro. See Janeiro. 

RIO De La Plata, river. South 
America, discovered by De Soils in 
1516. The country near it now forms 
the republic of Buenos Ayres, which 
see. 

RIOTS, in law. The riotous assembling 
of 12 persons, or more, was first made 
high treason by statute 3 and 4 Edw. VI. 
It was repealed by statute iMar. c. 1. ; 
but in substance re-enacted by 1 Mar. 
statute 2. c. 12. And by statute 1 Eliz. 
c. 16, it was revived and continued 
during her life and then expired. From 
the accession of James I. to the death of 
Queen Anne, it was never once revived ; 
but in 1715 the act, now called the riot 
act, was passed. The statute 1 Geo. I. 
c. 5, enacts, that if any 12 persons are 
unlawfully assembled to the disturbance 
of the peace, and any one justice of the 
peace, sheriff, under-sheriff, or mayor of 
the town, shall think proper to command 
them by proclamation to disperse, if 
they contemn his orders and continue 
together for one hour afterwards, such 
contempt shall be felony without benefit 
of clergy. 

The following are the most remark- 
able riots in British history : — 

1262. The goldsmiths' and tailors' 
company fought in the streets of Lon- 
don ; several were killed on each side : 
the sheriffs quelled it, and 13 men were 
hanged. 

1271. A riot at Norwich; the rioters 
burnt the cathedral and monastery ; the 
king went thither, and saw the ring- 
leaders executed. 

1709. In London, on account of Dr. 
Sacheverel's trial ; several dissenting 
meeting-houses were broke open ; the 
pulpit of one was piilled down, and, with 
the pews, burnt in Lincoln's-inn-Fields. 

1715. 2 Geo. I., riots of the Whig and 
Tory mobs, called Ormond and New- 
castle mobs ; the riot act passed the same 
year, great mischief having been done 
by both parties in London. 

1736. 9 Geo. II. Of the Spitalfields 
weavers, on account of employing work- 
men come over from Ireland ; the mili- 
tary and civil power joined to queU them, 
and some lives were lost. 



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1736. At Edinburgh the mob rose, 
set fire to the prison-door, took out 
Captain Porteus, and hanged hira upon 
a sign-post, and then dispersed. 

1768. A mob in St. George's-fields, 
to see Mr. Wilkes in the King's-bench, 
prison: the military aid indiscreetly 
called for by the justices of the peace, 
and several innocent persons, particu- 
larly young Allen, fired upon and killed 
by the soldiers. 

1791. July 14. At Birmingham, on 
occasion of commemorating the French 
revolution, when several houses were 
destroyed. 

1809. Sept. O. P. at Covent-garden 
theatre ; terminated Jan. 4, 1810. These 
tumults arose from an attempt by the 
managers to raise the price of admission. 
The public having in vain demanded the 
"old prices," assumed the initials, O. P., 
as the watch-word for their demand. 

1809-10. In Piccadilly, in consequence 
of the warrant of the speaker of the 
house of commons to commit Sir Francis 
Burdett to the Tower. 

1814. In different places in the north 
of England, during this and the preced- 
ing year, by the Luddites. Among the 
sailors in the merchants' service at Lynn, 
which was quelled without bloodshed, 
Dec. 9. 

1815. April 8. At the depot at Dart- 
moor, among the prisoners, in quelling 
which seven Americans were killed, and 
35 others wounded. 

1816. Dec. 2. In London, inconse- 
quence of a popular meeting in Spafields, 
for the purpose of presenting a petition 
to the Prince Regent, from the distressed 
manufacturers and mechanics : the shops 
of several gunsmiths were attacked for 
arms, and in that of Mr. Beckwith, on 
Snowhill, a Mr. Piatt, who happened to 
be in the shop, was shot in the body by 
one of the rioters. Several parts of the 
kingdom were agitated by similar con- 
VTilsions this and the following year ; as 
at Dundee where 100 shops were plun- 
dered; at Preston, Lancashire, among 
the unemployed workmen, &c. 

1817. June 16. Several of the rioters 
of London were apprehended, and one 
of the name of Watson was tried for 
high treason and acquitted. 

1819. Aug. 16. An immense multi- 
tude assembled at Manchester, led by 
Hunt, who had become notorious since 
the meeting in Spafields in 1816. The 
magistrates ordered the yeomanry to 



advance, when they rode in among the 
crowd, trampling down those who were 
so unfortunately situated as to obstruct 
their progress. Great numbers were 
severely bruised, many received sabre 
wounds, and some were crushed to death. 
Hunt and his coadjutors were taken into 
custody, but afterwards liberated. 

1830. The memorable riots and con- 
flicts in the streets of Paris. See Paris. 

1831. June 8. In Dean Forest and 
its neighbourhood, when the rioters 
destroyed 50 miles of wall and fence, and 
threw open 10,000 acres of plantation. 

1831. October. At Bristol, in which 
the town was at the mercy of the mob 
for three days. See Bristol. 

1831. Oct. 8. At Derby and Notting- 
ham, &c., in consequence of the rejec- 
tion of the Reform Bill. 

1834. A riot of a serious description 
at Oldham, of the Trades' Union ; two 
members were arrested by some police- 
men, when a large crowd attacked the 
officers, whom they beat severely, and 
rescued the prisoners ; one man was 
shot, which so incensed the mob, that 
the windows of a manufactory were 
immediately demolished, the dwelling- 
house of the proprietor entered, and a 
total destruction of its contents effected. 

RIPON, Yorkshire, was destroyed by 
the Danes in the ninth century, but was 
soon restored, and made a borough by 
Alfred the Great. It was destroyed a 
second time in the war by Ed red against 
the Danes, and being again rebuilt, con- 
tinued to be a place of importance : it 
was plundered by Robert Bruce when 
he invaded England in the reign of 
Edward II. Henry IV. fixed his resi- 
dence here when driven from London 
by the plague. In the civil war, under 
Charles I., the town was occupied by 
the parliamentarians, under Sir Thomas 
Manleverer, until they were expelled by 
Sir John Mallory. 

RITSON, Joseph, the antiquary, 
died October, 1803. 

RIZZIO, David, an Italian musician, 
and the favourite page to Mary Queen 
of Scots, killed March 9, 1566. 

ROADS. The ancient Roman roads 
are much celebrated in history. In Italy 
alone, the Romans are said to have laid 
about 14,000 miles of road. Of these 
the principal are the Appian, Salernian, 
Flaminian, Ostian, Praenestine, Tibur- 
tine. Triumphal, and others, varying in 
extent and importance according to the 



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753 



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circumstances of the country through 
which they passed. The most noble of 
the Roman roads was the Via Appia, or 
Appian Way^ wliich was carried to such 
a length, that Piocopius reckons it five 
days' journey to the end of it, and Leip- 
sius computes it at 350 miles. The 
principal of the Roman roads in Eng- 
land are Watling-street, Ikenild-street, 
Foss Way, and Erminage-street ; but the 
remains of these are hardly to be traced. 
In England the progressive improve- 
ments in the high roads may be estimated 
by the laws enacted at different times 
respecting them. The earliest of these 
was in the year 1285 ; when the lords 
of the soil were enjoined to "enlarge 
those ways where bushes, woods, or 
ditches be, in order to prevent robberies." 
The next law was made by Edward III. 
in 1346 ; when a commission was granted 
by the king to lay a toll on all sorts of 
carriages, passing from the hospital of 
St, Giles-in-the-Fields, to the bar of the 
old Temple, &c. Little further relating 
to this subject occurs, till the reign of 
Henry VIII., when the parishes were 
entrusted with the care of the roads, and 
surveyors were annually elected to take 
care of them. The increase of luxury 
and commerce introduced a number of 
heavy carriages for the conveyance of 
goods. This introduced toUgates or 
turnpikes about 1663. 

The union with Ireland, 1801, gave 
rise to the extension and improvement 
of the roads leading to the great ferries 
at Portpatrick, Holyhead, and Milford, 
which have severally undergone the latest 
amendments, especially the Holyhead 
line of road, passing through North 
"Wales, by Shrewsbury, and also by 
Chester to London. 

The military roads of the Highlands, 
Scotland, had their origin in the rebel- 
lion of 1715, when it was found that the 
royal troops could not penetrate farther 
into the Highlands than Blair, in Athol, 
from the total want of roads. The first 
line of road which they formed was from 
Stirling, across the Grampians, to Inver- 
ness, and from thence along the chain 
of forts, including Fort George, Fort 
Augustus, and Fort William, by which 
troops and artillery were carried witli 
facihty into the central Highlands ; and 
thereby the disturbances of 1745 were 
speedily suppressed. About 1803 a 
select committee of the house of com- 
mons, took under its consideration the 



farther extension of roads in the High- 
lands and islands, and another on the 
roads and highways of England and 
Walt'S was appointed in 1806. 

Mr. M'Adam, since well known for 
his improvements in the construction of 
roads, made a communication to a com- 
mittee of the house of commons in 1811, 
containing directions for the repair of 
an old road. This paper was published 
Avith the report by order of the house. 
He made a similar statement in 1819 to 
the honourable board of agriculture ; 
and in the same year the subject under- 
went a full investigation before a com- 
mittee of the house of commons. By 
the report it appears, that the admirable 
state of repair into which the roads under 
Mr. M'Adam's direction were brought, 
attracted very general attention, and in- 
duced the commissioners of various dis- 
tricts to apply for his assistance or advice. 
His plans were generally adopted, and so 
far succeeded that in February, 1820, the 
lords commissioners of his majesty's 
treasury received a representation from 
several noblemen and gentlemen, urg- 
ing in very strong terras the claims of 
Mr. M'Adam to remuneration for the 
services he had rendered to the public. 

In the session of 1820, Mr. M'Adam 
presented a petition to parliament, pray- 
ing for the payment of his expenses, and 
such reward for his services as the house 
in its justice and wisdom should think 
fit to grant. It appeared that the dis- 
tance travelled by Mr. M'Adam was 
30,000 miles, and that there were 
1920 days employed in this service. 
The expense of the above travelling 
amounted to the sum of £5019 6*., 
which sum Mr. M'Adam stated to have 
been expended by him on this service, 
up to August 1814, and this was accord- 
ingly allowed. In June 1823 the sub- 
ject was again presented to the house of 
commons. From the report of the select 
committee it appeared, that the sum of 
£2000, or £2500, in addition to his 
expenses, would be but a moderate com- 
pensation to Mr. M'Adam for his great 
exertions and very valuable services. 

The turnpike roads in the neighbour- 
hood of the metropolis were, at the 
beginning of 1827, placed under the 
management of commissioners ; and the 
third report, dated April 29, 1829, de- 
tails some important experiments either 
effected or contemplated, and others have 
since been carried into effect. 

5 D 



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754 



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1833. The house of commons ordered • 
the second report from the select com- ■ 
mittee of the house of lords, to examine 
the turnpike returns, &c. The report is 
itself a valuable document. The com- 
mittee states also, that one of the greatest 
evils in the present road system is the 
number of trusts, as well as their limited 
range of extent ; and recommends every 
consolidation of trusts which their loca- 
lities and other circumstances will per- 
mit. It appears from the evidence of 
Lord Lowther, the chairman of the com- 
missioners of the metropolis roads, &c., 
that the debts ujion the trusts through- 
out England, Wales, and Scotland, 
which amounted in 1821 to £6,000,000, 
in 1833 amounted to £8,000,000. Mr. 
M'Adam stated in evidence, tliat the 
Holyhead commissioners expended on 
that Hue of road the sum of 379,000, of 
which the Barnet and Mims improve- 
ment, as it was called, a length of but 
three miles, cost £18,000. Since the 
great increase of railways, the turnpike 
roads are become of less importance; 
and there will probal)ly be some difficulty 
in maintaining them, particularly in agri- 
cultural districts. See Railways. 

ROBERTSON, Dr. William, cele- 
brated historian, was born in Mid Lothian, 
Scotland, in 1721. In 1743 he was pre- 
sented to the living of Gladsmuir, in 
East Lothian; and in 1755 a sermon, 
delivered before the Society for Propagat- 
ing Christian Knowledge raised him very 
high as a pulpit orator. His " History of 
Scotland, during the reigns of Queen 
Mary and King James VI.," made its 
appearance in 1759. In 1761 he was 
appointed one of the king's chaplains in 
ordinary in Scotland, and in the follow- 
ing year elected principal of the Univer- 
sity of Edinburgh. Two years after this 
he was appointed to the post of histo- 
riographer royal of Scotland. His "His- 
tory of the Reign of Charles V.," pub- 
lished soon after, was, like the former, 
received with high approbation. In 1779 
his "History of America" appeared, in 
two volumes quarto. He died June 11, 
1793, in the 7lst year of his age. His 
works have been translated into nearly 
all the languages of Europe. 

ROBESPIERRE, Maximilian Isi- 
dore, one of the leaders of the French 
revolution, was born at Arras in 1759. 
In 1789 he took an active part in all the 
revolutionary meetings, and was ap- 
pointed a deputy from the province of 



Artois, in the States General. In the 
new assembly which met in September 
1792, he was returned a member for the 
city of Paris, and he soon became the 
head of the party called the Mountain. 
After the execution of Louis, Robespierre, 
assisted by Dan ton and Marat, gained a 
decided supremacy; and the reign of 
terror commenced : 16,000 persons are 
supposed to have fallen during nine 
months. At length he lost his popu- 
larity ; a decree of the convention was 
l)assed against him; and July 28, 1794, 
he was led to execution, amidst the ac- 
clamations and curses of thousands of 
spectators, in the 36th year of his age. 
ROBIN Hood. See Hood. 
ROBINS, Benjamin, a celebrated 
mathematician, was born at Bath in 1707. 
In 1727 he was admitted a member of 
the Royal Society, and in 1742 published 
his Treatise on Gunnery. See Gun- 
nery. Having obtained the post of 
engineer-general to the East India Com- 
pany, he arrived in the East Indies in 
1750 ; but the climate not agreeing with 
his constitution, he died there the year 
following, in the 44th year of his age. 

ROBINSON, Sir Charles, Judge 
of the Admiralty Court, died April 22, 
in his 70th year. 

ROBINSON, Mrs., author of "Ly- 
rical Tales," and other poems, died 
1800. 

ROBINSON, Rev. Thomas, author 
of "Scripture Characters," died*1813, 
aged 54. 

ROBINSON, Robert, a dissenting 
minister of high repute, was born Oct. 8, 
1735, at SvvafFham, in Norfolk. He 
published, in 1775, his translation of 
" Saurin's Sermons ;" and in 1778 a 
translation of " Claude's Essay on the 
Composition of a Sermon," with nume- 
rous notes. Tlie latter years of his life 
were chiefly occupied in his " History of 
Baptism," and his "Ecclesiastical Re- 
searches ;" works abounding with cu- 
rious information and striking remarks. 
He died June 8, 1790, in his 55th year. 
ROBISON, John, an eminent Scot- 
tish natural philosopher and mathema- 
tician, was born at Roghall, Stirlingshire, 
in 1739. He accompanied Admiral Sir 
Charles Knowles to St. Petersburgh, as 
his private secretary, in 1770. After his 
return from Russia in 1781, he was ap- 
pointed general secretary to the Royal 
Society. About 1793 he contributed va- 
rious scientific articles to the " Encyclo- 



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peedia Britannica." He died Jan. 30, 
1805, in his 66th year. 

ROBSON, George Fennel, emi- 
nent painter in water-colours, was a 
native of Durham, Before he was 20 
he came to London, and was soon known 
as a most active and persevering student. 
In 1813 he first appeared as an exhibitor 
in the ninth annual exhibition of the So- 
ciety of Painters in Water-colours ; and 
in 1815 his works commanded that 
public attention which gained for hira 
extensive and abundant patronage. In 
1826 he published, in conjunction with 
Mr. Britton, a most delightful series of 
" Picturesque Views of the English Ci- 
ties." He died Sept. 1833. 

ROCHEFOUCAULT, Francis, 
Duke of, prince of Marsillac, was born 
in 1613. He was distinguished equally 
by his courage and his wit. He died at 
Paris in 1680, aged 68. 

ROCHEJAQUELIN, H. Db La, a 
French royalist leader, born 1773, died 
1794. 

ROCHELLE, La, town, France, de- 
partment Lower Charente, was for some 
time in possession of the English, pre- 
viously to 1224, when it was retaken by 
the French. In the 16th century it be- 
came a stronghold of the protestants, 
and was governed for some time as 
a republic. In 1637 it was taken by 
Louis XIII. after a siege of 13 months. 

ROCHESTER, city and seaport, Kent, 
was probably founded by the Romans. 
Through it passed the ancient road called 
Watling-street, leading from the Rhutu- 
pian port to London, and thence across 
the island to Chester. It continued to 
be a place of importance after the con- 
quest of the country by the Anglo- 
Saxons, who gave it the appellation of 
Hroveester ; and about the beginning of 
the sixth century a church was erected 
here by Ethelbert, and shortly after Ro- 
chester was made the see of a bishop. 
In 676 the city was ravaged and almost 
destroyed by Ethelbert, king of Mercia ; 
and it suffered greatly during the inva- 
sions of England by the Danes, in the 
ninth century. William I. gave Roches- 
ter to his brother Odo. In 1130 the 
city suffered by a terrible conflagration. 
The castle was captured by King John in 
his wars with the barons. Henry III. 
repaired the castle, strengthened the 
walls, and improved the city, where he 
held a tournament in 1251. A few years 
after the castle was made a royal gar- 



rison, and successfully defended by the 
earl of Warren against the attacks of the 
earl of Leicester. It was from Rochester 
that James II. embarked on his flight to 
France, at the revolution in 1688. 

The see of Rochester is the smallest of 
the EngHsh bishoj)rics. The ecclesias- 
tical establishment includes a bishop, 
dean, an archdeacon, six prebendaries, 
six minor canons, a chancellor, a regis- 
trar, eight choristers, and various other 
officers. The cathedral church, dedi- 
cated to St. Andrew, is a fine edifice of 
Norman architecture, erected by bishop 
Gundulph, about 1080. 

ROCHESTER, Earl of, a celebrated 
wit of the reign of Charles II., the son 
of Henry, earl of Rochester, was born 
in 1648. In 1659 he was admitted a 
nobleman of Wadham College, Oxford, 
where he obtained the degree of master 
of arts. He afterwards travelled through 
France and Italy. His love of pleasure, 
and his disposition to extravagant mirth, 
carried him to great excesses. By his 
constant indulgences, he entirely wore 
out an excellent constitution before he 
was 30 years of age. In 1679 he was 
visited by Dr. Burnett, who published 
an account of his conferences, in which 
it appears, that though he had lived the 
life of a libertine and an atheist, there 
is good evidence to believe he died the * 
death of a penitent. His death happened 
in 1680. 

ROCKINGHAM, Northamptonshire. 
William the Conqueror built a castle, 
which stood on the summit of a hill 
overlooking the town. In the reign of 
William Rufus, a great council of the 
nobility, bishops, and clergy, was as- 
sembled here. The council sat on Sun- 
day, March 11, 1094, in the chapel 
belonging to the castle. Edward III. 
frequently honoured this fortress with 
his presence; and his successor, Edward 
IV., settled the manor here. Sir Lewis 
Watson was created Baron Rockingham, 
of Rockingham Castle, in the year 1644. 

RODNEY, George Bridges, Ad- 
miral, a distinguished naval com- 
mander, was born 1718. In 1744 he 
was appointed to the command of the 
Ludlow Castle, of 44 guns, and in the 
war with France was promoted to the 
rank of rear-admiral, and employed to 
bombard Havre de Grace. In January, 
1780, he took 19 Spanish transports 
bound from Cadiz to Bilboa, together 
with a 64 gun sliip and five frigates. 



ROL 



756 



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their con vo3\ The same year he beat both 
the Spanish and French fleets. In 1781 
he continued his exertions, with much 
success, in defending the West India 
Islands. But his greatest triumph was 
on April 12, 1782, when he came to a 
close action with the French fleet under 
Count de Crasse. The whole loss of 
the enemy on this occasion amounted to 
eight ships, one of which, the Ville de 
Paris, was the only first-rate man-of- 
war that had ever, at that time, been 
taken and carried into port by any com- 
mander of any nation. The following 
year, as a reward for his numerous ser- 
vices, he had a grant of £2000 a year for 
himself and his heirs, and was promoted 
to the peerage by the title of Baron 
Rodney of Stoke. He died Mav24,l792. 

ROEMER, Olaus, a celebrated Da- 
nish mathematician and astronomer, was 
born at Arhussen in Jutland, in 1644. 
He was united with Picard and Cassini 
in making astronomical observations, 
and became a member of tiie French 
academy of sciences in 1672. Roemer 
was the first person who discovered the 
velocity with which light moves, by 
means of the eclipses of Jupiter's satel- 
lites. Christian V., king of Denmark, 
recalled Roemer to his native country in 
1681, and appointed him professor of 
^ astronomy at Copenhagen, where he 
died in 1710. 

ROGER De Hovedon, the histo- 
rian, flourished 1182. 

ROGERS, Captain WooDS,English 
navigator, died 1732. 

ROHILCUND, territory, Hindoostan, 
east of the Ganges. In the early period 
of the Mogul empire, it was in a very 
flourishing state. In 1774 the forces of 
the Rohillahs were defeated by the Bri- 
tish troops at the battle of Cutterah, when 
Hafez Rehmet, their chieftain, was slain, 
after which the Rohillah sway in Hin- 
doostan terminated, the country being 
transferred to the Oude government. 

ROLAND, Marie Jeanne Phi- 
LEPON, wife of M. De la Platiere Ro- 
land, who was greatly distinguished in 
thatJtevolutionary commotions in France, 
waa^born at Paris in 1754. In 1792 
Roland was appointed minister of the 
interior ; and the principal part of his 
labours was generally attributed to 
Madame Roland. At length she was 
called before the revolutionary tribunal. 
On Nov. 8 she was condemned to death 
for having conspired against the unity 



and indivisibility of the republic, and 
her execution immediately followed. 

ROLLIN, Charles, a celebrated 
French writer, was born at Paris in l66l. 
He became professor of rhetoric in the 
college of Plessis, and in 1688 suc- 
ceeded Horsan, his master, as professor 
of eloquence in the royal college. In 
1694 he was chosen rector of the uni- 
versity. In 1699 he was made coadjutor 
to the principal of the college of Beau- 
vais. In this situation he remained till 
1712 ; when the war between the Jesuits 
and the Jansenists drawing towards a 
crisis, he fell a sacrifice to the preva- 
lence of the former. His treatise upon 
the " Manner of Studying and Teaching 
the Belles Lettres" was published in 
1726; and his "Ancient History of the 
Egyptians, Carthaginians, Assyrians, 
Babylonians, Medes and Persians, Ma- 
cedonians and Greeks," between 1730 
and 1738. He died in 1741, at 80 years 
of age, leaving a character universally 
esteemed. 

ROLLO was a Norwegian chieftain, 
who was banished from his country by 
Harold Harfager, who conquered Nor- 
way in 870. He proved himself so for- 
midable an enemy to Charles the Simple, 
king of France, that he was glad to make 
a treaty with Rollo, by which he gave 
him his daughter in marriage, with that 
part of Neustria, called Normandy, for 
her dower. As soon as he saw himself 
in full possession of Normandy, he ex- 
hibited such virtues as rendered the 
province happy. He died worn out with 
the cares of government, in 932. 

ROMAINE, Rev. Wm., the theolo- 
gical writer, died May 1795. 

ROMAN Catholics. See Catho- 
lics. 

ROMANO, GiULio, a celebrated Ita- 
lian painter, the disciple of Raphael, was 
born at Rome in 1492. After he had 
completed the "Hall of Constantine," 
in the Vatican, from the design of his 
master, Raphael, he went to Mantua. 
He died in 1546. 

ROME, its foundation laid by Ro- 
mulus, its first king, a.c. 753, according 
to most chronologers : by Sir Isaac 
Newton's chronology, a.c. 627- They 
seized the Sabine women at a public 
spectacle, and detained them for wives, 
A.c. 750. 

A. c. 667. The Romans and the Al- 
bans, contesting for superiority, agreed 
to choose three champions on each part 



ROM 757 ROM 

to decide it. The three Horatii, Roman began to contend for supreme power over 

knights, and the three Curiatii, Albans, the commonwealth, which produced a 

being elected by their respective coun- bloody civil war. Ceesar was assassinated 

tries, engaged in the celebrated combat, in the senate-house a.c. 44; but the 

which by the victory of the Horatii, revolution intended to be prevented by 

united Alba to Rome. this catastrophe, was only hastened. 

A.c. 605. The circus built, said to The Roman state was divided into fac- 

have been capable of containing 150,000 tions by Octavius Caesar and Marc An- 

people. tony; a civil war ensued a.c. 41. 

A.c. 500. Sextus Tarquin having ra- a.c. 27. The republic changed, to an 

vished Lucretia, the Tarquins were empire, Octavius Caesar having the titles 

expelled, the kingly government abo- of Imperator and Augustus conferred on 

lished, and the republican established him by the senate and people. About 

under two annual consuls. this time the annual revenue of the 

a.c. 493. The dictatorship first Intro- Roman empire amounted to £40,000,000. 

duced. The city of Rome was computed to have 

A.c. 451. Decemviri appointed to form been 50 English miles in circumference, 

a body of laws, which being done, they and its inhabitants to exceed 4,000,000. 

were written on ten tables, transcribed A new census being taken by Claudius, 

on pillars of brass, and made the standard the emperor and censor, the inhabit- 

of judicial proceedings. ants of Rome were found to amount 

A.c. 450. The tribunes, sediles, &c., to 6,900,000, a.d. 48. The number 

divested of all power. of inhabitants able to bear arms was 

A.c. 443. Creation of censors. Patrir 320,000. 

cian tribunes chosen instead of consuls. The following is a list of the Roman 

A.c. 421. The consulship restored A.c. emperors, with the dates of their acces- 

418. Three questors from among the sion : — 

people elected a.c. 410. Roman soldiers Julius Caesar A.c. 39 

first paid a.c. 406. City sacked by Augustus — 43 

Brennus a.c. 390. City burnt by the Tiberius a.d. 14 

Gauls A.c. 318. The temple of Mars Cahgula — 3/ 

built A.c. 380. Praetors first appointed Claudius — 41 

A.c. 365. Nero — 54= 

A.c. 266. The firstPunic war declared. Galba — 68 

Before this time the Romans never car- Otho. — 69 

ried their arms beyond Italy, nor encoun- Vitellius .>..•. — 69 

tered their enemies at sea. Vespasian — 69 

A.c. 269- About this time silver money Titus — 79 

was first made at Rome, instead of Dornitian ■ — 81 

brass, before in use ; it took the name Nerva — 96 

of moneta from the temple of Juno Trajan — 97 

Moneta, where it was coined. Adrian — 117 

A.c. 218. The secondPunic war began. Antoninus Pius — 138 

The capitol and temple of Janus built Marcus Aurelius — 161 

A.c. 207. The third Punic war A.c. 149. Commodus — 180 

A.c. 146. After a siege of three years Pertinax — 193 

the Romans took Carthage and utterly Julianus... — 193 

destroyed it. See Carthage. Severus — 194 

A.c. 103. Marius made his grand Caracalla and Geta — 211 

triumphal entry into Rome, preceded by Macrinus and his son — 217 

an immense treasure of gold and silver, Heliogabalus — 218 

the spoils of Numidia ; the famous Alexander — 222 

Jugurtha, its king, and his two sons in Maximus and his son — 235 

chains, graced the triumph. Pupienus and Balbinus — 238 

A.c. 102. The Ambrones and Teu- The Gordiani — 238 

tones defeated by Marius ; the wives of Philip and his son — 244 

the former being refused security from Decius and his son — 248 

violation, murdered themselves and their Gallus and Volusian — 251 

children. Valerian — 254 

A.c. 59. Pompey and Julius Caesar Gallienus — 259 



ROM 



758 



ROM 



Claudius II A.D. 268 

Quintilius — 270 

Aurelian — 273 

Tacitus — 275 

Florianus — 275 

Probus — 276 

Carus — 282 

Numerian — 282 

Carinus — 282 

Dioclesian — 284 

Maximian — 286 

Galerius and Constantius — 304 

Constantine the Great — 306 

Constantine, Constans, and Con- 
stantius — 337 

Julian the Apostate — 360 

Jovian — 363 

Valentinian and Valens — 364 

Gratian — 367 

Valentinian II — 375 

Theodosius the Great — 379 

Honorius — 395 

The Goths, Vandals, and other bar- 
barous nations of the north, began to 
invade the Roman empire about a.d. 250. 
It was divided into four parts between 
the two emperors Dioclesian and Con- 
stantius, (which proved the basis of its 
dissolution,) about 292. The seat of the 
empire was removed from Rome to Con- 
stantinople, by Constantine in 330. It 
was divided again into the eastern and 
western empires in 379. The city of 
Rome was taken and plundered by the 
Goths in 410; by the Vandals in 455; 
by the Heruli in 476. It was recovered 
for Justinian, by Belisarius, 537. In 547 
the Goths retook it ; and in 553, 
Narses, another of Justinian's generals, 
reconquered it for the emperor. 

726. Rome with its territory revolted 
from the Greek emperors, became a free 
state, and was governed by a senate. 
Finally, the senate and pope acknow- 
ledged Charlemagne, king of France, as 
emperor ofthe West, who surrendered the 
city and duchy to the people, reserving 
the sovereignty, 800. The popes after- 
wards made themselves independent, 
and continued in possession of this re- 
nowned city and its territories, called 
the ecclesiastical states, till 1798. The 
inhabitants of Rome, June 4, 1780, 
amounted to 155,184, of whom 36,485 
were housekeepers. 

The States ofthe Church were reduced 
by the French to a republic, and the 
pope was sent from Rome, February 15, 
1798. The pope having been restored 
to the government, went to Paris to 



crown Buonaparte emperor of France, 
and performed that ceremony, Dec. 2, 
1804. Revolution in the form of the 
papal government 1809. Ecclesiastical 
states united to the French empire, Ja- 
nuary 17, 1810; restoration of the papal 
government 1815. Rome is now the 
capital of the States of the Church, and, 
with the territory around it, forms one 
of the delegations into which these states 
are divided. See Church, States of 
THE, p. 287- 

ROMILLY, Sir Samuel, one of 
the most distinguished lawyers of the 
present day, was born in 1757- He was 
articled at the age of 16, to one of the 
six clerks of chancery. At 21 he entered 
at Gray's Inn, and after five years of 
assiduous study, was called to the bar in 
1783. In the spring of 1784 he first went 
the circuit, his choice having fallen on 
the Midland ; but having pursued this 
course for two or three years without 
making any progress, he gave up the 
circuit, and attended, in preference, the 
Coventry and Warwick sessions. In 
1 800 his practice had so much increased, 
and he had obtained such celebrity as to 
be appointed one of the king's counsel. 
Five years afterwards, on the resignation 
of Mr. Baron Sutton, he was promoted 
to the chancellorship of Durham. 

On Mr. Fox and Lord Grenville 
coming into power in 1806, he was ap- 
pointed solicitor-general, and immedi- 
ately afterwards was returned member 
for Queenborough. He introduced to 
the notice of parliament several measures 
connected with legal reform, but was 
unable to eflfect any great improvement 
before a change in the government took 
place, and his party occupied the seats 
of the opposition. Notwithstanding the 
loss of office, and of the influence which 
it gave, he continued his exertions to 
secure an improvement of the laws, and 
especially the abolition of the punish- 
ment of death in all minor oflfences. In 
1818, parliament having been dissolved, 
he was elected, early in September, 
the representative of the city of West- 
minster, but he was fated never to take 
his seat in the house. Lady Romilly, 
who had been ill for some months pre- 
viously, died October 26, and from the 
bereavement of a wife with whom he 
had lived in uninterrupted happiness for 
20 years, his mind received so severe a 
shock that, on October 29, three days 
after her death, in a paroxysm of fever. 



R OS 



759 



ROS 



he put an end to his own existence. Thus 
died a man so much of whose life had 
been devoted to ameliorate and improve 
the condition of his fellow-creatures, 
than whom few were ever more beloved 
while living, or descended to the grave 
more regretted. 

ROMNEY, George, an eminent En- 
glish artist, was born at Dalton in Lan- 
cashire, in December 1734. He set out 
for London in 1762, where he first 
painted portraits at five guineas a head, 
and acquired considerable practice. In 
1764 he visited France, and obtained 
admittance to the gallery of the duke of 
Orleans, the Luxemburg and other 
repositories of art. On his return to 
London he continued to advance in re- 
putation [and practice, exhibiting with 
the incorporated society of artists in 
Pall Mall and in Spring Gardens. In 
1775 he took a house in Cavendish- 
square, where he resided till he retired, 
in 1798, from public practice. He died 
in Nov. 1802. 

ROOKE, Sir George, a celebrated 
naval commander, born in 1650. In 
1690 he was appointed rear-admiral of 
the red, and in that rank he served in 
the fight off Beachy Head. In 1692 he 
was promoted to the rank of vice-admiral 
of the blue, when he served in the famous 
battle off La Hogue ; in which he be- 
haved with such distinguished courage 
that King William settled a pension of 
£1000 per annum on him for life. 
Upon the accession of Queen Anne in 
1702, he was constituted vice-admiral 
and lieutenant of the admiralty of Eng- 
land. In July 1704 he attacked Gib- 
raltar, when, by the bravery of the En- 
glish seamen, the place was taken on the 
24th. At last, obhged by the preva- 
lence of party-spirit, to quit the service 
of his country, he retired to his seat in 
Kent, where he spent the remainder of 
his days as a private gentleman. He 
died Jan. 24, 1708, in his 58th year. 

ROSA, Salvator, an admired pain- 
ter, well known as the author of spirited 
and extravagant sketches of banditti, &c., 
was born at Naples in 1614. The style 
which he formed is peculiarly his own. 
He spent the early part of his life in a 
troop of banditti ; and the rocky desolate 
scenes in which he was accustomed to 
take refuge, furnished him with those 
romantic ideas of landscape in which he 
so greatly excelled. He died in 1673, 
aged 59. 



ROSAMOND, daughter of Walter 
Lord Clifford, and mistress of Henry II. 
was born in 1162. She was buried in 
the church of Godstow, Oxfordshire, 
where her body remained till it was or- 
dered to be removed with every mark of 
disgrace by Hugh bishop of Lincoln in 
1191. 

ROSARY, or beads, first used in Ro- 
mish prayers 1093. 

ROSAS, ancient Rhodia, a town of 
Spain, was taken by the French in 1703, 
and again in 1808, when the town was 
burned. , 

ROSBx\CH, in the upper circle of 
Saxony, totally disappeared, supposed 
by an earthquake, October 1792. 

ROSCIUS, QuiNTus, a Roman actor 
of great celebrity, was a native of Gaul, 
and was contemporary at Rome with the 
celebrated actor Esopus. So great were 
his talents for the stage, and such was 
the degree of perfection to which he 
carried his art, that, according to Cicero, 
a complete master in any other art was 
popularly called the Roscius of it. He 
died A.c. 61. 

ROSCOE, William, associate of the 
Roj'al Society of Literature, and F.L.S., 
was born at Liverpool, of obscure parent- 
age. At the age of 16 he was admitted 
as an articled clerk to Mr. Eyes, a re- 
spectable attorney in Liverpool. While 
engaged in the duties of the office, he 
found means to acquire a knowledge of 
Latin, and afterwards of French and 
Italian. After the expiration of his arti- 
cles he entered into partnership with Mr. 
Aspinall, when the entire management 
of an office, extensive in practice, and 
high in reputation, devolved on him 
alone. In December 1773 he recited 
before the society formed at Liverpool 
for the encouragement of drawing, paint- 
ing, &c., an ode, which was afterwards 
published with "Mount Pleasant." He 
occasionally gave lectures on subjects 
connected with the objects of this insti- 
tution, and was a very active member of 
the society. The great work on which 
Mr. Roscoe's fame chiefly rests, his 
" Life of Lorenzo de Medici," was com- 
menced in 1790, and completed in 1796. 
In 1805 appeared his second great work, 
"The Life and Pontificate of Leo the 
Tenth," the son of Lorenzo de Medici. 
In I8O6 he was elected one of the mem- 
bers for his 'native town in parliament. 
His senatorial career was brief; but 
during its continuance he distinguished 



ROS 760 

himself as a steadfast advocate of the 
principles he had always professed, and 
as a warm partisan of tlie cause of eman- 
cipation throughout the debates upon 
the slave trade. After the dissolution, in 
1807, he declined entering upon a new 
contest, and from that time interfered 
with politics only by means of occasional 
pamphlets. He died June 30, 1S31, 
aged 80. 

ROSCOMMON, Earl of, English 
poet, died 1684. 

ROSE, Rev. Hugh James, B.D., 
principal of King's College, London, 
Avas born at Uclcfield, and educated at 
Trinity College, Cambridge, where he 
was senior medalist of his year (1817) 
and 14th wrangler; was made vicar of 
Horsham in 1822 ; Christian advocate 
at Cambridge in 1829; professor of 
Divinity in the university of Durham in 
1833; and principal of King's College, 
London, in 1836. He performed the 
duties of his several offices with the 
most exemplary fidehty and ability ; and 
his distinguished talents, varied learning, 
zealous piety, and benevolent and amia- 
ble character, gained for him a high 
respect and a commanding influence. 
He died December 22, 1838. 

ROSENMULLER, John George, 
critic, born 1736, died 1815. 

ROSLIN, village, Mid Lothian, Scot- 
land, remarkable for its ancient chapel 
and castle. The castle was built about 
the middle of the 12th century. The 
chapel was founded in 1446, by William 
Saint Clair. The fields immediately 
contiguous are celebrated in history as 
the scene of three sanguinary engage- 
ments betwixt the English and Scotch, 
all fought on the same day, February 24, 
1303. 

ROSS, Captain, arrived at Hull, 
October 18, 1833, on his return from his 
Arctic expedition, after an absence of 
four years, and when all hope of his 
return had been nearly abandoned. 

ROSSI, Giov. Gherardo De, di- 
rector of the academy of fine arts at Na- 
ples. As a dramatic writer, he was 
reckoned among the best of his day. 
He died March 28, 1827. 

ROSTOCK, a town in the dnchy of 
Mecklenburg, contains a university 
founded in 1419. In 1437 the town fell 
under the ban both of the emperor and 
pope, and the professors removed to 
Griefswalde, whence they returned again 
in 1443. In 1487 tlie university was 



ROU 



removed to Lubeck, but again restored 
in 1492. In 1218 it was admitted into 
the Hanseatic confederacy. The com- 
merce has greatly increased of late years. 
The total vahie of all sorts of exports, in 
1835, was estimated at about £185,000. 

ROTHESAY Castle, steam-boat, 
plying between Liverpool and Beaumaris, 
lost on the night of August 17, 1831, 
with nearly 200 passengers and crew 
on board, of whom only about 20 were 
saved. 

ROTHSCHILD, N. M.. the leading 
stockbroker of Europe, died at Frank- 
fort, July 28, 1836. His remains were 
brought to London for interment in the 
Jews' burial ground, Whitechapel-road. 

ROTTERDAM, seaport of Holland, 
is of considerable antiquity. In 1270 it 
was surrounded with ramparts, and 
honoured with several privileges ; but 
27 years after, it was taken by the Flem- 
ings. In 1418 Brederode, chief of the 
Hacks, made himself master of it; since 
that period it has continued yearly to 
increase by means of the conveniency 
of its harbour. 

ROUBILIAC, famous sculptor, died 
Jan. 11, 1762. 

ROUEN, city, France, formerly capital 
of Normandy. Joan of Arc, the maid 
of Orleans, was burnt here by the En- 
glish in 1431. The cathedral was struck 
by lightning ; the principal tower de- 
stroyed, and part of the nave and covering 
of the choir burnt, Sept. 15, 1822. 

ROUND Table, order of knight- 
hood, began 516; revived 1344. 

ROUSSEAU, Jean Jaques, was 
born at Geneva, June 28, 1712. Ac- 
cording to his " Confessions," his early 
life was marked by scenes of the most 
gross description, dishonourable alike to 
the author and his early associates. He 
was first put apprentice to an attorney, 
and after this to an engraver, but he 
became a fugitive from his master when 
he was in his 15th year. In 1741 he 
went to Paris, where he was long in very 
destitute circumstances. The year 1750 
was the commencement of Rousseau's li- 
terary career, in his "Discourses against 
the Sciences," in consequence of which 
he found himself involved in a formida- 
ble train of correspondence. From that 
period he decreased in happiness as he 
increased in celebrity. In 1760 Rous- 
seau published his celebrated novel, 
"Julie, ou la Nouvelle Heloise;" in 
1762 his " Emilie, ou de I'Education," 



ROY 



761 



RUE 



which may be regarded as his puncipal 
work. The French parliament con- 
demned this book in 1762, and entered 
into a criminal prosecution against the 
author, which forced him to a precipitate 
retreat. Rousseau set out for London 
in 1766, where his morbid sensibility 
led to a quarrel with Hume, although 
the latter had procured for him a very 
agreeable settlement in the country. In 
1770 he returned to Paris, where he was 
contented with living in a calm philoso- 
phical manner, giving himself only to 
the society of a few tried friends. He 
died of an apoplexy at Ermenonville, a 
castle, the seat of the marquis de Girar- 
din, about ten leagues from Paris, July 2, 
1778, aged 66 years. 

ROVIGO, Duke of, a minister of 
Napoleon's government, died June 1, 
1833. 

ROWAN, Archibald Hamilton, 
well known for his connection with the 
Irish rebellion, trial, escape, &c., died 
in Dublin, Nov. 2, 1834, aged 84. 

ROWE, Elizabeth, the author of 
" Devout Exercises," &c., died Feb. 20, 
1737. aged 63. 

ROWE, Nicholas, the author of 
" Jane Shore," the " Fair Penitent," 
&c.,died 1718, aged 44. 

ROWLEY, eminent English mathe- 
matician, died 1728. 

ROY, Rammohun, an Indian rajah, 
converted to Christianity. He visited 
England, and died at Stapleton, near 
Bristol, Sept. 27, 1833. 

ROYAL Academy of painting, sculp- 
ture, and architecture, founded 1768. 
The first president was Sir Joshua Rey- 
nolds in, 1769- See Reynolds. The 
annual exhibition, formerly at Somer- 
set-house, was removed in 1837 to the 
National Gallery, Trafalgar-street. 

ROYAL Exchange, founded by Sir 
Thomas Gresham 1566. See Gresham. 
Entitled royal by Queen Elizabeth, Jan. 
29, 1571; burnt down 1666; rebuilt 
1670; repaired and beautified Sept. 28, 
1769; the tower rebuilt 1821; repaired 
1824; burnt down again Jan. 10, 1838. 
Sale of the materials April 1838, which 
produced nearly £2000. The alto-re- 
lievo, in artificial stone, representing 
Queen Elizabeth proclaiming the Royal 
E.xchange, sold for £21; the corre- 
sponding alto-relievo, representing Bri- 
tannia seated amidst the emblems of 
commerce, accompanied by science, agri- 
culture, manufactures, &c., £36.; the 



carved emblematical figures of Europe, 
Asia, Africa, and America, £110. 

ROYAL Society of England, 
instituted by King Cluules II., de- 
rived its origin from the private meet- 
ings of a few individuals distinguished 
for their love of science, who, about 
1645, agreed to meet regularly on a 
certain fixed day of the week, for the 
discussion of philosophical sul)jects. 
The king granted them a royal charter, 
dated July 15, 1662; and a more am))le 
one was granted April 22, 1669, by 
which they were erected into a corpora- 
tion, and endowed with various privileges 
and authorities. The Royal Society thus 
formed consisted, as it now does, of a 
president, council, and fellows. Their 
first president was Lord Brouncker. 
In 1703 Sir Isaac Newton was elected to 
the chair, which he filled during 25 
years. Among the more recent distin- 
guished presidents of this society was 
Sir H. Davy, from 1820 to 1827- On 
the resignation of the duke of Sussex 
November, 1839, tlie marquis of North- 
ampton was chosen. 

RUBENS, Peter Paul, an eminent 
Flemish painter, was born at Cologne in 
1577. Having travelled in Italy to study 
the productions of the most eminent 
artists, he established himself at Ant- 
v/erp, where his success in his art, and 
the honours and wealth which were ac- 
cumulated upon him, excited the envy 
and malignity of many of his rivals. 
In 1620 he was invited to Paris by 
Maiy de Medicis, queen of Henry IV. of 
France, where he painted the galleries in 
the palace of Luxemburg. He came 
over to England in 1630, and Charles I. 
treated him with every mark of respect; 
and as an acknowledgment of his merit, 
created him a knight. He returned to 
Antwerp, where for some time he enjoyed 
his well-earned fame and honours. He 
continued to exercise his art until 1640, 
when he died aged 63. Among his 
finished pieces may be mentioned the 
Crucifixion ; but of all his works, the 
paintings of the palace of Luxemburg 
best display his genius and his style. 

RUDDIMAN,Thomas, grammarian, 
born 1674, died 1757. 

RUDHARD. M. Von, the late chief 
minister of Greece, born in 1790, in 
Upper Franconia, died at Trieste, shortly 
after resigning his olfice, April 11. 
1838. 

RUE, Abbe', Gervais De La, 

5 E 



RUM 



762 



RUS 



honorary canon of the cathedral of 
Bayeux, knight of the legion of honour, 
member of the Institute, dean of the 
faculty of letters of the Royal Academy 
of Caen, and foreign member of the 
Society of Antiquaries of London, died 
September 27, 1835. 

RUFFHEAD, Owen, eminent En- 
ghsh lawyer, died 1769- 

RUFFO, Cardinal Fabrizio, was 
born at Naples, September 10, 1744, 
and distinguished himself by his finan- 
cial talents during the pontificate of 
Pius VI. In 1799 he accomphshed the 
task of reconquering Naples from the 
French. In 1801 he was appointed 
minister plenipotentiary from the king 
of Naples to the court of Rome. After 
the imprisonment of Pius VII. at Savona, 
Napoleon invited the cardinal to Paris, 
and bestowed on him the cross of the 
legion of honour. He returned to Rome 
with the pope in 1814. During the lat- 
ter years of his life, he resided chiefly 
on his estates in the kingdom of Naples. 
He died Dec. 13, 1827. 

RUFINUS, an ecclesiastical writer, 
was bom about the middle of the fourth 
century, in Italy. After various travels, 
in 407 he returned to Rome ; but the 
year after, that city being threatened by 
Alaric, he retired to Sicily, where he died 
in 410. 

RUHNKEN, the Dutch phUologist, 
bom 1723, died 1798. 

RULING Machines, used in en- 
graving, invented by a Dutchman at 
London, 1782 ; greatly improved by 
Woodmason, Payne, Brown, &c. ; intro- 
duced into Scotland, 1803. 

RUM, a spirituous liquor, imported 
from the West Indies, obtained by 
means of fermentation and distillation, 
from molasses, the refuse of the cane 
juice, and portions of the cane, after the 
sugar has been extracted. During the 
three years ending with 1802, when the 
duty in Great Britain was about 9s. a 
gallon, and in Ireland 6s. 8|c?., the 
consumption of the United Kingdom 
amounted to 3,150,000 gallons a year. 
During the three years ending with 
1823, when the duty in Great Britain 
was 13s. ll^d. a gallon, and in Ireland 
12s. 8id., the annual consumption 
amounted to only 2,307,000 gallons. 
The reduction of the duty in 1826, to 
8s. 6d, increased the consumption from 
about 2,500,000 to above 3,600,000 gal- 
ons, in 1830. 



RUMBOLD, Sir George, English 
minister to the Hanseatic towns, seized 
at Hamburgh by the French, and carried 
to Paris, October 24, 1804. 

RUMFORD, Count Benjamin, the 
author of "Experiments on Heat," &c., 
born 1753, died August 19, 1814. 

RUMSEY Abbey, Hants, built in 
972. 

RUNNEMEDE, or Runnymede, 
the place where Magna Charta was 
signed. See Magna Charta. 

RUPERT, Prince, the third son of 
Frederick, elector palatine of the Rhine, 
and Elizabeth, daughter of King JamesJ. 
of England, was born in 1619. In 1642 
he came over to England, and offered 
his services to King Charles I., who 
gave him a command in his army. When 
a part of the English navy, in 1648, went 
over to Charles II., it was placed under 
the command of Prince Rupert, who 
was employed in some important ser- 
vices, and greatly distinguished himself 
in the Dutch war in 1673, &c. He died 
at his house in Spring Gardens, Nov. 29, 
1682. 

RUSSELL, Dr., author of the " His- 
tory of Modern Europe," died 1794. 

RUSSELL, Lord William, a dis- 
tinguished patriot during the reign of 
Charles II., was born September 29, 
1639. He was committed to the Tower 
on a false charge of being concerned in 
the Ryehouse plot; and after some of the 
conspirators had been condemned and 
executed, and the nation was fully im- 
pressed with horror of a plot supposed 
to be connected throughout with a 
design of assassination, he was brought 
to trial in July 1683.* The jury, after a 
very short deliberation, found the pri- 
soner guilty, and he received the sentence 
of death. He suffered with resignation 
and composure on July 21 following. 

RUSSELL, Lady Rachel, the vene- 
rated relict of the martyr of liberty, and 
author of " Letters," died 1723. 

RUSSELL, LATE Lord William, 
uncle of the duke of Bedford and Lord 
John Russell, found dead in his bed at 
his house in town, with his throat cut, 
April 5, 1840. Courvoisier, his Swiss 
valet, was afterwards tried and executed 
as his murderer. 

RUSSIA, or Muscovy, was anciently 
Sarmatia.and inhabited by the Scythians. 
The earliest authentic account of this 
country is when Rurick was grand duke 
of Novogorod, in 862. The Poles con- 



J 



RUS 



763 



RUS 



quered it about 1058. Andrey I. began 
his reign 1158, and laid the foundation 
q( Moscow. In the 13th century the 
seat of government was transferred from 
Kiev to Moscow. In 1382 that city was 
taken after a short siege, by Tamerlane, 
and the east frontier continued subject 
to repeated invasions from the Tartars. 
In 1477, under the prosperous reign of 
Ivan I., the town of Novogorod, a part of 
Lithuania, were incorporated with the 
Russian dominions. In 1552 Moscow 
was entered and consigned to flames by 
the Tartars. 

The extinction of the reigning dynasty 
in 1595, by the death of the czar, Theo- 
dore, proved a prelude to a long series of 
civil struggles, until 1613, when a no- 
bleman of the name of Romanof was 
created sovereign, and succeeded in re- 
storing tranquillity to Russia. His son 
Alexis, a prince of ability, recovered part 
of the provinces lost in the preceding 
disorders, but died in 1675 ; leaving 
three sons, of whom the youngest was 
the celebrated Peter L, surnamed the 
Great. See Peter I. 

In 1709 the empire was invaded by 
Charles Xll.of Sweden; butfrom the battle 
of Pultawa (1709), fortune favoured the 
arms of Peter. Poland and his north- 
west provinces were recovered, and the 
latter were definitely confirmed to Russia 
by the peace with Sweden in 1721. 
Peter died in 1725, in his 53d year; he 
was succeeded byhis widow, Catherine 1., 
who reigned only two years, and her 
son, Peter II., only three years. Anne, 
a niece of Peter, came to the throne in 
1730, and reigned until 1740. Ivan III., 
a child, bore the name of sovereign 
hardly two years ; but the reign of Eli- 
zabeth, daughter of Peter I., lasted 20 
years, and proved a period of great 
splendour. Her successor, Peter III., 
was a weak prince, who lost both his 
throne and hfe in the first year of his 
reign. 

The imperial power was vested in his 
widow Catherine II. Her first war with 
Turkey lasted from 1768 to 1774, with 
great success. In 1773 the first parti- 
tion of Poland took place; in 1787 a 
second war with Turkey was begun and 
carried on, first in conjunction with 
Austria, afterwards by Russia alone ; it 
was then that the energy of the Russian 
arms was called forth, and led to the suc- 
cesses of Suwarrow. Peace was signed 
in 1792, in consequence of the hostile 



attitude of England ; and about three 
years afterwards the final division of Po- 
land took place. Catherine died in 1796, 
leaving her throne to her son, the feeble 
Paul I. 

The campaign of 1799 first brought 
the Russian and French arms into con- 
tact. In Italy the Russians, commanded 
by Suwarrow, were victorious. The Rus- 
sians again met the French in Switzer- 
land, under Korsakof, where they were 
defeated ; and the contest was cut short 
by Paul, who recalled his troops in 1800 : 
he perished by a conspiracy in 1801. 

Alexander his son, succeeded to the 
throne, and preserved peace until the 
aggressions of Buonaparte led to the 
formation of the third coalition in 1805. 
The continual usurpations of Buona- 
parte again roused the Russian court ; 
and in 1812 began the fourth great 
struggle between Russia and France: 
the plan pursued by the Russians of 
destroying supplies proved successful. 
This was exemplified in the destruction 
of the ancient capitalof the czars in 1812. 
See Moscow. The emperor Alexander 
died Dec. 1, 1825, and was succeeded by 
Nicholas, the present emperor. 

In 1827 a war with Persia broke out, 
occasioned by some disputed territory on 
the north-west boundary, between the 
two countries, towards Georgia. Fall of 
Erivan the same year ; the trenches were 
opened on the night of Oct. 7. During 
six days the works were carried on with 
activity, and a battery was erected. On 
the 19th the garrison surrendered pri- 
soners of war. This opened up to the 
Russians a passage into the heart of the 
Persian territory, and led to peace in the 
following month. 

The same year war was declared 
against Turkey ; and in May 1828, the 
Russians had crossed the Pruth. After 
a series of rapid successes, before the 
end of the campaign, they took posses- 
sion of Varna, where they established 
themselves during the winter. The next 
campaign was equally successful ; so that 
before the end of the year 1829, they 
were enabled to dictate the terms of 
peace almost at the gates of Constanti- 
nople. In 1833 Russia made an attack 
on Poland, by which that country was 
almost annihilated. See Poland. 

1837. The aggressive ])olicyof Russia 
in the East became a subject of disturb- 
ance to England. In 64 years Russia 
had approached 450 miles nearer Con- 



RUT 



\i 



RYS 



stantinople; she had possessed herself 
of the metro])oUs of Poland, while the 
capital of Sweden, from which, in Peter 
the Great's time, her boundary was 300 
miles distant, was now within a short 
march of her garrison. Within the same 
period she had extended herself about 
1000 miles in the direction of India, and 
towards the Persian capital. The batta- 
lions that invaded Persia found, at the 
termination of the war, that they were as 
near to Herat as to the banks of the Don, 
and that they had already accomplished 
half the distance to Delhi. The pro- 
gress of this ambitious power was, how- 
ever, severely checked by the Circassian 
war, which commenced this year. 

1838. Russia regained her ascendency 
in the cabinet of the Schah of Persia, 
and in defiance of the remonstrances of 
the British government, that monarch 
conducted an expedition against Herat 
at her instigation. The Marquis Clan- 
licarde, envoy from Great Britain to St, 
Petersburgh, presented to Count Nessel- 
rode a note, demanding an explanation 
of the events which had taken place in 
Persia and in Afighanistan, and com- 
plaining of the proceedings of the Rus- 
sian ambassador in Persia, Count Si- 
monitsch, and of the Russian agent 
Witkewitsch, at Cabool. For an account 
of the war brought on by thess intrigues, 
see Cabool. 

RUSSIAN Company was first incor- 
porated by charter of Pliilip and Mary, 
sanctioned by act of parliament in 1566. 
The statute 10 and 11 Will. III. c 6. 
enacts, that every British subject desiring 
admission into the Russian company, 
shall he admitted on paying £5; and 
every individual admitted into the com- 
pany conducts his business entirely as 
a private adventurer, or as he would do 
were the company abolished. 

RUTER, Martin, D.D., a distin- 
guislied American minister of the Me- 
thodist episcopal church, was born 
April 3, 1785, at Charlestown, Mass. 
He was elected in 1827 president of 
Augusta College in Kentucky, which 
office he resigned in 1832, and was sta- 
tioned for two years at Pittsburg, Pa. 
In 1834 he became president of Alle- 
ghany College at Meadville, wliich office 
he sustained till 1837, when he resigned 



it for the purpose of undertaking the 
superintendence of a mission to Texas, 
where he fell a sacrifice to his zealous 
and benevolent labours. He died May 
16, 1838. 

RUYSCH, Frederick, anatomist, 
born 1638, died 1731. 

RUYTER, Michael Adrian De, 
a distinguished Dutch naval officer, was 
born at Flushing in 1607. In 1641 he 
was sent to the assistance of the Portu- 
guese, who had thrown off the yoke of 
Spain. When war broke out in 1652 
between the English and Dutch, he was 
appointed to the command of a squadron. 
He fell in with the English Admiral 
Ayscough, with whom he had an en- 
gagement off Plymouth, which termi- 
nated to the advantage of the Dutch. 
De Ruyter likewise distinguished himself 
in the terrible battle of three days, fought 
in February, 1653, between Tromp and 
Blake, near the mouth of the Channel. 
After other services, he obtained a signal 
victory over the combined fleets of France 
and Spain in 1672. The next year he 
had three engagements with the fleets 
of France and England, in which his 
bravery was still more distinguished. 
But he did not long enjoy his triumphs; 
in an engagement with the French fleet 
in 1676 oflf the coast of Sicily, he lost 
the day, and received a woxmd of which 
h© died at the age of 69, deeply regretted 
by his country and admired by all 
Europe. 

RYAN, Lacy, eminent actor and 
dramatic writer, died 1760. 

RYE, market town, Sussex, is a place 
of considerable antiquity. It is men- 
tioned as a cinque port in the reign of 
Henry III.; and in that of Edward 
III., a wall, with several towers, was 
erected for the defence of the town. In 
the reign of Richard II. the French 
landed here, and plundered and burnt 
the town ; but in the reign of Elizabeth 
it had againbecome aplace of importance. 

RYE-HOUSE Plot, prevented by a 
fire that happened at Newmarket, March 
22 ; discovered June 14, 1683. 

RYMER, Thomas, English antiqua- 
rian and historian, died 1713. 

RYSWICK, IPeace of, between 
France, England, Spain, and Holland ; 
signed by Germany, Oct. 30, 1697. 



SAD 



765 



SAF 



S, 



, SABA, island. West Indies, planted 
by the Dutch 1640. It was taken by 
the English in 1781, and again in 1801, 
but afterwards restored. 

SABBATICAL Year among the 
Jews ; the first was a.c. 1451. 

SABELLIANS, a sect of Christians 
of the third century. They embraced 
the opinions of Sabellius, a philosopher 
of Egypt, who openly taught that there 
is but one person in the Godhead. Sa- 
bellianism spread to a great degree in 
375 ; there were many of that opinion in 
Mesopotamia and at Rome. 

SABRINA Island, in the Azores, 
which suddenly appeared in Jan. 30, 
1811, gradually disappeared Oct, 1811. 

SACHEVEREL, Dr. Henry, a 
famous clergyman of the church of 
England, in the reign of Queen Anne ; 
who distinguished himself by sermons 
and writings against the Dissenters, &c. 
He owed his consequence to being in- 
discreetly prosecuted by the house of 
lords for his assize sermon at Derby, 
and his fifth of November sermon at St. 
Paul's in 1709 ; in which he asserted 
the doctrine of non-resistance to govern- 
ment in its utmost extent, and reflected 
severely on the act of toleration. His 
trial, March 1710, inflamed the high- 
church party to dangerous riots and 
excesses : he was suspended for three 
years, and his sermons burned by the 
common hangman. He died 1724. 

SACRAMENT, St., or Colonia, 
city, republic of Buenos Ay res, was 
founded by the Portuguese in 1679, 
under Don Manuel de Lobo, and has oc- 
casioned many struggles between Spain 
and Portugal. It was successively 
wrested from its founders, restored by 
Charles V. to the Portugues, resumed in 
in 1750 by Spain, and in 1778, ceded to 
the Spaniards. 

SADDLERS' Company, London, in- 
corporated 1280. 

SADDUCEES, a sect among the an- 
cient Jews ; according to the Jewish Tal- 
mud, derived their name from Sadoc, 
and arose about a.c. 260. They denied 
the resurrection of the dead, and the 
existence of angels, and of the spirits 
or souls of men departed. Lender the 



reign of Hyrcanus, who about a.c. 130 
])ossessed the supreme civil and sacer- 
dotal power, the Sadducees were the 
leading sect. After the destruction of 
Jerusalem the sect fell into contempt 
among their countrymen ; but in the be- 
ginning of the third century they were 
formidable in Egypt, and met with 
defenders in the 8th and 12th centuries. 
There are still Sadducees in Africa, and 
in several other places. 

SADI, the author of the Persian poeras, 
" The Garden of Roses," and " The Gar- 
den of Fruits," died 1296, aged nearly 
lOO. 

SADLER, Michael Thomas, for- 
merly M, P. for Newark, and after- 
wards for Aldborough, in Yorkshire. 
He was well known for his exertions in 
connection with the factory question, and 
for his works on population and on Ire- 
land. He died at Belfast of disease of the 
heart, July 29, aged 55. 

SAFETY Lamp, invented by Sir 
Humphry Davy about 1815, for illu- 
minating mines, and at the same time 
for greatly diminishing, if not com- 
pletely annihilating, the danger of ex- 
plosion. This invention consists of a 
lamp, or rather a number of air-tight 
lanterns of various constructions, sup- 
plied with air from tubes or canals of 
small diameter; or from apertures co- 
vered with wire-gauze placed below the 
flame, through which explosions cannot 
be communicated, and having a chimney 
at the upper part for carrying off the foul 
air. Some improvements, originating in 
Sir Humphry's researches into the na- 
ture of flame, were afterwards effected. 

In 1838 a new safety lamp was in- 
vented by Messrs. Bursill, which con- 
sists of a portable iron cylinder being 
highly charged with condensed atmo- 
spheric air. At one end of this cylinder 
is a double way cock, to supply the 
safety lamp and the tube for breathing, 
when required. A number of these cylin- 
ders, prepared with straps to fasten on 
the back, are to be charged with pure 
atmospheric air from an air-pump, 
worked by the steam-engine, and after- 
wards to be lowered into the mine for 
the use of the miners. It is calculated 



SAL 



766 



SAL 



that one of these small portable cylin- 
ders will contain a supply of atmospheric 
air for three or four hours. 

SAFFRON, first brought to England 
by a pilgrim, 1389, cultivated 1582. 

SAGE, Le, author of "Gil Bias," 
born 1677, died 1727- 

SAGUNTUM, an ancient town of 
Spain, now called Morvedro, reduced by 
Hannibal a.u.c. 528 ; remained under 
the dominion of the Carthaginians till 
538, when Scipio having humbled the 
power of Carthage in Spain, in process 
of time recovered Saguntum, and made 
it a new city. 

SAILORS' (destitute) Asylum, or 
Bethel Maritime Establishment, Well- 
close-square, founded 1829. 

ST. JOHN, Henry. SeeBoLiNG- 

BROKE. 

ST. PAUL'S Cathedral. See 
Paul's 

ST. PIERRE, Henry Bernar- 
DiN, author of the " Studies of Na- 
ture," &c., died 1814, aged 11, 

SALADIN, a celebrated sultan of 
Egypt, equally renowned as a warrior 
and legislator, was born in 1137. By 
the death of Al-Malek in 1181, he ob- 
tained the possession of Syria, as well as 
Egypt. He now manifested an ardent 
desire to expel the christians from Pa- 
lestine, and recover the city of Jeru- 
salem, which he soon effected, and en- 
tered the holy capital in great triumph. 
The loss of Jerusalem excited the utmost 
grief and consternation among the chris- 
tian powers. The kings of France and 
England, with several other princes, 
took the cross. Succours arrived from 
various parts of Europe ; and they were 
enabled in 1189, to undertake the re- 
covery of Acre; which, in 1191, surren- 
dered to their united arras. Philip of 
France upon this event, returned to 
Europe ; but Richard I. of England, 
remained; and after he had twice de- 
feated Saladin, took Csesarea and Jaffa, 
and spread alarm as far as Jerusalem. 
At length a truce was made between 
the two sovereigns. The departure of 
Richard freed Saladin from his most 
formidable opponent; but he died at 
Damascus in 1193, at the age of 56. 

SALAMANCA, an ancient city of 
Spain, near the river Tormes. The uni- 
versity was founded in 1239- The num- 
ber of students is about 300 or 400. 
The banks of the river, and the country 
west of Salamanca, were the scene of an 



engagement between the British under 
Lord Wellington, in 1812. 

SALAMIS, an island of the Archipe- 
lago, famous in antiquity for a battle 
between the Greek and Persian fleets, 
fought A.c. 479, in the strait formed be- 
tween it and the continent. 

SALE, George, translator of the 
Koran, died 1736. 

SALIC, or Salioue, an ancient law 
of France, by which females are excluded 
from inheriting the throne, confirmed in 
the reign of Pharamond, 424 ; first 
quoted 1327- 

SALISBURY, or New Sarum, 
Wilts, was founded in the beginning of 
the 13th century. The see of Sarum, an 
ancient city about two miles distant, was 
transferred hither by bishop Le Poor, 
Henry III. granted the inhabitants a 
charter.^entitling them to the same rights 
and privileges as were enjoyed by the 
people of Winchester. National councils 
were held here in 1296 by Edward I. ; 
in 1328 by Edward III. ; there was also 
one in 1384. The charter bestowed by 
Henry III. was renewed by Edward I., 
and several of his successors. The ca- 
thedral church, completed in 1258, is 
one of the purest specimens of the early 
Gothic, and dedicated to the Virgin 
Mary. 

SALLEE, a seaport town of Africa, 
on the coast of Morocco, was formerly 
the great hold of Moorish piracy; and 
great depredations were committed from 
it upon European commerce. These are 
now confined to the Barbary states, and 
the only trace of these proceedings now 
remaining at Sallee is an immense dreary 
dungeon formed under ground for the 
captives. Near the mouth of the river, 
below Rabat, are the remains of a large 
and strong castle, built in the 12th cen- 
tury by Jacob Almansor, but demolished 
by the late emperor, who preserved only 
some magazines remarkable for their 
strength. 

SALLUST, Caius Crispus Sal- 
lustius, a celebrated Roman historian, 
was born at Amiternum, a city of Italy, 
a.u.c, 669 ; a.c. 85. He was made 
quaestor a.u.c. 694, and afterwards tri- 
bune of the people. By virtue of his 
quaestorship he obtained an admission 
into the senate, but was expelled thence 
by the censors in 704, on account of his 
immoral and debauched way of life. In 
705 Csesar restored him to the dignity 
of a senator. In 707 he was made prae- 



SAL 



767 



SAM 



tor for his services to Caesar, and sent to 
Nuraidia. He died at the age of 50, in 
A.u.c. 710. His only compositions that 
have come to modern times, in a state of 
tolerable perfection, are the history of 
Catiline's conspiracy, and of the wars of 
Jugurtha, king of Numidia. 

SALMASIUS, the opponent of Milton, 
born 1596, died 1652. 

SALOP, or Shropshire, England, 
bordering on the last retreat of the Bri- 
tons on the invasion of the country by 
the Saxons, became the scene of many 
conflicts of the contending nations. In 
the 9th century it was infested by the 
Danes, who destroyed the ancient city 
of Virioconium, which occasioned the 
foundation of Shrewsbnry, a few miles 
north of that station. This county was 
the theatre of hostilities between Stephen 
and the empress; and in 1164 Henry H. 
assembled an army in Shropshire for the 
invasion of Wales. In the civil war 
under Charles I., the Salopians favoured 
the royal cause. Sieges and battles took 
place at Tong Castle, Oswestry, Shrews- 
bury, Ludlow, and Bridgenorth, which 
last was taken by the parliamentarians in 
1646, when the contest was nearly ter- 
minated. 

SALSETTE Isle, Hindoostan, is 
very rich in mythological antiquities. It 
was long possessed by the Portuguese, 
but was wrested from them by the Maha- 
rattas in 1750. In 1773, during a rup- 
ture with that nation, the Company's 
troops obtained possession, and it was 
ceded by the Maharattas ac the treaty of 
Poorunder in 1776. In 1783 the small 
islands in the gulf formed by Bombay 
and Salsette were added. 

SALT, Henry, F.R.S., British con- 
sul-general in Egypt. He accompanied 
Lord Valentia to the Levant, Egypt, 
Abyssinia, and the East Indies ; and the 
travels of that nobleman, published in 
1809, derived great benefit from the gra- 
phic illustrations of Mr. Salt. He was 
employed by government as the bearer 
of presents to the emperor of Abyssinia, 
the result of which mission appeared be- 
fore the public in 1814, in a work entitled 
"A Voyage to Abyssinia, and Travels 
into the interior of that country." He 
died at a village between Cairo and Alex- 
andria, October 30, 1827. 

SALT Mines,- Springs, &c. The 
principal are at Wielitska in Poland, Ca- 
talonia in Spain, Altemonte in Calabria, 
Loowur in Hungary, in many places in 



Asia and Africa, and in Cheshire in this 
country. These mines have been wrought 
for more than 600 years. The salt mines 
in the neighbourhood of Northwich and 
Cheshire are very extensive. They have 
been wrought since 1760. The greater 
part of this salt is exported. 

In England, duties upon salt were im- 
posed in the reign of William III. In 
1798 they amounted to 5*. a bushel; 
but were subsequently increased to 15*. 
a bushel, or about 40 times the cost of 
the salt. The opinion of the public 
and of the house of commons having 
been strongly pronounced against the 
tax, it was finally repealed in 1823. 

SALTER'S Company, London, in- 
corporated 1558. 

SALTPETRE, or Nitrate of Pot- 
ash. Beckmann contends that the an- 
cients were unacquainted with saltpetre. 
It has been known, however, in the East 
from a very early period. Gunpowder 
was invented in India, and brought by 
the Saracens from Africa to the Euro- 
peans, who improved its manufacture, 
and made it available for war-like pur- 

{)oses. Saltpetre was first made in Eng- 
and in 1625. Lately a new species of 
saltpetre, under the denomination of 
nitrate of soda, has been received from 
South America. The imports of it 
have much increased since 1831. The 
deliveries of this description for home 
consumption, have been, in 1831, 70 
tons; in 1832,690 tons; and in 1833, 
1210. 

SAMARCAND, or Sarmacand, an- 
cient and celebrated city of Asia, formerly 
the capital of the kingdom of Sogdia, in 
the time of Alexander the Great. In the 
time of Jenghiz Khan in the 13th cen- 
tury, it was forced to yield to the arms 
of that cruel conqueror. It was after- 
wards, in the 14th century, the capital 
of the empire of Timour the Great, and 
was then in its zenith. Although less 
magnificent than formerly, and much de- 
clined since the time of Timour, it is still 
large and populous. Of late, under the 
government of Shah Murad Bey, who 
took it from the Tartar tribe, it has re- 
covered some of its former greatness. 

SAMARIA, a country of Judea, with 
a capital city of the same name. The 
city was built by Omri, king of Israel, 
wh© began to reign in a.m. 3079, and 
died A.M. 3086. It was besieged by 
Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, and taken 
three years after in a.m.' 3283. When 



SAN 



768 



SAN 



Alexander the Great came into Judea, 
he took Samaria, and put in Macedonians 
to inhabit it ; giving the country round 
it to the Jews, The kings of Egypt and 
Syria, fwho succeeded Alexander, de- 
prived them of the property of this 
country. But Alexander Balas, king of 
Syria, restored to Jonathan Maccabseus, 
the city of Lydda, Ephrem, and Ramatha. 
Lastly, the Jews re-entered into the full 
possession of this whole country, under 
John Hircanus the Asmonaean, who 
ruined it. It continued in this condition 
till A.M. 3937, when Aulus Gabinius, the 
proconsul of Syria, rebuilt the city and 
gave it the name of Gabiniana. Herod the 
Great, before the birth of Christ, restored 
it to its ancient lustre, and gave it the 
Greek name of Sebaste. The Samari- 
tans have latterly been very few in num- 
ber. An account of their usages was 
published by Joseph Scaliger,in a.d, 998, 
translated into Latin by Father Morin ; 
printed in England in 1682. 

SAMOS, (ancient Parthenias,) island 
of the Grecian Archipelago, separated 
from Asia Minor by a narrow strait. Its 
capital of the same name was built 
A. c. 986. The Samians assisted the 
Greeks against the Persians when Xerxes 
invaded Europe, and were reduced 
under the power of Athens, after a revolt, 
by Pericles a.c. 441. They were after- 
wards subdued by Eumenes, king of 
Pergamus, and were restored to their 
ancient liberty by Augustus. Under 
Vespasian, Samos became a Roman pro- 
vince. 

SAMUEL, the twelfth and last judge 
of Israel, for 21 years, about A.c. 1116. 
SANCHONIATHON, an ancient 
Phoenician philosopher and historian, 
who flourished about a.c. 1100. Of 
this writer, the only remains extant are 
sundry fragments of cosmogony. 

SANCROFr, archbishop of Canter- 
bury, born I6l6; committed to the 
Tower, tried, and acquitted, 1688 ; de- 
prived 1689 ; died November 24, 1693, 
aged 77. 

SANCTORIUS, an ingenious Italian 
physician, born 1561, died 1636. 

SANCTUARIES, instituted 617; 
abolished in England 1534. 

SANDBY, ThoxMas, an Enghsh 
artist, born 1721, died June 24, 1798. 

SANDBY, Paul, an English artist, 
born 1732, died 1809. 

SANDEMANIANS, a modern religi- 
ous sect that originated in Scotland about 



1728, called also Glassites from Mr. John 
Glass, who was expelled by the synod 
from the church of Scotland. About 
1755, Mr. Robert Sandeman pubhshed 
a series of letters, in which his views of 
faith corresponded with that of the 
Glassites, and gave his name also to the 

SANDERSON, English antiquary, 
died 1741. 

SANDOWN Castle, Isle of Wight, 
built 1539. 

SANDWICH, borough, Kent, and 
one of the cinque ports, under Wil- 
fred, archbishop of Canterbury, about 
655, gradually advanced to importance. 
In the reign of Henry VI., the French 
landed and plundered the town. Charles 
VIII. of France despatched hither 4000 
men, who landed, and after a bloody 
conflict, gained possession of the town, 
set fire to it, and put most of the inhabi- 
tants to the sword. To prevent the re- 
currence of such disasters, Edward IV. 
new walled, ditched, and fortified it. 
Since then [it has in great measure re- 
covered its prosperity. 

SANDWICH Islands, group of is- 
lands. North Pacific Ocean, discovered 
by Captain Cook in 1778. It was at 
Owhyee, the largest of this groupe, that 
he lost his life in 1779. See Owhyke. 
The inhabitants of these islands have 
been particularly'distinguished by their 
efforts to raise themselves to the level 
of European arts and civilization. In 
this career they were first led by Ta- 
mahama I., who about 1794, with the 
assistance of Vancouver, and of Young 
and Davis, two English seamen, began 
to form a small navy. His son, Riho- 
Riho, in 1819 embraced Christianity, 
and abolished idolatrous worship. Since 
1825, missionaries from the United States 
have made great efforts for the instruc- 
tion of the natives, and have estabhshed 
an extensive influence. The principal 
commercial activity prevails at Hono- 
rocu, in the island of Woahoo, the only 
place in these islands deserving the name 
of a town. Recently, however, Mowee, 
or the island of that name, has been pre- 
ferred by many as a place for re-fitting. 

1838. A newspaper was established in 
the Sandwich islands ; the first number 
of which furnishes some curious particu- 
lars of their state and- progress. From 
July 1, to Dec. 14, 1836, there were 154 
arrivals at the port, of which 80 were 
brigs and schooners belonging to the 



SAR 



769 



SAD 



country, 56 from the United States, and 
17 from England. A treaty of com- 
merce was concluded in Nov. 1837, be- 
tween the king and Lord F. Russell, of 
H.M.S. Acteon, which secures to British 
siibjects the right to establish themselves 
in the Sandwich islands, to build houses 
and import all sorts of merchandize. 

SANSON, Nicholas, an eminent 
French geographer, born 1600, died 
1667. 

SAPPHO, a celebrated lyric poetess 
of antiquity, was born at Mitylene, in 
the isle of Lesbos, about a.c. 610. Of 
her numerous poems, there is nothing 
remaining but some small fragments, a 
Hymn to Venus, and an Ode to a Young 
Female. 

SARAGOSSA, or Zaragoza, city, 
north-east of Spain, has a university 
founded in 1478; an academy of fine 
arts, and two public libraries. This city 
is celebrated for the sieges of 1808 and 
1809, which were sustained with the 
greatest courage and perseverance against 
the French armies. In 1835 an insur- 
rection took place at Saragossa against 
the ecclesiastics; five or six of the con- 
vents were broken into, and pillaged or 
set on fire; and 12 monks were mur- 
dered in cold blood. 

SARDINIA, kingdom, south of Eu- 
rope, called also the kingdom of Pied- 
mont and Sardinia, consisting of the 
island of Sardinia, Piedmont, Savoy, 
Genoa, &c. The reigning family is de- 
scended from the counts of Savoy, who 
are of great antiquity. In the early part 
of the 11th century, a branch of that 
house possessed the principality of Pied- 
mont: but becoming extinct in 1418, 
their dominions were added to Savoy. 
The political importance of this state 
was increased by the contest between 
France and Austria for the north of Italy; 
in which, after the siege of Turin by the 
French in 1706, followed their signal 
defeat by the allies, under prince Eu- 
gene. After a peace of half a century, 
the kingdom of Sardinia took part in the 
wars of the French revolution. This 
contest was maintained until 1796, when 
the assumption of the command by Buo- 
naparte led to the overthrow of the 
allied forces, and the conclusion of an 
unfavourable treaty of peace. This was 
followed by the removal of the royal 
family to the island of Sardinia, and the 
incorporation of their continental states 
with the French territory. They were 



restored to the legitimate sovereign on 
the overthrow of Buonaparte in 1814. 
The Genoese territory was added by the 
Congress of Vienna in 1815. 

SARPl, or Father Paul. See 
Paul. 

SARUM, Old, formerly an ancient, 
and now a deserted and disfranchised 
borough, Wilts. It returned members to 
parliament the 23d of Edward I.; and 
the next return was made the 34th of 
Edward III., since which time it has 
continued to return members till the 
passing of the Reform Act in 1832, when 
the borough was disfranchised. 

SARTI, SiGNOR, musical composer, 
born 1720, died July 28, 1802. 

SAUNDERS, George, F.R.S., ar- 
chitect, and a diligent and learned anti- 
quary, died 1839. 

SAUNDERS, Prince, attorney- 
general of Hayti, one of the best educated 
men of colour in America, was born at 
Thetford, United States. About 1806 he 
was employed to teach a free coloured 
school at Colchester, in Connecticut, and 
afterwards in Boston. From Boston he 
went to Hayti, where he was employed 
by Christophe to improve the state of 
education in his dominions, and was sent 
to England to procure means of instruc- 
tion. After a while he again returned 
to Hayti, where he was made attorney- 
general. He died at Port-au-Prince> 
Feb. 1839. 

SAUNDERSON, Nicholas, the 
mathematician, bom 1739, aged 57. 

SAURIN, James, a celebrated French 
protestant preacher, was born at Nismes 
in 1677. Being captivated with a mili- 
tary life, in 1694 he made a campaign, 
and served with reputation till I696. He 
afterwards studied divinity, and in 1705 
fixed his residence at the Hague, where 
he became one of the pastors to a church 
of French refugees. He died Dec. 30, 
1730, aged 53 years. His justly cele- 
brated sermons were published in 12 
vols. 8vo. and 12mo., and selections, 
translated into English, were published 
between the years 1775 and 1784, by the 
Rev. Robert Robinson, of Cambridge, in 
five vols. 8vo. 

SAURIN, William, formerly, during 
15 years, attorney-general for Ireland, 
and greatly respected for his talents and 
virtues. He died at Dublin February 11, 
1839, aged 83. 

SAUSSURE, Horace Benedict, 
naturalist and traveller, was born at 



SAV 



770 



SAX 



Geneva in 1740. At the a^e of 22, he 
obtained the professorship of philosophy 
at Geneva, which he held with high 
reputation during a period of 25 years. 
The first volume of his travels through 
the Alps was published in 1779- During 
the troubles which agitated Geneva in 
1782, he made his beautiful and inte- 
resting experiments on hygrometry, which 
he pubHshed in 1783. In 1786 he pub- 
lished his second volume of travels, con- 
taining a description of the Alps round 
Mont Blanc. The two last volumes of 
his travels, which appeared in 1796, 
contain a great mass of new facts, and 
observations of the greatest importance 
to physical science. He died March 22, 
1799, in his 59th year. 

SAVAGE, Richard, a poet and 
miscellaneous writer, was born in 1698. 
After passing through various scenes in 
low hfe, as recorded by his biographer 
Dr. Johnson, he was condemned for 
murder in 1727, pardoned in 1728, and 
died in 1743. 

SAVAGE Island, South Pacific 
Ocean, discovered by Captain Cook 
in 1774, visited by Mr. Williams, the 
missionary, in 1834, who took with him 
two Aitutakian teachers ; but apprehend- 
ing that their lives would be in danger, 
they returned to the vessel ; so that, at 
present, no intercourse has been opened 
with this island. 

SAVARY, an eminent French tra- 
veller and writer, was born at Vitre in 
Brittany, about 1748. In 1776 he tra- 
velled into Egypt, where he resided 
almost three years, employing himself 
in acquiring the Arabic language, and 
in studying the antiquities and manners 
of the people. On his return to France 
in 1780, he published several works, the 
most important of which was his '* Let- 
ters on Egypt," in 3 vols. 8vo., in 1785. 
He died February, 1788. 
SAVARY,dukeof Rovigo, SeeRoviGO. 
SAVILLE, Sir George, afterwards 
marquis of Halifax, and one of the greatest 
statesmen of his time, was born about 
1630. He was a strenuous opposer of 
the Bill of Exclusion ; but proposed such 
limitations of the duke of York's autho- 
rity, as should disable him from doing 
any harm either in church or state. He 
died April, 1695. 

SAVILLE, Sir Henry, a learned 
Englishman, was born at Bradley, near 
Hahfax, in Yorkshire, in 1549. In 
1596 he was chosen provost of Eton 



College, which he filled with many 
learned men. He was a great benefactor 
to the university of Oxford, and in 1619 
founded two professorships, one of geo- 
metry, and the other of astronomy, and 
endowed each with a salary of £180 
per annum ; he also gave at his death a 
legacy of £600 to purchase more lands 
for the same use. After a life spent in 
the encouragement of literature and 
science, he died at Eton College, Feb- 
ruary 19, 1622. 

SAVINGS Banks. See Banks, 
p. 64. On Nov. 20, 1839, the total num- 
ber of depositors in these banks was 
610,027- Total amount of money in- 
vested by depositors £18,033,992. Of 
charitable institutions, number depo- 
sited, 6355; amount of money invested, 
£381,500. Friendly societies, number 
deposited, 6086. Amount of money in- 
vested, £830,729. 

SAVOY, duchy, Europe, part of the 
continental states of the kingdom of 
Sardinia ; was anciently part of GalUa 
Narbonensis, which submitted to the 
Romans a.c. 118. The Alemans seized 
it A.D. 395. It shared the revolutions of 
Switzerland till 1040, when Conrad, 
emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, 
with the title of earl. Amadeus VIII., 
earl of Savoy, solicited Sigismund, em- 
peror of Germany, to erect his dominions 
into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, 
Feb. 19, 1417. The last duke having 
taken Sicily in 1713, by the assistance 
of England, was made king of that 
country, but by the peace of Utrecht, 
changed for Sardinia, 1718. Great part 
of the country was ceded to France in 
1796; seized by the French, Dec, 1798, 
who were repulsed in 1799 ; but subju- 
gated it again in the year following. It 
was restored to Sardinia 1816. In Feb., 
1834, an attempt was made by 400 men, 
chiefly Polish refugees, Piedmontese, 
and other Italians, headed by General 
Romarino, to revolutionise Savoy. The 
attempt was a signal failure, and the 
conspirators fell back on Geneva, where 
they were disarmed, after a vain attempt 
to excite an insurrection there also. 

SAVOY Palace, Strand, London, 
built 1245, converted into an hospital 
1549, burnt down March 2, 1776. 

SAWTREE, Sir William, the first 
that was burnt alive on account of reli- 
gious opinions in England, Feb. 19, 1401. 
SAXE, Maurice, Count of, a cele- 
brated general, born at Gosl^r. Han'>-'>r, 



SAX 



771 



SCA 



in 1696, was the natural son of Frederick 
Augustus I., elector of Saxony and king 
of Poland. In 1717 he served in Hun- 
gary under Prince Eugene, was present 
at the siege of Belgrade, and at a battle 
which the prince gained over the Turks. 
In 1733 he entered the French service, 
and his brilliant services caused him, in 
1734, to be advanced to the rank of 
lieutenant-general. After a short peace 
in Europe, the death of the Emperor 
Charles VI., occasioned a new war, and 
in 1741 Count Saxe took Prague by 
escalade, and then reduced Egra. In 
1744 he was made mareschal of France, 
and commanded a part of the French 
army in Flanders. In 1745 he gained 
the famous battle of Fontenoy, and he 
was greatly distinguished in the cam- 
paigns of 1747 and .4748, which last was 
followed by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
He died Nov. 30, 1750. 

SAXE-COBURG. See Coburg. 

SAXON Heptarchy. See Hep- 
tarchy. 

SAXONY, kingdom of Europe, 
formerly an electorate. The first mar- 
grave of Meissen who bore the title of 
elector began his reign in 1422. In the 
beginning of the l6th century, John 
Frederick, the elector, took a conspi- 
cuous part in the reformation. See Re- 
formation. The Saxons were vigor- 
ously engaged in the thirty years' war, 
in support of the protestant religion 
which was terminated by the peace of 
Westphalia in 1648. But in 1697 the 
temptation of acquiring the crown of 
Poland, vacant by the death of Sobieski, 
induced the reigning elector, Augustus I., 
to profess himself a catholic. The 
Swedes, howeA'er, under Charles XII., 
invaded Saxony, bringing great distress 
into the country; this was relieved by 
the march of Charles into Russia, after 
which the crown of Poland was resumed 
by Augustus. 

1806. The eleetor, Frederick Augus- 
tus IV. sent all his troops into the field, 
in support of Prussia against France, 
when Buonaparte, by his success, at- 
tached the Saxons to his cause, made the 
elector king, and Prussian Poland was 
added to the Saxon dominions. In 1813 
the battles of Lutzen and Bautzen took 
place ; and the attack on Dresden, and 
the decisive engagements at Leipsic, 
were followed by the retreat of Buona- 
parte to the Rhine, and by divesting the 
king of Saxony of the government. 



Agreeably to the decision of the congress 
at Vienna, his title was restored in 1815, 
but a considerable portion of his terri- 
tory was separated from the kingdom, 
and transferred to Prussia. Frederick 
Augustus IV. died at Dresden, on May 5, 
1827, in the 77th year of his age. He 
was succeeded by prince Anthony Cle- 
ment, who was already 72 years old. 
In 1830, political commotions were ex- 
cited at Dresden ; a few days after vi^hich 
the king resigned his authority to his 
nephew, Frederick, whom he appointed 
regent. 

SAY, Jean Baptist, author of 
" Political Economy," born 1767, died 
1833. 

SCALIGER, Julius C^sar, an 
eminent scholar, who was also a poet, 
physician, and philosopher, born 1484. 
He died in 1558, in his 75th year. 

SCALIGER, Joseph Justus, one 
of the most learned critics and writers 
of his time, and the son of the preceding, 
was born at Agen in France in 1540. 
In 1593 he was made honorary profes- 
sor of the university of Leyden. He 
died of a dropsy in that city in I609. 

SCANDERBERG, whose proper name 
was George Castriot, a prince of Alba- 
nia, was delivered up as a hostage to 
Amurath II., sultan of the Turks, who 
spared him on account of his youth. In 
a short time he became one of the most 
renowned generals of the age. Revolting 
from Amurath, he joined Hanniade 
Corvin, a most formidable enemy to the 
Ottoman power. He recovered the 
throne of his ancestors, and maintained 
the independency of his country against 
Amurath and his successor,'Mahomet 11., 
who was obHged to make peace with him 
in 1461. He obtained several important 
victories, and saved his own capital, 
which was invested by a great army 
under Mahomet himself. He died in 
1467. 

SCAPULA, John, the reputed author 
of a Greek lexicon, which has long been 
in great esteem in the literary world. 
Being employed by Henry Stephens as 
a corrector to his press while he was 
publishing his " Thesaurus LinguaB 
Graecee," Scapula made an abridgment 
in one volume, and published it as an 
original work, with his own name. Sca- 
pula's lexicon was first printed in 1570i 
in 4to. 

SCARPA, Antonio, professor of ana- 
tomy at Pavia, died October 31, 1833. 



SCH 



772 



SCH 



SCARRON, Paul, a French writer of 
burlesque, was born at Paris in 16 10. 
He married Mademoiselle D'Aubigne, 
afterwards the famous Madame de Main- 
tenon. He died in 1660, at the age of 50. 

SCHELE, Charles William, a 
celebrated Prussian chemist, was born at 
Stralsund in 1742. At Upsal he began 
the series of experiments on that remark- 
able mineral substance manganese ; from 
which investigation he was led to make 
the interesting discovery of oxyrauriatic 
acid in 1774. His name was well known 
by all Europe, and he was member of 
several learned academies and philoso- 
phical societies. He died in 1786. 

SCHILLER, Frederick, a German 
dramatist, born November 10, 1759, died 
May 9, 1805. 

SCHLEGEL, Frederick Von, au- 
thor of the " History of Literature," &c., 
born at Hanover, 1772, died 1829- 

SCHOMBERG, Duke of, a distin- 
guished officer, was born in 1608, served 
under William H. of Orange. He fol- 
lowed the prince to England when he 
came to take possession of the throne of 
these realms. In August 1689 he was 
sent to Ireland, to reduce that kingdom 
to obedience, and was killed at the battle 
of the Boyne the same year. 

SCHOOL OF Design, Somerset 
House, opened June 1837. 

SCHOOLMASTERS' Society, in- 
stituted 1798. 

SCHOOLS, Charity, or institutions 
for the instruction of the ignorant poor, 
have been established in England for 
more than a century. The design had 
its origin in 1698, when a great number 
of parishes in London associated together 
for this purpose. Trustees were chosen 
in each district to overlook the managCT 
ment of the masters and mistresses, and 
to prescribe rules and orders for the go- 
vernment of each school. In 1700 it 
was thought necessary that the trustees 
should be formed into a voluntary society, 
and that a chairman should be elected to 
preside at the meetings of the trustees. 
In 1729 rules and orders for the better 
regulation of the various institutions were 
recommended by several trustees of the 
schools, &c. 

1713. Out of 2250 youths who had 
been placed as apprentices and servants 
from these schools, more than 1400 
assembled at St. Bride's church, in 
which a sermon was preached before 
them. In 1716, about 4800 children 



attended on the anniversary of the cha- 
rity schools, at St. Sepulchre's church. 
Afterwards the trustees were allowed the 
use of St. Paul's for their meeting ; and 
thi.'^ has been continued annually, in the 
month of May, to the present time. 

The plans formed by Dr. Bell and 
Mr. Lancaster for the general education 
of the lower classes, which became ge- 
nerally known about the year 1798, gave 
rise to the institution of the British and 
Foreign School Society, and the National 
School Society, which have been the 
means of diffusing the benefits of educa- 
tion to a great extent. 

The British and Foreign School 
Society, instituted in 1805, on the plan 
of Mr. Lancaster, conducts its operations 
on a large scale. It has in London up- 
wards of 100 schools, and about half that 
number in the country within ten miles 
of the metropohs, yielding instruction to 
about 20,000 scholars ; besides a great 
number of schools throughout the king- 
dom more or less connected with it. Its 
foreign operations extend nearly all over 
the world. In particular the society has 
corresponding connections in France, 
Russia, Canada, Malta, South Africa, 
West Indies, United States, Denmark, 
&c. The following is a statement of the 
annual increase of schools on the Lan- 
casterian system in the kingdom of Den- 
mark :— 1823, 244 schools; 1824, 605 
schools; 1825, 1143 schools ; 1826, 
1545 schools; 1827, 2003 schools. 
Schools organizing in 1828, 368 ; that is 
to say, 2371 schools for the Danish 
dominions. 

The National School Society 
was instituted in 1811, and has extended 
its operations, under the patronage of 
the established church, to every part of 
the kingdom. These are conducted on 
the plan of Dr. Bell, who, in 1789, when 
a chaplain to the East India Company, 
undertook the management of a charity 
school established at Madras. In 1797, 
on his return to England, he pubhshed 
"An Experiment in Education, made at 
the Male Asylum at Madras, suggesting 
a System by which a School or Family 
may teach itself, under the Superintend- 
ence of the Master or Parent ;" and his 
system was adopted by the National 
School Society. By the official returns, 
it appears that the number of unendowed 
day schools in England, in 1818, was 
1411 ; the number of children, 50,034; 
in 1828, unendowed day schools 326Qi 



SCH 



773 



SCH 



children 105,571. Since then the pro- 
gress of the system has been eo rapid 
that it is estimated that a milUon and a 
half of the children of the humbler classes 
are receiving the advantages of daily 
education. 

Sunday Schools owe their origin 
to Robert Raikes, of Painswick, in Glou- 
cestershire, who first attempted the plan 
at Painswick, and it was carried into ex- 
ecution in the city of Gloucester about 
1782. This led to the institution of the 
following societies: — 

Sunday School Society, origi- 
nated by W. Fox, Esq., who was born 
Feb. 14, 1736, at Clapton, in Gloucester- 
shire, but who afterwards resided in 
London. It was formed in London in 
1785, "for the establishment and sup- 
port of Sunday schools in the diflFerent 
counties of England." 

Sunday School Union established 
on the 13th July 1803, when a nume- 
rous assembly was convened at Surrey 
Chapel School Rooms. The objects of 
this Union are, by mutual communica- 
tion to improve the methods of instruc- 
tion ; to ascertain those situations where 
Sunday schools are most wanted, and 
promote their establishment ; to supply 
books and stationery suited for Sunday 
schools at reduced prices. The report 
for the year ending May 1840 stated 
that 22 grants had been made during the 
past year in aid of the expense of erect- 
ing Sunday school-rooms, amounting to 
£495, making the total number of grants 
up to the present time 173, amounting 
to £3879. The number of Sunday school 
lending libraries granted this year had 
been 127, making a total of 598. 

The following is a general statement 
of Sunday schools in the United King- 
dom for 1839. 



Tabular Statement.Eng- ~| 
land and Wales, 
from Parliamentary i 
returns J 


Schoola. 

16,827 
1,161 

2,813 

500 
50(i 
400 

22,201 


Teachera. 

136,437 

5,000 

20,596 

5,000 
2,500 
4,000 


Scholus. 
1,548,890 

63,326 

214,462 

50,000 
35,000 
40,000 


Add, not included in"] 
Parliamentary re- 
turns Scotland] 

Ireland 
Estimated omissions — 
England 
Scotland 
Irelsmd 

Estimated totals in the -i 
United Kingdom / 


173,533 


1,951,678 



Schools in Ireland. The follow- 
ing summary is taken from the second 
report of the Commissioners, 1836 : — 
Total number of daily schools in Ireland, 



9657; number of daily schools sup- 
ported wholly by payments from the 
children, 5653 ; number of daily schools 
supported wholly, or in part, by endow- 
ment or subscription, 4004 ; number of 
daily schools of which the books con- 
taining lists of the children were pro- 
duced, 8886. The total number of 
scholars, 583,413. 

SCHREVELIUS, Cornelius, ,lexi- 
cographer, died 1667. 

SCHULTEUS, the Dutch philologist, 
born 1686, died 1750. 

SCHWARTZ, Berth., discoverer of 
gunpowder, died 1340. 

SCHWARTZ, Christian Fre- 
derick, an eminent Christian mission- 
ary, was born at Sonnenburg, in Bran- 
denburg, on the 26th of October, 1726. 
In 1746 he travelled to Halle, where he 
availed himself of the instructions of the 
tutors of the university. Under the 
sanction of the Danish Mission College 
he was sent to India, and arrived at Tran- 
quebar on the 30th of July, 1750. After 
labouring zealously with his colleagues 
for some years, he was directed by the 
college to establish himself at Trinchi- 
nopoly, under the " Society for promot- 
ing Christian Knowledge" in England. 
He visited Tanjore several times in 1772, 
in order to strengthen the congregation 
there. He resided in India during a pe- 
riod of 50 years, embracing every oppor- 
tunity of promoting both the temporal 
and spiritual welfare of the people. 
Among the many fruits of his indefati- 
gable labours was the erection of the 
church at Tanjore in 1779. The Chris- 
tian seminaries at Ramnaporam and in 
the Tinnevelly province were established 
by him. The late Hyder Ally Cawn, in 
the midst of a bloody and vindictive war 
with the Carnatic, sent orders to his 
officers " to permit the venerable Father 
Schwartz to pass unmolested." The late 
Tuljaja, rajah of Tanjore, when on his 
death -bed in 1787, desired to entrust to 
his protecting care his adopted son, 
Serfojee, with the administration of all 
the affairs of his country. On a spot of 
ground, granted to him by the same 
prince, two miles east of Tanjore, he 
built a house for his residence, and made 
it an orphan asylum. Here the last 20 
years of his life were spent in the educa- 
tion and religious instruction of children, 
and here, on the 13th of February, 1798, 
he closed his truly christian career, in 
his 7 2d year. The East India Com- 



SCL 774 SCO 

pany, anxious to perpetuate his memory, quent date the Venetians extended their 
caused a monument to be erected to acquisitions to this country. It remained 
him in 1807. subject to them and the Hungarians until 
SCHWEITZ, a canton of Svvitzer- overrun by the Turks in 1540, in whose 
land, in conjunction with those of Uri possession it continued till 1687; soon 
and Underwalden, threw off the Austrian after which they lost this and all the 
yoke in 1308, and formed a perpetual territories which the Austrians possess 
alliance in 1315, which was the grand north of the Save and Danube, 
foundation of the Helvetic confederacy. SCONE, a village of Perthshire, Scot- 
SCILLY Isles, a group of islands at land, chiefly remarkable as the former 
the west entrance of the English Channel, residence of the Scottish monarchs. 
As early as 96 1 they belonged to the Here was once an abbey, founded in 
Benedictine abbey of Tavistock, from 1114, where they were crowned. It was 
which period to the 30th of Henry VIII. burnt by the populace at the period of 
they were governed by lords abbots, the Reformation, and afterwards rebuilt, 
and coroners, or crown officers. After Charles II. was the last king crowned in 
having been granted away by Henry VIII. the kirk. It was made the residence of 
they reverted to the crown by exchange the Count D'Artois of France, 1798. 
in the reign of Queen Mary; and Eliza- SCOTLAND, anciently Caledonia. Its 
beth, in 1571, gave them to Francis authentic history began in the first cen- 
Godolphin ; but, after ha\Ting been more tury, when the Romans under Agricola 
than 200 years under the sway of Go- invaded the country, a.d. 203 this coun- 
dolphins and Osbornes, dukes of Leeds, try received the Christian faith. 838. 
they again lapsed to the crown (1831), The Picts and Scots were united under 
and are at present under the duchy of one monarchy by Kenneth II., the 69th 
Cornwall. king, and called Scotland. 1032. Divided 
SCIO, ancient Chios, an island in the into baronies. 1263. Invaded by the king 
Grecian archipelago, conquered by Cyrus of Norway near Loch Lomond. 1283, 
king of Persia, in the sixth century, a.c, on the death of Alexander III. the crown 
afterwards a Roman province, till it fell of this kingdom was disputed by 12 can- 
with the eastern empire under the Otto- didates, who submitted their claims to 
man power. In 1822, during the Greek the arbitration of Edward I. of England, 
war, the inhabitants of this island were which gave him an opportunity to con- 
given up to indiscriminate massacre, and quer it. 1296. Its regalia and crown 
it is calculated that above 40,000 were were taken and brought to England, with 
slain. the coronation chair, now in Westminster 
SCIPIO, PuBLius Cornelius, a Abbey. 1314. RobertBruce recovered the 
celebrated Roman general, surnamed kingdom and secured its independence 
Africanus, for his conquests in that coun- by the decisive battle of Bannockburn. 
try. His other signal military exploits This nation boasts of a line of kings, 
were, his taking the city of New Car- who pretend to deduce their pedigree 
thage in a single day; his complete vie- from Fergus, a.c. 328. Metellus, the 
tory over Hannibal, the famous Cartha- I7th king of Scotland, died a.d. 29. 
ginian general ; the defeat of Syphax, The following is a list of the Scottish 
king of Numidia, and of Antiochus, in kings from this period : — 
Asia. He died A.c. 180. Name. Beganto reign. 

SCIPIO,PubliusEmilianus, being Caractacus a.d. 32 

adopted by Scipio Africanus, he was Corbred I ».... 54 

called the younger Africanus. He showed Dardanus 70 

himself worthy of his adoption, follow- Corbred II 72 

ing the footsteps of Scipio Africanus, Luctatus 104 

whom he equalled in military fame and Mogaldus 107 

public virtues. He was strangled in his Conarus 142 

bed by order of the Decemviri, who Argadus 146 

dreaded his popularity, A.c. 129, aged 56. Ethodius I I6l 

SCLAVONIA, province of the Aus- Satrael 193 

trian empire, formed under the Romans, Donald 1 197 

part of ancient Illyria, and derives its Ethodius II 216 

name from a tribe of Sclavi, who settled Achiro 230 

here in the sixth century. At a subse- Nathalocus 242^ 



SCO 

Name. Began to reign. 

Findocus 252 

Donald II 262 

Donald III 263 

Crathilinthus 277 

Finchormarchus 320 

Romachus 368 

Augusianus 371 

Fethelmachus 373 

Eugenius 1 376 

Fergus 1 403 

Eugenius II 419 

Dongard 451 

Constantine I 457 

Congale 1 479 

Goran 1 501 

Eugenius III 545 

Congale II 558 

Chinlane, or Cumatillus 568 

Aidan 569 

Kenneth I 604 

Eugenius IV 6o6 

Ferchard 1 622 

Donald IV 632 

Ferchard II 646 

Maldvvin 664 

Eugenius V 684 

Eugenius VI 687 

Amberchelet 697 

Eugenius VII 698 

Mordac 715 

Etsinius 730 

Eugenius VIII 761 

Fergus II 763 

Solvatius 76Q 

Achaius , . 787 

Congale III 819 

Dongal 824 

Alpin 831 

Kenneth II 834 

Donald V 854 

Constantine II 858 

Ethus 874 

Gregory. ... ; 876 

Donald VI. ..." 892 

Constantine III 903 

Malcolm 1 938 

Indulphus 958 

Duphus 968 

Cullenus 972 

Kenneth III 973 

Constantine IV 994 

Grimus 696 

Malcolm II 1004 

Duncan 1034 

Macbeth 1040 

Malcolm III 1057 

Donald VII 1093 

Duncan 11 1095 

Donald VII. again 1095 



775 SCO 

Name. Began to reign. 

Interregnum I096 

Edgar IO96 

Alexander 1 1 107 

David 1 1124 

Malcolm IV.; 1153 

William 1165 

Alexander II 1214 

Alexander III 1240 

Interregnum 1245 

John Baliol 1292 

Robert 1 1306 

David II 1329 

Edward Baliol 1332 

David II. again. 1341 

Robert II 1371 

John Robert 1390 

James 1 1405 

James II , . 1437 

James III 1460 

James IV ] 488 

James V., 1513 

Mary Stuart 1542 

The accession of the infant Mary, in 
1542, at six years of age, and her re- 
moval to France, proved very favourable 
to the ambitious designs of Henry VIII., 
who now proposed a union of the two 
kingdoms by the marriage of his son 
Edward VI. with Mary, the young Queen. 
This union did not take place, but the 
kingdom was governed by regents : the 
earl of Arran in 1542 ; the earl of Murray 
1567 ; earl of Lenox, July 12, 1570 ; earl 
of Mar, September 6, 1571 ; earl of 
Morton, November 24, 1572. 

James VI. of Scotland succeeded to the 
crown of England 1603. This produced 
a union of the two crowns, and in 1707 
the two kingdoms were united by a legis- 
lative act, 5 Anne, March 6, and took 
the title of Great Britain. See Britain. 

SCOTT, Jonathan, LL.D., oriental 
professor at the royal military and East 
India colleges, Calcutta, and author of 
various works connected with oriental 
literature. He died February 11, 1829. 

SCOTT, John, engraver of animals, 
was a native of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
He was one of the eight artists who met 
together in the year 1809-10, to frame the 
fund for the benefit of decayed artists, 
their widows, and children. He died 
February 1828, aged 54. 

SCOTT, Thomas, a divine of the 
church of England, chiefly noted for his 
excellent commentary on the Old and 
New Testament, was born at Braytoft, 
in Lincolnshire, Feb. 16, 1747. In 1783 
he was settled at Olney, in Buckingham- 



SCO 



776 



SCO 



shire ; and in a few years after he removed 
to London, and preached at the Lock 
Hospital. Here he formed the plan of 
an asylum for the discharged female 
patients ; and by means altogether of his 
pastoral exertions, a meeting was held 
April 18, 1787, at which the duke of 
Manchester presided, when his design 
was carried into execution. The first 
number of his great work, " The Family 
Commentary," appeared on March 22, 
1788, and the last copy was sent to press 
June 2, 1792. In 1801 he obtained the 
living of Aston Sandford, where he died 
April 16, 1821. His writings, particu- 
larly his Commentary, fully entitle their 
author to be considered as the most labo- 
rious and most useful writer of his day. 

SCOTT, Sir Walter, our most 
eminent novelist, and often designated 
as the Great Magician of the North, was 
born at Edinburgh, May 15, 1771- After 
having been two years under the rector 
of the High School, he was placed in the 
university of Edinburgh, Oct. 1783. 
"While still at the High School, he made 
his first attempt in original versification; 
the subject being a thunder storm which 
happened one day as he and his compa- 
nions were amusing themselves. He 
published " The Minstrelsy of the Scot- 
tish Border" in 1802, and in 1805 "The 
Lay of the Last Minstrel." Shortly 
afterwards he obtained the reversion of 
the office of a principal clerk in the Court 
of Sessions, salary about £1200 a-year. 
In 1808 he published his second poem 
of magnitude, "Marmion," which brought 
an immense increase of reputation to the 
author. In 1811 appeared the "Vision 
of Don Roderick;" in 1814 "The Lords 
of the Isles," " The Bridal of Triermain," 
and " Harold the Dauntless," were pub- 
lished anonymously : they made a very 
slight impression upon the public. It 
now became evident to our author that 
his day as a poet was well nigh past. 

About the close of the last century he 
had commenced a tale of chivalry in 
prose, founded upon the legendary story 
of Thomas the Rhymer. Subsequently 
he resolved upon a prose romance rela- 
tive to an age much nearer our own time. 
"Waverley" was published in 1814, and 
as the title-page was without the name of 
the author, the work was left to win its 
way in the world without any of the 
usual recommendations. 

About this period our author removed 
to Abbotsford. It was chiefly to this 



spot that the world is indebted for a se- 
ries of the most delightful fictions that 
ever appeared. To " Waverley" suc- 
ceeded, in 1815, " Guy Mannering;" in 
1816 "The Antiquary," and the first 
series of " The Tales of my Landlord," 
containing " The Black Dwarf," and 
" Old Mortality ;" in 1818 " Rob Roy," 
and the second series of " The Tales of 
my Landlord," containing "The Heart of 
Mid Lothian;" and in 1819 the third se- 
ries of "Tales of my Landlord," contain- 
ing "The Bride of Lammermoor," and 
" A Legend of Montrose." " Ivanhoe," 
which appeared in the beginning of 1820, 
came out as the production of the author 
of " Waverley." To it succeeded, in the 
course of the same year, " The Monas- 
tery," and "ITie Abbot." In the be- 
ginning of the year 1821 appeared " Ke- 
nilworth," making 12 volumes, if not 
written at least published in as many 
months. In 1822 he produced "The 
Pirate," and " The Fortunes of Nigel ;" 
in 1823 "Peveril of the Peak," and 
" Quentin Durward ;" in 1824 " St. Ro- 
nan's Well," and " Redgauntlet;" in 
1825 "Tales of the Crusaders;" in 1826 
"Woodstock;" in 1827 " Chronicles of 
the Canongate," first series; in 1828 
" Chronicles of the Canongate," second 
series ; in 1829 " Anne of Geiernstein," 
and in 1831 a fourth series of " Tales of 
my Landlord," in four volumes, con- 
taining two tales, respectively entitled 
" Count Robert of Paris," and " Castle 
Dangerous." The whole novels pub- 
lished at various periods by Sir Walter, 
make 74 volumes. The late king, 
George IV. was pleased in March, 1820, 
to create him a baronet of the United 
Kingdom. 

In Jan. 1826, Messrs. Constable and 
Co., his publishers, became bankrupts, 
and Sir Walter found himself called on 
to meet the demands of creditors upon 
commercial establishments with which 
his fortunes had long been bound up, to 
the extent of no less than £120,000. The 
blow was endured with a magnanimity 
worthy of the greatest writer of the age ; 
and he endeavoured by increasing efforts 
in authorship, to weaken the force of 
the storm; but his health, which from 
his l6th year had been very good, began 
to fail. His physicians recommended a 
residence in Italy, and in April 1831 he 
proceeded to Rome, where he was re- 
ceived with every mark of attention and 
respect ; but as all hopes of amendment 



SEC 



111 



SEN 



were at an end, he determined upon re- 
turning with all possible speed to his 
native country, and his death took place 
at Abbotsford, Sept. 21, 1832. A mo- 
nument Avas erected to his memory at 
Edinburgh in 1840, the foundation stone 
of which was laid Aug. 15, with great 
ceremony, and at which 4000 persons 

SCOTUS,JoHN. See Duns ScoTUS. 

SCRIPTURES. See Bible. 

SCRIVENERS' Company, London, 
incorporated I6l6. 

SCUDERY, George, French writer, 
born 1603, died 1667. 

SCUDERY, Magdalen De, 
French writer, died 1701. 

SEA-HORSE, transport, stranded by 
a gale in Tramore Bay, Ireland, when 
365 persons, chiefly soldiers of the 59th 
regiment, were drowned, January 30, 
1816. 

SEALS not much in use with the 
Sa.xons ; but they signed parchments 
with the cross, impressions of lead being 
affixed. Sealing charters and deeds 
first introduced into England 1065. 
There was a seal of King Edward's at 
Westminster, about 1188. Coats of 
arms were not introduced into seals 
till 1218, Great seal of England first 
used to crown grants, &c. 1050; stolen 
1784. 

SEALING-WAX brought into gene- 
ral use 1556. 

S EATON, Rev. Thomas, who in- 
stituted the prize poems at Cambridge, 
born about 1684, died 1750. 

SEBASTIAN, St., town, Spain, 
province of Biscay, has been repeatedly 
taken by the French ; it fell into their 
hands in 1719, in the revolutionary war 
of 1794, and on Buonaparte's invasion 
in 1808. It was taken by the British in 
1813, 

SECKER, Dr. Thomas, a celebrated 
prelate of the church of England, was 
born in 1693, at Sibthorpe, Nottingham- 
shire. At the age of 19, he had made 
considerkble progress in Greek and 
Latin, and had acquired a knowledge of 
French, Chaldee, and Syriac. In Dec. 
1734, the king advanced him to the see 
of Bristol, and in 1737, he succeeded to 
the see of Oxford, a promotion which 
he held for more than 20 years. On 
the death of Archbishop Hutton, he was 
promoted to the see of Canterbury, and 
was confirmed at Bow Church, April 21, 
1758. All designs and institutions 



which tended to advance good morals 
and true religion, he patronized with 
zeal and generosity ; he contributed 
largely to the maintenance of schools for 
the poor, and to I'ebuilding or repairing 
of parsonage houses and places of wor- 
ship. He died Aug. 3, 1768, in his 75th 
year. 

SEDAN Chairs introduced into 
England by the duke of Buckingham 
1734. 

SELDEN, John, a distinguished 
scholar, and eminent political character, 
was born at Salvington in Sussex in 
1584. He entered himself at Clifford's 
Inn, in order to study the law, and about 
two years after removed to the Inner Tem- 
ple, where he soon acquired great reputa- 
tion by his learning. In 1625 he was 
chosen burgess for Great Bedwin in 
Wiltshire, to serve in the first parliament 
of Charles I., in which he declared 
himself warmly against the duke of 
Buckingham. In 1627 and 1628, he 
opposed the court party with great 
vigour. In 1640 he was chosen mem- 
ber for the university of Oxford, when 
he again opposed the court. In 1643 
he was appointed one of the lay-mem- 
bers to sit in the assembly of divines at 
Westminster, and was the same year 
appointed keeper of the records in the 
Tower. In 1645 he was made one of 
the commissioners of the admiralty. He 
died in 1654, and was interred in the 
Temple church, where a monument is 
erected to his memory. His works, 
which were numerous, were published 
collectively in three volumes folio, by 
Dr. David Wilkinsin 1726, with a Latin 
life of the author. 

SELKIRK, Alexander, the hero 
of the fascinating novel entitled " Ro- 
binson Crusoe," was a native of Largo 
a parish of Fifeshire, in Scotland, and 
sailing-master of a vessel named the 
" Cinque Ports' Galley." While navi- 
gating this vessel in the Pacific Ocean, 
he was put on shore by the command of 
Stradling, the captain, on the uninhabited 
island of Juan Fernandez, as a punish- 
ment for mutiny, on October 4, 1704. 
In that solitude he remained five years 
and four months, when he was discovered 
and brought to England by captain 
Woodes Rogers, Sejjtember 1709; he 
died 1723. 

SENECA, Lucius Ann^eus, a cele- 
brated philosopher, was born at Corduba 
in Spain, about the beginning of the 

5 Q 



SEP 



778 



SET 



christian era. Entering into public life 
he obtained the office of quaestor, and 
had risen to some consequence in the 
court of Claudius, when he was accused 
of an adulterous commerce with Julia, 
the daughter of Germanicus, and was 
banished to the island of Corsica. Agrip- 
pina being married to Claudius, she 
prevailed with the emperor to recall 
Seneca from banishment, and afterwards 
procured him to be tutor to her son 
Nero. By the bounty and generosity 
of his royal pupil, Seneca acquired that 
prodigious wealth, which rendered him 
in a m:inner equal to kings. When 
Nero began to display his real character 
the influence of Seneca over his pupil 
was entirely lost, so that the tyrant de- 
termined on his destruction. Under 
the pretence of Seneca's connection 
with a conspiracy, a military tribune 
was sent with a band of soldiers to his 
house, where he was commanded to put 
an end to himself. The death which 
he chose was that by opening his veins, 
and he expired in the year 65, and in 
the 12th year of Nero's reign. 

SENEGAL, or Senegambia, a coun- 
try of Africa, situated between the rivers 
Senegal and Gambia, and including 
many kingdoms and states. By the 
treaty of 1783, the river of Senegal and 
its dependencies were left in the posses- 
sion of the French, who had extended 
their factories above 500 miles from the 
shore. In 1784 was founded the com- 
pany of the gum of Senegal, which ob- 
tained an exclusive privilege of trading 
in gum, slaves, gold dust, &c. In 1791 
this company was suppressed by the na- 
tional assembly, and the trade with Se- 
negal was declared free. The island of 
Senegal, situated in the river so called, 
was taken from the French by the British 
troops in 1758 ; and by the peace of 
1763 it was ceded to Great Britain. 

SENNEFELDER, Aloys, theinven- 
ventor of lithography, died at Munich, 
Feb. 25, 1834, in his 63d year. 

SEPTUAGINT, the name given to a 
Greek version of the books of the Old 
Testament, supposed to be the work of 
72 Jews, in obedience to the order of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, who died a.c. 
246. The Septuagint chronology reckons 
1500 years more from the creation to 
Abraham than the Hebrew bible. Dr. 
Kennicot, in the dissertation prefixed to 
his Hebrew bible, has shown it to be 
probable that the chronology of the 



Hebrew scriptures was corrupted by the 
Jews, between a.d. 175 and 200, and 
that the chronology of the Septuagint is 
more agreeable to truth. 

SERINGAPATAM, city, Hindoostan, 
province of Mysore, on an island of the 
same name. In 1792 Tippoo's army was 
defeated by Lord Cornwallis, under the 
walls of this city. In 1799 it was stormed 
by General Harris, when Tippoo wa8 
killed, and the British government ob- 
tained possession of the island. 

SERTORIUS, QuiNTUs, Roman war- 
rior, flourished A.c. 73. 

SERVETUS, Michael, alearned Spa- 
nish physician, was born at Villaneuva, in 
Arragon, in 1509. He was burnt at 
Geneva, as was supposed at the instiga- 
tion of Calvin, because he differed from 
him respecting his heresy, October 27, 
1553. 

SERVIA, province, north of Euro- 
pean Turkey, were originally a tribe of 
Sclavonians from Galicia, in Poland, 
supposed to be of the same race as the 
Russians. Servia was occupied by in- 
vaders on the decline of the Roman 
empire. It yielded to the Turks in 
1365. The oppression of the Turks led 
to an insurrection in 1801, when Czerni 
Georges, known as the head of a band 
of robbers, besieged and took Belgrade, 
and expelled the Turks from the country 
till 1814, when he withdrew into Russia; 
and by a convention concluded between 
his country and the Porte in 1815, the 
Servians acknowledged the sovereignty 
of the sultan, but observed the free ex- 
ercise of their religious as well as their 
civil rights. 

SESSIONS, or Quarter Sessions, 
an English court that must be held in 
every county, once in every quarter of a 
year. The jurisdiction of this court, by 
34 Edward III, c. 1, 1360, extends to the 
trying and determining all felonies and 
trespasses whatsoever. 

Court of Sessions, otherwise called 
the College of Justices, is the supreme 
court in Scotland for all civil causes. 
It was first appointed by James I. 
1425 ; abolished 1503 ; re-established by 
James v., 1531; reinstated at Edinburgh 
1756. 

SETTLEMENT, Act of, a name 
given to the statute 12 and 13 Will. III. 
C.2., 1689, whereby the crown was hmited 
to the illustrious house of Hanover, and 
some new provisions were added for bet- 
ter securing our religion, laws, and liber- 



SEY 



779 



SHA 



ties, which the statute declares to be the 
birthright of the people of England, 
according to the ancient doctrine of the 
common law. 

SEVERUS, Septimius, a Roman 
emperor, who has been much admired 
for his military talents. Some have 
called him the most warlike of the Ro- 
man emperors. He died in 211. 

SEVE^US' Wall, built in the north 
of England, 208. 

SEVIGNE', Marie De Rabutin, 
MARauiSE De, a celebrated French 
lady, was born in 1626. In 1644 she 
married the marquis of Sevigne, who was 
slain in a duel by the chevalier D'Albert 
in 1651. Her daughter, who in 1669 
married the count de Grignan, accom- 
panied him to his government of Pro- 
vence ; and this separation gave rise to 
the greater part of the letters which have 
gained her so high a reputation. She 
died in 1696, aged 70. 

SEVILLE, city and province, Spain. 
The city is supposed to have been 
founded by the Phoenicians, who gave 
it the name of Hispalis. The Romans 
embellished it with many magnificent 
edifices ; of which scarce any vestige 
now remains. The Gothic kings for 
some time made it their residence : but 
in process of time they removed their 
court to Toledo. In 1027, Seville be- 
came an independent monarchy ; but 
was conquered 70 years afterwards by 
Yusef Almoravides, an African prince. 
At last it was taken by Ferdinand II., 
after a year's siege ; from this period it 
has always made a part of the dominions 
of the kings of Castile. The silk manu- 
facture was also formerly very flourish- 
ing in this place, so that in the year 
1248 it employed 16,000 looms, and 
130,000 persons. Seville surrendered 
to the French in 1812, who left it after- 
wards at the general evacuation of the 
south of Spain. 

SEWARD, Anna, the author of the 
elegy on Captain Cook, died in 1809, 
aged 66. 

SEWARD, William, the author of 
" Biographical Sketches of Eminent 
Characters," &c.,died 1799. 

SEYCHELLES, group of islands, 
Indian Ocean, situated to the northward 
of Madagascar. They were partially 
explored by M. Lazarus Picault in 1743, 
by order of Mahe De La Bourdon nais, 
the governor of the Isle of France. They 
capitulated to the English in 1794, 



after which their flag was considered 
neutral betv/een the English and French. 
On the capture of the Mauritius in 1810, 
the islands were |taken possession of as 
a dependency of that colony, and have 
since continued under the superintend- 
ence of an agent deputed from Mauritius. 

SEYMOUR, Lord, made lord high- 
admiral 1547 ; married the widow of 
Henry VIII., March, 1548 ; who died in 
child-bed, September following. He was 
beheaded on Tower-hill, March 20, 1549. 

SHAFTESBURY, Earl of. See 
Cooper. 

SHAKESPEARE or Shakspeare, 
William, the prince of dramatic writers, 
was born at Stratford-upon-Avon, in 
Warwickshire, April 23, 1564. His 
father being incumbered witli a large 
family of children, was somewhat reduced 
in circumstances. Shakspeare continued 
in domestic obscurity for some time, 
till, by an unhappy instance of miscon- 
duct, he was obliged to quit the place of 
his nativity, and take shelter in London. 
As his name is found printed among 
the lists of players in some old plays, it 
is probable that he was early employed 
as an actor. It is difficult to ascertain 
what was the first poetical essay of the 
genius of Shakspeare. The highest 
date Rowe has been able to trace is 
"Romeo and Juliet" in 1597, when the 
author was 33 years old ; and Richard II. 
and III., the next year. Queen EHza- 
beth had several of his plays acted before 
her ; and she was so well pleased with 
the admirable character of Falstaff, in the 
two parts of " Henry IV." that she recom- 
mended him to continue it in one play 
more, and to make him in love. This 
is said to have been the occasion of his 
writing the "Merry Wives of Windsor," 
in 1601. 

1603. A hcence, by King James I., 
was granted to him, with Burbage, 
Philips, Hemmings, Condel, &c., *' to 
exercise the art of playing comedies, 
tragedies, &c., as well at their usual 
house called the Globe, on the bank- 
side, Southwark, as in any other part of 
the kingdom, during his majesty's 
pleasure." The whole dramatic works 
of Shakspeare consists of 35 pieces, com- 
mencing with the first part of " King 
Henry VI." in 1589, and ending with 
"Twelfth Night," 1614. In 1623 his 
plays were collected and published in 
folio by two of his friends in the com- 
pany of comedians, Hemmings and Con- 



SHA 



7S0 



SHE 



del. The latter part of our author's life 
was spent in ease and retirement. He 
resided some years before his death at 
his native town, Stratford-upon-Avon, 
in a handsome house he had purchased, 
which he had the good fortune to save 
from the flames, when a dreadful fire 
consumed the greatest part of the town 
in 1614. He died April 23, I6l6, in the 
53d year of his age, and was interred 
among his ancestors, in the great church 
of Stratford, where there is a handsome 
monument erected to his memory. In 
1740 another very noble one was raised 
at the public expense in Westminster 
Abbey, an ample contribution for this 
purpose being made upon exhibiting 
his tragedy of " Julius Caesar," at the 
theatre-royal in Drury Lane, April 28, 
1738. 

The Shaksperian Jubilee, or the 
festival in celebration of the birth-day 
of Shakspeare, was first held at Stratford 
in 1769, under the patronage of Garrick, 
and since continued. In 1827, it was 
revived by the Shaksperian club with 
unusual festivities. 

SHARP, Abraham, mathematician 
and astronomer, born in 1651. He kept 
up a correspondence with most of the 
eminent mathematicians and asrono- 
mers of his time, as Flumsteed, Newton, 
Halley, Wallis, Hodgson, &c. He died 
in July 1742. 

SHARPE, archbishop of St. An- 
drew's, born in 1618, was shot in his 
coach. May 8, 1679. 

SHARPE, Granville, the philan- 
thropist, one of the first who set on foot 
the inquiry into the African slave trade, 
died July 8, 1813. 

SHAW, Dr. Thomas, the traveller, 
was born at Kendal, [in Westmoreland, 
about the j'ear 1692. He was educated 
at the grammar-school of that town, and 
in 1711 .was admitted of Queen's College, 
Oxford. Soon after he had taken orders, 
he was appointed chaplain to the English 
factory at Algiers, in which station he 
continued for several years, and from 
thence took opportunities of travelling 
into different parts of Barbaryand Egypt. 
He returned in 1733, was elected fellow 
of the Royal Society, and published the 
account of his travels at Oxford, folio, 
1738: a supplement was added in 1746. 
" Dr. Shaw's Travels have been regarded 
as particularly useful in illustrating the 
scriptures by comparisons between the 
ancient and modern state of the eastern 



regions," In 1740 he was nominated 
principal of St. Edmund Hall, and was 
regius professor of Greek at Oxford, 
until his death, which happened in 1751. 

SHAW, Dr. George, the celel)rated 
naturalist, was born in 1751, at Bierton, 
in Buckinghamshire. In 1765 he was 
entered at Magdalen Hall, Oxford. He 
was ordained deacon in 1774, at Buck- 
den, by Dr. Green, bishop of Lincoln, 
but afterwards laid aside his tlieological 
career, and went to Edinburgh to qualify 
himself for the profession of medicine. 
In 1789 he was elected a fellow of the 
Royal Society, and the following year 
became a candidate for the office of a 
librarian in the British Museum. He 
now quitted the duties of physician, and 
devoted himself entirely to researches in 
natural science. In 1800 he began his 
great work, entitled " General Zoology, 
or Natural History," with plates from 
the best authorities and most select spe- 
cimens, in which the Linngean arrange- 
ment, with occasional variations, has 
been pursued throughout. In the year 
1806 and 1807, Dr. Shaw delivered a 
course of zoological lectures, which were 
pubhshed in 1809. In 1807, upon the 
death of Dr. Gray, keeper of natural his- 
tory in the British Museum, Dr. Shaw 
was promoted to that office. He died 
July 28, 1813, in his 62d year. 

SHEBBEARE, John, M.D., author 
of " Chrysal, or the Adventures of a 
Guinea," born 1709. He was pilloried 
at Charing Cross, Dec. 5, 1758, for his 
*' Letters to the People of England," 
the object of which was to show that this 
nation was injured by its connection 
with Hanover. He died 1788. 

SHEERNESS, seaport, Kent, situated 
at the confluence of the Medway with 
the Thames. An ancient fort at Queen- 
borough having been blown up by the 
Dutch fleet in 1667, a new one was 
commenced at this place by order of 
Charles II. A regular fortification was 
afterwards constructed, and forts built 
on both sides of the Medway for the de- 
fence of the river. The town, which is 
entirely of modern origin, gradually rose 
in its vicinity. 

SHEFFIELD, borough, Yorkshire, 
is of great antiquity; it is the chief place 
of the extensive district of this county 
called Hallamshire, the same as the 
Saxon manor Hallam. There was for- 
merly a strong castle, in which Mary 
Queen of Scots was confined 14 years. 



SHE 



781 



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In lG46 it was so completely demolished 
that nothing now remains but a few ves- 
tiges of the underground works ; but the 
site is still called Castle Hill. 

Sheffield is famous for its manufac- 
tures of cutlery. In 16'25 the master 
manufacturers were first incorporated by 
the style of the company of cutlers of 
Hallamshire; and about 1750 this town 
assumed the rank it now holds in manu- 
facturing opulence. In 1758 the silver 
plated manufacture was commenced on 
an extensive scale, and has subsequently 
been prosecuted with great advantage. 

SHELDON, Archbishop, died 
Nov. 9, 1677. 

SHELLEY, Percy Bysshe, poet, 
died 1822, aged 30. 

SHENSTONE, William, an ad- 
mired English poet, was born at Hales 
Owen, in Shropshire, in 1714. He was 
sent in 1732 to Pembroke college, in Ox- 
ford, where he first discovered his poeti- 
cal genius, and produced some composi- 
tions of considerable merit. He pub- 
lished, in 1740, his " Judgment of 
Hercules ;" and this was two years after- 
wards followed by the " School Mis- 
tress." He died Feb. 11, 1763. 

SHEPHERD, Rev. Revett, a cele- 
brated English naturalist, born 1778, 
died 1830. 

SHERARD, William, founder of 
the botanic professorship at Oxford, died 
1728. 

SHERBORNE Castle, Dorset, built 
1107. 

SHERIDAN, Dr. Thomas, the in- 
timate friend of Dean Swift, born about 
1684, in the county of Cavan, Ireland. 
He died Sept. 10, 1738. One of the vo- 
lumes of Swift's Miscellanies consists 
almost entirely of letters between him 
and Dr. Sheridan. 

SHERIDAN, Richard Brinsley, 
grandson of the preceding, a celebrated 
English public cliaracter, and dramatic 
writer, was born in Sept. 1751, at Dub- 
lin. His father, Mr. Thomas Sheridan, 
was an actor of considerable celebrity, 
but devoted the latter part of his life to 
the profession of a schoolmaster. In 
1770, in conjunction with a Mr. Halhed, 
an old school-fellow at Harrow, Mr. She- 
ridan commenced his literary career by 
the production of a farce, in three acts, 
called "Jupiter," written in imitation of 
the burletta of " Midas." On Jan. 17, 
1775, his comedy of "The Rivals" was 
brought out at Covent Garden ; which 



after some alterations rose into public 
favour, and established his reputation. 
He rapidly made his way into the very 
highest circles. Mr. Fox pronounced 
him the wittiest man he had ever met 
with ; and his ambition being kindled 
by such applause, he determined to try 
his fortune in parliament, and was re- 
turned for Stafford. 

Sheridan's first appearance as a politi- 
cal character was in conjunction with 
Mr. Fox, in 1780, when the resolutions 
on the state of the representation were 
laid before the public by the West- 
minster committee. Annual parliaments 
and universal suffrage were the professed 
objects of this meeting. In 1812 Mr. 
Sheridan made an unsuccessful attempt 
to be returned again for Stafford, by 
which his means were exhausted, and 
he was left a lonely and helpless wreck 
upon the waters. His last moments 
were marked by circumstances of ex- 
treme poverty and distress. Writs and 
executions came in rapid succession, 
and bailiffs at length gained possession 
of his house. After suffering the ex- 
tremes of misery and want he died July 7, 
1816. 

SHERIDAN, Thomas, only son of 
Richard Brinsley Sheridan, died Aug. 12, 
1817. 

SHERIFF, an officer of very great 
antiquity in this kingdom, being known 
in 1079, in the reign of WiUiam I. 
Anciently in some counties the sheriffs 
were hereditary, but the statute 9 Ed. II. 
s. 2, enacted, that the sheriffs should be 
assigned by the chancellor, treasurer, 
and the judges; as being persons in 
whom the same trust might with confi- 
dence be reposed. Sheriffs in London, 
were first appointed in 1189. 

SHERLOCK, Dr. William, an 
eminent English divine, was born in 
London in 1641. On the discovery of 
the Piye-house plot he appeared as an 
asserter of the doctrine of non-resistance. 
After the revolution, refusing to take the 
oaths to the new government, he was 
suspended from all preferments. During 
his suspension he published the " Trea- 
tise on Death," to which he is chiefly 
indebted for celebrity as an author. He 
died in 1707, in his 67th year. 

SHERLOCK, Dr. Thomas, a dis- 
tinguished prelate, and son of the 
preceding, was born in London in 1678., 
Being promoted to the deanery of Chi- 
chester in 1726, he soon after made his 



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first appearance in print, as a champion 
of the establishment, in " A Vindication 
of the Corporation and Test Acts " In 
1728 he was promoted to the bishopric 
of Bangor ; and was translated to Salis- 
bury in 1738. In 1747 he was offered 
the see of Canterbury, which he declined 
on account of ill health, but afterwards 
recovering, he accepted the see of Lon- 
don in 1749. He died in 1761, in his 
84th year. 

SHETLAND Isles, group of islands, 
Scotland, forming the most remote por- 
tion of the British dominions northward, 
and lying about 15 leagues north-east 
of the Orkneys. In the beginning of 
the 9th century, the Picts, having been 
conquered by Kenneth II., king of the 
Scots, sought refuge here in great num- 
bers, and erected many small castles as 
signal stations. Having failed in their 
hopes of recovering their territories in 
Scotland, they remained confined to the 
Shetland and Orkney islands, and con- 
tinued subject to the kings of Denmark 
till the final cession of the islands to 
James VI. of Scotland about 1600. 

SHETLAND Isles, New, cluster 
of barren islands, South Pacific Ocean. 
They were first seen by Dirck Gheritz, 
who commanded one of the five ships 
which sailed from Rotterdam in 1598, 
to make a western passage to India. 
After this time they were lost sight of 
till they were described by lieutenant 
Kendal, R. N., whose journal was com- 
municated to the Geographical Society 
by Sir John Barrow in 1831. 

SHIELD,WiLLiAM, an eminent musi- 
cal composer, was a native of the county 
of Durham. About 1792 he published his 
well-known " Introduction to Harmony." 
In 1817 his majesty appointed him 
master of his musicians in ordinary. His 
dramatic compositions were very nume- 
rous and eminently successful, among 
which were, " Rosina," "The Poor 
Soldier," &c. He also composed some 
iBxcellent songs, particularly " The 
Thorn," "The Wolf," "The Post 
Captain," &c. He died January 1829, 
aged 80. 

SHIP. The ships of remote antiquity 
were rudely put together with just suffi- 
cient compactness to keep out the water. 
The first ship seen in Greece is said 
to have arrived at Rhodes from Egypt 
A.c. 1485. Some ascribe the first rigging 
out of ships of war to Parhalus or 
Samyres, others to Semiramis, and others 



agam to Egaeon. The art of sailing is 
ascribed to the Phoenicians of Tyre and 
Sidon. See Navigation. Polybius, 
in his " Universal History," affirms that 
the first time the Romans ever adven- 
tured to sea was in the first Punic war, 
A.c. 264 ; but it was as late as A.c. 261, 
before the Romans had seriously deter- 
mined on building a fleet of ships of war. 
The Roman ships afterwards became su- 
perior to those constructed by any other 
nation ; for a law was enacted in the 
reign of the emperor Honorius, a.d.418, 
inflicting capital punishment on any who 
should instruct the barbarians in the art 
of ship-building. 

The Anglo-Saxon ships were very 
small, badly contrived, and ill- built; but 
the British ships of the 12th century 
were more numerous, larger, and better 
constructed, than they had been at any 
period before the conquest. Those of 
the largest size and strongest construc- 
tion, were called dromones ; of which 
kind was the famous Saracen ship, 
captured by Richard I., near the port of 
Aeon. The fleet of Richard I. of Eng- 
land, when he weighed anchor for the 
holy war from Messina, in Sicily, where 
he passed the winter, 1190-1, is said to 
have consisted of 13 dromones. Most 
of the ships which were employed at 
that time were probably very small. Ed- 
ward III.'s fleet, from Calais, 1347, con- 
sisted of 738 English ships, carrying 
14,956 mariners, being on an average 
but 20 men to each ship. 

In the 15th century ships of a larger 
size were constructed. It is mentioned 
that a very large ship was built in 1449, 
by John Taverner of Hull ; and in the 
year 1455, King Henry IV., at the re- 
quest of Charles, king of Sweden, grant- 
ed a hcence for a Swedish ship of the 
burden of 1000 tons. In the fleet fitted 
out by Henry VIII., there was one ship, 
the Regent, of 1000 tons burden, one 
of 500. and three of 400 each. In 1575 
the whole of the royal navy did not 
exceed 24 ships, and the number of 
merchant ships belonging to England 
amounted to no more than 135 vessels 
above 100 tons, and 656 between 40 and 
100 tons. At the time of the Spanish 
Armada, the English navy was but little 
more than the above, but afterwards 
during succeeding reigns it rapidly in- 
creased. See Navy. 

The mercantile shipping of England 
first became considerable in the reign of 



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Elizabeth ; and gradually increased under 
her successors, James 1. and Charles I. 
At the restoration, the British shipping 
cleared outwards amounted to 95,266 
tons. The war which was terminated by 
the treaty of Ryswick, l697j checked this 
progress. But commerce and navigation 
have steadily advanced with the excep- 
tion of two short periods, during the war 
of 1739 and the American war, from 
the beginning of the last century down 
to the present day. The number and 
tonnage of vessels employed in the 
coasting trade, which entered inwards 
and cleared outwards with cargoes, at 
the several ports of the United Kingdom, 
during the year ISSQ, was, inwards, 
ships 130,254 ; tonnage 10,610,404 : 
outwards, ships 142,895 ; tonnage 
11,266,073. Number of other vessels 
which entered inwards and cleared out- 
wards, in the year 1839, was, inwards, 
ships 23,114; tonnage 3,957,468: out- 
wards, ships 18,423 ; tonnage 3,085,752. 
Vessels employed in the foreign trade of 
the United Kingdom, including repeated 
voyages during the year 1839, were, in- 
wards, vessels 27,961 ; tons 4,433,015 : 
outwards, A^essels 27,764; tons4,494,707. 

SHIP-BUILDING was first treated 
of as a science by Hoste in 1696. Ships' 
bottoms were universally sheathed with 
wood, chiefly deal, till after the middle 
of the 18th century; but this material 
had been long found to be very incon- 
venient. In 1770 copper was introduced 
for the sheathing of ships' bottoms. A 
great number of other improvements in 
the construction, fitting, and rigging of 
ships, has been introduced within the 
last 70 years ; but they are individually 
not of gieat importance, and to under- 
stand them requires minute description. 
The only improvements of magnitude 
are the introduction of steam as a pro- 
pelling power, (see Steam Naviga- 
tion,) and that of iron-built ships. 

1839. April 25, was read to the Royal 
Society an "Account of Experiments 
on Iron-built Ships, instituted for the 
Purpose of discovering a Correction for 
the Deviation of the Compass produced 
by the Iron of the Ships," by G. Biddell 
Airy, Esq., A.M. In this paper, the 
problem of the deviation of a ship's 
compass, arising from the influence of 
the iron in the ship, more particularly 
in iron-built ships, is fully investigated ; 
and the principles on which the correc- 
tion for this deviation depends having 



been determined, practical methods for 
neutralizing the deviating forces are 
deduced and illustrated by experimental 
application. The first sailing vessel ever 
built of iron was constructed in Liver- 
pool, and named the Ironsides. She 
first sailed for Pernambuco, in 1839, 
which she reached in 47 days. The 
largest iron ship is building by Messrs. 
Ronalds, Fortdee, Aberdeen, for a Liver- 
pool company. Her length of keel is 
130 feet; breadth of frame, 30 feet; 
depth of hold, 20 feet ; length over all, 
137 feet; tons register, 537. 

SHIP Money, an imposition charged 
upon the ports, towns, cities, &c., of the 
realm, in the reign of King Charles L, 
in the j^ears 1635 and 1636, for the pro- 
viding and furnishing of certain ships 
for the king's service, &c. 

SHIPWRECK. Anciently the con- 
duct observed towards those that were 
shipwrecked was barbarous ; and in fact 
they were, in most instances, either put 
to death or sold as slaves. The Roman 
law made it a capital offence to destroy 
persons shipwrecked, or to prevent their 
saving the ship ; and the stealing even 
of a plank from a vessel shipwrecked 
or in distress, made the party liable to 
answer for the whole ship and cargo. 
Various statutes were made in England 
also, to protect those who suffered this 
calamity. But owing to the confusion 
and disorder of the times, they were very 
ill enforced; and|the disgraceful practices 
alluded to, continued to the middle of 
the last century, when more strenuous 
measures were adopted. By statute 
1 and 2 Geo. IV. c. 75, it is enacted, 
that any person or persons wilfully cut- 
ting away, injuring, or concealing any 
buoy or buoy-rope attached to any 
anchor or cable belonging to any ship 
whether in distress or otherwise, shall 
be judged guilty of felony, and may, 
upon conviction, be transported for seven 
years. 

The loss of property by shipwreck is 
very great. It appears from an exami- 
nation of Lloyd's list from 1793 to 1829, 
that the losses, in the British mercantile 
navy onlj', amounted at an average of 
that period, to about 557 vessels a year, 
of the aggregate burden of about 66,000 
tons, or to above l-40th part of its en- 
tire amount in ships and tonnage. Since 
then, the number of these calamities has 
in no degree diminished. The following 
account compiled from Lloyd's books. 



S II o 



784 



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shows the amount of shipwrecks from 
Jan. 1, 1832, to June 30, 1836. 

1832. British, 345; foreign, 139- 

1833. British, 626 ; foreign, 185. 

1834. British, 432; foreign, 158. 

1835. British, 594; foreign, 158. 

1836. British, 284; foreign, 115. 
An invention for saving the lives of 

shipwi'ecked mariners was introduced by 
Capt. Manby, 1811. A method somewhat 
similar had been published 20 years before 
by Sergeant Bell. Captain Henvey, R.N., 
in 1839, invented a life-buoy of the 
simplest but most efficacious description, 
and one which has already proved use- 
ful in practice. The " Lincolnshire As- 
sociation for the Preservation of Lives 
in Shipwreck," combined the use of these 
life-buoys with Captain Manby's appa- 
ratus in such a way that the lives of 
mariners and of passengers on board 
stranded ships, they hope, may be saved, 
when, by all the means heretofore used, 
nothing could be done to relieve them. 
Captain Dansey, R.N., has invented a 
contrivance of the kite and messenger 
for the same humane purpose. This 
contrivance was practically exhibited at 
the United Service Institution, April 22, 
1839, by Captain Saumarez, R.N. 

SHIPWRIGHTS' Company, Lon- 
don, incorporated 16 10. 

SHOEING OF Horses, first intro- 
duced into England, 481. 

SHOES. In the 9th and 10th cen- 
turies the greatest princes of Europe 
wore wooden shoes, or the upper part of 
leather and the sole of wood. In the 
reign of William Rufus, a great beau, 
Robert, surnamed the Horned, used 
shoes with long sharp points, stuffed 
with tow, and twisted like a ram's horn. 
The points continued to increase till, in 
the reign of Richard II., they were of 
so enormous a length that they were 
tied to the knees with chains, sometimes 
of gold, sometimes of silver. The long 
pointed shoes were called crackowes, 
and continued in fashion for three cen- 
turies in spite of the bulls of popes, the 
decrees of councils, and the declama- 
tions of the clergy. 

At length the parhament of England in- 
terposed by an act, 1463, prohibiting the 
use of shoes or boots with points or pikes, 
excepting two inches in length, and pro- 
hibiting all shoemakers from making 
shoes or boots with longer pikes, under 
severe penalties. But even this was not 
sufficient ; it was necessary to denounce 



the dreadful sentence of excommunica- 
tion against all who wore shoes or boots 
with ])oints longer than two inches. The 
present fashion of shoes was introduced 
in 1633, and the buckle began to be 
used about 1670. 

SHOVEL, Sir Cloudesley, a dis- 
tinguished British admiral, was born 
about 1650. In the battle of Bantry- 
Bay he commanded the Edgar, and, for 
his gallant behaviour in that action, 
was knighted by King William III. 
Soon after he was made rear-admiral of 
the red, and shared the glory of the 
victory at La Hogue. In 1694 he bom- 
barded Dunkirk. In 1703 he com- 
manded the grand fleet in the Mediter- 
ranean, and did every thing in his power 
to assist the protestants who were in 
arms in the Cevennes In 1705 he com- 
manded the fleet, together with tlie earl 
of Peterborough and Monmouth, which 
was sent into the Mediterranean. After 
an unsuccessful attempt upon Toulon, 
he sailed for Gibraltar, and from thence 
homeward with a part of the fleet. On 
October 22, at night, his ship, with three 
others, was cast away on tlie rocks of 
Scilly, when he with the whole of his 
crew perished. 

SHREWSBURY, Shropshire, is a 
place of great antiquity, and was built by 
the Britons on the ruins of Uriconiura, 
a Roman station. After the Norman 
conquest W'illiam gave this country to 
Roger de Montgomery, who built here 
a baronial castle of great strength. A 
battle took place here in 1403, between 
the armies of Henry IV., and the earl of 
Northumberland. When the parliamen- 
tary war first broke out Charles I. came 
here, and was shortly after joined by 
Prince Rupert, Prince Charles, and the 
duke of York. He established a mint, 
and the inhabitants took plate to a large 
amount to be melted down and coined 
for the necessities of their monarch. In 
1687, James II. visited this place, and 
held his court in the council-house, used 
for the same purpose by Charles I. 

SHROPSHIRE. See Salop. 

SIAM, ancient kingdom of India 
beyond the Ganges. It was wholly un- 
known to Europe until the discovery of 
the route to India by the Cape of Good 
Hope. The first traces of its authentic 
history began about 1550. From 1687, 
Siam experienced much internal discord, 
and many sanguinary massacres. It 
remained, however, exempt from any 



SIC 



785 



SID 



serious external annoyance until 1754, 
when, in consequence of the conquest of 
Pegu, the Birraan dominions came in con- 
tact with those of Siam. In 1767, the Bur- 
mese captured Yuthia, the then capital, 
pillaged and burned it, and extirpated the 
royal family. In 1769, Piatac, a Chinese 
chief, collected some troops and expelled 
the Burmese from all their conquests ex- 
cept the provinces now belonging to the 
British along the bay of Bengal. He was 
succeeded by the first sovereign of the 
present dynasty, who reigned until 1 809, 
when the late king ascended the throne ; 
he died after a few days' illness. On the 
same day his oldest but illegitimate son, 
Prince KromaChiat, ascended the throne. 
In 1821, a mission from Bengal was dis- 
patched to Siam : but it was received 
with great jealousy and distrust. By the 
treaty of 1827 all British subjects may 
proceed by sea to any Siamese port. 

SIBERIA, territorj', Asiatic Russia, 
including the whole northern part of the 
continent of Asia. The exploration of 
Siberia may be dated from the period 
when Russia began to emancipate herself 
from the yoke of the Tartar conquerors. 
The czars, about the l7th century, having 
acquired a knowledge of the countries 
upon the Obi, began to erect little forts, 
and proceeded to colonize this district 
by making it a place of banishment for 
state criminals, — a practice which has 
been continued to the present day. 

SICILY, an island, Mediterranean, 
between Italy and Africa, which together 
with the continental dominions of the 
king of Naples, constitute the kingdom 
of that name. See Naples. Sicily, 
originally Sicania, derived its name from 
the Siculi, a people who invaded it from 
Italy. The Greeks resorted to it for the 
purpose of colonizing. The west and 
north coast were occupied by the Car- 
thaginians about A.G. 500. About a cen- 
tury and a half after took place the long 
military contest between the Romans and 
Carthaginians for the possession of the 
island, on the termination of which Sicily 
remained in possession of the former 
during many centuries. In the 8th and 
9th centuries of the christian era, the 
Saracens succeeded in conquering Sicily, 
and, making Palermo their capital, 
remained in possession of the island 200 
years. They gave way to the Normans, 
who conquered it in the 1 1 th century ; 
it afterwards submitted to the French in 
1266. By the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, 



Sicily was given to the duke of Savoy, 
with the title of king. But in 1720, the 
Austrians exchanged it for Sardinia, and 
added it to Naples. The war of 1734, 
carried on by France and Spain against 
Austria, transferred the crown of Naples, 
or, as it was termed, of the Two Sicilies, 
to a branch of the royal family of Spain. 
The French revolution, in 1799, led to 
the expulsion of the royal family ~frora 
Naples, but they were restored in 1815. 

SICK AND WOUNDED SeAMEn's 

Incorporation began June 24, 1747- 
SIDDONS, Mrs., the celebrated 
actress, was the eldest daughter of Mr. 
Roger Kemble, the manager of an 
itinerent company of comedians. Early 
in life she was married to Mr. Siddons, 
and soon afterjoined a strolling company 
of no great reputation. Afterwards at 
Liverpool, Birmingham, &c., she acquired 
a celebrity which procured her an engage- 
ment at Drury-lane. Her first appear- 
ance as Portia took place there, Dec. 29, 
1775. After having removed to Bath, 
she made her second appearance at 
Drury-lane, on the 10th Oct., 1782, in 
the character of Isabella. Her fame was 
soon spread abroad, and the theatre 
overflowed every night. Her talent in 
reciting dramatic works had been highly 
spoken of, which reaching the ears of the 
royal family, she was frequently invited to 
Buckingham-house, and Windsor, where 
she and her brother, John Kemble, often 
recited plays. She also visited several 
of her noble patrons, amongst whom 
Lord and Lady Harcourt stood con- 
spicuous. After acting with high 
reputation for many years she died, June 
8th, 1831. Her remains were interred 
at Paddington church on the 15th of 
June. The number of persons assembled 
to witness the funeral could not be less 
than 5000. 

SIDNEY, Sir Philip, was born at 
Penshurst in Kent, in the year 1554. 
After visiting France, Germany, Hun- 
gary and Italy, he returned to England 
in 1575, and was next year sent by Queen 
Elizabeth as her ambassador to Rodolph, 
emperor of Germany. In 1585, after the 
queen's treaty with the United States, 
he was made governor of Flushing, and 
master of the horse. Here he distinguished 
himself so much both by his courage and 
conduct, that his reputation rose to the 
highest pitch. But his illustrious career 
was soon terminated ; for in 1586 he was 
wounded at the battle of Zutphen, and 

5 M 



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786 



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carried to Arnheira, where he soon after 
died. 

SIDNEY, Algernon, was the second 
son of Robert earl of Leicester, and was 
born about the year 1617- His father, 
upon being appointed lord lieutenant of 
Ireland, procured him a commission for 
a troop of horse in his own regiment in 
1641. In 1643, he took part with the 
parliament, and accepted a captain's com- 
mission in the earl of Manchester's 
regiment of horse in 1644, and in 1645 
he was raised to the rank of colonel of a 
regiment of cavalry by General Fairfax. 
In 1648 he was nominated one of the 
members of the high court of justice, 
appointed to try Charles I. Upon the 
restoration he retired to Hamliurgh, and 
afterwards to Frankfort, where he resided 
till 1677, when he returned to England 
and obtained from the king a pardon. 
Being brought to his trial for an alleged, 
conspiracy against the government, he 
was declared guilty, and suffered on 
Tower Hill, Dec. 7th, 1633. 

SIENNA, or Siena, ancient city, 
Tuscany, was long an independent repub- 
lic, but became subject to France and 
Spain'in the 16th centuiy, and was after- 
wards ceded to the court of Florence. 
The town is the seat of a university 
founded in 1321. 

SIERRA Leone, British colony, 
Western Africa, on a river of the same 
name. The first settlers here were the 
Portugiiese ; shortly afterwards, the En- 
glish established themselves upon Bance 
Island, in the middle of the river, in 1787. 
The Sierra Leone Company having been 
formed in 1791, with a charter for 31 
years, the establishment was conducted 
with spirit ; but it had many difficulties 
to encounter. It was disturbed by inter- 
nal dissensions ; it was involved in con- 
tests with the bordering native states ; 
and in 1794 was plundered by a French 
squadron. The Sierra Leone Company 
being obliged to resign their concerns in 
1807, the colony again reverted to the 
British government. 

By a convention in 1819 between 
Sir C. M'Cartby and a Timmanee chief, 
named Ka Konka, possessing country on 
the boundary of the peninsula, that chief 
ceded to Great Britain the unlimited 
sovereignty of the lands known by the 
name of Mar Ports and Roe Boness, 
situated on the hanks of the Bance river. 
In 1824, Ba Mauro, king of the North 
Balloms, ceded to Great Britain the 



islandsof Bance, Tasso, Tombo, &c. The 
colony thus extends over a mountainous 
tract of country, formed by two rivers, 
which nearly intersect it. Free-town, 
the capital, is built upon the south side 
of the Sierra Leone river, and at the 
northern extremity of the peninsula. The 
total population of the colony in 1831 
amounted to 31,627. 

SI EYES, Abbe', a celebrated French 
politician and writer, was born May 3d, 
1748, at Frejus. He was brought up 
to an ecclesiastical life, but at the time 
of the American revolution, abandoned 
his religious pursuits to enter into the 
field of politics. When Louis XVI. con- 
voked the States General, the Abbe 
Sieyes published his famous work, enti- 
tled, "What is the Third Estate ?" The 
author was leturned by the city of Paris 
as one of the members, and he was ex- 
ceedingly active in that assembly. He 
was elected to the Convention, where he 
voted for the death of the king, but from 
1792 to 1795 he did not speak more than 
three times in that assembly. 

In May 1799 be was chosen a director 
in the room of Rewbell, and afterwards 
became president. It was while he was 
invested with this character, and by his 
influence, that the celebrated revolution 
of the 18th of Bruraaire took place, 
which led to the elevation of Buonaparte. 
On the 4th of April, 1814, he submitted 
to the Bourbons ; but, on the return of 
Buonaparte, in 1815, he was created a 
peer of France, and in 1816 was oMiged 
to remove to Brussels. After the revo- 
lution of 1830, he, like all other French 
exiles, returned to his native country, but 
he never reappeared on the political scene. 
He died June 20th, 1836. 

SILESIA, province of Prussia, was 
formerly subject to Poland, but was 
ceded to Bohemia in the 11th century. 
It passed with Bohemia to the house of 
Austria in the 16th century, but after the 
war which took place in 1740, the greatest 
part of it was ceded to Prussia. 

SILHET, district Hindoostan, pro- 
vince Bengal, the most eastern of the 
British possessions in Hindoostan. Prior 
to 1824, this district enjoyed a long tran- 
quillity, except by an attack on Gentiah, 
in 1774. In 1824 it became necessary 
to collect troops to guard against an 
invasion from the Birman empire ; and 
latterly the British became aggressors, by 
invading the contiguous province of 
Cachar. 



SIL 



m 



SIL 



. SILISTRI A, one of the frontier towns 
of Turkey. In 1773 several actions took 
place here between the Russians and 
Turks. It surrendered to the Russians 
in 1 829 ; the garrison of 8000 men, and 
10,000 armed inhabitants, to be prisoners 
of war ; it was restored by the treaty of 
the same year. 

SILK. The art of rearing silkworms, 
of unravelling the threads spun by them, 
and manufacturing the latter into articles 
of dress and ornament, seems to have 
been first practisedbythe Chinese. It first 
began to be introduced at Rome from 
China, probably in the age of Pompey 
and Julius Caesar ; the latter of whom 
displayed a profusion of silks in some of 
the magnificent theatrical spectacles. 
Owing to the great distance of China 
from Rome, and the high price of silk 
in China, its cost, when it arrived at 
Rome, was so great, that a given weight 
of silk was sometimes sold for an equal 
weight of gold. In the beginning of the 
reign of Tiberias, a law was passed that 
no man should disgrace himself by wear- 
ing a silken garment. But the profligate 
Heliogabalus despised this law, and was 
the first of the Roman emperors who 
wore a dress composed wholly of silk. 
The exampleonce set^the customof wear- 
ing silk soon became general among the 
wealthy citizens of Rome, and through- 
out the provinces. 

China continued to draw considerable 
sums from the Roman empire in return 
for silk, now become indispensable to 
the Western World, till the sixth cen- 
tury. About the year 550, two Persian 
monks, who had long resided in China, 
and made themselves acquainted with 
the mode of rearing the silkworm, en- 
couraged by the gifts and promises of 
Justinian, succeeded in carrying the 
eggs of the insect to Constantinople. A 
new and important branch of industry 
was thus established in Europe. 

Greece, particularly the Peloponnesus, 
was early distinguislied by the rearing 
of silkworms, and by the skill and 
success with which the inhabitants of 
Thebes, Corinth, and Argos carried on 
the manufacture. Until the 12th cen- 
tury, Greece continued to be the only 
European country in which these arts 
were practised ; but the forces of Roger, 
king of Sicily, having, in 1147, sacked 
Corinth, Athens, and Thebes, carried 
oS large numbers of the inhabitants to 
Palermo, who introducod the culture of 



the worm, and the manufacture of ellk, 
into Sicily. From this island the arts 
spread into Italy ; and Venice, Milan, 
Florence, Lucca, &c., were soon after 
distinguished for their success ih raising 
silkworms, and for the extent and beauty 
of their manufactures of silk. 

The silk manufacture was introduced 
into France in 1480; Louis XI. having 
invited workmen from Italy, who es- 
tablished themselves at Tours. The 
manufacture was begun at Lyons 
about 1520 ; when Francis I., having 
got possession of Milan, prevailed on 
some artizans of the latter city to esta- 
blish themselves, under his protection, 
in the former. Henry IV. rewarded such 
of the early manufacturers as had sup- 
ported and pursued the trade for 12 
years, with patents of nobility. 

The manufacture was introduced into 
England in the 15th century. In the 
reign of Elizabeth, the silk throwsters 
of the metropolis were united in a fellow- 
ship, in 1562 ; and were incorporated 
in 1629- Though retarded by the 
civil wars, the manufacture continued 
gradually to advance ; and in 1666, 
there were 40,000 individuals engaged 
in the trade. By the revocation of the 
edict of Nantes, in 1685, Louis XIV. 
drove several hundreds of thousands 
of his most industrious subjects to seek 
an asylum in foreign countries; of whom 
it is supposed about 50,000 came to 
England. Such as had been engaged in 
the silk manufacture established them- 
selves in Spitalfields, where they intro- 
duced several new branches of the art. 
In 1697 parliament passed an act pro- 
hibiting the importation of all French 
and other European silk goods ; and, in 
1 701, the prohibition was extended to 
the silk goods of India and China. 

In 1719 a patent was granted to Mr. 
(afterwards Sir Thomas) Lombe and his 
brother, for the exclusive property of 
the famous silk mill erected by them at 
Derby, for throwing silk, from models 
they had clandestinely obtained in Italy. 
From this period the history of the silk 
manufacture presents little more than 
complaints, on the part of the manufac- 
turers, of the importation of foreign 
silks ; impotent efforts on the part of 
parliament to exclude them ; and com- 
-binations and outrages on the part of the 
workmen. In 1773 was passed what is 
commonly called the Spitalfields Act, 
which entitled' the weavers of Middlesex 



SIL 



78'8 



SIM 



to demand a fixed price for their labour, 
which should be settled by the magis- 
trates ; and while both masters and men 
were restricted from giving or receiving 
more or less than the fixed price, the manu- 
facturers were liable to heavy penalties if 
they employed weavers out of the district. 

About 1785, however, the substitution 
of cottons in the place of silk gave a 
severe check to the manufacture, and the 
weavers then began to discover the real 
nature of the Spitalfields Act. Being 
interdicted from working at reduced 
wages, they were totally thrown out of 
employment ; so that, in 1793, upwards 
of 4000 Spitalfields looms were quite 
idle. In 1798 the trade began to revive ; 
and continued to extend slowly till 1815, 
and 1816, when the Spitalfields weavers 
were again involved in sufferings far 
more extensive and severe than at any 
former period. The monopoly enjoyed 
. by the manufacturers, and the Spitalfields 
Act, eflfectually put a stop to all improve- 
ment, so that the manufacture continued 
stationary in England, while on the Con- 
tinent it was rapidly advancing. 

At length the principal manufacturers 
in and about London subscribed, in 1824, 
a petition to the bouse of commons, 
against the restrictive acts ; and Mr. 
Huskisson moved, on the 8th of March, 
that the prohibition of foreign silks should 
cease on the 5th of July, 1826, and that 
they should then be admitted for impor- 
tation on payment of a duty of 30 per 
cent, ad imlorem. His proposal was 
agreed to ; and considerable reductions 
were at the same time effected in the 
duties charged on most of the dye stuflFs 
used in the manufacture. It is stated on 
the whole, that the effect of the opening 
of the trade has been such as to justify 
all the anticipations which the advocates 
of the measure had formed of its success. 

During 1822 and 1823, when the 
restrictive system was in its vigour, the 
entries for consumption of all sorts of 
raw and thrown silk amounted at an 
average to 2,454,842 lbs. a year. But at 
an average of 1832 and 1833 they rose 
to 4,565,850 lbs ; being an increase of 
nearly 100 per cent, upon the quantity 
entered during the monopoly. The 
exports of silks from France have been 
declining, while those from England 
have been increasing beyond all pre- 
cedent. The declared value of our exports 
of silk goods, in 1823, amounted to 
£351,409, whereas in 1833 it amounted 



to £740,294, and by the latest parliamen- 
tary return in 1839 to £868,118. 

1839. An attempt has been made to 
establish the growth of silk in England. 
An experiment was made in one year at 
Nottingham, and detailed to the British 
Association by Mr. Felkin. He exhibited 
cocoons of the white and gold coloured 
products, adding, that except in one 
instance near London, for which the 
Society of Arts had awarded its premium 
in the year 1790, no one had succeeded in 
a similar experiment in England. The 
eggs were from Italy ; and neither the 
situation in the heart of the town, nor the 
season, had been propitious. The room, 
was, however, kept at a temperature of 
between 55'* and 70** ; and, especially 
from the worms fed on the mulberry 
leaves, the silk was of a good quality. 

SILKThrov^'sters'Company, Lon- 
don, incorporated 1629. 

SILVER. The most productive mines 
are in America, particularly in Mexico 
and Peru. There are also silver mines 
in Hungary, Saxony, and other parts of 
Europe, and in Asiatic Russia. Silver 
mines were discovered in Germany in 
950 ; in Devonshire, England, 1294; at 
Potosi,1545 ; at Cusco, 1712 ; in Brittany, 
France, Nov. 1730. 

SIMMONS, Charles, D.D. author 
of the " Life of Milton," died 1826. 

SIMONIDES, Greek lyric poet, flou- 
rished A.C. 503. 

SIMPSON, Thomas, mathematician, 
was born at Market Bosworth, in Leices- 
tershire, in 1710. In 1737 he published 
his " Treatise on Fluxions ;" in 1740 "On 
the Nature and Laws of Chance," and 
" Essays in Speculative and Mixed 
Mathematics." After this appeared his 
" Doctrine of Annuities and Reversions," 
'• Mathematical Dissertations," &c. In 
1743, he obtained the mathematical pro- 
fessorship at Woolwich Academy ; and 
soon after was chosen a member of the 
Royal Society. He died May 14, 1761, 
in his 51st year. 

SIM SON, Dr. Robert, mathemati- 
cian, was born in 1687. About the age 
of 25 he was chosen professor of mathe- 
matics in the university of Glasgow. His 
intimate acquaintance with all the ori- 
ginal works of the ancient geometers, as 
well as with their commentators and cri- 
tics, induced him to publish new editions 
of them, particularly the Elements and 
Data of Euclid, which appeared about. 
175S He died in 1768, aged 81, 



SIN 



SINAI, mountain, Arabia, near the 
head of the Red Sea, celebrated in scrip- 
ture as the spot whence the law was 
given to Moses, a.c. 1491. At the foot 
of the mount is the Greek convent, St. 
Catherine, founded a.d. 1331. The 
summit of Sinai is marked at once by a 
Christian church and Turkish mosque. 
The descent terminates at the monastery 
of the Forty Saints, which has suffered 
greatly from the depredations of the 
Arabs, who, according to the most recent 
accounts, have now driven out the monks, 
and obtained entire possession of it. 

SINCLAIR, Sir John, of Ulbster, 
Scotland, a privy councillor, fellow of 
the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, 
&c. &c., was born at Thurso Castle, in 
the county of Caithness, in 1754. In 
1775 he was admitted a member of the 
Faculty of Advocates, and was called to 
the English bar at Lincoln's -inn, May 9, 
1782. In 1780 he was elected member 
for the county of Caithness, which he 
also represented in the parliaments of 
1790, 1802, and 1807. In 1786 he 
undertook an extensive tour in the 
North of Europe ; and in the same year 
he was created a baronet of the United 
Kingdom by patent dated Feb. 14. In 
1791 he procured the establishment of a 
society, in Scotland, for the improvement 
of wool ; and the Board of Agriculture, 
the labours of which are so well known, 
in 1793. His literary v/orks were very 
numerous, and were issuing from the 
press for more than half a century. He 
died Dec. 21, 1835. 

SINGAPORE, island. Straits of Ma- 
lacca, off the south point of the Malay 
peninsula, was taken possession of by the 
British under Sir Thomas Raffles, in 
18 19. A treaty was concluded with the 
native chief, and in 1824 a regular ces- 
sion in full sovereignty of this and the 
neighbouring islands for 10 miles round 
it, was obtained from the sultan. When 
taken possession of by the English it had 
been inhabited for eight years by about 
150 Malays, half fishermen and half 
pirates. In 1832 its population had 
reached 22,000. As a commercial mart, 
and key to the navigation of the seas in 
which it is situated, this settlement is of 
incalculable importance, having already 
an annual commerce amounting to up- 
wards of £3,000,000 sterhng. 

SINKING Fund, a provision made 
by parliament, consisting of a portion of 
the public revenue, appropriated to the 



789 SLA 

payment of the national debt. See 
National Debt, and Funds. In 
1715 different projects for this purpose 
were published by Edward Leigh, Mr. 
Asgill, and others. And in 1717 a plan 
for the gradual discharge of the debt was 
adopted by Sir Robert Walpole, which 
was afterwards generally known by the 
name of the sinking fund. For « few 
years the fund was strictly applied to the 
purposes for which it was established, 
but in ] 724, the sum of £15,144 19*. was 
taken from the fund, to make good the 
loss to the treasury from the reduction 
of the value of gold coin. In 1733 the 
gross sum of half a million was taken 
from it towards the supplies, at which 
time the medium annual produce of the 
fund for five years had been £1,212,000. 

The amount would have fully dis- 
charged the debt which then existed, but 
the alienation of it was continued. In 
March, 1786, Mr. Pitt brought forward 
his celebrated plan for the gradual 
extinction of the national debt by the 
establishment of a sinking fund, formed 
upon the model of that projected by Sir 
Robert Walpole, which was continued 
with some modifications for some time. 
But exhausted as the nation was by the 
stupendous efforts it had made during 
the progress of the war, it became im- 
possible to continue the collection of 
taxes required for maintaining this fund 
in its integrity, so that about the year 
1824 the plan was virtually abandoned. 

SION CoiiLEGE, London- wall, founded 
1623, incorporated 1664. 

SIX Clerks Office, Chancery-lane, 
London, built 1770. 

SKINNER, Stephen, English phy- 
sician and antiquary, born about 1622, 
died 1667. 

SKINNERS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1327. 

SLAVERY AND the Slave Trade. 
That slavery had its origin from war, 
appears extremely probable, and still 
more so that it existed at a very early 
period in the history of the world. In 
very remote ages, prisoners were most 
commonly put to death ; but the selfish 
gradually predominated over the more 
passionate feelings, and for many ages it 
was usual to reduce them to the condition 
of slaves ; being either sold by their 
captors to others, or employed by them 
as they might think fit. 

At a very early period, the Phoenicians 
had such an established commerce in 



SLA 



790 



SLA 



slaves, that, not satisfied with reducing 
to bondage their prisoners of war, they 
scrupled not to kidnap in cold blood 
persons who had never kindled their 
resentment, in order to supply their 
foreign markets. The origin of slavery 
in Greece and Rome was the same as in 
every other country. Prisoners of war 
were of course reduced to that state, as 
if they had been criminals. Fabius, 
whose cautious conduct saved his coun- 
try when Hannibal was victorious in 
Italy ,having subdued Tarentum, reduced 
30,000 of the citizens to slavery, and sold 
them to the highest bidder. The gladia- 
torial exhibitions, so common at Rome, 
were contests between slaves, denomi- 
nated gladiators, trained to fight in public 
for the amusements of a ferocious popu- 
lace, who took the greatest delight in these 
sanguinary combats. Thousands were 
annually sacrificed in this inhuman sport. 
In consequence partly of their ill usage, 
and partly of its Ijeing accounted cheaper 
to buy than to breed slaves, vast num- 
bers were annually imported into Italy. 
Thrace and the countries round the Black 
Sea furnished large supplies of the best 
slaves ; and numbers were obtained from 
Egypt, Syria, Cappadocia, and other 
places. Delos in Cilicia was the greatest 
slave market of antiquity ; as many as 
10,000 slaves have been sold there in a 
single day. 

The establishment of Christianity 
contributed more, perhaps, than any 
thing else, first to mitigate, and finally 
to suppress the abomination of slavery. 
But within no very long period after 
its abolition had been completely effected 
in every part of Europe, its horrors 
began to be inflicted on America. After 
the discovery of the new world, in con- 
sequence of the rapid destruction of the 
Indians employed in the mines of St. 
Domingo or Hayti, Charles V. au- 
thorised, in 1517, the introduction into 
the island, of African slaves from the 
establishments of the Portuguese on the 
coast of Guinea. The concurrence of the 
emperor was obtained by the interces- 
sion of the celebrated Las Casas, bishop 
of Chiapa, who, contradictorily enough, 
laboured to protect the Indians by en- 
slaving the Africans. The importation 
of negroes into the West Indies and 
America, having once begun, gradually 
increased, until the extent and import- 
ance of the traffic rivalled its cruelty 
and guilt. Sir John Hawkins" was the 



first Englishman who engaged in this 
traffic ; and such was the ardour with 
which our countrymen followed his 
example, that they exported from Africa 
more than 300,000 slaves between the 
years 1680 and 1700 ; and between 1700 
and 1786, 610,000 Africans were im- 
ported into Jamaica only; to which 
adding the imports into the other islands 
and the continental colonies, and those 
who died on their passage, the number 
carried from Africa will appear immense. 
The importation by other nations, par- 
ticularly the French and Portuguese, 
were also very great, and the traffic was 
carried on without obstruction for nearly 
three centuries. 

Abolition of the Slave Trade. 
The first motion on this subject in the 
British parliament was made in 1776; 
but without success. The subject was 
not taken up systematically till 1787, 
when a committee was formed, of which 
Mr. Granville Sharp and Mr. Clarkson, 
whose names are imperishably associated 
with the history of the abolition of the 
slave trade, were members. This com- 
mittee collected evidence in proof of the 
enormities produced by the trade, pro- 
cured its circulation throughout the 
country, and succeeded in making a 
very great impression on the public 
mind. After a number of witnesses on 
both sides had been examined before the 
privy council, Mr. Wilberforce, on May 
12, 1789, moved a series of resolutions 
condemnatory of the traffic. They were 
supported by Mr. Burke in one of his 
best speeches ; and by Mr. Pitt and Mr. 
Fox. But, notwithstanding the resolu- 
tions were carried, nothing was done to 
give them effect. 

In the following years the great 
struggle was continued with various suc- 
cess, but without any definite result. 
At length the triumpli of humanity and 
justice was finally consummated in 1807. 
A bill for the total and immediate aboli- 
tion of the slave trade, having been car- 
ried in. both houses by immense majo- 
rities, received the royal assent March 
25, being the last act of the administra- 
tion of Mr. Fox and Loi-d Grenville. 
"Thus ended," says Mr. Clarkson, "one 
of the most glorious contests, after a 
continuance of 20 years, of any ever 
carried on in any age or country ; a con- 
test, not of brutal violence, but of rea- 
son ; a contest l)ctvveen those who felt 
dee})ly for the happiness and the honour 



SLA 



791 



&LA 



of their fellow-creaturee, and those who, 
through vicious custom, and the impulse 
of avarice, had trampled under foot the 
sacred rights of their nature, and had 
even attempted to eflface all title of the 
divine image from their minds." 

But notwithstanding what had been 
done, further measures were soon dis- 
covered to be necessary. The Spaniards 
and the Portuguese continued to carry 
on the trade to a greater extent than 
ever ; and British subjects did not hesi- 
tate, under cover of their flags, to be- 
come partners in their adventures. An 
attempt was made to put a stop to this 
practice in 1811, by the enactment of 
a law introduced by Mr. (now Lord) 
Brougham, that made trading in slaves 
punishable by transportation for H years, 
or by confinement to hard labour for a 
term of not more than five years nor less 
than three years. 

At the congress of Vienna, in 1814, 
the plenipotentiaries of the great powers 
agreed to a declaration that the slave 
trade was " repugnant to the principles 
of humanity and of universal morality ; 
and that it was the earnest desire of their 
sovereigns to put an end to a scourge 
which had so long desolated Africa, de- 
graded Europe, and afflicted humanity." 
But in spite of this memorable declara- 
tion, the immediate abolition of the trade 
was not agreed to. 

Though the trade nominally ceased in 
France in 1819, it was clandestinely car- 
ried on to a great extent in French ships. 
By an arrangement November 30, 1831, 
made with his Majesty Louis-Philippe, 
the right of search is reciprocally con- 
ceded, within certain limits, by the 
French and English ; so that French 
ships suspected of being engaged in the 
trade may be stopped by British cruisers. 

The Spanish slave trade was to have 
finally ceased in 1820, according to the 
stipulations in the treaty between Spain 
and this country, July 5 and August 28, 
1814; but still slave ships were publicly 
fitted out from Cuba, and immense num- 
bers of slaves were imported into that 
island, with the open connivance of the 
authorities. A mixed commission court, 
consisting of British and Spanish com- 
missioners, was established at Havannah 
for the condemnation of vessels proved 
to have been engaged in the slave trade. 

Slaves were freely imported in im- 
mense members into Brazil, till Feb. 
1830, when the trade was to cease, con- 



formably to the convention entered into 
with this country June 23, 1826. 

But although the legal abohtion of the 
traffic had been thus accomplished by so 
many powers, yet there is good evidence 
that the laws have been evaded and the 
traffic continued to an enormous extent. 
Sir T.F. Buxton, in 1838, in his work 
on the "African Slave Trade,'" shows 
that the trade in slaves has doubled since 
it was rehnquished in 1807, by the 
British nation ; that at the present time, 
certainly far more than 150,000, and 
probably 250,000 negroes are annually 
torn from the coast of Africa for the 
supply of the western slave markets 
alone. This statement is the result of 
modes of investigation altogether various 
and distinct, but which concur in ex- 
hibiting the same appalling amount of 
misery and crime. The largest propor- 
tion of these slaves are landed at the 
ports of Brazil and Cuba, but the trade 
is also actively carried on to Porto Rico, 
Texas, Buenos Ayres, and other coun- 
tries and colonies of America. "Within 
the last few years, the citizens of the 
United States have built many vessels, 
" only calculated for piracy and the slave 
trade." Sir T. F. Buxton states, on the 
testimony of African merchants engaged 
in the legitimate trade, corroborated by 
the high authority of Mr. Mac Lean, 
governor of Cape Coast Castle, that one- 
third of the slaves are paid for by the 
dealers in cotton goods, which to the 
value of £250,000 yearly are "manu- 
factured in Lancashire, and shipped to 
Brazil, Cuba, the United States, and 
elsewhere, intended for the slave trade, 
and adapted only for that trade." 

Abolition of Slavery. In the 
year 1823, the condition of the slaves 
in the British colonies was brought be- 
fore parliament. During the following 
ten years, strenuous effiarts were made 
in every shape to resist emancipation ; a 
society was then formed for the Aboli- 
tion of Slavery ; information was circu- 
lated through the country; auxiliary 
societies were established ; public feeling 
was universally excited ; petitions were 
poured into both houses of parliament, 
and laid before the throne, from cities, 
towns, and villages. In 1833, an act 
was passed by the legislature for the 
Abohtion of Slavery in the British 
Colonies. Under the statute (3 and 4 
Will. IV. c. 73,) slaves were to become 
apprenticed labourers from August 1, 



SLA 



792 



SME 



1834. They were divided into praedial 
and non-praedial. Apprenticeship of the 
praedial labourers was limited to Aug. 1, 
1840. Apprenticeship of the non-prae- 
dial labourers to August 1, 1838. The 
treasury was empowered to raise loans, 
not exceeding £20,000,000, towards com- 
pensating the persons entitled to the 
services of the slaves to be manumitted 
and set free by virtue of this act, for the 
loss of such services. Directions were 
also given how the same was to be 
paid; and the interest and charges were 
made chargeable upon the consolidated 
fund. 

But, although a generous and con- 
fiding nation was betrayed into a grant 
of £20,000,000, the slave was not yet 
made a free-man ; consigned to an ap- 
prenticeship of six years, subject to the 
domination of the same master, he 
still groaned under the oppression and 
cruelty inseparable from the state in 
which he was placed; personal inspec- 
tion confirmed the worst apprehensions 
of the abolitionists, and proved that the 
apprenticeship was only slavery under 
another name. Again the sympathies 
of the British nation were aroused, and 
the efforts of the friends of justice and 
humanity were finally crowned with suc- 
cess. In 1838 the planters of Jamacia, 
finding themselves unable to maintain 
the conflict against reason and humanity 
with any hope of success, themselves 
passed a law in the legislative assembly 
terminating the apprenticeship system 
from Aug. 1, 1838. On Thursday, June 
7, the bill was broughtin, andhavinggone 
through the preliminary stages, it was 
committed. After two days' discussion, 
the bill was passed, clauses being in- 
serted to provide for the aged and indi- 
gent negroes, as well as to prevent their 
ejectment from their domiciles without 
three months' notice. 

The other islands in the West Indies 
soon after followed this example, and it 
appears that no injurious consequences 
have resulted from this measure, but 
rather that it has proved favourable to 
the moral and spiritual condition of the 
slave population. 

1839. A new society was formed to 
endeavour to extend the benefits of free- 
dom throughout the world. See Anti- 
Slavery Society. 

1840. A general anti-slavery conven- 
tion, consisting of delegates from all 
parts of the world, assembled in London. 



It commenced its sittings at Freemasons* 
Hall, June 12. The conference lasted 
several days, when much important in- 
formation was elicited from the delegates, 
especially in relation to American slavery, 
and resolutions were passed calculated 
to promote the benevolent objects of the 
meeting. 

SLINGSBY, Sir Henry, governor 
of Hull, beheaded on Tower-hill with 
Dr. Hewit, June 8, 1658. 

SLONE, Sir Hans, a distinguished 
physician and naturalist, was born at 
Killelagh, Ireland, April 19, 1660. After 
studying four years in London, he visited 
foreign countries for farther improve- 
ment. About 1684 he returned to Eng- 
land, and was admitted a member of 
the Royal Society. In 1787 he was 
chosen a fellow of the College of Physi- 
cians. On the advancement of George I. 
to the throne, that prince, April 3, 1716, 
created him a baronet, and at the 
same time made him physician general 
to the army, in which station he con- 
tinued till 1727, when he was appointed 
physician in ordinary to George II. The 
death of Sir Isaac Newton, which hap- 
pened the same year, made way for the 
advancement of Sir Hans to the presi- 
dency of the Royal Society. In this 
oflSce he continued till 1740 when he 
resigned the presidency and retired to 
Chelsea, where he died, Jan. 11, 1752. 

SLUYS,or EcLUSE, town, kingdom of 
Belgium, was taken by the Spaniards in 
1587, and in l604 the Dutch retook it. 
The French took it in 1747, but it was 
restored at the peace. 

SMALCALD in Franconia, league 
of entered into between the elector of 
Brandenburg and other princes of Ger- 
many, in defence of Protestantism, Dec. 
1529. 

SMALL-POX. See Inoculation 
and Vaccination. 

SMALL-POX Hospital, Coldbath 
Fields, instituted Sept. 26, 1746. 

SMEATON, John, an eminent civil 
engineer, was born in May, 1724, at 
Austhorpe, near Leeds. In 1753 he was 
elected member of the Royal Society, 
and published a number of papers in 
their transactions. In 1759 he was 
honoured with their gold medal for his 
paper entitled, " An Experimental 
Inquiry concerning the Natural Powers 
of Water and Wind to turn Mills, and 
other Machines depending on a Circular 
Motion." In Dec. 1755, the Eddystune 



SMI 



793 



SMO 



iighthouse was rebuilt under Mr. Smea- 
ton's direction, and completed in the 
summer of 1759. See Lighthouse. 
He di«d Oct. 28, 1792. 

SMELLIE, Dr. William, eminent 
anatomist, died 1763. 

SMIRKE, R., architect, died at 
Brampton, Cumberland, July, 1815. 

SMITH, John Thomas, an eminent 
artist and writer, and keeper of the prints 
and drawings at the British Museum. 
He was author of '* Antiquities of 
London and its ISnvirons," containing 
views of houses, monuments, statues, 
and other curious remains of antiquity ; 
" Antiquities of Westminster," contain- 
ing 246 engravings of topographical 
objects, &c. In Mr. Upcott's album he 
wrote a playful account of himself, in 
which is the following paragraph. "J 
can boast of seven events, some of which 
great men would be proud of. I received 
a kiss, when a boy, from the beautiful 
Mrs. Robinson,— was patted on the head 
by Dr. Johnson, — have frequently held 
Sir Joshua Reynolds's spectacles, — 
partook of a pot of porter with an 
elephant, — saved lady Hamilton from 
falling, when the melancholy news 
arrived of Lord Nelson's death, — three 
times conversed with King George III. 
— and was shut up in a room with Mr. 
Kean's lion." He died March 8, 1833, 
aged 67. 

SMITH, Adam, the celebrated writer 
on political economy, was born at Kirk- 
aldy, in Scotland, June 5, 1723. He 
was sent in 1737 to the university of 
■Glasgow, where he remained till 1740, 
when he went to Baliol College, Oxford. 
In 1748 he fixed his residence in Edin- 
burgh, and for three years read a course 
of lectures on rhetoric and belles lettres 
under the patronage of Lord Karnes. 
In 1751 he was elected professor of logic 
in the university of Glasgow, and the 
year following was removed to the pro- 
fessorship of moral philosophy. In 1776 
he published his " Inquiry into the 
Nature and Causes of the Wealth of 
Nations." He died in July 1790. 

SMITH, Sir E. J. first president of 
the Linnsean Society, and author of "En- 
ghsh Botany," died 1828. 

SMITH, Sir Sidney, an eminent 
British naval oflficer, was born in 1764, 
entered the navy at the age of 13, and 
early distinguished himself by his feats 
of courage and daring. His gallant 
defence of Acre in 1799 against the 



utmost efforts of the French army at 
Egypt will transmit his name with honour 
to posterity. See Acre. He was almost 
the first to interfere for the suppression 
of European slavesry in Africa, at the 
commencement of the present century, 
and made indefatigable and strenuous 
exertions in that humane cause. After 
a series of brilliant engagements ill the 
service of his country, at the latter period 
of his life he retired to France. He died 
at his residence Rue d' Aguesseau, Paris, 
May 27, 1840, and was interred in the 
cemetery of Pere la Chaise. His funeral 
was attended by a great number of dis- 
tinguished persons. " Honoured by his 
sovereign, and decorated with numerous 
foreign orders, he was in private life 
beloved and respected by all who had 
the honour of his friendship or acquaint- 
ance. His chivalrous and lofty bearing, 
his cheerful and animated conversation, 
his unbounded fund of anecdote, the 
suavity of his temper, his invariable be- 
nevolence and good nature, rendered 
him a most welcome and instructive 
companion." 

SMOLENSKO, town, European Rus- 
sia. Being a place of strength, the Rus- 
sians made here their first serious oppo- 
sition to the French in 1812, when the 
town was bombarded and set on fire. 
It was entered by the French after a 
sanguinary battle, Aug. 18, and evacu- 
ated by them, Nov. 18, the same year. 

SMOLLET, Dr. Tobias, a celebrated 
writer, was born in 1720, at a small vil- 
lage in Dumbartonshire, Scotland. In the 
early part of his life he studied medicine, 
and served as a surgeon's mate in the 
navy. The incidents that befell him 
during his continuance in this capacity 
served as a foundation for " Roderic Ran- 
dom," one of themostentertaining covels 
in the English language, which was pub- 
lished in 1748. From this period a cer- 
tain degree of success was insured to every 
thing known or suspected to proceed from 
his hand. In the course of a few j'ears 
appeared the " Adventures of Peregrine 
Pickle," " Sir Launcelot Greaves," 
&c. Abandoning medicine altogether 
as a profession, he fixed his residence at 
Chelsea, and devoted his time entirely to 
writing. He translated " Gil Bias" and 
" Don Quixote," and was concerned in a 
great variety of compilations. His " His- 
tory of England" was the principal work 
of that kind. He was employed, during 
the last years of his life, in abridging the 
5 I 



SMU 



794 



SOA 



" Modern Universal History," great part 
of which he had originally written him- 
self. He died Oct. 21, 1771. 

SMUGGLING, or the offence of de- 
frauding the revenuaby the introduction 
of articles into consumption, without 
paying the duties chargeable upon them, 
occupies a prominent place in the cri- 
minal legislation of all modern states. 
In England it is restrained by a great 
variety of statutes. 19 Geo. II. c. 34, 
makes all forcible acts of smuggling, 
carried, on in defiance of the laws, or 
even in disguise to evade them, felony 
without benefit of clergy. This act was 
made perpetual by 43 Geo. III. c. 15. 
More recently, 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 53, 
Aug. 28, 1833, makes a great number 
of regulations for the prevention of 
smuggling. Three or more armed per- 
sons assembled to assist in the illegal 
landing of goods, or in the rescuing of 
goods seized, or maliciously shooting at, 
maiming, or dangerously wounding any 
officer of the army, navy, or marines, 
duly employed in the prevention of 
smuggling, &c., shall suflfer death as 
felons. Any person in company with 
four others having prohibited goods, or 
with one other armed or disguised, shall 
be transported for seven years. 

Notwithstanding these statutes, the 
commercial relations between France 
and Great Britain afford very curious 
details as to the smuggling carried on 
between them. It has been estimated 
from a comparison of the shipments of 
diiFerent articles from France for Eng- 
land, with the imports into the latter, 
and other authentic data, that the total 
amount of duties evaded by the fraudu- 
lent importation of overtaxed French 
articles (exclusive of tobacco, whole 
cargoes of which are sometimes intro- 
duced into Ireland) into this country 
amounts to about £800,000 a year. Of 
this sum, the loss on brandy makes by 
far the largest item ; and is said to be 
" considerably more than £500,000." 

The smuggling on the frontiers of 
France was carried on to a large extent 
by horses till 1825, when it was sup- 
pressed. The director of the custom- 
house of France, July 30, 1831, made 
some curious statements on the fraudulent 
introduction of articles by dogs, which, 
since the suppression of smuggling by 
horses, have been employed. The first at- 
tempts were made in the neighbourhood 
of Valenciennes, afterwards at Dunkirk, 



Charleville, Thionville and Strasburg, 
and, last of all, in 1828, at Besan^on. In 
1823, it was estimated that 100,000 kilo- 
grammes of goods were thus introduced 
into France; in 1825, 187,315; and in 
1826, 2,100,000 kilogrammes; all these 
estimates being reported as rather under 
the mark. The dogs, which are of a 
large size, sometimes carry 10 kilogram- 
mes, and sometimes 12. The above 
estimate supposes that one dog in 10 
in certain districts, and in others one in 
20, is killed in this illicit traffic. In the 
neighbourhood of Dunkirk, dogs have 
been taken with burdens of the value of 
600, 800, and even 1200 francs. The 
dogs which are trained to these " dis- 
honest habits" are conducted in packs 
to the foreign frontier ; they are kept 
without food for many hours, they are 
then beaten and laden, and at the begin- 
ning of the night started on their travels. 
They reach the abodes of their masters, 
which are generally selected at two or 
three leagues from the frontiers, as 
speedily as they can, where they are 
sure to be well treated and provided 
with a quantity of food. It is said they 
do much mischief by the destruction of 
agricultural property, and being tor- 
mented by fatigue, hunger, and hunted 
by the custom-house officers, they are 
exceedingly subject to madness, and 
they frequently bite the officers, one of 
whom died in consequence in 1829. 
They have also been trained to attack 
the custom-house officers in case of 
interference. 

SMYRNA, city, Asiatic Turkey, Asia 
Minor, one of the most celebrated of the 
ancient cities of Asia, and claims to be 
the birthplace of Homer. The original 
city was destroyed by the Lydians, but 
Antigonus and Lysimachus rebuilt it 
on a different spot. In modern times, 
Smyrna has been distinguished for its 
extensive trade. 

SNOWHILL, act of parliament passed 
for the improvement of, June 26, 1795. 

SOAP is generally divided into two 
sorts — hard and soft : the former is made 
of soda and tallow or oil, and the latter 
of potash and similar oily matters. The 
alkali employed by the ancient Gauls 
and Germans in the formation of soap 
was potash ; hence we see why it was 
described by the Romans as an unguent. 

The manufacture of soap in London 
first began in the year 1524; before 
which time this city was served with 



soc 



795 



SOC 



white soap from foreign countries, and 
with grey soap, speckled with white, 
from Bristol. London, Liverpool, New- 
castle, Bristol, Brentford, Frodsham, 
and Glasgow, are the great seats of the 
British soap manufacture. Thus, of 
119,379,037 lbs. of hard soap made in 
Great Britain in 1832, London furnished 
29,627,736 lbs.; Liverpool, 28,878,466 
lbs. ; Newcastle, 6,982,049 lbs. ; Bris- 
tol, 6,861,407 lbs.; Brentford, 5,573,074 
lbs.; Frodsham, 4,933,335 lbs.; and 
Glasgow, 4,607,354 lbs. Of 10,350,703 
lbs. of soft soap, made during the same 
year, Liverpool furnished above half; 
the rest being supplied by Glasgow, 
London, Bristol, Hull, &c. 

The direct duty charged on hard soap, 
which is by far the most extensively 
used, amounted, till June 1833, to 3d. 
per lb., or 28*. per cwt., while the price 
of soap rarely exceeded 6c?. per lb., or 
56s. per cwt. ; so that the direct duty 
was full 100 per cent. 

1840. 3 and 4 Vic. c. 49, Aug. 4, 
consolidates and amends the laws for 
collecting the duties of excise on soap 
made in Great Britain. No less than 
17 previous acts regulating the manu- 
facture of, and trade in, soap, are re- 
pealed by this act, so far as they relate 
to soap. 

SOAPMAKERS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1638. 

SOBIESKI, John, the heroic king 
of Poland, born 1629, died I696, 

SOCIETY FOR THE Propagation 
OF THE Gospel. See Missions. 

SOCIETY Islands, group of islands. 
South Pacific Ocean, was discovered 
and so named by Captain Cook, in 1769. 
The principal island is Otaheite or 
Tahiti, which sometimes gives the name 
to the group. See Otaheite. They 
were first visited by the missionaries in 
1798, who introduced the gospel among 
them. Since the conversion of the in- 
habitants to Christianity, they have been 
visited frequently by Europeans, who 
bear testimony to their advances in civil- 
ization. Captain Waldegrave, R.N., 
recently gives the following account of 
them : — " The islands of this group 
acknowledging the sway of Queen Po- 
marre, are Otaheite and Eimeo; Raiatea, 
Huaheine, and Bona-bona being inde- 
pendent ; her revenue consists of taxes 
of cloth, oil, pigs, and arrow-root. The 
population, by a census made by the 
missionaries in 1828, was as follows : — 



Turaboo 2000 ; Otaheite 5000 ; Eimeo 
13,000; Huaheine 2000; Raiatea 1700; 
Bona-bona 1800; TahaalOOO; Menra 
1000. Through the persevering activity 
of the late missionary, Mr. Williams, 
they have made much greater advances 
towards industry than any of the other 
islands. 

SOCINIANS, a sect of anti-trinitafians 
who derived this denomination from Lse- 
lius and Faustus Socinus, and who arose 
in the 1 6th century. See Socinus. The 
chief school of the Socinians was at 
Racow, where they obtained the grant 
of a settlement, and there all their first 
books were published. But in 1638 
the academy was destroyed, and their 
churches shut up. In 1658 another 
severe act was published requiring all 
the Socinians to leave the kingdom. 
This edict was renewed in 1661 ; and the 
Socinians sought an asylum in Transyl- 
vania, where they still continue nume- 
rous. The Socinians in England have 
adopted the appellation of Unitarians. 

SOCINUS, L^Lius, the first author 
of the sect of the Socinians, was born 
at Sienna, in Tuscany, in 1525. He died 
at Zurich in 1562. 

SOCINUS, Faustus, nephew of the 
preceding, and principal founder of the 
Socinian sect, was born at Sienna in 
1539- In 1577 he began to propagate 
his religious opinions, for which pur- 
pose he wrote a treatise, " De Jesu 
Christo Servatore." In 1579 he retired 
into Poland, and lived under the pro- 
tection of several Polish lords. In 1598 
he met with many insults at Cracow, 
and was with great difficulty saved from 
the hands of the popxdace. Having re- 
tired to a village about nine miles from 
Cracow, he there closed his life, in l604. 

SOCOTARA, or Socotra, island, 
Arabian Sea, appears to have been 
known at an early period to the ancient 
geographers. Arrian says, "that the 
inhabitants of it were subject to the 
kings of the incense country." After 
this period, it may almost be considered 
as lost to geography until the visit of 
Marco Polo, in the 13th century. At the 
commencement of the I7th century, it 
was frequently visited for shelter or 
refreshment; and, in 1800, when the 
French army was in Egypt, Commoilore 
Blanket was authorised to take posses- 
sion of it. In 1834, on the establish- 
ment of a steam communication between 
India and Europe, the attention of 



SOD 



796 



SOM 



government became particularly directed 
towards Socotra, and it was surveyed by 
Lieutenant Wellsted. The whole island 
may be described as a pile of mountains, 
of nearly equal height, almost sur- 
rounded by a low plain, extending from 
their base to the margin of the sea. The 
principal articles of commerce are the 
aloe spicata, or socotrina, and the dra- 
gon's blood-tree (pterocarpus draco). 

SOCRATES, the most eminent of the 
ancient philosophers, was born at Alo- 
pace, a village near Athens, in the fourth 
year of the 77th Olympiad, a.c. 469- In 
the long and severe struggle between 
Athens and Sparta, he signalized him- 
self at the siege of Potidaea, both by his 
valour and by the hardiness with which 
he endured fatigue. He also served in 
other campaigns with distinguished bra- 
very. When he was upwards of 60 years 
of age, he was chosen to represent his 
own district, in the senate of five hun- 
dred. Under the tyranny of the Thirty 
Tyrants, he never ceased to condemn 
their oppressive and cruel proceedings. 
At length clandestine arts were employed 
to raise a prejudice against him ; and a 
direct accusation was preferred, before 
the supreme court of judicature. He 
delivered, in a firm and manly tone, an 
unpremeditated defence of himself, which 
silenced his opponents. But their pre- 
judices would not suffer them to pay 
due attention to this apology ; they de- 
clared him guilty of the crimes of which 
he stood accused; and he was condemned 
to be put to death by the poison of 
hemlock. With perfect composure he 
swallowed the poisonous draught, and 
expired, in the first year of the 96th 
Olympiad, and in the 70th year of his 
age. 

SODA, one of the fixed alkalies, gene- 
rally procured from the ashes of marine 
plants. Its great depository is the ocean ; 
soda being the basis of sea salt. Prof. 
Graham has observed that, in the history 
of the useful application of chemical 
science to the arts, the year 1839 will be 
memorable for various improvements 
connected with the soda process. Sul- 
phuric acid, which is the key to so many 
important chemical products, had been 
chiefly prepared from the sulphur of 
Sicily ; the supply of which was sud- 
denly much reduced by some fiscal re- 
gulations of the Sicilian government. 
This led to the invention of several new 
processes for soda, v/hich possess con- 



siderable merit as chemical discoveries. 
The most interesting is that of M. Go- 
sage, in the neighbourhood of Birming- 
ham, for the recovery of the sulphur 
from soda-water; which promises not 
only a great saving of material, but a 
benefit of another kind, in abating, or 
entirely removing the nuisance of the 
escape of muriatic acid into the atmo- 
sphere in the ordinary soda process. — 
Proceedings of the British Association. 

SODOM, burnt in the 65th year of 
Lot's age, a.c. 1897- 

SOLANDER, Dr., naturalist, died 
May 13, 1782. 

SOLAR System. See Astronomy. 

SOLIS, Antonio De, Spanish histo- 
rian, born 1610, died 1686. 

SOLOMON, king of Israel, laid the 
foundation of his temple a.c. 1012; was 
visited by the queen of Sheba, 992 ; 
died 975. 

SOLOMON Isles, discovered by 
Mendana, a Spaniard, sent by the go- t 
vernor of Peru, 1575. 

SOLON, one of the sages of Greece, 
Avas born at Salamis, of Athenian parents, 
who were descended from Codrus, and 
born about a.c. 549 ; became archon 
and legislator of Athens, 594 ; his laws 
were carried to Rome, 456. The inter- 
view which Solon is said to have had 
with Croesus king of Lydia, the recol- 
lection of those remarks by Croesus when 
doomed to die, and the noble conduct of 
Cyrus on that occasion, are well known. 
Solon died in the island of Cyprus, about 
the 80th year of his age, and statues 
were erected to his memory both at 
Athens and Salamis. 

SOLWAY Moss, bordering on Scot- 
land, 10 miles from Carlisle, began to 
swell, owing to the heavy rains, and 
upwards of 400 acres of it rose to such 
a height above the level of the ground, 
that at last it rolled forward like a tor- 
rent, and continued its course above a 
mile, sweeping along with it houses, 
trees, and every thing in its way; it then 
divided into islands of different extent, 
from one to ten feet deep. It covered 
near 600 acres at Netherby, to which it 
removed, and destroyed about 30 small 
villages. It continued in motion from 
Dec. 4, to Dec. 31. 1771. 

SOMERS, Lord, chancellor of Eng- 
land, and author of several valuable 
works, born 1650, died 1716. 

SOMERSET, maritime county, Eng- 
land. Under the Roman government. 



S O R 

was included in the province called Bri- 
tannia Prima; and it contained among 
others the cities of Ilchester, Glaston- 
bury, and Bath. On the invasion of 
South Britain by the Saxons, this county 
became the theatre of repeated contests, 
and Bath was captured by the West 
Saxons, and the greater part of Somer- 
setshire became united to the kingdom 
of Wessex. Somersetshire was the scene 
of some important contests in the civil 
war between Charles 1. and the parlia- 
ment, and in the reign of James II. of 
the judicial executions of Judge Jefferies. 

SOMERSET House, Strand, Lon- 
don, built 1549; pulled down 1776, and 
began to be rebuilt in. its present state ; 
the navy office, pipe office, victualling 
office, and other public offices, removed 
into it in 1788. The sum of ^£306,134 
was granted by parliament to defray the 
expense of its erection, &c., to the year 
1789, £1500 in addition in 1798, and 
£2550 in 1801. 

SOMERTON Castle, near Newark, 
Lincolnshire, built 1305. 

SOMERVILLE, William, author of 
the " Chase," &c., died 1743. 

SOONDA, territory Hindoostan, pro- 
vince of Canara. In 1763, Imody Se- 
dasiva, the last independent raja of 
Soonda, was expelled by Hyder, when 
he sought refuge at Goa, and surren- 
dered to the Portuguese the whole of 
the territory below the Ghauts for a 
stipulated pension. In 1799 this ter- 
ritory was transferred to the British 
government, and annexed to the juris- 
diction of Canara. 

SOPHIA, St., mosque of, at Constan- 
tinople, built 566. 

SOPHOCLES, the celebrated Greek 
tragic poet, was born at Colonn. His 
studies were early devoted to the tragic 
muse, the spirit of JEschylus lent a fire to 
his genius, and excited that noble emu- 
lation which led him to contend with his 
great master. He gained the prize for 
tragedy over j^Eschylus, a.c. 469. He 
wrote 43 tragedies, of which seven only 
have escaped the ravages of time. He 
died in the 91st year of his age, about 
A.c. 406. 

SORBONNE, or Sorbon, the house 
or college of the faculty of theology 
established in the university of Paris, 
was founded in 1252, by St. Louis, or 
rather by Robert de Sorbon, his con- 
fessor and almoner, first canon of Cam- 
bray, and afterwards of the church of 



797 SOU 

Paris. The college has been since mag- 
nificently rebuilt by the cardinal de 
Richelieu. 

SOTHEBY, William, the translator 
of "Homer," and of Wieland's " Obe- 
ron," died Dec. 30, 1833, in his 77th 
year. 

SOUFFRIERE, mountain, in , the 
island of St. Vincent, experienced an 
eruption in 18 12, which lasted four days ; 
the sun was darkened by its smoke and 
ashes, and stones were thrown which 
killed many people. Several houses 
were also set on fire. 

SOUND, or Oresound, the strait 
between the Danish island of Zealand, 
and the continent of Sweden, leading 
into the Baltic. A toll was established 
here by Denmark on all ships passing 
into the Baltic sea, 1348. Out of this 
toll the king of Denmark maintained all 
lighthouses on the coast. 

SOUTH, Rev. Dr. Robert, a divine 
of the church of England, was born at 
Hackney, in 1633. He was educated 
at W^tminster School from whence 
he was elected to Christchurch, Oxford. 
He was promoted to a prebend of West- 
minster in 1663, and was in the same 
year admitted to the degree of D.D. He 
soon succeeded to a canonry of Christ- 
church ; and in 1673 he attended as 
chaplain to the younger son of the earl 
of Clarendon, in an embassy to Poland. 
Dr. South was, from principle, a stre-^ 
nuous asserter of the royal prerogative,, 
when William was seated on the throne, 
and a violent enemy to toleration, and 
to any concessions for conciliating the 
separatists. He died in July, I7l6, at 
the age of 83. 

SOUTH Sea, a name commonly 
applied to the Pacific Ocean, though not 
with propriety, for that ocean extends 
northward to the neighbourhood of th& 
Arctic circle, or to about 64 degrees north 
latitude. See Pacific Ocean. 

SOUTH Sea Company owed its origin 
to a deceitful project for relieving govern- 
ment from the embarrassment of a large 
amount of unfunded debt, in May 1710. 
Their stock-jobbing speculations were 
succeeded by mercantile projects, which 
were not much better conducted. The 
act of the 9 Ann, c. 21, establishing the 
South Sea Company, conveyed to them 
the exclusive privilege of trading to the 
Pacific Ocean, and along the east coast 
of America, from Orinoco to Cape Horn. 
In 1724 this company undertook the 



SPA 798 SPA 

whale fishery. After eight years' trade Grenada, and expelled out of Spain the 

their loss proved to amount to upwards Moors and Jews, who would not embrace 

of £237,000. In 1733 their capital was the Christain faith, to the number of 

put upon the same footing with other 1/0,000 families. 

government annuities, and the company The following is aUst of the sovereigns 

ceased to be a trading company. See of Spain, with thedate of theiraccession: — 

Funds, page 497. a.d. 

SOUTHCOTT, Joanna, the pro- Ferdinand the Great, under whom 

phetic impostor, who fancied herself the Castile and Leon were united, 

woman of the Revelations, died Dec. 27, from 1027 to 1035 

1S14. Sancho the Strong 1065 

SOVEREIGNS, the coin, first issued Alphonso the Valiant 1072 

May 8, 1821. Sovereigns coined at the Alphonso VII 1109 

Mint during the year 1836, 1,717,694 ; Alphonso VIII 1122 

in 1837, 1,172,984. Half sovereigns in Sancho III 1157 

1836, 70,087; in 1837, 80,103. Ferdinand II 1157 

SPAFIELDS. From 20,000, to 30,000 Alphonso IX 1158 

persons assembled here, to vote anaddress Henry 1 1214 

to the Prince Regent, from the distressed Ferdinand III 1216 

manufacturers, tradesmen, &c., Nov. 15, Alphonso X 1252 

1816. Second meeting, Dec. 2, follow- Sancho IV 1284 

ing, which terminated in a very alarming Ferdinand IV 1295 

riot, the shops of several gunsmiths hav- Alphonso XI 1312 

ing been plundered of arms by the mob. Peter the Cruel 1350 

SPAIN was first civiUzed by the Phoe- Henry II 1368 

nicians, who possessed great par* of it ; John I. the Bastard 1379 

these called in the Carthaginians; it Henry III 1390 

was afterwards invaded by the Rhodians. John II 1406 

The Carthaginians, however, made new Henry IV 1454 

conquests, a. c. 209 ; and after the des- Ferdinand and Isabella ; the first 

truction of ancient Tyre, became the styled Catholic 1474 

most powerful in this country. It was Philip 1 1504 

conquered by the Romans, A.c. 216. Charles 1 1516 

Grenada and Andalusia were the Boetica Philip II 1555 

of the Romans, and the rest of Spain the Phihp III 1598 

province of Tarragona. Phihp IV 1621 

The several provinces now subject to Charles II 1665 

the crown were once independent king- Phihp V. resigned 1700 

doms, but became one kingdom in a.d. Lewis 1724 

414. In the fifth century the irruption Ferdinand VI 1745 

of the northern barbarians, the Suevi, Charles III 1759 

Vandals, and Alani, spread devastation Charles IV 1788 

over almost every part of Spain and who resigned the crown to his 

Portugal. They were vanquished by the son Ferdinand VII 1808 

Visigoths, assisted by the Roman power, Maria Isabella, daughter of Ferdi- 

and Christianity was introduced into nand VII 1834 

Spain in the sixth century. The invasion Maria Christina was regent during 

of the Moors took place in 711, and they this reign till 184a 

in a few years overran the whole countrj% In the war of 1803 Spain avoided a 

except the Asturias. " rupture with Britain, until roused by the 

The Moors kept full possession till the capture of her ships in 1804 and 1805. 

11th century when their power was The compulsory abdication of the royal 

greatly impaired. About this time Spain family of Spain by Buonaparte, took 

was divided into 12 or 13 kingdoms. A place in 1808, and was followed by a 

series of warlike princes gave the Moors general insurrection, the well known 

repeated overthrows, till the year 1 474, peninsular war ; and the evacuation of 

when all the kingdoms in Spain, Portu- the Spanish territory by the French in 

gal excepted, were united by the marriage 1813, when Ferdinand VII. was restored, 

of Ferdinand, king of Arragon, and The first acts of Ferdinand were to 

Isabella, the heiress of Castile. They took revive the inquisition and other abuses^ 



SPA 



799 



SPE 



and banish and iinprision those men 
who, to the best of their power, had con- 
tributed to his re-establishment. The 
dissatisfaction which his conduct pro- 
duced, together with the contrariety ex- 
isting in the pohtical views of the }/reat 
body of the people, rendered Spain from 
1820 to 1830, a scene of civil commotion. 
The country was divided into two oppos- 
ing factions, which threatened the extinc- 
tion of all social order, one of which 
was headed by Don Carlos, brother of 
the king. 

Ferdinand VII. died Sept. 29, 1833. 
By a will dated in 1830, he provided, 
that if, at the time of his death, any of his 
children should be under the age of 18, 
the queen was to be their guardian, and 
regent and governess of the monarchy, 
till the heir should complete the age of 
18. . The will of Ferdinand VII. which 
was the title of Donna Isabella II. to the 
throne, and of his widow. Queen Chris- 
tina to the regency, Avas treated by his 
brother Don Carlos as a violation of the 
fundamental laws of the monarchy. To 
this source may be traced the civil war in 
Spain, from 1833 to 1839. See Carlos. 

1840. After the exile of Don Carlos, a 
state of comparative tranquillity ensued 
in Spain till this year, when an insurrec- 
tionary movement took place in Sept., 
which spread to most of the large towns 
in Spain, and appeared in the more com- 
manding attitude of a revolution ; the 
object of which was the maintenance of 
free institutions against the despotism of 
the crown. The junta of Madrid formed 
a Provisional Government, which on the 
4th sent to the Queen Regent an exposi- 
tion of their views, with a statement of 
their demands. In this address, whilst 
professing continued allegiance to the 
queen, and disavowing all intentions but 
the support of the constitutional prero- 
gatives of the crown, the junta com- 
plained of the projects of law upon the 
liberty of the press, upon electoral rights, 
and upon the administration, &c. The 
queen refused to receive the address ; 
and acting under the advice of her 
minister, Castill y Ayerbe, she sent it 
back unopened. Her majesty appealed 
to General Espartero, who refused to 
act against the insurgents. This led to 
the abdication of the Queen Regent, 
Oct. 12. 

A new ministry was formed, who, by 
the constitution, were invested with the 
regency till the meeting of the cortes. 



which was postponed till March, 1841. 
Queen Christina quitted Valencia, Oct. 
17, for France. She was escorted to 
the boat by the council of regency, and 
the municipality of Valencia. She re- 
ceived along the road the customary 
honours and salutes. Arrived at Mar- 
seilles on the 23d, and afterwards re- 
tired to Naples. The government, in 
an address, urged the necessity of intro- 
ducing reforms in all branches of the 
administration, and in the system of 
education ; it directed the attention of 
the future government to the national 
debt, to the guarantee of which are at- 
tached the existence and welfare of 
thousands of famihes, native as well as 
foreign ; it recommended that tithes be 
abolished, and that a competent provi- 
sion be made for the support of the 
clergy; and concluded by recommending 
a revision of the Ayuntamiento law, the 
establishment of a law for ministerial 
responsibility, the revision of the civil, 
criminal, and commercial codes, &c. 

SPARTA. See Laced^mon. 

SPEAKING-TRUMPET. See Acous- 
tics. 

SPECTACLE-MAKERS' Company, 
London, incorporated 1630. 

SPECTACLES were altogether un- 
known to the ancients, and the invention 
has been much disputed by the mo- 
derns. The most general opinion is, that 
Alexander de Spina, of Pisa, a monk of 
the order of Predicants, of St. Catherine, 
was the inventor about 1290 ; and that he 
communicated his invention, in conse- 
quence of finding that some other person 
was in possession of the secret as well 
as himself. He died"at Pisa in 1313. 

SPECULUM, any highly polished sur- 
face, which is employed to reflect to the 
eye of the observer the images of objects 
presented to it. See Burning Glasses. 
The term is most usually employed 
to signify the mirror in a Gregorian, 
Newtonian, or other reflecting telescope. 
The Rev. Mr. Edwards invented a metal 
for specula, as described in the Nautical 
Almanac for 1787^ said by Dr. Hutton 
to be the whitest and best of any that 
he had ever seen. 

1839. Mr. Nasmyth, in oflfering to the 
British Association a few remarks " On 
the Difficulties in the General Use of 
Metallic Specula for Reflecting Tele- 
scopes," &c., drew attention to an in- 
vention of his, viz., a plate-glass pneu- 
matic speculum, placed on a concave 



SPE 



800 



SPU 



cast-iron bed, the edges only of the glass 
resting on a rim perfectly turned, and 
fastened in with bees'-wax, which ren- 
dered the apparatus air-tight, and was 
also of a yielding character. 

SPELMAN, Sir Henry, the anti- 
quarian, died J 641, aged 80. 

SPENCE, Thomas, apohtical enthu- 
siast, who devised and published a plan 
by which human kind could be provided 
with sustenance without pauperism, 
namely, by the confiscation and division 
of the landed, and the extinction of the 
funded property of the kingdom ; died 
1814. 

SPENCER, THE Right Hon. Geo. 
John, second earl, was born at Wim- 
bledon, September 1, 1753. In 1794 
Lord Spencer was sent on a special em- 
bassy to the court of Vienna ; and, dur- 
ing his absence, July 19, was appointed 
lord privy seal ; which office he resigned 
in the following December for that of 
first lord of the admiralty. On the peace 
of Amiens, he retired from office. He 
returned again to public duty, as secre- 
tary of state for the home department, 
together with Lord Grenville and Mr. 
Fo.x, in 1806. The death of the latter 
statesman, which soon followed, dis- 
solved the administration; and from that 
period the noble earl removed from the 
arena of parliament. The earl was the 
collector of the finest private library in 
Europe, the history of which is developed 
by Dr. Dibdin, in the " ^des Althor- 
pianae ;" and some of its most important 
contents aredescribedinthe " Bibliotheca 
Spenceriana." On the estabhshment of 
the Roxburgh club in 1812, Earl Spen- 
cer became its president. He died Nov. 
10, 1834, aged 76. 

SPENCERS, father, son, and grand- 
son, political characters and favourites 
in the reign of Edward II. and Henry IV. 
The father was hanged at Bristol, aged 
90, in Oct. 1320. The son was hanged 
at Hereford, Nov. 24, following. The 
grandson was beheaded at Bristol, in 
1400, in the reign of Henry IV. 

SPENSER, Edmund, an ancient 
English poet, was born at London in 
1553. In 1578 he was introduced to 
Mr. Sidney, afterwards Sir Philip Sid- 
ney, by whom he was presented to 
Queen Elizabeth, who honoured him 
with the place of poet-laureate. About 
this time he finished his " Shepherd's 
Calendar," which was first printed in 
1579- In 1587, having obtained a royal 



grant of 3000 acres of forfeited lands in 
the county of Cork, in Ireland, he set 
out for that kingdom, took possession 
of his estate, and fi.xed his residence in 
the castle of Kilcolman, where he com- 
pleted his great work of the " Faery 
Queen." In 1597, on the rebellion of 
Lord Tyrone, who ravaged the whole 
county of Cork, he was obliged to fly 
for safety with his family to England, 
where, in 1599, he died in extreme 
poverty. His whole works, with his life 
by Hughes, were published in six vols. 
12mo., in 1715 and 1750. 

SPINOZA, Benedict, theologian, 
born at the Hague, 1632, died 1677- 

SPIRE, or Speyer, town Bavaria, 
was frequently the seat of the German 
diet. From 1795 to 1814 it belonged to 
the French, after which it was restored to 
Bavaria. 

SPITALFIELDS, the weavers of. 
reduced to extreme suflfering from want 
of employment, 1816. Again in 1837. 
On this occasion a ball took place at the 
Opera House, London, June 1, the pro- 
fits of which were intended for the relief 
of the weavers. The dresses worn were 
all of British manufacture, and it is stated 
that temporary employment had been 
given to 8000 distressed weavers. 

SPITZBERGEN, or East Green- 
land, group of islands. Frozen Ocean, 
were discovered by Hugh Willoughby 
in 1553, who supposed them to be part 
of the west continent. The Dutch at- 
tempted to settle a colony here, but all 
the people perished. The cold is so 
intense that these islands are uninha- 
bitable ; but eight English sailors, who 
some years ago were accidentally left here 
by a fishing ship, survived the winter. 

SPURZHEIM, Caspar, M.D. the 
celebrated phrenologist, was born Dec. 
31, 1776, at the village of Longvich, near 
Treves, on the Moselle. In 1800 he 
attended, for the first time, the private 
course of craniological lectures which 
Dr. Gall had been occasionally in the 
habit of giving, at his own residence, for 
four years past. Spurzheim devoted 
himself to anatomy and physiology ; and 
having completed his studies, in 1804, 
became the associate and fellow-labourer 
ol Dr. Gall. They visited the principal 
cities of Germany, and the north of 
Europe, and arrived at Paris in 1807. 
In 1814 Dr. Spurzheim visited England, 
and by his lectures and writings dis- 
seminated a knowledge of phrenology, 



S T A 801 

and rendered its principles in some 
degree popular. During his residence 
in England, Dr. Spurzheim published 
several works on phrenology, &c. He 
died Nov. 10, 1832, aged 56. 

ST. HELENA. See Helena. 

ST. STEPHEN'S Chapel, the En- 
glish house of commons, built 1115. 

STACK, Major, gallant British 
officer, born in 1787, was a native of the 
county of Kerry, and served with great 
distinction in the Peninsula and in 
India. He commanded the company of 
the 43d regiment, which defeated the 
Chartists at Newport, in Wales, Nov. 

1839. See Chartists. He died Nov. 7, 

1840, in his 53d year. 
STADTHOUSE, at Amsterdam, buUt 

1649, completely finished 1655. 

STAEL, Madame Db, Anna 
Louisa Germaine De, the celebrated 
writer, was born in Switzerland in 1766. 
Her father, M. Necker, was originally a 
Genevese banker, a man of distinguished 
parts, and afterwards famed for the high 
position he occupied in France ; on 
account of his financial ability he was 
elevated to the ministry of that depart- 
ment in 1776. See Necker. This 
position brought his daughter into con' 
nection with all the most noted characters 
of the day, andMarmontel, Raynal, with 
many other celebrated writers of the 
time, were the daily visitors and intimate 
friends of the family. In her fifteenth 
year, she wrote an abstract of Montes- 
quieu's " Spirit of the Laws." Her first 
published works were three plays — 
"Sophia," a comedy; " Lady Jane Grey " 
and '* Montmorency," tragedies, in 1786. 
The same year she was married to the 
Baron de Stael Holstein, ambassador 
from Sweden to France. 

During the revolutionary storm she 
retired to her father's house in Switzer- 
land ; but in 1795, the French republic 
was recognised by Sweden ; and Madame 
de Stael, in that year, left her retirement, 
and returned to Paris with her husband, 
who was again appointed ambassador. 
By her iniiuence with Barras and his 
colleagues in the Directory, Madame de 
Stael procured for Talleyrand the ap- 
pointment of foreign minister. In 1797 
she was introduced for the first time to 
Napoleon, whose enmity was destined to 
embitter her future hfe. The Baron de 
Stael died in 1798, leaving his widow with 
two children, a son and daughter. At 
the time of his death, he was on his way. 



ST A 



in company with Madame de Stael, to 
her father's house at Coppet, whither 
she hastened on hearing of the danger 
impending over Switzerland from the 
French armies. Necker was injudicious 
enough, in a work issued in 1802, to tell 
the world that the First Consul intended 
to re-establish a monarchy in France. 
Madame de Stael defended her father's 
conduct. Napoleon accused her of send- 
ing information to Necker injurious to 
the French government, and banished 
her from Paris. In the year of her 
banishment, two of her most celebrated 
works issued from the press at Paris ; 
namely, her " Considerations on the 
Influence of Literature on Society," 
and her romance of " Delphine." In 
1805 she published Necker's manuscript 
remains, with a life prefixed to them. 

Madame de Stael visited Germany in 
1810, for the purpose of collecting 
materials for her great work, entitled 
" L'AUemagne, or Germany." No sooner 
had the work been announced than 
Buonaparte, then all-powerful, ordered 
Savary, the police minister, to seize the 
whole impression, exiled the authoress 
from France; and her friends, Madame 
Racamier and M. de Montmorency, for 
merely visiting her, received sentence of 
banishment. A new marriage with Mi 
de Rocca, a retired French officer, gave 
her a protector and companion ; and in 
the spring of 1812, she fled to Vienna, 
From this she went to Moscow, and 
when the French army arrived at that 
city, removed to St. Petersburgh, and in 
the autumn of the same year to Stock- 
holm. In 1813 she passed over to Eng- 
land, and was entertained by the British 
in a very flattering manner. She pub- 
lished her " Ten Years of Exile" in 
1814, and on returning to France was 
received with honour by the aUied 
princes. From this time till her death, 
the life of Madame de Stael was spent in 
happiness and honour. She died on the 
morning of July 14, 1817. 

STAFFORD, county, England, after 
the Anglo- Saxon invasion became a part 
of the kingdom of Mercia. Edward the 
Elder gained a victory over the Danes 
at Wednesfield, between Bloxwich and 
Wolverhampton ; and, after the Norman 
conquest, several military actions occur* 
red within the limits of this county. 

STAHL, George Ernest, an emi.« 
nent German chemist, was born at Onold 
in Franconia, in 1660, and chosen pro- 
5 K 



ST A 



802 



STE 



fessor of medicine at Halle, when a 
university was founded in that city in 
1694. He was called to visit Frederick 
"William, king of Prussia, at Berlin, in 
1716; and afterwards returned several 
times to that capital, where his reputa- 
tion was greatly increased, and where 
at length he died in 1734, in his 74th 
year. He was the author of the " Doc- 
trine of Phlogiston," which, though now 
completely overturned by the discoveries 
of Lavoisier and others, maintained its 
ground for more than half a century, 
and was received and supported by some 
of the most eminent men which Europe 
has produced. 

STAMFORD Bridge, Yorkshire, is 
celebrated for the memorable battle 
fought in 1066, by king Harold against 
his brothers, Tosti and Harfager, kings 
of Norway. 

STAMP Duties, a branch of the 
perpetual revenue of Great Britain, first 
instituted by statute 5 and 6 W. and M. 
.c. 21. in 1694 ; the duties have since, in 
many instances, been increased to five 
times their original amount. They were 
increased in 1756 ; aj^ain, 1776, 17S0, 
1789, 1797, 1801, 1802, 1808, and 1815. 
They were begun in Ireland, March 25, 
1774; increased 1801. The total produce 
of stamp duties of Great Britain, the year 
ending in January, 1806, was £4,194,285 
12s. lO^d. The following are some of 
the miscellaneous stamp duties : — annual 
licences ; law proceedings ; matricula- 
tion in any university in Great Britain ; 
appraisement of estates, real or personal ; 
certificate to be taken out yearly, by 
attorneys, solicitors, or proctors, in Eng- 
land ; receipts and bills of e.xchange ; 
newspapers, &c. For an account of the 
stamps on newspapers since the late act, 
see Nev^tspapers. 

STAMP Act in America passed 1764, 
which gave rise to the American war ; 
repealed March 18, 1766. 

STANHOPE, Philip Dormer, Earl 
of Chesterfield. See Chesterfield. 

STANHOPE, Charles, Earl, poU^ 
tician and inventor, born 1753, died 
Dec. 16, 1816. 

STANISLAUS, the abdicated king 
of Poland, burnt by accident, Feb. 6, 
1768, aged 89. 

STANISLAUS, Poniatowsky, the 

last king of Poland, who was deprived 

of his kingdom in 1795, died Feb. 11, 

1798, aged 65, at Petersburgh. 

STANNARY Courts, in Devonshire 



and Cornwall, instituted for the admi- 
nistration of justice among the tinners. 
The privileges of the tinners are con- 
firmed by a charter, 33 Ed. I., and fully 
expounded by a private statute, 50 Ed. 
IIL, which has since been explained by 
a public act, 16 Car. I. c. 15, 1641. 

STAPLEDON, Walter, bishop of 
Exeter, murdered in London in an in- 
surrection, 1326. 

STAPLES' Inn Society, established 
1415. 

STAR Chamber, Court of, an 
oppressive court of very ancient origin, 
in England. It was new modelled by 
statutes 3 Hen. VII. c. 1., and 22 Hen. 
VIII. c. 20. It consisted of divers 
lords, spiritual and temporal, being privy 
councillors, &c., and its jurisdiction ex- 
tended over riots, perjury, and other 
notorious misdemeanors. Yet this was 
afterwards stretched to the asserting of 
all proclamations and orders of state, to 
the vindicating of illegal commissions 
and grants of monopolies. It was finally 
abolished by the statute I6 Car. I. c. 10. 
in 164], to the general joy of the whole 
nation. 

STARCH-MAKERS' Company, 
London, incorporated 1632. 

STATES OF THE Church, the 
pope's dominions in Italy. See Church, 
p. 287. 

STATIONERS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1556. 

STAUNTON, Sir George, author 
of the " Memoirs of the Embassy to 
China," died 1801. 

STEAM Engine, the idea of its prin- 
ciple suggested by the Marquis of Wor- 
cester, in his " Century of Inventions," 
as a " way to drive up water by fire," 
pubhshed in 1663. 

1698. Captain Savery's engine for 
raising water. 1699 Papin's engine 
exhibited to the Royal Society. 1713. 
Atmospheric engine, by Savery and 
Newcomen. 1765. Watt's invention of 
performing condensation in a separate 
vessel from the cylinder. 1769. His first 
patent. 1775. His engines upon a large 
scale erected in manufactories, and his 
patent renewed by act of parliament. 
1778. His expansion engine. 1778-9. 
Made to give a rotary motion ; Wash- 
borough's patent. 

1779. Double acting engine proposed 
by Dr. Falck on Newcomen's principle. 
1781. Double engine executed by Watt. 
1802. Trevithick's high-pressure engine. 



STE 



803 



STE 



1804. Woolf's double cylinder expan- 
sion engine. 

1819. The establishment at Soho alone 
had manufactured of Watt's machines a 
number whose steady labour would have 
required not fewer than 100,000 horses ; 
and the saving resulting from the sub- 
stitution of these machines for animal 
labour amounted annually to more than 
£3,000,000 sterling. Throughout England 
and Scotland, at the same date, the num- 
ber of these machines exceeded 10,000. 
They effected the work of 500,000 horses, 
or of three or four millions of men, with 
an annual saving of from £12,000,000 
to £16,000,000 sterling. These results 
must, since the general application of the 
engines to navigation, be more than 
doubled. See the next article for an 
account of the number of vessels. 

The idea of the rotary motion pro- 
duced by the direct action of steam 
instead of being obtained by the inter- 
vention of moving parts, for converting 
the rectilineal motion produced- by steam 
into a rotary one, engaged the attention 
of Watt and others but without success. 
Galloway's rotary engine, patented in 
1826, was only in part successful ; the 
great friction, leakage, and the difficulty 
of maintaining the packing steam-tight, 
have been generally found the great ob- 
stacle to the successful adoption of such 
engines. This difficulty has however 
been recently surmounted. 

1839. Hearne and Davies's rotative 
disc engine was examined by Mr. F. 
Whishaw, C.E., who reports that, from 
several trials made with an engine of this 
construction at the works of the British 
Alkali Company, near Bromsgrove, he 
found the work done by a 24-inch disc 
engine, working with the steam at 29 lb. 
pressure, to equal 20-horse power, with 
due allowance for friction ; and the con- 
sumption of coal, (common Stafford- 
shire), in general to 2 cwt. per hour, or 
rather more than 11 lb. per horse, per 
hour. 

Mr. Rowley, of Manchester, about the 
same time, invented a new rotary engine, 
combining simplicity of construction 
with rapidity of motion, greater power 
than a common engine of the same size, 
and a saving in fuel of upwards of 20 
per cent. 

Locomotive Engines. The em- 
ployment of an internal mechanism to 
impel waggons on a plane road is of very 
early date. But the first application of 



the steam engine to this purpose took 
place at Paris, towards the close of the 
last century. From this time but little 
progress appears to have been made in 
the use of this species of wheel carriage, 
till 1802 when Mr. Trevithick patented 
his high-pressure engine for the above 
purpose. Trevithick's engine was im- 
proved by Blenkinsop in 1811, and by 
Dodd and Stephenson, of Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne in 1815. Several patents 
were obtained for locomotive engines, 
applicable to the common roads, namely, 
that of Mr. Julius Griffith, in 1821 ; of 
Mr. Samuel Brown, in 1823 ; Mr. W. 
H.James, in 1824; Mr. Goldsworthy 
Gurney, in 1826, and others. But this 
has been found to be ineffectual as a 
mode of conveyance in common roads. 
At length the application of steam power 
to locomotive engines on railways was 
introduced, which has been very recently 
marked by the most signal success. See 
Railways. 

STEAM Navigation. The first 
actual attempt on record, was made by 
Jonathan Hulls, who in Dec. 21, 1736, 
obtained a patent for the first steam- 
boat ; but Hulls did not meet with the 
encouragement he merited, and the plan 
was for that time abandoned. In 1782 
the Marquis de JoufFroy constituted a 
steam -boat to ply on the Saone at 
Lyons. It was 140 feet long and 13 feet 
wide, and drew 3.2 feet of water. 

A few years afterwards various com- 
petitors for the application of steam 
navigation appeared : in America two 
rivals, James Rumsey of Virginia, and 
John Fitch of Philadelphia. In Italy 
the application of steam power to vessels 
was proposed by Dr. S. Serratti, and in 
Scotland by Mr. Miller of Dalswinton ^ 
under the direction of the latter, Oct. 14, 
1788, the first steam-boat voyage ever 
made was successfully performed on 
Dalswinton Lake. 

The next attempt was made by Mr. 
Symington, in a vessel which was tried 
on the Forth and Clyde Canal, for the 
first time, in November, 1789. In 1801, 
Lord Dundas, then Governor of the 
Forth and Clyde Canal Company, em- 
ployed Mr. S3'mington to make an 
engine for an experimental vessel for that 
Company, which was soon after com- 
pleted, and made many trips on the 
canal. 

The first American steam-boat that 
completely succeeded was made by Ful- 



STE 



804 



STE 



ton, an American engineer. The vessel 
was launched at New York, Oct. 3, 1807, 
fitted with a steam engine made by 
Boulton and Watt, and soon afterwards 
this vessel plied between that city and 
Albany, — a distance of 160 mUes. 

The successful introduction of steam 
navigation, for purposes of utility in 
Britain, we owe to Mr. Henry Bell, who, 
in 1811, built a steam vessel called the 
" Comet." Since that time the progress 
of steam navigation has bee» exceedingly 
rapid. 

The number of steam-boats on the 
Clyde in 1825 amounted to 51. The 
total number in Great Britain about 
the same period was 140, with a power 
equivalent to the work of 4700 horses, 
and a carriage of 16,000 tons. The 
number, tonnage, and power of vessels 
belonging to the mercantile steam 
marine of the United Kingdom, and its 
dependencies, at the close of the year 
1838 were as follows : — Vessels 810. 
Computed tonnage 157,840. Amount of 
horse power 63,250. The American 
number is rated at 800 vessels, of which 
600 belong to the western waters. About 
140 belong to the state of New York. 
The total tonnage is estimated at 155,000. 
The American boats do not equal ours 
in size : the largest runs between New 
York and Natchez, and is of 860 tons ; 
the ne.Yt in size are on Lake Erie, and 
along the New England coast. 

1838. First voyage across the Atlan- 
tic. Steam-ships of large burden, having 
been provided with engines of greater 
power than any before constructed for 
the purpose of navigation, the voyages 
between this country and New York of 
the ^' Sirius," the " Great Western," 
and the " Royal William," were per- 
formed free from the intervention of a 
single obstacle or accident. Trans- 
atlantic steam-Yoyages may now be 
said to be as easy of accomplishment, by 
means of ships of adequate size and 
power, as the passage between London 
and Margate. The " Sirius" and 
" Great Western" arrived back from 
their first voyages on "the IQth and 22d 
of May. Since this period vessels of 
larger construction have been built. The 
" President" steamer was laid down 
towards the close of 1838, built by 
Messrs. Young and Curling, of Lime- 
house ; in whose dockyard was also con- 
structed the " British Queen." The 
proprietois of both vessels are the British 



and American Steam Navigation Com- 
pany ; the " President" to run with the 
" British Queen," between London and 
New York. This magnificent vessel 
was towed out of the builders' dock on 
Dec. 9. 

Steam vessels have also been con- 
structed for the navy. The " Cyclops" 
steam-frigate, the largest steam man-of- 
war in the world, on July 10, was 
launched, at Pembroke Dockyard. Her 
dimensions are as follows : — Length 225 
feet ; beam between paddles 38 ; depth 
of hold 21 ; tonnage 1300. Her equip- 
ments as a man-of-war, are the same in 
all respects as a frigate. Her engines 
are of 320 horse-power. 

STEELE, SiK Richard, pohtical and 
miscellaneous writer, was born at Dublin, 
in 1671. In 1691 he was entered of 
Merton College, Oxford. He pubhshed 
his " Christian Hero" in 1701. In 1709 
he commenced the " Tatler," a series of 
periodical papers, which, more than any 
of his other exertions, has contributed 
to estabhsh his fame. In 1711 this 
paper was succeeded by the more cele- 
brated "Spectator," and in 1713 the 
" Guardian," to all which he contributed. 
He afterwards engaged in other periodi- 
cal works, but being subservient to mere 
political purposes, they have all been long 
since forgotten. On the accession of 
George I. he was presented with a small 
appointment under government, and in 
April, 1715, he received the honour of 
knighthood. In 1722 he brought for- 
ward his comedy of " The Conscious 
Lovers," which was received with great 
applause ; but embarrassments pressed 
upon him ; and he retired to an estate in 
Wales, where he died in 1729. 

STEEVENS, George, the editor of 
" Shakspeare," died Jan. 21, 1800, 
aged 65. 

STEPHEN THE Martyr, died 
Sept. 26, A.D. 33. 

STEPHEN, James, one of the great 
promoters of the abolition of the slave 
trade, and the deviser of the system of 
continental blockade of the last war, 
died 1833, aged 73. 

STEPHEN, king of England, horn 
1105 ; crowned Dec. 2, 1135. Died at 
Dover, Oct. 25, 1154, aged 50; was 
buried at Feversham. 

STEPHENS, Henry, Robert, and 
Charles, learned printers, editors, and 
critics, flourished in the l6th century. 

STEREOTYPE. See Printii^g, 



STE 



805 



STO 



STERNBERG, Count Gaspard. a 
distinguished naturalist. His principal 
work, an antediluvian Flora, published 
in French and German, has long been 
highly appreciated by the scientific world. 
He died in 1838. 

STERNE, Laurence, an eccentric 
English writer, was born at Clonmell, in 
the south of Ireland, in 1713. In 1722 
he was sent to school at Halifax, in York- 
shire, where he continued till 1732, when 
he was removed to Jesus College, in 
Cambridge. In 1741 he was made a 
prebendary of York. In 1760 he pub- 
lished his two first volumes of " Tristram 
Shandy." In 1762 he went to France, 
and two years after to Italy, for the 
recovery of his health. He languished 
imder consumption till 1768, when he 
died. The works of Sterne are" very 
generally read. His " Sentimental Jour- 
ney" and " Tristram Shandy" are the 
most known. 

STERNHOLD, Thomas, the author 
of the " Old Version of the Psalms," 
died in 1549. 

STESICHORUS, Greek lyric poet, 
lived A.c. 600. 

STEVENS, George Alexander, 
author of the " Lecture on Heads," died, 
1787. 

STEVENSON, Sir John Andrew, 
Mus. D. and a distinguished composer, 
came from Scotland to settle in Dublin 
about the middle of the last century. In 
1779, he composed some of the airs for 
O'KeeflFe's farce of " Dead Alive," at 
which time he was not 19- Soon after 
he was admitted to the chapter of Christ- 
church, Dublin, where his celebrity was 
soon established. He received the honour 
of knighthood from the earl of Hard- 
wicke, then lord-lieut., in April, 1802. 
From the year 1800 to 1816, Sir John 
Stevenson was constantly engaged in 
musical publications, in conjunction with 
his friend Mr. Moore. One of the last 
and greatest of his productions was his 
oratorio of the " Thanksgiving." He 
died Sept. 1833, aged 73. 

STEWART, DuGALD, professor of 
Moral Philosophy at Edingburgh. In 
Oct, 1766, he was entered at the univer- 
sity, and his principal pursuits were 
history, logic, metaphysics, and moral 
philosophy. In 1792 he published the 
first volume of his *' Elements of the 
Philosophy of the Human Mind," the 
second volume of which did not appear 
till 1813, and tiie third, not till 1827. 



He wrote some of the Dissertations pre- 
fixed to the supplement of the " Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica." He was elected 
a member of the academy of St. Peters- 
burgh, and also of the academy of Phila- 
delphia; and, in 1826, the Royal Society 
of Literature of London voted him a 
medal, for his essay on the " Philoso- 
phy of the Human Mind," &c. He 'died, 
June 11, 1828, aged 75. 

STILLINGFLEET, Edward, a 
learned prelate of the church of Eng- 
land, was born at Cranborn, in Dorset- 
shire, in 1635. In 1657 he was presented 
to the rectory of Sutton, in Nottingham- 
shire. By publishing his " Origines 
Sacrae," one of the ablest defences of 
revealed religion that has ever been writ- 
ten,he acquired great reputation. In Jan. 
1665 he was presented to the rectory of 
St. Andrew's, Holborn. He was after- 
wards chosen lecturer at the Temple, and 
appointed chaplain in ordinary to King 
Charles II. In 1685 appeared his 
"Origines Britannicae, or the Antiquities 
of the British Church." After the revo- 
lution he was advanced to the bishopric 
of Worcester. He died at Westminster, 
in 1699, and was interred in the cathe- 
dral of Worcester, where a monument 
was erected to his memory. 

STIRLING Castle, Scotland, was 
alternately held by the English and Scots,, 
till it was taken by Robert Bruce, after 
he had triumphed at Bannockburn, 1314. 
Here James I. of Scotland kept his, 
court, and James II. assassinated his, 
turbulent kinsman, William, earl Dou-. 
glas. James III. added to the castel- 
lated palace a magnificent hall for the 
meeting of the Scottish parliament, which 
is now used for barracks. The castle is 
one of the Scottish fortresses, the pre- 
servation of which, in constant repair is 
guaranteed by the articles of union be- 
tween the two kingdoms. 

STOCKHOLM, the capital of Sweden. 
The foundation is attributed to Birger 
Jarl, regent of the kingdom about the 
middle of the 13th century, during the 
minority of his son Waldemer, who had 
been raised to the throne by the states 
of the kingdom ; but it was not before 
the 18th century that the royal resi- 
dence was transferred from Upsal to this 
city. 

Several treaties took place here. 
The peace of Stockholm, between the 
king of Great Britain and the queen of 
Sweden, by which the former acquired 



STO 



806 



STO 



the duchies of Bremen and Verden, 
as Elector and Duke of Brunswick, 
Nov 20, 1719. Treaty of Stockholm 
between Russia and Sweden, in favour of 
the duke of Holstein Gottorp, March 24, 
1724 ; and treaty of Stockholm, entered 
into between England and Sweden, 
March 3, 1813. 

STOCKINGS. The Romans and 
other ancient nations had no particular 
clothing for the legs. During the mid- 
dle ages, hose or leggings, made of cloth, 
began to be used. At a later period, 
the art of knitting stockings was disco- 
vered, but nothing certain is known as 
to the origin of this important invention. 
Silk stockings were first worn in 1547, 
by Henry II. of France. It is proved, 
however, that the practice of knitting 
woollen stockings was well known in 
England, and had been referred to in 
acts of parliament, a good many years 
previously to this period. 

The stocking frame for weaving stock- 
ings, in a rude form, was invented in 
1589, by Mr. William Lee, of Wood- 
borough, in Nottinghamshire. At the 
invitation of Henry IV. of France, he 
introduced the stocking frame at Rouen, 
with distinguished success. A know- 
ledge of the machine was brought back 
from France to England, by some of the 
workmen who had emigrated with Lee, 
and who estabhshed themselves in Not- 
tinghamshire, which still continues the 
principal seat of the manufacture. f)urmg 
the first century after its invention few 
improvements were made upon it. But 
in the course of the last centur}'-, the 
machine was very greatly improved. The 
value of cotton hosiery now annually 
made is estimated at £880,000 ; of 
worsted £870,000 ; of silk £241,000. 

STOCKS. See Funds. 

STONEHENGE, a celebrated mo- 
nument of antiquity, which stands in 
the middle of a flat area on Salisbury 
Plain, six miles distant from Sahsbury. 
The whole number of stones, uprights, 
imposts, and altar, is 140. Geoffroy of 
Monmouth, who wrote in the reign of 
king Stephen, says, that it was erected 
by the counsel of Merlin, the British 
enchanter, in memory of 460 Britons 
who were murdered by Hengist. It is 
the more probable, however, according 
to Mr. Grose, that this structure was a 
British temple, in which the Druids of- 
ficiated, and that this and other monu- 



ments of the kind are all anterior to 
written evidence. 

STORMS, Remarkable: — a.d.234, 
one in Canterbury, threw down 200 
houses, and killed several families. 

549. In London, which threw down 
many of the houses, and killed 250 in- 
habitants. 

944. In London, which threw down 
1500 houses. 

951. Southampton nearly destroyed 
in a storm of lightning. 

1055. Nearly 400 houses in London 
blown down. 

1194. A violent storm almost desola- 
ted a great part of Denmark and Nor- 
way. 

1359. When Edward III. was on his 
march, within two leagues of Chartres, 
there happened a storm of piercing winjj 
that swelled to a tempest of rain, light- 
ning, and hailstones, so prodigious, as 
instantly to kill 6OOO of his horses, and 
1000 of his best troops. 

1510. In Italy a storm of hail de- 
stroyed all the fish, birds, and beasts of 
the country. 

1515. Jan. I. A violent one in Den- 
mark, which rooted up whole forests, 
and blew down the steeple of the great 
church at Copenhagen. 

1658. September 3. The day that 
Oliver Cromwell died, one was so violent 
and terrible, that it extended all over 
Europe. 

1703. Nov. 27- The most terrible one 
that had ever been known in England, 
attended with Hashes of lightning, which 
unroofed many houses and churches, 
blew down several chimnies and the 
spires of many steeples, tore whole 
groves of trees up by the roots, and the 
leads of some churches were rolled up 
like scrolls of parchment. Several ves- 
sels, boats, and barges were sunk in the 
Thames ; but the royal navy, which had 
just returned from the Mediterranean, 
suffered the greatest damage : one 2d 
rate, four 3d rates, four 4th rates, and 
many others of less force, were cast away 
upon the coast of England, and above 
1500 seaman lost, besides those that 
were cast away in the merchants' service; 
in London only, the damage was esti- 
mated at a million sterling. 

1737. Oct. 11. At the mouth of the 
Ganges, in India, when 20,000 vessels 
of different kinds were cast away, eight 
English East India ships, and 300,00a 



STO 



807 



STR 



people were lost, and the water rose 40 
feet higher than usual. 

1782. April 22. At Surat, in the East 
Indies, which destroyed 7000 of the in- 
habitants. 

1794. Jan. 16. Almost universal 
through Great Britain, by which much 
damage was done. 

1816. Aug. 31. A m-ost tremendous 
gale, by which many vessels were lost, 
and much damage was done to the ship- 
ping in general on the English coasts. 

1817- Feb. 27. Tremendous gale of 
wind, which did considerable mischief, 
was experienced at Birmingham, Liver- 
pool, Manchester, and other northern 
towns. 

1818. March 4. A tremendous hurri- 
cane throughout England, which did 
great damage to the shipping at the 
ports ; another, Nov. 23, 1824, 

1833. Tremendous gales of wind, 
which occasioned great loss of shipping 
on the coasts of England and France. 

1833-1834. In the winter, when nume- 
rous shipwrecks occurred on the coasts 
of England, Scotland, and Ireland, as 
well as on both sides of the Channel, and 
on the shores of the German Occean, to 
the extent of 100,000 tons. 

1836. Nov. 29. Throughout England 
and on the coast of France, which did 
great damage, when the ball and cross of 
St. Paul's Cathedral vibrated fearfully. 

1839. Jan. 6 and 7. A violent hurri- 
cane, on the night of the 6th, andduring 
the 7th, committed great ravages on the 
western coast of England, and opposite 
shores of Ireland, and destroyed many 
vessels in St. George's Channel. The 
storm also raged with great violence 
throughout the counties of Cheshire, 
Staffordshire, and Warwickshire. In 
Liverpool, 20 persons were killed by 
falling buildings ; Bootle Bay was 
covered with wrecks, as many as 15 ves- 
sels being thrown on the shore within 
the space of a mile ; 100 persons were 
drowned, and an immense quantity of 
property was destroyed ; the cargoes on 
board two of the vessels wrecked, 
amounted to £500,000. Dublin is said 
to have presented the appearance of a 
sacked city, the houses in some parts 
burning, in others unroofed or blown 
down with their furniture strewn in the 
streets. In Athlone, from 40 to 50 
houses were blown down ; in Moate, 70 
houses were burnt ; and the town of 
Loughrea was almost totally destroyed 



70 houses being burnt, and 100 levelled 
to the ground by the wind. 

1840. Severe storms in Nov., which 
did a great deal of damage both inland 
and at sea, and lasted several days. At 
Lexden, near Colchester, and at Lincoln 
the gale assumed the character of a 
whirlwind. At sea, on all parts of the 
coast, but more particularly on' the 
southern and eastern, the wrecks were 
unusually numerous and disastrous. 

STOTHARD, Thomas, librarian to 
the Royal Academy, and a distinguished 
artist, was born, Aug. 17,1755, in Long 
Acre. He studied with great diligence 
at the Royal Academy, and the tirst 
picture he exhibited was Ajax defending 
the body of Patroclus. He was elected 
an associate of the Academy in 1785, and 
a royal academician in 1794. In 1810, 
he was appointed deputy librarian to 
Mr. Birch, and on his death in 1812, 
succeeded as librarian. Among Mr, 
Stothard's more important works, may 
be enumerated his designs for " Boydell's 
Shakspeare, " his " Canterbury Pil- 
grims," his ceremony of the " Flitch of 
Bacon," at Dunmow, and his " Welling- 
ton Shield." His largest work was paint- 
ing the staircase at Burleigh, the seat of 
the marquis of Exeter. He died April 27, 
1834, aged 78. 

STOW, John, an industrious anti- 
quarian and historian, was born about 
1525. In 1565 he first published his 
summary of the Chronicles of England. 
About the year 1584 he began his Sur- 
vey of London, first pubhshed in 1598. 
Having spent his patrimony ,he sunk into 
penury in his old age, and died in 1605, 
at the age of 80. 

STO WELL, Lord, elder brother of 
the Earl of Eldon, died Jan. 29, 1836, at 
Early Court, Reading, in his 91st year. 
He presided for many years over the 
Consistory and Admiralty Courts. 

STRABO, a celebrated Greek geo- 
grapher, philosopher, and historian, was 
born at Amasia, He flourished under 
Augustus in the century before the 
Christian era, some say a.c. 30. He 
composed several works, all of which are 
lost except his geography in seventeen 
books, which are justly esteemed very 
precious remains of antiquity. The best 
edition of this work is that of Amster- 
dam, in 1707. 

STRADA, author of the "Histgry of 
the Wars of Flanders," died 1649. 

STRAFFORD, Thos. Wentworth, 



STR 



808 



SUG 



Earl of, was born in London, April 13, 
1593. In the parliament in 1628, he 
signalized himself as a patriot, but after- 
wards became one of the most strenuous 
supporters of the despotic power of 
Charles I.,who heaped honours upon him. 
In 1639 he was created baron of Raby, 
and earl of StraflFord ; and the following 
year, he was also made knight of the 
garter. On Nov. 11, 1640, eight days 
after the opening of the long parliament, 
on the motion of Mr. Pym, he was im- 
peached of high treason, and tried 
March 22, 1641, After a feeble and in- 
sincere attempt of the king to save him, 
he was executed on Wednesday, May 12, 
1641. 

STRALSUND, town, Prussia, for- 
merly belonging to Sweden. It was 
built about 1209, and became a member 
of the Hanseatic league. In 1678 it was 
forced to surrender to the elector of 
Brandenburg. After this the Swedes 
defended it to the last extremity ; and 
Charles XII. in 1714, came hither after 
his return out of Turkey. But the throne 
of Sweden not being able to hold out 
against five great powers, it was forced 
to submit in 1715. In 1720 it was ren- 
dered back to Sweden, but ceded to 
Prussia in 1813. 

STRASBURG, city, France, depart- 
ment Upper Rhine, is a place of anti- 
quity : it early received the doctrines 
of the reformation, and is the see of a 
bishop. The cathedral is a beautiful 
Gothic structure, founded in 1015, and 
finished in 1275, said to be the loftiest 
building in the world. A protestant 
university was established here in 1803. 
STRATFORD-ON-AVON, Warwick- 
shire, chiefly celebrated as the birthplace 
of the immortal Shakspeare, who was 
born here in 1564. It was a place of 
considerable consequence previous to the 
conquest, and was famous for a monas- 
tery founded in the reign of Ethelred. 
In September 1769, was the first com- 
memoration of Shakspeare's Jubilee, 
which lasted three days. A species of an- 
nual commemoration is still kept up. 

STREATHAM, Surrey. It contains 
a newly built church, in which upon 
tablets of white marble, are Latin in- 
scriptions from the pen of Johnson, to 
the memory of Mr. Thrale and Mrs. 
Salusbury, mother of Mrs. Piozzi. The 
steeple was struck by lightning, and great 
part of the church burnt down, Jan. 3, 
1841. 



STRUTT, Joseph, author of " Sports 
and Pastimes," died 1802. 

STRYPE, John, author of "Eccle- 
siastical History," &c., born 1643, died 
1737. 

STYLE, Old and Nevs^. See Calen- 
dar, p. 179. 

SUCKLING, Sir John, dramatic 
writer, born 1613, died 1642. 

SUDBURY, Archbishop of Canter- 
bury, beheaded by the rebels on Tower- 
hill, June 14, 1381. 

SUDELEY Castle, Gloucestershire, 
built 1442. 

SUETONIUS, Tranquillus Caius, 
Roman historian, was born at Rome, 
and became secretary to the emperor 
Adrian, about a. d. 118, but ihat post 
was taken from him three years after. 
His History of the " Twelve Roman 
Emperors" has been much commended 
by most of our polite scholars. 

SUETONIUS Paulinus, a Roman 
general, in the reign of Nero, invaded 
the island of Anglesea, and burnt the 
Druids, 59. Defeated Boadicea at Lon- 
don, and slew 80,000 of the Britons the 
same year. 

SUEVI. See Vandals. 
SUGAR was very imperfectly known 
by the Greeks and Romans. Theo- 
phrastus, who lived about a.c. 320, is 
the first writer whose works have come 
down to us by whom it is mentioned. 
Pliny describes it as " honey collected 
from canes," but this was probably the 
mode of preparing, which has been un- 
derstood and practised in China from a 
very remote antiquity. The Saracens, 
having in the 9th century, conquered 
Rhodes, Cyprus, Sicily, and Crete, in- 
troduced into them the sugar cane, with 
the cultivation and preparation of which 
they were familiar. The Venetians im- 
ported, in the 12th century, sugar from 
Sicily at a cheaper rate than they could 
import it from Egypt. The Saracens 
also introduced it into Spain soon after 
they obtained a footing in that country. 
The first plantations were at Valencia ; 
they were afterwards extended to Gra- 
nada and Murcia, and in 1664 the plan- 
tations had made considerable progress. 
Plants of the sugar cane were carried 
by the Spaniards and Portuguese to the 
Canary Islands and Madeira, in the 
early part of the 15th century. Barba- 
does is the oldest settlement of the 
English in the West Indies. They took 
possession of it 1627, and in 1646 began 



SUG 



809 



SUR 



to export sugar. When Jamaica was 
conquered in 1656 tliere were only three 
small sugar plantations upon it. But 
fresh plantations were speedily formed, 
and continued rapidly to increase. 

The sugar cane was first cultivated 
in St. Domingo in 1506. It succeeded 
better there than in any other of the 
West India islands. In 1518 there 
were 28 sugar works in St. Domingo 
established by the Spaniards. Previously 
to its devastation, in 1790, no fewer than 
65,000 tons of sugar were exported from 
the French portion of the island. For 
nearly a century theWest Indies continued 
the chief place for the growth of sugar. 

East India Sugar has been grown 
since the year 1/92, when, from the 
limited supply and high price of West 
India sugar, the attention of the East 
India Company was drawn to its impor- 
tation, and, since 1838, sugar has been 
brought over from India of a very su- 
perior quality. 

In Axigust 1834, a cargo of sugar 
arrived at Liverpool from Lima, in Peru, 
being the first ever brought to this 
country from that quarter. 

The art of refining sugar, and making 
what is called loaf-sugar, is a modern 
European invention, the discovery of a 
Venetian, about the end of the 15th or 
the beginning of the I6th century. It 
was practised first in England in 1569 ; 
was first taxed in 1685. 

England consumes about one- fifth of 
all the sugar produced in the world, but 
our demand is principally limited to our 
West India colonies. The sugar plant- 
ers of the British West Indies have a 
monopoly of the home market. In the 
five years ending 1824-29-34-39, the 
quantity they supplied us, taking the 
annual average of each period, was as 
follows :— From 1820 to 1824, 3,764,360 
cwts.; 1825 to 1829, 3,869,933 cwts. ; 
1830 to 1834, 3,860,484 cwts. ; 1835 to 
1839, 3,354,833 cwts. 

Beet- ROOT Sugar. — The manufac- 
ture is carried on to a very consider- 
able extent in several parts of the con- 
tinent, particularly in France ; it would 
probably however have been entirely ex- 
tinguished, but for the oppressive addi- 
tions made to the duties on colonial 
sugars in 1820 and 1822. Also, 1 Vict. 
c. 57. July 15, 1837, imposes on every 
hundred weight of sugar manufactured 
in the United Kingdom from beet-root, 
and so in proportion, a duty of £1 4*. 



SUIDAS, a Greek writer, who flou- 
rished in the 11th century, under the 
reign of the emperor Alexius Comnenus. 
He wrote, in Greek, an historical and 
geographical dictionary or lexicon. 

SULLY, Duke DE.aneminentFrench 
writer and political character, author of 
" Memoirs," died 1641, aged 82. 

SULPHUR, or BRiMSTONE,is of great 
importance in the arts, and as an article 
of commerce, being extensively used in 
the manufacture of gunpowder, and in 
the formation of sulphuric acid, or oil of 
vitriol. The entries for home consump- 
tion in 1831 and 1832 amounted, at an 
average, to 312,698 cwt. a year. In 
some parts of Italy and Sicily, it is dug 
up in a state of comparative purity. 

1840. A dispute arose respecting the 
sulphur monopoly. In March, the 
English ambassador at Naples required 
the dissolution of a Freneh company 
which had monopolised the trade. The 
government of the Two Sicilies refused 
to abolish the monopoly. Admiral Stop- 
ford proceeded to Naples with the inten- 
tion of capturing Neapolitan and Sicilian 
vessels, but the mediation of the Fi'ench 
government between England and Na- 
ples was accepted, and the disputes 
adjusted. 

SULPICIUS the historian, died 420. 

SUMATRA, island, in the Eastern 
Seas, discovered by Siqueyra, a Portu- 
guese, in 1508 ; more accurately examined 
by the Portuguese in 1511; now belong- 
ing to Holland. By a recent treaty, 
Bencoolen and other British settlements 
in the island wer« ceded to Holland for 
some continental territories, to take place 
from March 1825, 

SUNDAY Schools. See Schools. 

SUN-DIAL. See Dial. 

SURAT, one of the most ancient cities 
of Hindoostan, being mentioned in the 
Ramayuna. After the discovery of the 
passage to the east by the Cape of Good 
Hope, it was much frequented by vessels 
belonging to European nations, who 
exported pearls, diamonds, &c. A treaty 
was concluded in 1800 with Nassir ud 
Deen, the new nabob, by which he 
agreed that the management of the city 
and district of Surat should be vested in 
the British government. By a subse- 
quent treaty in 1803, the Maharattas, 
who had for many years overrun Surat, 
were compelled to abandon it, and it 
has ever since remained under the Bom- 
bay presidency. 

5 L 



SWA 



810 



SWE 



SURGEONS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1745. 

SURINAM, colony. South America, 
Dutch Guiana, was ceded by the Enghsh 
to the Dutch, for the province of New 
York, in 1774. It was taken by the 
British in 1799, and again in 1804; and 
restored in 1814. 

SURPLICES first used in churches, 
316. 

SUSA, or SusE, province, Africa, em- 
pire, Morocco. It was bombarded and 
nearly destroyed by the Venetians, No- 
vember 1784. 

SUTTEE, a name applied in India to 
the practice of immolating the widow on 
the funeral pile of her husband. This 
inhuman rite has been frequently brought 
before the British parliament, in the 
present century. In 1817, under the 
government of Lord Hastings, was is- 
sued, a formal set of circular instruc- 
tions for the regulation of suttees. In 
1824, Mr. Courtney Smith, second judge 
of the nizamut adawlut at Calcutta, 
gave it as his opinion, that these regu- 
lations had an injurious influence. The 
actual number of widows immolated for 
10 years, ending 1824, was as follows : — 
1815,378; 1816,442; 1817,707; 1818, 
839; 1819,650; 1820, 597; 1821, 654; 
1822, 583; 1823, 575; 1824, 572; total, 
5997. In 1829, under the administra- 
tion of Lord W. Bentinck, the supreme 
government of Bengal abolished the 
practice by a " Regulation for declaring 
the habit of suttee, or of burning or 
burying alive the widows of Hindoos, 
illegal, and punishable by the criminal 
courts, established by the governor in 
council on the 4th of Dec. 1829." 

SUTTON, Thomas, founder of the 
Charter-house, born 1532, died l6ll. 

SUWARROW, or Suveroff, Mar- 
shal, Russian general, born 1730, died 
1800. 

SWAMMERDAM, John, natural phi- 
losopher, was born 1637- He went to 
the university of Leyden in 1651 ; and 
in 1653 was admitted a candidate of phy- 
sic. In 1657 he returned to Leyden, and 
took his degree of doctor of physic. In 
1663 he published a " General History 
of Insects," and in 1675 his " History of 
the Ephemeras." He died in 1682. His 
works were translated into English in 
1758. 

SWAN River Settlement, situ- 
ated at the south-west angle of the con- 
tinent of New Holland, or Australia. No 



attempt had been made to explore this 
coast, till, in 1827, Captain Stirling sailed 
from Sidney and reached Gage's Roads, 
at the mouth of Swan River. This colony 
received the encouragement of the Bri- 
tish government, by an order from the 
colonial office, in 1829- The settlers 
arrived in Aiigust, and began to locate 
themselves along the banks of the Swan 
and Canning rivers, so that, hy the end 
of that year, there were in the new colony 
residents 850 ; non-residents 440 ; value 
of projjerty, giving claims to grants of 
land, £4 1,550. By accounts in ] 837 the 
colony was going on very favourably. 
The last harvest had proved abundant, 
and all the necessaries of life were plen- 
tiful, and the prices moderate. The colo- 
nists were embarking in the whale fishery, 
and had estabhshed a whcJing joint stock 
company. 

SWANSEA Castle, Glamorgan- 
shire, built 1113. 

SWEATING Sickness, that carried 
off great numbers, first observed in Eng- 
land in 1481. Again 1483 ; in Sept. 
1485; again 1506; again, so that in 
some towns half the people died, in 
others one-third, 1517. 

SWEDEN, anciently Scandinavia, the 
kingdom of, began 481, was united to 
the crown of Denmark and Norway, in 
1 394. Gustavus Vasa expelled the Danes 
in 1525, imtil which time the crown was 
elective. See Gustavus Vasa. 

Lutheranism was established there by 
Gustavus Vasa, about 1525. Popery 
abolished, and the crown declared here- 
ditary, 1544. The most memorable events 
after this period occurred in the time of 
Charles XII., who began his reign 1697. 
See Charles XII. 

Conspiracy for altering the govern- 
ment, when Counts Brahe and Home 
were beheaded, 1756. Revolution in the 
government, and the king, Gustavus III. 
made absolute, Aug. 13, 1772; another 
revolution, 1789. The king was assas- 
sinated, March 16, 1792. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son, then only 14 years of 
age, by the title of Gustavus Adolphus 
IV., who was dethroned, and the govern- 
ment devolved on his uncle, Charles, 
duke of Suderraania, March 13, 1809, 
as Charles XIII. 

On account of the advanced age of 
Charles XIII., Charles Augustus, prince 
of Augustenburgh, was chosen as crown 
prince and future successor, Jan. 24, IS 10. 

Charles Augustus dying suddenly. 



SWI 811 SWI 

May 29, John Bernadotte, prince of entitled " A Prcijosal for the Universal 

Ponte Corvo, was chosen crown prince, Use of Irish Manufactures." In 1727 he 

Aug. 21, following. The government published his " Gulliver's Travels." 

was resigned by Charles, in favour of his The latter years of his life were beclouded 

adopted son Bernadotte, March 17, 1811, by ill temper ; and the advances of old 

but resumed by him January *], 1812. age made life a burden to him. In 1741 

Sweden made peace and alliance with he became utterly incapable of conversa- 

.jEngland in August of the same year, tion ; and at last sunk into a perfect 

Norway was ceded to it by treaty, Jan. 14, silence, which continued till Oct. 29, 

1814. Charles XIII. died July 5, 1818, 1745, when he expired in his 78th year, 

on which occasion Bernadotte, the crown SWINBURNE, Henry, the tra- 

prince ascended the throne with the title veller, died 1803. 

of Charles XIV. SWITZERLAND, inhabited formerly 

Kingsand Queens of Sweden, from Sigis- by the Helvetii, who were subdued by 

mund I. King of Poland. Csesar, a.c. 571. It remained subject to 

Sigismund I. began 1592 the Romans, till again conquered by the 

Charles IX 1606 Alemans from Germany, a. d. 395. These 

Gustavus II. Adolphus 1611 were driven out by Clovis I. of France, 

Christina, aged 6 1632 496. This territory became part of the 

Charles X 1654 kingdom of Burgundy, 838. It was 

Charles XI. four years old 1660 given by the last king of Burgundy to 

Charles XII. aged 15 1697 the emperor of Germany, 1032, to which 

Ulrique, sister to Charles, aged 15 1718 it belonged, till the Swiss cantons were 

Frederick 1720 formed, 1307. 

Adolphus of Holstein 1751 About this time, Rodolph of Haps- 

Gustavus III 1771 burgh, at the head of the empire, ex- 

Gustavus IV 1792 tended the Austrian influence over the 

Charles XIII 1809 chief part of Switzerland. Rodolph's 

Charles XIV 1818 son, Albert, assumed a lofty tone to- 

SWEDENBORG, Emanuel, areli- wards the Swiss, and appointed as go- 

gious visionary, who wrote many mysti- vernors, men of overbearing character, 

cal books, born at Stockholm 1689, died It was the tyranny of one of these, 

in London 1772. named Geysler, or Gresler, that led to 

SWEIN, the Dane, was proclaimed the insurrection of the three mountain- 
king of England in 1013. He died ous districts of Schweitz, Uri, and Un- 
Feb. 3, 1014, at Thetford, in Norfolk. terwalden, in 1308, under the celebrated 

SWIETEN, Baron Von, the Dutch William Tell, when the imperial officers 

medical writer, born 1700, died June were seized, conducted to the frontier, 

1772. and obliged to take an oath that they 

SWIFT, Jonathan, universally ad- never would return, 
mired as a wit and classical writer, was In 1345, Leopold, the brother of the 
born at Dublin, Nov. 30, 1667. In 1688, reigning emperor, advanced at the head 
under the patronage of Sir William of an armed force, but was defeated and 
Temple, he was introduced to public expelled. The three cantons now formed 
notice. In 1704 he published the " Tale an alliance with Bavaria, and were joined 
of a Tub." From this period till 1708 soon after by five other cantons. This 
he gave successively to the public the confederacy, after consisting, during a 
" Sentiments of a Church of England century and a half, of eight cantons, re- 
Man," the "Argument against abolish- ceived five more, making 13, the num- 
ing Christianity," and the " Defence of ber by which the Swiss commonwealth 
the Sacramental Test." In 1710 was was formerly known in the history of 
commenced the " Examiner," of which Europe. During five centuries the 
Swift wrote 33 papers, beginning his Swiss saw very little war. 
first part of it on Nov. 10, 1711. He In 1797 the partizans of France hav- 
obtained the deanery of St. Patrick's in ing excited disturbances, the French 
1713. On the death of Queen Anne entered the country, and, after defeating 
Swift lived in a private manner, known the troops and peasants, they abolished 
and regarded only by his friends, till the constitutions of the principal can- 
about 1720, when he published his first tons, erected the Helvetic republic, added 
political pamphlet relative to Ireland, six new cantons, and vested the govern- 



SWI 



812 



SYR 



ment in two councils and a directory. 
This constitution was abolished in 1802 
by the first consul of France, and another 
was presented for their acceptance, but 
rejected ; he offered them a new one in 
1803, which they accepted. 

In 1813 the allied armies traversed 
the country for the purpose of invading 
France, when some changes took place 
in the administration of Switzerland ; 
these produced commotions among 
several of the cantons ; but in 1814, on 
the meeting of the diet, these disturb- 
ances were appeased, three more can- 
tons were added, and a federal compact 
was signed at Zurich. The integrity 
and independence of the Swiss republic 
was recognised by the congress at Vi- 
enna in 1815. 

1830. Insurrection at Berne : the go- 
vernment found it necessary to lend an 
ear to the public demand for changes in 
their institutions. The rural communes 
of the canton of Basle also rose, de- 
manding a larger share in the govern- 
ment. Many of the other cantons ex- 
pressed the same determination. In 
Zurich, Lucerne, Aargau, Thurgau, and 
Soleure, ameliorations v/ere promised, 
guarantees were given, and governments 
yielded to the general feeling. 

1833. Fresh dissensions in Basle and 
Schweitz : several of the cantons formed 
themselves into a separate diet. Dis- 
turbances at Kussnacht. Basle was 
occupied by federal troops. Resistance 
of Neufchatel to the general diet. Plan 
for detaching it from Prussia. 

1836. Disputes between France and 
Switzerland. The Duke de Montebello, 
French ambassador, delivered to the 
federal diet an official note, intimating 
that all relations, diplomatic and com- 
mercial, were suspended, until satisfac- 
tion was made by Switzerland to France 
for certain alleged affronts. An extra- 
ordinary meeting of the diet was con- 
voked for Oct. 17. The British govern- 
ment offered its mediation, through its 
ambassador. 

1838. New constitution of Zurich. Dis- 
sensions in the canton of Schweitz. Dis- 
pute with France relative to Louis Buo- 
naparte. See France, p. 490. 

1840. Fresh revolt in Switzerland. 
Soleure began the disturbance, and was 
scarcely quieted ere Argovia, or Aargau, 
broke out into yet greater disorders. 
Several towns revolted, and resisted the 
government troops for three days. The 



result was the utter rout of the insur- 
gents. The monks had taken part in 
the rebellion, and the government visited 
them with special punishment, suppress- 
ing all monasteries within the province. 

SYDENHAM, Thomas, physician, 
the restorer of true medical science, died 
December 29, 1689, aged 65. 

SYLLA, Lucius Cornelius, a Ro- 
man warrior and tyrant, born a.c. 137, 
died A.c. 78. 

SYRACUSE, a town in the island of 
Sicily. It was besieged by the Atheni- 
ans, A.c. 414. It was governed by Dio- 
nysius the Elder and Timoleon in less 
than half a century after. Syracuse was 
taken by the Romans, a.c. 212, and 
continued under their dominion until the 
inroads of the barbarians at the downfall 
of the empire. See Sicily. 

SYRIA, a very ancient kingdom of 
Asia, underwent various changes till the 
death of Ale.xander, when it gave name 
to a very considerable empire. The first 
king was Seleucus, one of the generals 
of Alexander the Great, who obtained 
possession of the whole of Syria about 
a.c. 280. Seleucus was succeeded by 
his son Antiochus Soter, who held the 
empire 19 years. He died a.c. 261, and 
was succeeded by his son Antiochus 
Theos. 

Antiochus, surnamed the Great, as- 
cended the throne a.c. 225. Being in- 
duced to declare war against the Romans, 
he involved himself in perpetual disasters. 
After a variety of usurpers and tyrants, 
the kingdom of Syria fell under Tigranes, 
king of Armenia, in a.c. 83, and \ipon 
his overthrow by the Romans, it became 
a province of the rejjublic. From them 
it was taken by the Saracens in the reign 
of the caliph Omar, in the seventh cen- 
tury, and became a province of Turkey 
in Asia. 

Since this period chiefs have from 
time to time started up, who have long 
set the power of the Porte at defiance. 
About the middle of the 18th cen- 
tury, Daher, a powerful Arabian sheik, 
established in Syria a })ower so inde- 
pendent, that the Porte, in order to pre- 
serve any form of allegiance, was obliged 
to grant him an annual lease of his do- 
minions. His successor was the cele- 
brated Dsjezzar Pacha, who soon raised 
a power almost equally independent. 
His reign was rendered remarkable by 
the invasion of Syria by Buonaparte, 
when Dsjezzar, with the aid of Bitish 



TAL 



813 



TAL 



seamen, gave that dreaded commander 
the first serious check he had received. 
After the death of Dsjezzar, tlie power 
reverted to the Porte, and Soleiman was 
appointed pacha. In 1811, when Mr. 
Burckhardt viras at Damascus, Soleiman 
reigned over the whole of Syria and 
Palestine, except the pachalic of Aleppo. 
1832. Meheraet Ali, the pacha of 
Egypt, attacked Syria. He marched a 
powerful army, under the command of 
his son, Ibrahim, attended by an equally 
powerful fleet, to attack him at St. Jean 
d'Acre, the capital of his pachalic. Acre, 
Damascus, and Aleppo, successively fell 
before him, and laid open to the Egyp- 
tian army the road to the extremities of 
Syria, and by the signal victory between 
Antioch and Scanderoon, July 29, the 
conquest of Syria was completed. By 
the intervention of the four European 
powers, England, Austria, Russia, and 
Prussia, a convention was proposed 
in 1839, by which the pachalic of Syria 



was offered to Mehemet Ali for life. See 
Egypt, 

1840. On the 26th November, Com- 
modore Napier concluded a convention 
with the pacha, in virtue of which the 
latter became bound to recall Ibrahim 
Pacha from Syria, and to restore the Ot- 
toman fleet as soon as he should have 
received the official notification. 'Phis 
gave rise to a correspondence between 
the Porte and the British government, 
in consequence of which, on the 11th of 
January, 1841, the pacha made his com- 
plete submission to the sultan, gave up 
the whole of the Turkish fleet and eva- 
cuated Syria. On the 12th of January 
the sultan sent instructions to his com- 
missioners in Egypt to inform Mehemet 
Ali that his submission being complete, 
he would grant him the hereditary tenure 
of the pachalic of Egypt. 

SYSIGAMBIS, mother of Darius, 
king of Persia, on hearing of the death 
of Alexander, starved herself, a.c. 324. 



T, 



TABLES, Laws of the Tw^elve, 
were the first set of the laws of the Ro- 
mans, enacted and confirmed by the 
senate and an assembly of the people, 
A.u.c. 303. 

TACITUS, Caius Cornelius, a 
celebrated Roman historian, born about 
A.u.c. 809. He lived in the reigns of 
Vespasian, Domitian, and Nerva. Ta- 
citus was engaged in A.u.c. 850, to pro- 
nounce the funeral orationof Virgi n ius Ru- 
fas. He died about the reign of Trajan. 

TAGUS, river of Spain. Several 
places on or near its banks, as Santa- 
rem, Almaraz, and Talavera, were the 
scenes of military operations in the late 
peninsular war. 

TALAVERA De la Reyna, town, 
Spain, New Castile, is a place of great 
antiquity, and contains many Roman 
monuments. It is memorable for the 
battle fought in 1809, between the French 
and an allied force, in which the former 
were repulsed. 

TALLARD, Marshal, French gene- 
ral, taken prisoner by the English at 
the battle of Blenheim, 1/04, died 1/28. 
See Blenheim. 

TALLEYRAND, Perigord, 



Charles Maurice Db, the eminent 
French statesman, was born at Paris, in 
1/54. In 1788 he was consecrated 
bishop of Autun, and the year after was 
elected deputy of the clergy of his dio- 
cese to the States -General. In 1790 he 
was named president, and in the same 
year officiated at the altar in the Champ 
de Mars, on the day of the National 
Federation. His resignation of the 
bishopric of Autun, and his election as 
a member of the directory for the de- 
partment of Paris, followed soon after. 
In 1792 he was sent into England on a 
secret mission, but was afterwards or- 
dered to leave the country within 24 
hours. He then left France for the 
United States, but in 1796 was recalled 
by a decree of the Convention. In 1797 
he was appointed minister of foreign 
affairs. On Napoleon becoming empe- 
ror in 1806, he was elevated to the rank 
of prince of Benevento, and grand cham- 
berlain of the empire. In 1814 he was 
appointed president of the provisional 
government of France, until the arrival 
of the Comte d'Artois. He was French 
commissioner at the congress of Vienna, 
and, on the final return of Louis XVIII., 



T A R 814 

in 1815, he resumed the portfoHo of 
foreign affairs, as president of the coun- 
cil. After the revokition of 1830 he 
proceeded to London as ambassador, 
where he remained till 1835. He died 
at Paris, May 17, 1838, in his 84th year. 

TALLOW Chandlers' Company, 
London, incorporated 1463. 

TALMA, Francis Joseph, the Gar- 
rick of the French stage, born 1763, died 
1826. 

TALMUD, a collection of Jewish tra- 
ditions ; there are two works which bear 
this name, the " Talmud of Jerusalem," 
and the " Talmud of Babylon." Each 
of these is composed of two parts ; the 
Mishna, which is the text, and is com- 
mon to both, and the Gemara or Com- 
mentary. See Mishna, 

TAMERLANE, Timur Bkc, or Ti- 
MOUR,aTartar prince, and the conqueror 
of Asia, born 1335, died 1405. See 
Mogul Empire. 

TAMWORTH Castle, Warwick- 
shire, built 914. 

TANGIERS, seaport, Morocco, is an 
ancient town, and was known by the 
name of Tingis, to the Romans. In 
modern times, it has been a subject of 
contest between the Moors, Portuguese, 
and Spaniards. It was taken by the 
latter in 1470. In 1662 it was ceded to 
Charles II. of England. The Enghsh 
abandoned it in 1684 ; and it became a 
distinguished station for piracy. 

TANNER, Thomas, bishop of St. 
Asaph, antiquarian, died 1735. 

TAPESTRY. This art is supposed 
to have been borrowed from the Sara- 
cens. The first manufacture at Paris 
was set up under Henry IV. in 1606 or 
1607, by several artists whom that mo- 
narch invited from Flanders. The art 
was brought into England by William 
Sheldon, in the reign of Henry VIII. 
In 1619 a manufacture was established 
at Mortlake, in Surrey, by Sir Francis 
Crane, who received £2000 from king 
James to encourage the design. Under 
Louis XIV. of France, the manufacture 
of the Gobelins was instituted. See 
Gobelins. 

TARBES, town, south-west of France. 
In 1814 the French army under Soult 
were forced from their position here by 
Lord Wellington. 

TARLETON, General Sir Ba- 
nastre, governor of Berwick, and for- 
merly, for 22 years, M.P. for Liverpool. 
He entered the army in 1^75, in the 



TAS 

king's dragoon guards. In 1776 he ob- 
tained leave to go to America, where he 
distinguished himself during the war, 
until the British army was, as a whole, 
overpowered by that of the republicans. 
After his return home he published " A 
History of the Campaigns of 1780 and 
1781 in the Southern Provinces of North 
America," 4to. 1787. From the peace 
of 1783 to 1788 he was continued on half 
pay as lieutenant-colonel commandant 
of cavalry. In 1790 he attained the rank 
of colonel, and in 1794 that of major- 
general. He obtained the rank of general 
January 1, 1812. He was created a ba- 
ronet, by patent, dated November 6,1818, 
and he was at length invested a G.C.B. 
May 20, 1820. He died January 25, 
1833, aged 78. 

TARRAGONA, a town, north-east of 
Spain, Catalonia, is remarkable for its 
siege and sack by the French marshal 
Suchet. It surrendered to the French 
June 28, 1811. Was abandoned by them 
September 4, 1813. 

TARTARY, a country of Central Asia, 
which, taken in its fullest extent, reaches 
from the Eastern Ocean to the Caspian 
Sea, and from Corea, China, Tibet, Hin- 
doostan, and Persia, to Russia and Si- 
beria. These countries are inhabited by 
Tartar tribes of different denominations 
and different manners. ITiey are known 
in antiquity under the name of Scythians. 
In the 12th century Tartary became the 
seat of the most formidable empire that 
has ever been established. See Mogul 
Empire. Since that time the popula- 
tion and political state of this country 
have undergone an entire change. It has 
been occupied by a race who are divided 
into several kingdoms, of which Bokhara 
is the most important. 

TASSO, ToRauATo, a celebrated Ita- 
lian poet, was born at Sorrento, Naples, 
in 1544. He was sent to the university 
of Padua, and at 18 published his " Ri- 
naldo," a poem on the plan of Homer's 
Odyssey, which extended his fame 
through all Italy. He went to reside at 
Ferrara, where, at the age of 30, he 
finished his " Jerusalem," the success of 
which was astonishing. It was translated 
into Latin, French, Spanish, and even 
into the Oriental languages, almost as 
soon as it appeared. After this he spent 
the remainder of his life alternately at 
Florence, Naples, and Rome, and died at 
the latter place in 1595. All his works 
were printed together at Florence in 1724. 



TEA 



815 



TEF 



TATE, Nahum, poet laureate, died 
1716. 

TAVERNER, John BAPTisT,French 
traveller, died 1689. 

TAVERNER, William, a dramatic 
writer, died 1731. 

TAXES. See Assessed Taxes, 
Land Tax, &c. 

TAYLOR, Jeremy, bishop of Down, 
author of " Holy Living and Dying," 
&c.,born I6l3, died 1667. 

TAYLOR, Jane, whose poetical effu- 
sions for the young have been much ce- 
lebrated, was the second daughter of the 
Rev. Isaac Taylor of Ongar, and was 
born at London, September 23, 1783. 
" Original Poems for Infant Minds," 
and " Hymns for Infant Minds," to 
which she largely contributed, appeared 
between 1805 and 1810. In 1814 she 
completed a tale under the title of " Dis- 
play," and in 1816 her "Essays in 
Rhyme, on Morals and Manners." She 
died in 1824, in the 41st year of her age. 
By her works she has, in an unpretend- 
ing walk of literature, widely scattered 
the seeds of virtue and piety, 

TAYLOR, Lieut.-Gen. Sir Her- 
bert, principal aid-de-camp to the late 
Queen Charlotte, much respected for his 
public services and private virtues. He 
was appointed private secretary of the 
duke of York in 1799 ; of George III. 
in 1805 ; and of the queen in 1812. He 
attained the rank of major-general in 
1813; of lieutenant-general in 1825. He 
published an interesting narrative of the 
last illness of the duke of York. 

TAYLOR, Thomas, the platonist, 
was born in London, in 1758. His most 
laborious task was a translation of Pau- 
sanias, in three vols. His publications 
extend to 23 quarto and 40 octavo vols. 
He was assistant secretary to the Society 
of Arts. He died Nov. 1, 1835, aged 11. 
TEA was wholly unknown to the 
Greeks and Romans, and even to our 
ancestors previously to the end of the 
l6th or beginning of the l7th century. 
It seems to have been originally import- 
ed in small quantities by the Dutch, 
but was hardly known in this country 
till after 1650. In 1660, however, it 
began to be used in coffee houses. In 
I6b4 the East India Company bought 
2 lbs. 2 oz. of tea as a present for his ma- 
jesty. In 1667 they issued the first order 
to import tea, directed to their agent at 
Bantam, to the effect that he should 
send home 100 lbs. of the best tea he 



could get. In 1689, instead of charging 
a duty on the decoction made from the 
leaves, an excise duty of 5s. per lb. was 
laid on the tea itself. 

In the nine years preceding 1780, 
above 180,000,000 lbs. of tea were ex- 
ported from China to Europe, in ships 
belonging to the English. Smuggling 
was carried on to an enormous extent 
till Mr. Pitt, in 1784, reduced the duties 
from 119 to 121 percent. This measure 
was signally successful, and the legal 
imports of tea were about trebled. In 
1795, however, the duty was raised to 
25 per cent. ; and after successive aug- 
mentations in 1797, 1800, and 1803, it 
was raised in 1806, to 96 per cent, ad 
valorem, at which it continued till 18 19^. 
when it was raised to 100 per cent, on 
all teas that brought above 2s. per lb. at 
the company's sales. 

The following statements show the 
progress of the consumption of tea in 
this country, being the quantity retained 
for home consumption in Great Britain 
every 10 years from l789to 1833. In 1790 
14,693,299 lbs. ; 1800, 20,358,702 lbs.; 
1810, 19,093,244 lbs.; 1820, 22,452,050 
lbs.; 1830, 30,047,079 lbs.; 1833, 
31,829,620 lbs. 

1834. The act 3 and 4 Will. 4. c. 93, 
abolishing the Company's monopoly, and 
making it lawful for aU individuals to 
import tea, was passed. 

1840. The imports ending Januaiy 
this year amounted to 38,068,565 lbs. 

The Tea-plant in Assam. — ^This 
was discovered about the year 1828, but 
little attention was paid to it, until 
the investigations of Captain Jenkins 
and Lieutenant Charleton brought the 
matter under the serious notice of Go- 
vernment. About 1837 Mr. C. A. Bruce 
was sent thither to explore the tea coun- 
try, and was appointed superintendent 
of its culture. He then proceeded to 
raise plantations; and in 1838 transmit- 
ted to England eight chests of " Assam 
Tea," each containing 320 lbs. Mr. 
Bruce discovered 120 tea-tracts, some of 
them very extensive, both on the hills 
and in the plains ; whence a sufficient 
number of seeds and seedlings might be 
collected in the course of a few years, to 
plant off the whole of Assam. 

TEFLIS or Tiflis, city, Asiatic 
Russia, kingdom of Georgia, wasfounded 
in 1063, by the Tzar Liewvang. In 1723 
it was taken by the Turks, and in 1734 
retaken by Kouli Khan. Since the con-' 



TEL 



816 



TEL 



quest of Georgia by the Russians, it has 
been the residence of their governor and 
commander-in-chief, and has been greatly 
improved. 

TEHRAUN, city, Persia. After being 
destroyed by the Afghans at the begin- 
ning of this century it was rebuilt by 
Kurreen Khan, and enlarged by Aga 
Mahoramed, who made it the seat of 
government. In 1829, in consequence 
of a quarrel between the suite of M, 
GribojedofF, minister of Russia, at the 
court of Persia, and the populace of 
Teheran, the whole of the embassy were 
murdered, with the exception of M. Mat- 
zoff, secretary of the legation, and three 
others. 

TEIGNMOUTH, Devon, is a place 
of great antiquity, and is said to have 
been the first landing place of the Danes, 
in 787. It gives the title of baron to the 
family of Shore. 

TEIGNMOUTH, LoRo.author of the 
" Memoirs of the Life and Writings of 
Sir W. Jones," died 1834, aged 82. 

TELEGRAPH, an instrument by 
means of which information may be 
quickly conveyed to a considerable dis- 
tance. Amongst the Greeks some sort 
of telegraph was in use. In 1 663 the 
marquis of Worcester, in his " Century 
of Inventions," affirms that he had dis- 
covered " a method, by which, at a 
window, as far as my eye can discover 
black from white, a man may hold dis- 
course with his correspondent." About 
40 years afterwards, M. Amontons pro- 
posed a new telegraph by means of 
signals. It was not, however, till the 
French revolution that the telegraph 
was applied generally to useful purposes. 
M. Chappe, in 1793, constructed a tele- 
graph on principles nearly similar to 
that of Amontons. Two working mo- 
dels of this instrument were executed at 
Frankfort, and sent by Mr. W. Playfair 
to the Duke of York ; and hence the 
plan and alphabet of the machine came 
to England in 1796. 

The introduction of railways has cre- 
ated an additional use for telegraphic 
communications. The Pneumatic Tele- 
graph for railways was invented by Mr. 
S. Crossley, in 1835, a model of which 
may be seen at the Polytechnic Institu- 
tion. 

Lieutenant Watson, of Liverpool, in 
1839, contrived a telegraph, or means of 
indicating the state of the wind and ba- 
rometer at Holyhead or Bidston. The 



instrument consists of a large circle, 12 
feet diameter, with the points of a com- 
pass marked thereon. It has two hands, 
like a clock, the longer one showing the 
point of the wind at Holyhead, the 
shorter one at the north-west light-ship, 
or Bidston. At the top of the mast is 
an iron rod, on which a ball works. 
When the ball is at the top of the rod, 
it indicates a light breeze ; when in the 
middle, moderate ; and when seen at 
the bottom, blowing very fresh. 

TELESCOPES are of two general 
kinds — refracting and reflecting. A re- 
fracting telescope is constructed entirely 
by glasses, which serve to magnify the 
observed object. A reflecting telescope, 
besides glasses, has a metallic speculum 
within its tube, by which the rays pro- 
ceeding from an object are reflected to 
the eye. 

The first idea of a Refracting Te- 
lescope is attributed to Bacon, who 
died in 1294. Leonard Digges, in 1571. 
by the assistance of one of Bacon's 
manuscripts, learned a method of dis- 
covering far distant objects, by means 
of perspective glasses set at due angles, 
and it is said invented the instrument. 
In 1609, Jansen, a spectacle maker, at 
Middleberg, constructed the first teles- 
cope 16 inches in length, and presented 
it to Prince Maurice of Nassau. 

It was Galileo who first thought of 
adapting these instruments to astronomy, 
and with one of them, constructed by 
himself, observed the four satellites of 
Jupiter in Jan. 1610. The refracting 
telescope was first satisfactorily explained 
by Kepler, who died in 1630 ; he also 
pointed out methods of constructing 
telescopes of greater power and more 
convenient application than those that 
had been in use. Kepler's instrument 
is that which has been usually called the 
astronomical telescope. Father Reila 
afterwards introduced an important im- 
provement in the astronomical telescope, 
by employing three eye-glasses instead 
of two. Compani's telescoj)es, made 
by order of Louis XIV. were respectively 
of 86, 100, and 136 feet focal length. 
It was with the two latter of these that 
Cassini discovered Saturn's first and 
second satellites, in March 1684. 

One of the principal inconveniences 
complained of in the use of the refract- 
ing telescopes, was the diflferent colours 
it exhibited to the eye, and the distor- 
tion of the image, owing to the different 



TEL 



817 



TEM 



degrees of refrangibility of the rays of 
light. At length, in 1758, Mr. John 
Dollond, of St Paul's Churchyard, suc- 
ceeded in removing the difficulty. See 
Achromatic Glasses, and Optics. 

A variety of other improvements has 
been made in the refracting telescope 
by Hadley, Euler, Rarasden, Frauen- 
hofer, &c. 

A new gigantic telescope was com- 
pleted in 1833, at Munich, on Frau- 
enhofer's principle, of 15 Paris feet 
focal distance, and an aperture of lOj 
inches. It magnifies far above 1000 
times. Thus, when Saturn, at its 
smallest distance from the earth, is 
165,000,000 of geographical miles dis- 
tant, it seems, when magnified 816 times 
by this telescope, to have approached to 
the distance of 192,000 geographical 
miles ; and the moon, at her smallest 
distance from the earth, seems, when 
magnified in the same manner, to have 
approached within 68 geographical miles. 
The Reflecting Telescope. — The 
idea was first suggested by Martin Mer- 
senne, an ingenious French mathemati- 
cian and philosopher, and superior of the 
convent at Nevers, in 1651. Mr. James 
Gregory of Aberdeen, in his " Optica 
Promota," printed in 1663, first pub- 
lished an account of the manner of con- 
structing a reflecting telescope. Sir Isaac 
Newton, about 1666, began to turn his 
thoughts to Mr. Gregory's invention, 
and early in 1672 had completed two 
small reflectors, one of which he pre- 
sented to the Royal Society. The New- 
tonian reflector was, however, suffered to 
remain, tiU Hadley, the ingenious inven- 
tor of the quadrant, in 1723, presented to 
the Royal Society a telescope constructed 
upon Newton's plan. It was about six 
feet long, and equalled in performance 
the famous aerial telescope of Huygens, 
of 123 feet in length. Herschel's reflect- 
ing telescope erected at Slough, of which 
an account is given in the " Philoso- 
phical Transactions" for 1795, though of 
immense size, was far less efficient than 
many of inferior dimensions of more 
modern construction. Latterly, although 
no particular improvement has been 
effected in the principle, a greater approxi- 
mation has been made to perfection in the 
different parts. See Speculum. 

TELFORD, Thomas, president of 
the Society of Civil Engineers, was born 
in the parish of Westerkirk, in the 
county of Dumfries, Scotland, in 1757- 



In 1783 he proceeded to London, and 
was for some time employed at the great 
square of public offices at Somerset 
House. His works are numerous all 
over the island. The Menai and Con- 
way bridges, the Caledonian canal, the 
St. Katharine's Docks, the Holyhead 
roads and bridges, the Highland roads 
and bridges, the Chirk and Pont-y- 
cisyle aqueducts, the canals in Salop, 
and other great works from 1788 to 1816, 
will immortalize his name. In 1817 
loan commissioners were appointed to 
apply £1,750,000 towards carrying on 
public works. Mr. Telford was employed 
as their engineer ; and he examined and 
reported on the works for which aid was 
requested. He also made several exten- 
sive surveys of the mail coach roads, by 
direction of the post-office. He died 
Sept. 2, 1834, aged "il. 

TELL, William, the illustrious Swiss 
patriot, was the chief instrument of the 
revolution which delivered the Swiss 
cantons from the German yoke in 1307 
and 1308. See Switzerland. 

TEMESVAR, town, Hungary, at the 
confluence of the rivers Temes and Bega. 
In 1664, in the war between the Turks 
and the emperor of Germany, after the 
Turks had been defeated, the truce of 
Temesvar was concluded, on Sept. 7> 
for 20 years ; the emperor ceding Great 
Waradein and Neuhausel. Temesvar 
was taken by the Imperialists in I7l6. 

TEMPERANCE Societies first 
established in the United States of 
America, by the exertions and influence 
of the Rev. Dr. Becher, and other dis- 
tinguished persons. The American 
Temperance Society was formed at Bos- 
ton, in 1826, and since its formation 
more than 5000 similar societies have 
been formed throughout the Union. 

The subject has attracted the attention 
of several of the states of Europe. In 
England, Ireland, and Scotland, total ab- 
stinence began soon after to be practised. 
The British and Foreign Temperance 
Society was established in London, about 
1836. On Dec. 29, 1837, about 800 
persons from the northern and western 
parishes of the metropolis drank tea toge- 
ther, at the Crown and Anchor Tavern, 
in commemoration of the establishment 
of the West London auxiliary branch of 
this new society. Similar societies or 
auxiliary branches were soon after esta- 
blished throughout the United Kingdom. 

1838. In Ireland the system has been 
5 M 



TEM 8 

particularly successful. In the spring 
of this year Father Mathew, a Roman 
Catholic priest of Limerick, commenced 
his efforts to reclaim from the destruc- 
tive vice of drunkenness the poor of his 
locality in the southern quarter of this 
city ; and a society was formed. In Oct. 
1830 the number of signatures had 
arrived at considerably over 60,000. The 
great moral reformation spread in many 
parts of Ireland, but especially in the 
south. In Dublin and its vicinity the 
members of temperance societies exceeded 
5000, the chief part of whom were heads 
of families. The Dubhn Total Absti- 
nence Society fitted up an excellent 
reading-room, well lighted with gas, and 
stored with all the cheap publications of 
the day, to which the members have 
access on paying one penny per week. 

The advantages which would attend 
on similar movements in Scotland is ap- 
parent from the temperance statistics, 
taken from the parliamentary documents, 
as returned in the United Kingdom for 
1837. From this document it appears 
that the quantity of spirits consumed in 
England is seven pints and one-ninth 
per head on the population ; in Ireland 
13 pints per head ; and in Scotland rather 
more than 23 pints per head per annum. 

TEMPLARS, Knights, or Knights 
OF THR Temple, a religious order in- 
stituted at Jerusalem, in the beginning 
of the 12th century, for the defence of 
the holy sepulchre, and the protection of 
christian pilgrims. It was founded by 
Baldwin II., then king of Jerusalem, 
in 1118, with the concurrence of the 
pope. The order flourished for some 
time, and acquired riches and military 
renown, but their arrogance, luxury, 
and cruelty, rose at last to such a mon- 
strous height, that their order was anni- 
hilated with the most terrible circum- 
stances of infamy and severity. In 
1307, upon an appointed day, all the 
knights were seized and imprisoned, and 
many of them put to death in the most 
cruel manner. In 1312 the whole order 
was suppressed by the council of Vienne, 
and in 1342 all that remained in France 
were destroyed. 

TEMPLE OF Jerusalem, finished by 
Solomon a.c. 1004 ; destroyed by Nebu- 
chadnezzar 587 ; ordered to be rebuilt 
by Cyrus 536. Second temple finished, 
and the passover kept, 515 ; destroyed 
by Titus a.d. 70; attempted in vain to 
be re-built by Julian 363. 



8 TER 

TEMPLE, inns of court in London, 
thus called, because anciently the dwell- 
ing house of the knights templars, and 
founded by them in 1185. The Temple 
church was built in 1240; the Middle 
Temple hall was built 1572. The three 
societies of the Inner, Middle, and Outer, 
founded 1560. 

New Inner Temple regulations, relat- 
ing to the admissicm of persons into the 
society of the Inner Temple, came into 
operation on July 10, 1829, tending to 
exclude from admission to the bar per- 
sons whose education and previous 
habits of life do not afford testimony of 
proper qualifications. 

TEMPLE Bar built 1079; act for 
pulling down the houses without, and 
improving the street, June, 1795. 

TEMPLE, Sir William, miscella- 
neous writer, died Jan. 1699, aged 69- 

TENBY castle, Pembrokeshire, built 
1079. 

TENIERS, David, of Antwerp, an 
eminent painter, born 1582, died 1649. 

TENNANT, Swithson, chemical 
professor, died by a fall from his horse 
at Boulogne, Feb. 22, 1815. 

TENNANT, Charles, of Glasgow, 
the eminent practical chemist and pa- 
tentee of chloride of lime for bleaching, 
died 1839. 

TENNESSEE, state. North America, 
United States. The earliest settlements 
were made here in 1770, by emigrants 
from North Carolina and Virginia. This 
country was included in the limits of 
North Carolina till 1790, when it was 
placed under a separate territorial go- 
vernment, denominated the " the terri- 
tory south of the Ohio," and in 1796, 
it was admitted to the union as an inde- 
pendent state. 

TENTERDEN, Lord. See Ab- 
bott. 

TENTHS. See First Fruits. 

TERCEIRA, one of the Azores is- 
lands, north west of Africa, was for 
some time the refuge of the Portuguese 
patriots. In 1828 the island declared 
for the queen. In 1829 the Portuguese 
expedition, sent out from Lisbon against 
it was defeated Aug. 1 1 ; regency esta- 
bUshed here by Don Pedro, March, 
1830. 

TERENCE, the Roman comic poet, 
died A.c. 159. 

TERNATE, island. Eastern Seas, one 
of the Moluccas, belonging to the Dutch. 
In the revolutionary war it was twice 



TEX 



819 



THA 



captured by the British, but was ulti- 
mately restored at the peace of 1814. 

TERPANDER, ancient musician, 
lived about a.c. 706. 

TERRA Del Fuego, a large island, 
separated from the southern extremity 
of America by the Strait of Magellan, 
discovered by that navigator in 1521. 

TERTULLIAN, author of the " Apo- 
logy for Christianity," died 220. 

TEST Act, See Corporation and 
Test Acts. 

TES^i^AMENT, New. See Bible. 

TEUTONES, an ancient people, 
seated beyond the Elbe, on the Sinus 
Codanus, or Baltic. The Teutones, in 
conjunction with the Cimbri and Am- 
brones, made war on the Romans, and 
marched towards Italy in a.c. 101. In 
Transalpine Gaul, they engaged the Ro- 
man consul Marius, but were defeated 
with incredible slaughter. 

TEUTONIC Order, a military order 
of knights, established towards the close 
of the 12th century, consisting chiefly 
of Germans. The grand master resided 
at Marienburg. This order still exists, 
but is now little more than a shadow of 
what it formerly was. 

TEWKESBURY, borough, Glouces- 
tershire, is a place of great antiquity. In 
715 a monastery was founded here, 
which subsequently became an abbey of 
Benedictine monks, and continued to 
flourish till the dissolution. In 1471 the 
last decisive battle between the Yorkists 
and Lancastrians was fought within half 
a mile of this town. Tewkesbury was 
alternately occupied by parliamentarians 
androyaUsts; in 1644 it was, taken by 
the former. 

TEXAS, territory. Central America, 
formerly belonging to Mexico, but which 
has recently thrown off its connection 
with that republic. In 1824, when the 
Mexican republic was divided into states, 
the district of Texas not being sufficiently 
populous to form a state, was attached 
provisionally to Coahuila. It soon in- 
creased in population from the United 
States, and in 1833 sent a delegate to the 
general congress with a petition to be 
admitted into the Union ; but this was 
refused by Mexico. 

The constitutional general congress of 
Mexico was dissolved in May, 1834, by 
a military order of the president, before 
the constitutional term expired ; a new 
revolutionary congress was convened in 
January, 1835, and speedily established 



a new constitution, by which the separate 
state governments were annihilated. The 
people of Texas, offended by this deci- 
sion, refused to pay taxes, expelled the 
custom-house officers, and set the laws 
of Mexico at defiance. On Nov. 7> the 
Texians issued a declaration, in which 
they assumed the character of an iride- 
pendent people, and endeavoured, by 
loans, and assistance of men and arms 
from the United States, to maintain what 
they called their rights. Battles, sieges, 
skirmishes, and all the ordinary horrors 
of warfare followed, and at length Texas 
assumed the form of independence, and 
established a provincial government. 

1838. The newly formed government 
established by one of their first legislative 
acts, the continuance of slavery, though 
it had been abolished by the Mexican 
government ; and enacted, as a part of 
their constitutional law, that slaves should 
be admitted into Texas only from the 
United States. In consequence of this, 
strenuous efforts were made at the ses- 
sion of congress to carry the annexation 
of that country to the republic of the 
United States. 

1839. The continuance of slavery and 
the slave trade, as sanctioned by the law of 
Texas, produced a great sensation among 
the friends of humanity in England. It 
has been stated that the slave-breeding 
states in America employ Texas as a slave 
market, to which they can send their 
surplus population for sale. The magni- 
tude of the evil appears from the fact 
that the number of slaves exported from 
Virginia to Texas within twelve months 
is estimated at 120,000 — each slave 
averaging at least 600 dollars, making 
an aggregate of 72,000,000 dollars. 

1841. Notwithstanding these facta 
Texas has been acknowledged by Eng- 
land, France, Holland and Belgium. 
The treaty between France and Texas 
was signed at Paris, Sept. 25, 1839, that 
with England Nov. 16, 1840. 

TEXEL, island, kingdom of Belgium, 
at the entrance of the Zuyder Zee. Near 
the Texel Admiral Blake defeated the 
Dutch in 1653. After an encounter near 
the Texel in 1799 between the British 
and Dutch, the latter surrendered. 

THALES, a celebrated philosopher, 
and the first of the seven sages of Greece, 
was born at Miletus, about a.c. 640. 
In order to improve himself in the know- 
ledge of the sciences, he travelled into 
Egypt, where he discourtpd with the 



THA 



820 



THE 



priests and other learned men. He com- 
posed several treatises in verse on 
Meteors, and the Equinoxes, but they 
are all lost. He died a.c. 572. 

THAMES Tunnel. This bold at- 
tempt to effect a communication between 
the shores of a wide and deep river, 
without any interruption to its naviga- 
tion, has had no parallel for many ages. 
In 1823 Mr. Brunei completed a design 
for the execution of the tunnel beneath the 
river Thames ; and a bill to incorporate 
a company for the execution of this pro- 
position under his superintendence re- 
ceived the royal assent, June 24, 1824. 

In 1825 the shaft was begun, which 
was necessary to be sunk on the Rother- 
hithe shore, in order to get down to the 
level of the intended works at that end 
of the tunnel. In December 1825 the 
first horizontal excavation commenced. 
On March 2, 1827, it had advanced 470 
feet, or about one third of the whole 
length. But on May 18, at a distance 
of 544 feet from the shaft, the river found 
its way through a portion of loose earth, 
and entered the tunnel. This happened 
while the workmen were at their duties, 
but no lives were lost. About 1000 tons 
of loose soil and rubbish descended into 
the tunnel. The breach was examined 
by means of the diving bell, and repaired 
by depositing about 1500 cubic yards 
of clay in bags in and around it. The 
tunnel was again opened for public in- 
spection. May 1828; the water having 
been entirely withdrawn from the shaft, 
and from the southern endof the tunnel. 

Difficulties having arisen on account 
of increased expense, at a meeting of 
the shareholders, held at the City of 
London Tavern, 1835, it was announced 
that government had placed in the hands 
of the directors £247,000 in exchequer 
bills, advanced on the security of the 
property. 

In 1837 another irruption of the river 
took place in these works ; the tunnel 
was entirely filled, but no lives were lost. 
The only injury done was a suspension 
of the works. The following is a state- 
ment of the rate of the progress of the 
tunnel. In 1836 there were 117 feet 
completed; in 1837 only 28 feet; in 
1838 80 feet; in 1839 194 feet; and 
from Jan. 1, to March 1, 1840, had been 
completed 76 feet, — being at the rate of 
460 feet per annum ; and the tunnel was 
then completed to within 60 feet of the 
"Wapping shore. Meanwhile, the public 



curiosity to inspect the tunnel increased 
with the progress of the works : in 1838 
it was visited by 23,000 persons, and 
in 1839 by 34,000 persons, — being an 
increase of 35 per cent. 

1840. The works have now been in 
progress 1 6 years ; the total sum ex- 
pended, including the money advanced 
by government, £363,000, and the tunnel 
will be altogether completed for less than 
£500,000. It is calculated that one 
archway will be shortly opened. 

THEATRE of Bacchus at Athens, 
the first ever erected, built by Philos, a.c. 
420; the ruins still exist. The first royal 
licence for one in England was in 1574, 
to James Burbage and four others, ser- 
vants to the earl of Leicester, to act 
plays at the Globe, Bankside, or in any 
part of England. Plays were opposed 
by the Puritans, 1633, and suspended 
till 1660, when Charles II. hcensed two 
companies, Killigrew's and Davenant's ; 
the first at the Bull, Vere-street, Clare- 
market, which in a year or two was re- 
moved to Drury-lane. See Drury- 
LANE Theatre. See also Drama. 

THEBES, a celebrated city of ancient 
Greece, supposed to have been built by 
Cadmus, about a.c. 2555. It was des- 
troyed by Alexander, when he left only 
Pindar the poet's house standing, a.c. 
335. Few vestiges of the ancient city 
remain above ground, but the walls may 
still be traced. It is now called Thiva. 
The modern town occupies httle more 
than the site of the acropolis. 

THEBES, the remains of an ancient 
city, formerly the capital of Egypt. In 
proportion as Egypt was modernized, her 
capital was transferred nearer to the 
Delta and the Mediterranean. At the 
time of the Persian invasion, Memphis 
a little above Cairo, had supplanted 
Thebes, and the Ptolemies, about the 
2d century, a.c, transported the seat 
of the empire to Alexandria. In the 
reign of Ptolemy Philopater, Thebes re- 
volted, and being taken after a siege of 
three years, was plundered and ran- 
sacked, and from that time its importance 
as a city was destroyed. 

Thebes still presents some remarkable 
remains of antiquity ; temples and other 
monuments were explored about the 
commencement of the present century 
by Denon and others. M. Belzoni, 
about 1816, succeeded in opening several 
of the tombs of the kings hitherto inac- 
cessible. 



THE 



821 



THO 



THELWELL, John, tried and ac- 
quitted for high treason, 1794, died 
Feb. 17, 1834, aged 70. 

THEMISTOCLES, the renowned 
Athenian general, who gained the battle 
of Salamis, Being banished his country 
he slew himself, a.c. 464. 

THEOBALD, Lewis, an EngUsh 
dramatic writer, died 1742. 

THEOCRITUS, the Greek pastoral 
poet, flourished a.c. 285. 

THEODORE Newhoff, king of 
Corsica, abdicated his kingdom (to which 
he had been by intrigue elected in 1736) 
1737. Liberated by an insolvent act 
1756, and died in an obscure lodging in 
Soho, London, in the same year. 

THEOPHRASTUS, a celebrated Gre- 
cian philosopher, was born about a.c. 
371. He succeeded Aristotle in the 
peripatetic school, and conducted the 
charge with such high reputation, that 
he had about 2000 scholars. He was the 
author of many valuable works, but few 
of which are extant. He died at the 
advanced age of 85. 

THERMOMETER. Very imperfect 
ones were invented, according to Italian 
writers, by Santorio; according to Dutch 
writers, by Drebble, before I626. The 
thermometers in most general use are 
Fahrenheit's, Reaumur's, and Celsius's. 
Fahrenheit's is used in Britain, Reau- 
mur's in France, and Celsius's in Swe- 
den. Fahrenheit's was invented in 1730. 
The scale called Reaumur's soon after 
1730 ; his mode of construction, by sub- 
stituting quicksilver for spirits, several 
years after. The Centigrade, by Cel- 
sius, 1742. Wedgwood's thermometer, 
for very high degrees of temperature, 
invented about 1750, marks with much 
precision the different degrees of igni- 
tion from a dull red heat visible in the 
dark, to the heat of an air-furnace. In 
the prosecution of delicate experiments 
the Differential Thermometer, recently 
invented by Sir John Leslie, and de- 
scribed in his "Experimental Inquiry 
into the Nature of Heat," may be ad- 
vantageously used. 

THERMOPYLAE, a narrow pass or 
defile, celebrated in Grecian history, 
ennobled by the brave stand made by 
Leonidas and 300 Spartans against the 
whole army of Persia, a.c. 480. 

THESEUS'S Temple, at Athens, 
built a.c, 428. 

THESPIS, the poet, inventor of tra- 
gedy, flourished about A.c. 539- 



THETFORD, Norfolk, is a place of 
great antiquity. It was burnt by the 
Danes 1010. In the reign of Edward III. 
it contained 24 principal streets, five 
market places, 20 churches, eight mo- 
nasteries, and six hospitals. 

THEVENOT, Melchisedec, the 
French traveller, died 1692. 

THIBET. See Tibet. 

THISTLE, a mihtary order of knight- 
hood in Scotland, instituted 1540, About 
the time of the Reformation this order 
was dropped, till James II., of Great 
Britain, resumed it by creating eight 
knights. The Revolution unsettled it 
again ; and it lay neglected till Oueen 
Anne, in 1703, restored it to tiie primi- 
tive design of twelve knights of St. An- 
drew. 

THISTLEWOOD, Watson, Pres- 
ton, and Hooper, tried for high treason 
and acquitted, June 9, 1817- Thistlewood 
was afterwards hanged among the Cato- 
street conspirators, 1820. See Cato- 
street, p. 225. 

THOMAS, Mrs., daughter of Mr. 
Parkhurst, author of the Greek and He- 
brew Lexicons, the new edition of which, 
since her father's death, she edited, died 
1831. 

THOMAS, St. the principal of the 
Virgin Isles, West Indies, belonging to 
the Danes. In 1801 it was taken by the 
British, It was given up at the peace of 
Amiens, but was again taken in the 
course of the subsequent war, and was 
restored to Denmark at the peace of 
Paris in 1814. 

THOMAS'S, St, Hospital, South- 
wark, founded 1553, 

THOMSON, James, a celebrated 
British poet, was born in the shire of 
Roxburgh, Scotland, in 1700, and was 
educated in the university of Edinburgh. 
Early in life he repaired to London, He 
published his poem on Winter in 1726, 
and from the universal applause it met 
with, Mr, Thomson's acquaintance was 
courted by people of the first taste and 
fashion. The expectations which his 
"Winter" had raised were fully satis- 
fied by the successive publication of the 
other seasons; of " Summer," in the year 
1727 ; " Spring," in the following year; 
and of " Autumn," in a quarto edition of 
his works, in 1730. Besides the Seasons, 
and his tragedy of Sophonisba, written 
and acted with applause in 1729, he had, 
in 1 7 2 7, published his poem to the memory 
of Sir Isaac Newton, with an account of 



TIC 



822 



TID 



his chief discoveries. At the death of his 
patron, the honourable Charles Talbot, 
he was reduced to a state of a precarious 
dependence ; but the prince of Wales 
settled on him a handsome allowance, 
and honoured him with many marks of 
particular favour. His poem, entitled 
" The Castle of Indolence," was his last 
work, pubhshed before his death, which 
took place August 27, 1748. 

THORLACKEN, the Icelandic poet, 
translator of" Paradise Lost," died 1820. 

THORN, a town of Prussia. In 1806 
it suffered from the invasion of the 
French, and remained in their hands 
until the retreat from Moscow in 1812. 

THORNHILL, Sir James, an emi- 
nent painter, born 1676, died 1734. 

THORPE, John, antiquarian, died 
August 2, 1792, aged 78. 

THOU, J. A. De, author of the " His- 
tory of France," born 1553, died 1617- 

THREATENING Letters made 
punishable by act passed 1730. 

THUCYDIDES. the celebrated Greek 
historian, was born at Athens a.c. 471. 
During the Peloponnesian war he was 
commissioned by his countrymen to re- 
lieve Amphipolis ; but the Lacedaemonian 
general defeated his operations; and 
Thucydides, unsuccessful in his expedi- 
tion, was banished from Athens. In the 
eighth year of this war, he began to write 
an impartial history of the events which 
happened. His history is continued to 
the 21st year of the war, and is divided 
into eight books. He died at Athens, 
where he had been recalled from exile 
about A.c. 411. 

THURLOW, Lord Chancellor, 
died Sept. 21, 1806, aged 71. 

THURLOW, Edward, second lord, 
who succeeded his uncle in 1806, wrote 
and published a large quantity of poetry. 
He died June 4, 1829, aged 47. 

TIBERIUS, Claudius Drusus 
Nero, the Roman emperor, born a.c. 34, 
died A.D. 37. 

TIBET, or Thibet, country, Asia, 
north of the Himalaya mountains. In 
1720 the emperor of China acquired the 
sovereignty of Tibet, which continued in 
a tranquil condition until 1790, when the 
Gorkhas of Nepaul invaded it, but were 
repulsed with great loss, and Tibet has 
ever since continued subject to China. 

TIBULLUS. the author of " Elegies," 
died A.c. 17. 

TICKELL, Richard, wit and poet, 
killed himself. 1793. 



TICKELL, Thomas, Enghsh poet, 
died 1740. 

TIDES, periodical and alternate mo- 
tions of the waters of the ocean ; called also 
the flux and reflux, or the ebb and flow. 
Some of the ancients suspected that the 
sun and moon might influence the tides ; 
as Pliny a.d. 70, Ptolemy 140, andMa- 
crobius 415. Kepler, at the beginning 
of the 1 7th century, says, " If the earth 
ceased to attract its waters towards itself, 
all the water in the ocean would rise and 
flow into the moon." Galileo and Dea 
Cartes, who lived in the time of Kepler, 
expressed themselves on this subject in a 
manner equally philosophical ; but for a 
development of the theory we are in- 
debted to Sir Isaac Newton in 1687. He 
saw that the moon is the principal agent 
which produces these regularly alternate 
motions of the waters ; and by means of 
his new principles of gravitation and 
geometry, he was soon able to show, 
generally, the manner in which they are 
effected. But difficulties still attended 
some of the phenomena of tides which 
have recently undergone investigation. 

1839. Mr. Walker, Assistant Master- 
Attendant in H. M. dockyard, Devon- 
port, (who has long devoted much time 
to tidal phenomena,) has made valuable 
observations on oceanic shores, such 
as those of a large part of Cornwall and 
Devon. Professor Whewell also com- 
municated to the Royal Society his re- 
searches " on the laws of low water 
at the port of Plymouth, and on the per- 
manencyof mean water,&c.," and reports 
have been made to the British Associa- 
tion, " on tides." On Nov. 11, Profes- 
sor Whewell explained to the Cambridge 
Philosophical Society his new theory of 
the tides, which, is as follows : The tide 
of each large ocean may be considered as 
nearly independent of the tides of other 
waters. The central area of each ocean 
is occupied by a lunar wave, which oscil- 
lates, keeping time with the moon's 
returns, and having its motion kept up 
by the moon's attraction acting at each 
retinn. From the skirts of this oscillating 
central area, tides are carried on all sides 
by free waves, the velocity of which 
depends upon the depth and local cir- 
cumstances of the sea; and thus the 
littoral tides may travel in any direction, 
while the oceanic tides near the centre of 
the oscillating area may be small, or may 
vanish altogether. This theory was con- 
firmed by a reference to tide observations 



TIL 



823 



TIN 



on the eastern and western sides of the 
Pacific, and by mathematical calculations, 
tending to show that such a motion is 
mechanically possible. 

TILBURY, parish, Essex. Tilbury 
Fort built in 1545, stands close to the 
banks of the Thames; it was originally a 
block-house, erected in the reign of 
Henry VIII. ; but, after the memorable 
attack of the Dutch fleet in 1667, it was 
converted into a regular fortification, to 
which considerable additions have since 
been made. 

TILLOCH, Dr. Alexander, late 
editor of the " Philosophical Magazine," 
was born at Glasgow, Feb. 28, 1/59. In 
early life he took an important part in 
the invention of stereotype printing, and, 
either singly or in partnership, carried on 
that trade for some time in his native 
city. In 1787 Dr. T. came to the British 
metropolis, and in 1789, in connection 
with others, he purchased the " Star," 
a daily, evening paper, of which he be- 
came the editor, and continued so until 
within a short time of his death. The 
first number of the " Philosophical 
Magazine" appeared in June 1797 ; from 
which time it was continued without 
interruption. After a life spent in literary 
activity. Dr. Tilloch closed his career, 
at Islington, Jan. 25, 1825, in his 66th 
year. 

TILLOTSON, John, a celebrated 
archbishop of the English church, was 
born at Halifax, in Yorkshire, in 1630. 
In 1666 he took the degree of doctor of 
divinity at Cambridge ; in 1669 vvas 
made prebendary of Canterbury ; in 
1672 was admitted dean of that cathe- 
dral ; and three years after was made a 
prebendary of St. Paul's cathedral, Lon- 
don. In 1683 he visited the unfortunate 
Lord Russel when under condemnation ; 
and attended him in his last moments on 
the scaffold. In 1689 he was installed 
dean of St. Paul's, and made clerk of the 
closet to King William and Queen Mary. 
In 1691 he was consecrated archbishop 
of Canterbury, and sworn one of the 
privy council. In 1694 he was seized 
with a palsy, of which he died, in the 
65th year of his age. After his death 
there was found a bundle of bitter libels 
which had been published against him, 
on which he had written with his own 
hand, " I forgive the authors of these 
books, and pray God that he may forgive 
them too." 

TILSIT, town, Prussia. The memo- 



rable treaty of peace was concluded here 
in 1807 between France and Prussia, 
which unfortunately threw the weight 
of Russian influence for several years 
into the scale of Buonaparte. 

TIMBUCTOO, or Tombuctoo, city. 
Central Africa, has for many centuries 
been the emporium of the interior trade 
of that continent, but till lately has been 
little known. It is said to have been 
founded, in 1215, by a king called Mense 
Suleiman. Under his successor, named 
Izchia, Timbuctoo extended its domi- 
nions over all the neighbouring states, 
and acquired that commercial prosperity 
for which it has been distinguished. The 
first European traveller who succeeded 
in penetrating to Timbuctoo was the 
unfortunate Major Laing, who reached 
that city in 1826, and resided there for 
two months, but was assassinated on his 
homeward route through the desert. An 
enterprising Frenchman, M. Caille, 
April 20, 1828, arrived at Timbuctoo, 
and remained till May 4. The Geogra- 
phical Society of Paris conferred on this 
traveller the well-earned prize ofi'ered 
to the first person who should arrive at 
Timbuctoo from Senegambia. 

TIMOUR. See Tamerlane. 

TIN Trade. The mines of Corn- 
wall have been worked from a very re- 
mote era. The voyages of the Phoeni- 
cians to the Cassiterides, or Tin Islands, 
mentioned by Herodotus, are supposed 
to have been to the Scilly Islands, and the 
western extremity of Cornwall. After the 
destruction of Carthage, the British tin 
trade was carried on by the merchants 
of Marseilles, and subsequently by the 
Romans. Besides Britain, Spain fur- 
nished the ancients with considerable 
quantities of tin. 

In modern times, the tin mines of 
Cornwall and Devon have been wrought 
with various degrees of energy and suc- 
cess. Queen Elizabeth brought over 
some German miners, by whom some of 
the processes were improved. During 
the civil wars, the mines were much 
neglected. At the commencement of 
last century, however, the business of 
mining was carried on with renewed 
vigour; and from 1720 to 1740, the an- 
nual produce was about 2100 tons. The 
produce has gone on gradually increas- 
ing to the present time, with very few 
exceptions. The present average pro- 
duce is estimated at 4500 tons a year. 

Tin is found in several provinces of 



TIT 



824 



TIT 



China; but the most extensive, and, 
probably, richest tin district in the world, 
exists in the Malay countries. In the 
beginning of last century, the mines of 
the island of Banca, the most productive 
at present worked, were accidentally 
discovered. The mining operations of 
Banca have long been conducted upon 
a larger scale, and with more skill, than 
in any other of the Malay countries. 

TINIAN, one of the Ladrone islands, 
in the North Pacific ocean, first disco- 
vered by the crew of a Manilla ship, 
which was cast away here in 1638. 
Commodore Byron visited it in 1765, 
but he found the trees and underwood 
so thick, that in endeavouring to force 
a passage through, they were entangled 
and cut, as if with whipcord. Tinian was 
also visited in 1767 by Captain Wallis ; 
in 1787 by Captain Portlock; in 1788 
by Captain Sever ; and afterwards by 
other navigators, all of whom confirm 
the account given of it by Commodore 
Byron. 

TIN-PLATE Workers' Company, 
London, incorporated 1670. 

TINTERN Parva, Monmouthshire, 
•celebrated for the remains of Tintern 
Abbey, the property of the Duke of 
Beaufort. It was founded in 1131, as a 
convent for Cistercian monks ; and the 
ruins of its church present some beau- 
tiful specimens of Gothic architecture. 
These ruins stand on the western bank 
of the river Wye, five miles north of 
Chepstow. 

TIPPOO Saib, sultan of Mysore, 
born 1749, died 1799- See Mysore. 

TIRABOSCHI, author of the " His- 
tory of Italian Literature," died 1794. 

TITHES, the tenth part of the in- 
■crease, yearly arising and renewing from 
the profits of lands, the stock upon 
lands, and the personal industry of the 
inhabitants. The first mention of them 
in any written English law, is a consti- 
tutional decree, made in a synod held 
A.D. 786, wherein the payment of tithes 
in general is strongly enjoined. They 
were first granted for the maintenance 
of the clergy, 894 ; established legally 
by the Lateran council, 1200. 

It has long been acknowledged, that 
the payment of tithes in kind is a great 
discouragement to agriculture. This 
subject has, therefore, during the present 
century, been frequently brought before 
parliament. 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 71. 
August 13, 1836, an act for the commu- 



tation of tithes in England and Wales, 
empowers the secretary of state to ap- 
point two, and the archbishop of Can- 
terbury one, of a board to be called the 
"Tithe Commissioners for England and 
Wales." This act is amended by 1 Vict, 
c. 69 ; 1 and 2 Vict. c. 64, and 2 and 
3 Victoria, c 62, Aug. 17, 1839; and 
3 Vict. c. 15, June 4, 1840. These 
acts together comprise the present state 
of the tithe law in England. 

In regard to Ireland a greater diffi- 
culty has long existed. The statute 
2 Will. IV. c. 41, June 1, 1832, reciting 
that a combination against the payment 
of tithes had, for some time, existed in 
certain parts of Ireland, authorises the 
lord-lieutenant to advance £60,000 for 
the purposes of this act, for one year, 
and defines the mode of its appropriation. 
It also makes special enactments for 
vindicating the authority of the law. 

It being f(mnd impossible to enforce 
these enactments, and enormous arrears 
having accumulated, the subject was again 
brought before parliament in 1834 and 
following years. At length the Irish 
tithe composition act passed, 1 and 2 
Victoria, c. 109, Aug. 15, 1838, which 
abolishes compositions for tithes in Ire- 
land, and substitutes rent-charges, pay- 
able by persons having a perpetual in- 
terest in the lands subject thereto, &c. 
This act is amended by 3 Victoria, c. 13, 
May 19, 1840. 

TITIAN, TiTiANO Vecelli, a cele- 
brated Italian painter, was born at Ca- 
dore, Venice, in 1477, or in 1480, ac- 
cording to Vasari and Sandrart. He 
studied with Giorgione, and learned his 
method of blending and uniting the 
colours. The reputation of Titian rose 
continually; every new work contributed 
to extend his fame through all Europe ; 
and he was considered as the principal 
ornament of the age in which he flou- 
rished. The variety of works executed 
by this illustrious artist, at Rome, Venice, 
Bologna, and Florence, as well as those 
which are to be seen in other cities of 
Italy, in England, Spain, Germany, and 
France, illustrate his fame. His finest 
performances are, a Last Supper, pre- 
served in the refectory at the Escurial in 
Spain, and Christ crowned with Thorns, 
at Milan. He died of the plague 1576, 
at 99 years of age. 

TITLES, as an appellation of dignity 
or rank given to princes and persons of 
distinction, was not so common among 



TOB 



826 



TOD 



the ancient Greeks or Romans as they 
are in modern times. Till the reign of 
Constantine the title of Illustrious was 
never given except to those who were 
distinguished in arms or letters ; but at 
length it became hereditary in the fa- 
milies of princes. Henry IV. had the 
title of "Grace" conferred on him; 
Henry VI. that of "Excellent Grace;" 
Edward IV. that of "High and Mighty 
Prince;" Henry VII., " Highness." 
Henry VIII. first assumed the title of 
" Highness, " and afterwards that of 
"Majesty." The title of majesty was first 
given him by Francis I. in their interview 
in 1520. Charles V. was the first king 
of Spain who assumed the same title. 

TITUS Vkspasianus, the Roman 
emperor, the son of Vespasian, was born 
A.D. 40 ; took Jerusalem in 70. He 
was a great lover of learning, and com- 
posed several poems. Domitian, his 
brother, poisoned him in 81, aged 41. 

TIVERTON, Devonshire, is a place 
of considerable antiquity, and v/as con- 
sidered, in 1612, the chief woollen ma- 
nufacture in the west of England ; but 
the introduction of Norwich stuiFs, in 
174.5, occasioned its decline. 

TLAXCALLA, or Tlascalla, re- 
public, Mexico, was formerly a kingdom, 
the inhabitants of which, at the invasion 
by Cortes, were the enemies of Mexico. 
After the conquest, Cortes obtained a 
grant of this kingdom from Charles VI., 
and it was consequently exempt from 
duties to the crown of Spain. 

TOBACCO, the dried leaves of the 
nicotiana tabacum, a plant indigenous 
to America, but which succeeds very 
well, and is extensively cultivated in 
most parts of the Old World. Its intro- 
duction into Europe dates only from the 
early part of the l6th century. Seeds 
of the plant were sent, in 1560, from 
Portugal, to Catherine de' Medici, by 
Jean Nicot, the French ambassador in 
that country, from whom it has received 
its botanical name. It was first intro- 
duced into England by the settlers who 
returned, in 1586, from the colony which 
it had been attempted to found in Vir- 
ginia, under the auspices of Sir Walter 
Raleigh. But it made its greatest pro- 
gress in this country after the foundation 
of the colony at James Town in Virginia 
in 1607. James I. attempted, by re- 
peated proclamations and publications, 
some of them couched in very strong 
terms, to restrain the use of tobacco. 



During the earlier part of the reign of 
Charles I., the trade was monopolised 
by the crown. This was not, however, 
of long continuance, and totally ceased 
at the breaking out of the civil war. 

In 1643 the Lords and Commons im- 
posed a moderate duty, which, it was 
supposed, would occasidn its culture to 
be abandoned; but, in 1652, an act was 
passed, prohibiting the growth of tobacco 
in England, and appointing commis- 
sioners to see its provisions carried into 
effect. This act was confirmed at the 
Restoration, by the statute Charles II. 
c. 34, which ordered that all tobacco plan- 
tations should be destroyed. This did 
not, however, extend to Ireland ; and, of 
late years, the cultivation of tobacco made 
considerable progress in that country. 

Tobacco was first subject to the ex- 
cise laws in 1789- It appears from the 
oflSicial account, that the consumption 
of duty-paid tobacco in Great Britain 
has increased from about 8,000,000 lbs. 
in 1789, to 16,214,000 lbs. in 1833 ; the 
duty has fluctuated during the same 
period from Is. Zd. to 4s. and 3s. per lb. 
The excise regulations on tobacco under^ 
went a change in 1840 ; 3 and 4 Vict. 
c. 18, July 3, discontinues the excise 
survey on tobacco, and provides other 
regulations in lieu thereof. By this 
statute nine previous acts are repealed 
wholly or in part. 

Tobacco is extensively cultivated in 
Mexico, but only for home consumption. 
Under the Spanish government, the 
tobacco monopoly was established in 
1764. Previously to 1820 the cultivation 
and sale of tobacco were subjected to the 
same sort of monopoly in Cuba as in 
I\Iexico ; but, at that period, the trade 
was thrown open. In 1828 the declared 
value of the tobacco exported from Cuba 
amounted to 868,000 dollars. At present, 
the total real value of the exports of 
tobacco from Havannah, and other ports, 
is nearly 2,000,000 dollars. 

TOBACCO Pipe Makers' Com- 
pany, London, incorporated 1663. 

TOBAGO, island. West Indies, the 
most southern of the Carihbee islands, 
v/as discovered by Columbus in 1498. 
It was taken by the English from the 
Dutch, 1672; retaken by them, 1674. 
Taken by the French June 2, 1781, and 
retaken by the English, 1793 ; again, 
June 30, 1803, and confirmed to them 
by the treaty of Paris in 1814. 

TOD, Lieut-Colonel James, the 

5 N 



TOM 



826 



TON 



annalist of Rajpootana. To him belongs 
the praise of having set one of the first 
examples of the study of Indo- Grecian 
antiquities, which is now prosecuted with 
so much diligence and success in India. 
His disquisition on Greek, Parthian, and 
Hindoo medals, is a monument of learned 
investigation, which has merited the ap- 
plause of scholars. He for some time 
officiated as librarian of the Royal Asiatic 
Society. He died November 17, 1835, 
aged 53. 

TOKAY, town, Hungary, owes the 
superiority of its wines partly to the 
climate, partly to the care taken in the 
selection of the grapes, and in the pre- 
paration of the wine. The vineyards 
were destroyed by a hail-storm, 1808. 

TOLEDO, city, Spain, is a place of 
antiquity, and was successively governed 
by Goths, Moors, and kings of Castile. 
It was formerly the seat of several meet- 
ings of the Cortes, and of a number of 
church'councils. The university, formerly 
in repute, was suppressed in 1807. 

TOLENTINO, town. States of the 
Church, is remarkable for a treaty of 
peace concluded between Buonaparte and 
the papal court in 1797, and for some 
actions between the Austrians and 
Neapolitans in 1815. 

TOLL, a tax or custom paid for the 
passage through rivers, roads, &c., was 
first paid by vessels passing Stade on the 
Elbe, 1190; was first demanded by the 
Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 
1341. The first appointment of a toll 
on highways took place in 1346, for re- 
pairing the highways of Holborn, Gray's- 
inn-lane, and St. Martin's-lane. Toll- 
gates, or turnpikes, were used first in 
England 1663. By 1 and 2 Will. IV. 
c. 25, Sept. 22d, 1831, cattle going to and 
from pasture, and from being farried, 
are exempted from turnpike tolls, except 
at gStes within six miles from London. 

TOLSON, Richard, lieutenant-ge- 
neral in the army, born at Tilbury Fort, 
Oct. 1746, was a celebrated officer of his 
day, having served at the battles of Pon- 
dicherry, Oct. 1778, and was wounded ; 
Bangalore, in 1791. and wounded ; Serin- 
gapatam, in 1791 and 1792; Malacca, 
Aug. 17, 1795 ; afterwards governor of 
it. He died June 12, 1815. 

TOMBUCTOO. SeeTiMBucToo. 

TOMLINE, George, prelate and 
writer, born 1750, died 1787. 

TOMPION, Thomas, eminent En- 
glish watch-maker, died 1669- 



TONE, Theodore Wolfe, distin- 
guished in the history of the civil war in 
Ireland, was born in Dublin, in 1763. 
In 1787 he entered his name in the books 
of the Middle Temple, and as soon as 
his terms were completed was called to 
the bar. During the Irish rebellion he 
wrote the declaration of the first club of 
United Irishmen ; became an active par- 
tisan of the Catholic committee in Dub- 
lin ; and was a principal pamphleteer, 
messenger, and negotiator, in every tur- 
bulent scene that occurred in that dismal 
period. In 1794 he was involved in the 
treason of Jacksonand Hamilton Rowan, 
in consequence of which he embarked 
for the United States in 1795. He was 
the projector of the French expeditions 
of Hoche and Humbert to Ireland, and 
was taken after a desperate resistance, 
by a squadron under Sir John Borlase 
Warren. Finding that he was ordered for 
execution he inflicted on himself a mortal 
wound in the gaol of Dublin in 1796. 

TONGATA BOO, island. South Pacific 
ocean, the largest of the Friendly islands, 
was discovered by Tasman, the Dutch 
navigator, in 1643. It has since been 
visited by Cook in 1773 ; in 1777, by 
Perouse ; and by the missionary ship 
'• Duff," in 1797- Several missionaries 
were left on the island, but they were in 
danger of their lives in the wars which 
broke out. Three of them were mur- 
dered at the instigation, it is said, of a 
felon who had escaped from Botany Bay. 
Capt. Waldegrave, R.N., recently visited 
this island, and Mr. Williams the mis- 
sionary, in 1833; when a great improve- 
ment had taken place. Since the mur- 
der of the missionaries, others have been 
established on the island, who have suc- 
ceeded in instructing and civilizing the 
inhabitants. 

TONNAGE AND Poundage granted 
to the kings of England for life, 1465. 

TONQUIN. See Tunquin. 

TONTINE, a species of increasing 
annuity, on which money is borrowed, 
either for the service of the state, or for 
erecting public works. The first at- 
tempt to raise money for the public 
service on this kind of interest was 
in 1693. It did not succeed, only 
£108,100 being advanced out of a million 
intended to be raised. In 1757, an 
attempt was made to raise a loan by a 
tontine scheme ; and in 1765, a tontine 
formed part of a project for funding 
navv and victualling bills ; but these 



TOR 827 

plans were unsuccessful, and the tontine 
formed in 1789, which was the last at- 
tempt to raise a public loan in this way, 
experienced a similar fate. 

TOOKE, John Horne, author of 
" Epea Terventa, or Diversions of 
Purley/'born 1736, died March 18, 1812. 

TOPLADY, Aug. M., an eminent 
divine, born 1740, died 1778. 

TORIES, a political faction in Britain, 
opposed to the Whigs. The name of Tories 
was first given to a sort of banditti in 
Ireland, and was thence transferred to 
the adherents of Charles I. by his ene- 
mies, under the pretence that he favoured 
the rebels of Ireland. The Tories, or 
cavaliers, as they were also called, had 
then principally in view the political 
interest of the king, the crown, and the 
church of England ; and the round-heads, 
or Whigs, proposed chiefly the maintain- 
ing of the rights and interests of the 
people, and of Protestantism. But the 
names Whig and Tory were but little 
known till about the middle of the reign 
of King Charles II. in 1678, when the 
whole nation was first observed to be 
divided into Whigs and Tories, on occa- 
sion of the famous deposition of Titus 
Oates : the appellation of Whig was 
given to such as believed the plot real ; 
and Tory to those who held it fictitious. 
See Britain, p. 143. The terms have 
been continued to the present day to 
designate the two great political parties 
into which this country is divided. 

TORONTO, capital of Upper Canada. 
York, the former name was recently 
changed to the original Indian name of 
the place, Toronto. It contains the 
principal buildings and public offices of 
the province. York (now Toronto) was 
twice captured by the Americans in 
April and August 1813; and it became 
the scene of conflict during the civil 
war in Canada, having been taken and 
re-taken in Dec. 1837- 

TORRICELLI, Evangeliste, an 
illustrious Italian mathematician and 
philosopher, born at Faenza, in 1608. 
He composed a treatise on motion, which 
brought him acquainted with Galileo. 
He greatly improved the art of making 
telescopes and microscopes, but he is 
best known for finding out a method of 
ascertaining the weight of the atmo- 
sphere by quicksilver, in 1642. He 
pdblished " Opera Geometrica," 4to., 
1644; and died in 1647. 

TORTOISESHELL is extensively 



TOU 

used in the manufacture of combs, snuff- 
boxes, &c., and in inlaying and other 
ornamental work. Before the opening 
of the British intercourse with India, 
the greater part of the tortoiseshell which 
eventually found its way to Europe was 
first carried to Canton. ' It is still an 
article of trade from that city ; the value 
of the tortoiseshell exported by British 
ships, in 1831 and 1832, amounted to 
19,017 dollars. At present, however, 
Singapore is the chief mart, the exports 
from it in 1831 and 1832, having amount- 
ed at an average to 208 piculs. 

TORTONA, town, kingdom of Sar- 
dinia, was a place of considerable strength 
until dismantled by the French 1799. 

TORTOSA, town, Spain. It was 
called by the Romans, Dordosa. The 
garrison surrendered to the French, 
Jan. 1, 1811. 

TORTURE, as inflicted on persons to 
force them to confess the crimes laid to 
their charge, by the law of England, 
was at one period employed; but has 
been abolished in most civilized coun- 
tries. In Sweden, by order of the king, 
1786; in Poland 1776; in France, by 
edict, Aug. 25, 1780. 

TOULON, a fortified city and sea- 
port of France, capital of the department 
of Var, has long been the scene of naval 
expeditions. In 1706 it was bombarded 
by the allies, both by land and sea, by 
which. almost the whole town was re- 
duced to a heap of ruins. In 1721 it 
experienced the dreadful ravages of a 
pestilence. In 1793 it capitulated, in 
the name of Louis XVII. to the British, 
who, not finding the place tenable, evacu- 
ated it the same year, after having de- 
stroyed the arsenal, &c. The city 
signed an act of submission to Louis 
XVIII., July 23, 1815. 

TOULOUSE, a city of France, capi- 
tal of the department of Upper Garonne, 
the most considerable city in France, 
next to Paris and Lyons. It was the- 
capital of the Tectosages, who made 
many conquests in Asia and Greece. It 
was next a Roman colony, and after- 
wards the capital of the Visigoths, who 
destroyed the superb amphitheatre, of 
which there are still some remains, and 
other Roman monuments. It was taken 
by the allies in 1814, after an obstinate 
battle fought between the British under 
Lord Wellington, and the French under 
Soult. The British were successful, but 
suffered severely. 



TOW 



828 



TRA 



TOURNAMENT, or Tourney, a 
martial sport or exercise which the an- 
cient cavahers used to perform, to show 
their bravery and address. It is said 
that they were instituted by Henry, 
Emperor of Germany, in 919- Instan- 
ces of them occur among the Enghsh 
in the reign of King Stephen, about 
1140; but they were not much in use 
till Richard I.'s time, towards the year 
1189, after which period these diver- 
sions were performed with extraordinary 
magnificence in the tiltyard near St. 
James's, Smithfield, and other places. 
They made the principal diversion of 
the 13th and 14th centuries. At length, 
however, they were found to be often 
productive of fatal eflfects, which gave 
the popes occasion to forbid them, and, 
as the age of chivalry gradually passed 
away, the princes of Europe concurred 
in discouraging and suppressing them. 
An attempt to revive them has been re- 
cently made. See Chivalky. 

TOURNAY, town, kingdom of Bel- 
gium, province of Hainault, on the river 
Scheldt, the Civitas Nerviorum of the 
Romans. It was taken in 1792 by the 
French, who v/ere obliged to abandon 
it in 1793, but re-entered it again, on 
the conquest of Flanders, ia 1794 ; they 
however delivered it up to the allies in 
1814. 

TOURNFORT, Joseph, botanist, 
born 1656, died 1708. 

TOURS, town, France, department 
of Indre, was the scene of the repulse of 
the Saracens, by Charles Pvlartel, in 732 ; 
and in subsequent ages, its castle, built 
on a rock, served more than once as a 
place of refuge for the royal family in 
times of commotion. Near the city is 
Plessis-les-Tours, a palace, built by the 
profligate and superstitious Louis XL, 
who died here in 14S3. 

TOWER OF London, built 1078; 
walled in 1099. 

. TOWER of the Winds, at Athens, 
built A.c. 550. 

TOWER, Leaning, at Pisa, built 
1174. 

TOWNLEY, Charles, whose noble 
collection of sculpture, known as the 
Townley, in the British Museum, died 
1805. 

TOWNSEND, Joseph, divine and 
writer, and founder of the Deaf and 
Dumb Asylum, died 1816. See Deaf 
AND Dumb. 
^ TOWNSHEND, Lord John, a states- 



man and privy councillor, was educated at 
Eton; and afterwards at Cambridge. In 
1780 he was elected one of the representa- 
tives of that university in parliament. His 
adherence to the party of Mr. Fox lost 
him his seat at the general election of 
1784. In Feb. 1806 his lordship was 
appointed joint paymaster-general of the 
armj', and a lord of trade and planta- 
tions ; and was sworn a privy councillor. 
He retired from those offices early in the 
following year. He died Feb. 25, 1833, 
aged 76. 

TRADES' Unions, societies of artisans 
formed in London and other large towns 
in 1833; the ostensible object of which 
was to keep a check on their employers. 
The persons who conducted these pro- 
ceedings in London, were to give notice 
to those in the country, who were to act 
upon their instructions. Every person, 
on becoming a member, bound himself 
by an oath, administered in the most 
solemn manner, not to disclose anything 
which might take place among them. 

In March 1834, 3000 workmen in the 
woollen manufacture struck at Leeds, 
in consequence of the determination of 
the masters to employ only those who 
would relinquish the trades' union. 
April 21a large body of trades' unionists, 
estimated at about 30,000, assembled at 
Copenhagen Fields,London, and marched 
thence in procession to Whitehall, to 
deliver to the secretary of state a peti- 
tion to the king, said to be signed by 
265,000 persons, in behalf of the Dorches- 
ter convicts. Lord Melbourne declined to 
receive a petition so delivered ; and the 
multitude quietly dispersed. The peti- 
tion was afterwards presented by a depu- 
tation, and was then received. 

The same and following years the 
workmen in London and several large 
towns struck for increase of wages, and 
for some time were supported by the 
unions to the great injury of themselves 
and the public. Among others were the 
cotton spinners of Glasgow, who had long 
been noted for the violent and arbitrary 
proceedings of their confederary. The 
subject was at length brought before 
parliament in 1838. In the house of 
commons, Mr. Wakley, on Feb. 13, moved 
for a select committee to inquire into the 
constitution, practices, and effects of the 
association of operative cotton-spinners 
of Glasgow and its neighbourhood. Mr. 
O'ConneD moved, by way of amend- 
ment, for a select committee to inquire 



TRA 

into trades' unions and combinations 
generally in the United Kingdom. After 
some discussion Mr. Wakley expressed 
himself well satisfied to leave the question 
in the hands of her majesty's ministers. 

TRAFALGAR, cape, Spain, on the 
coast of Andalusia, near the straits of 
Gibraltar, remarkable for the victory ob- 
tained by the British fleet, under Lord 
Nelson, over the French and Spanish 
fleets, Oct. 21, 1805, in which Nelson 
lost his life. The British squadron con- 
sisted of 27 ships, three of them sixty- 
fours. The enemy's line consisted of 
33 ships of which IS were French, and 
15 Spanish, commanded by Admiral 
Villeneuve. The British commander- 
in-chief, in the " Victory," led the wea- 
ther column, and the " Royal Sovereign," 
Admiral CoUingvvood, the lee. The 
action began at twelve o'clock, by the 
leading ships breaking through the 
enemy's line; the commander-in-chief 
about the tenth ship from the van, the 
second in command about the twelfth 
from the rear, leaving the van of the 
enemy unoccupied ; the succeeding ships 
breaking through in all parts a-stern of 
their leaders, and engaging the enemy at 
the muzzles of their guns. The conflict 
was very severe ; but at length the Bri- 
tish gained the victory ; 19 ships of the 
line, of which two v/ere first-rates, were 
taken. During the action. Lord Nelson 
in the " Victory" made the well-known 
telegraphic signal of " England expects 
every man to do his duty." 

TRAGEDY, introduced at Athens, 
about A.c. 490. The first contest for the 
prize, 469- See Drama, 

TRAJAN, the Roman emperor, suc- 
ceeded Nerva, a.d. 98 ; went on an expe- 
dition to the East, against the Parthians, 
106 ; erected his column at Rome, 114 ; 
subdued Assyria, 115 ; died 11/. 

TRANQUEBAR, Danish settlement 
of Hindoostan, in the province of Car- 
natic. The first Danish vessel arrived 
on the coast of Coromandel in 16 16, 
where they were kindly received by the 
Tanjore raja, from whom they piu-chased 
the village of Tranquebar. The settle- 
ment did not prosper; and in 1624 they 
surrendered up their charter and pro- 
perty to King Christian IV., in payment 
of a debt they owed him. By the un- 
fortunate rupture between England and 
Denmark in 1807, the Danes were de- 
prived of all their settlements in India; 
but Tranquebar has since been restored. 



829 T RE 

TRANSYLVANIA, principality of 
the Austrian empire, was known to the 
Romans by the title of Dacia Consularis 
Mediterranea. On the eruption of the 
northern hordes it became subject suc- 
cessively to the Goths, Huns, Alans, 
&c. For some time it was ruled by a 
prince of its own, hut it fell undei; the 
power of the kings of Hungary, and was 
governed by a deputy. In 1541 it was 
again separated from Hungary, and re- 
mained an independent province till 1699, 
when its last prince gave it up to Aus- 
tria. The government is aristocraticfd, 
and since 1722 rendered hereditary to 
the princes of Austria. 

TREBISOND, a city of European 
Turkey. After the capture of Constan- 
tinople by the Latins, in 1203, it became 
the seat of an empire extending from the 
mouth of the Phasis to that of the Haiys. 
It surrendered, however, to Mahomet 11. 
The trade has lately been considerable. 
The opening of the Euxine to European 
vessels, and the policy of Russia in 
shutting out the trade from its own 
ports by high duties since 1832, have 
given to Trebisond an importance which 
it did not formerly possess. In 1832, 
9189 packages passed through Trebisond 
for Tabreez, and it is believed that, of 
these, full 8000 consisted of British 
manufactures. In 1834 about 12,000 
packages, valued at £600,000, were im- 
ported into Trebisond, and forwarded 
for Persia. In 1835 the number had 
increased to nearly 20,000, valued at near 
a million sterling. 

TRENT, city, Austria, in the Tyrol.. 
It is famous for a council, which was 
held here for 18 years. It was as- 
sembled by Paul III. in 1545, and con- 
tinued by 25 sessions till the year ] 563, 
under Julius III. and Pius IV., in order 
to correct, illustrate, and fix with per- 
spicuity the doctrines of the chiirch. The 
decreeG of this council, together with 
the creed of Pope Pius IV., contain a 
summary of the doctrines of the Roman 
catholics. Trent was taken by the French 
in 1796, who were repulsed by the Aus- 
trians in the same year. 

TREVES, town, Prussia, was fre- 
quently a royal residence under the 
Franks. It was subsequently received 
into the German empire, and continued 
during many centuries under an ecclesi- 
astical government. The university was 
founded in 1454, and greatly extended 
in 1722. After 1794 it was converted by 



T R I 830 

the French into a central school, to which 
its Prussian possessors have lately given 
the name of Gymnasium. Treves re- 
mained in the hands of the French from 
1794 to 1814. 

TRIBUNES among the ancient Ro- 
mans, magistrates chosen out of the 
commons to protect them against the 
oppressions of the great. The tribunes 
of the people were first established a.c. 
495. Military tribunes were created, with 
consular power, a.c. 443. 

TRICHINOPOLY, town, Hindoo- 
Stan, was the capital of a Hindoo prin- 
cipality until 1736, when Chundah Saheb 
acquired it by treachery, but lost it to 
the Maharattas in 1741. From these 
depredators it was taken in 1743, by 
Nizam ul Mulk. In 1749 it devolved by 
inheritance to the Nabob Mahomed Ali, 
who was taken under the protection of 
the English. It sustained a memorable 
siege by the French and their native 
allies, which lasted from 1731 to 1755; 
but the extraordinary military talents 
displayed by Lawrence, Clive, Kirk- 
patrick, Dalton, and other officers, com- 
bined with the heroic valour of the Bri- 
tish grenadiers, preserved the city, and 
established the British candidate on the 
throne of the Carnatic. 

TRIESTE, sea-port town, Austria, 
built near the site of the Roman colony, 
Tergeste; and there are some remains of 
the aqueduct which brought water to it, 
six miles distant. The town first came 
into the possession of the Austrians in 
1382. In 1719 it was made a free port 
by the Austrian government. In the 
revolutionary war it was seized by the 
French, but retaken by the Austrians, 
April 14, 1797. 

TRIMMER, Mrs. Sarah, author of 
various works on education, died 1810, 
aged 69. 

TRINIDAD, an island in the Atlantic 
Ocean, opposite the coast of Cumana, 
was discovered by Columbus in 1498, 
and taken possession of by the Spaniards 
in 1588; but it was not till 1783 that 
measures were adopted for its settlement. 
In 1797 the island capitulated to the 
British under Sir Ralph Abercrombie^ 
and from this period the population and 
produce have greatly increased. The 
slaves on this island were emancipated 
in 1838, and the most recent accounts 
notice, as a subject of congratulation, 
the immense and very advantageous 
difference between the position of the 



TRI 

planters of this colony on the Ist of Ja- 
nuary, 1840, and the 1st of January, 
1839. Since then the conduct of the 
labouring population has been most 
steady and satisfactory, 

TRINITY. The word first applied to 
the persons of the godhead, 150; festival 
instituted about 828. Trinity act passed 
to exempt from penalties persons deny- 
ing the doctrine of the Trinity, 1813. 

TRINITY Sunday, a festival an- 
ciently kept, and still observed by the 
Romish church, in honour of the Holy 
Trinity. Its observance was enjoined 
by the council of Aries, a.d. 1260; and 
Pope John XXII. in 1334, ordered it to 
be kept on the Sunday next after Whit- 
sunday, as at present. 

TRINITY House, society of, incor- 
porated by Henry VIII. in 1515, for the 
promotion of commerce and navigation, 
by licensing and regulating pilots, and 
ordering and erecting beacons, light- 
houses, buoys, &c. A similar society, 
for the like purposes, was afterwards 
established at Hull ; and also another 
at Newcastle-upon-'Pyne in 1537. The 
corporation was confirmed in 1685 in 
the enjoyment of its privileges and pos- 
sessions, by letters patent of the 1st of 
James II. It is governed by a master, 
4 wardens, 8 assistants, and 31 elder 
brothers; Prince Albert was admitted to 
the latter honour in 1841. This society 
has still the power of erecting light- 
houses, &c., on the several coasts of the 
kingdom. See Lighthouse. 

The ancient hall of the Trinity House 
at Deptfoid, where the meetings of the 
brethren were formerly held, was pulled 
down in 1787, and an elegant building 
erected for the purpose in London, near 
the Tower. The gross revenue, under 
the management of the Trinity House, 
amounts to about £135,000 a-year ; but 
the nett revenue is rather under half 
that sum. 

TRIPLE Alliance, a treaty of al- 
liance ratified between the States-General 
and England, against France, Jan. 28, 
1668, for the protection of the Spanish 
Netherlands ; Sweden afterwards joining 
the league, it was known as the triple 
alhance. — Another, called the Triple Al- 
liance of the Hague, between France, 
England, and Holland, to oppose the 
designs of Cardinal Alberoni, the Spa- 
nish minister, Jan. 4, 1717. 1 

TRIPOLI, one of the Barbary states, I 
north of Africa. It includes the country 



TRO 



831 



.TUN 



colonised by the Greeks, and celebrated 
by them under the name of Cyrene, the 
capital of which of the same name is 
now in ruins. See Cyrene. This 
country was early subject to the power 
of the Saracens, and in the reign of 
Charles V. it was occupied for a short 
time by the knights of Malta, who were 
driven out by Solyman. It depended 
on the Ottoman Porte till 1713, when 
it was erected into an independent state. 
The natives are a fine race, active and 
hardy, but they are severely oppressed 
by the pacha. 

In 1828 disputes arose with Naples, in 
consequence of a quarrel with the pacha. 
His highness had offered some insult to 
the Neapolitan flag, and as he refused to 
give redress, a Neapolitan squadron was 
dispatched to Tripoli to exact it by force, 
which bombarded the town, August 23, 
without making any useful impression. 
On the 29th, the admiral got under 
weigh, abandoning the expedition, and 
Naples settled her quarrel with the pacha 
by a convention, October 28. 

TRIPOLIZZA, town, kingdom of 
Greece, capital of the Morea. During 
the late Greek war, Tripolizza, after 
being occupied by the Ottoman army 
till October, 1821, was taken by storm 
by the exasperated Greeks ; the town 
was nearly destroyed, and 6000 Moslem 
inhabitants or soldiers were massacred, 
with circumstances of peculiar barbarity. 

TRIQUET, M., the celebrated florist 
and seedsman, of Paris, to whom we 
owe, at least, 200 new varieties of the 
tulip, died 1838. 

TROMP, Van, the Dutch admiral, 
born 1597 ; killed in an engagement with 
the English fleet, under Monk, July 29, 
1653. See Britain. 

TROPPAU, principality of the Aus- 
trian empire. The congress of Troppau 
was held here, Oct. 20, 1820. 

TROY, a celebrated city of antiquity, 
and the capital of Troas, was built on a 
small eminence near Mount Ida, and 
the promontory of Sigaeum, at the dis- 
tance of about four miles from the sea- 
shore. The kingdom began a.c. 1546 ; 
the city was built 1480 ; rebuilt and so 
named 1341. It was taken by the Greeks 
and burned to the ground, in the night 
between June 11 and 12, a.c. 1184. 

TROYES, town of France, depart- 
ment of Aube. By the treaty of Troyes 
between England, France, and Burgundy, 
1420, it was stipulated that Henry V. 



should marry Catherine, daughter of 
Charles VI., be appointed regent of 
France, and, after the death of Chailes, 
should inherit the crown. The French 
were driven out of Troyes by the allied 
armies, March 4, 1814. 

TRUCK System, a practice that for- 
merly prevailed, particularly in the minirtg 
and manufacturing districts, of paying 
the wages of workmen in goods instead of 
money. Having been very extensively 
abused, and loudly and justly complained 
of, a bill was, in consequence, intro- 
duced for its suppression by Mr. Little- 
ton, which, after a great deal of oppo- 
sition and discussion, was passed into 
a law, 1831, 1 and 2 Will. IV. c. 32, 
It is entitled "An act to prohibit the 
payment, in certain trades, of wages in 
goods, or otherwise, than in the current 
coin of the realm." 

TRUE Sun newsj)aper. The prin- 
ter and proprietors were, at the prosecu- 
tion of the attorney-general, found guilty 
of two seditious libels, tending to excite 
the people to resist the payment of the 
assessed taxes, Feb. 6, 1834. 

TRUMBULL, Jonathan, Ameri- 
can statesman, died 1809. 

TRUMBULL, John, American poet, 
born 1750, died 1831. 

TRUSLER, Dr. John, compiler, au- 
thor of the "Historian's Vade Mecum," 
born 1735, died 1820. 

TRUXILLO, Peru, chief town of a 
district, was founded by Pizarro in 1535. 
It was ruined by an earthquake Dec. 
1759. 

TUCKER, Dean, celebrated for his 
commercial sagacity, and author of 
" Elements of Commerce," " Directions 
forTravellers,"&c.,bornl7l2, died 1799. 

TUILERIES, palace of, at Paris, 
begun in 1564. The front of the palace 
consists of five pavilions, connected by 
piles of building, extending more than 
1000 feet. The gardens are always open 
to the public, and are the principal pro- 
menade of this part of the town. 

TULA, town, European Russia, south 
of Moscow, was founded in the l6th 
century, and was made a bishop's see 
in 1799. It was desolated by fire, which 
destroyed 9 churches and 670 private 
dwellings, besides manufactories and 
markets, July 11th, 1834. 

TULL, Jethro, the author of several 
improvements in husbandry, died 1741. 

TUNBRIDGE Wells, a town in 
Kent, much resorted to, on account of 



T U R 832 T U R 

its chalybeate waters, discovered in 1606. general, in the reign of Louis XIV., born 

Towards the end of the I7th century, 16II, killed 1675. 

the walks and assembly rooms were TURGOT, A. R., statesman, born 

arranged according to their present form. 1727, died 1781. 

About 1687 substantial buildings were TURIN, city, north of Italy, and the 

erected. Queen Anne gave a stone basin seat of the Sardinian monarchy, is of 

for the spring, whence it was subse- remote date. It belonged successively 

quently called the Queen's well. to the Romans, the Lombards, to Char- 

TUNIS, city and territory, Northern lemagne, the marquesses of Saluzzo, and 

Africa, one of the Barbary states. This the jirinces of Savoy, who made it the 

country was formerly a monarchy. The capital of their states. In 1798 the 

city was taken by the Emperor Charles French army took this cit)'', seized all the 

v., and restored to its king, that had strong places of Piedmont, and obliged 

been banished in 1535. In 1574 Tunis the king and his family to remove to the 

became a republic under the jjrotection island of Sardinia. In 1799 the French 

of the Turks. The city is situated in a were driven out by the Austrians and 

bay, about 10 miles south-west from the Russians, but shortly after, the city and 

site of the ancient Carthage. A few of all Piedmont surrendered to the French, 

the public cisterns, &c., are all that re- In 1814 it was delivered up to the allies, 

main to point out where Carthage stood, who restored it to the king of Sardinia. 

See Carthage. TURKEY, empire, extending over the 

TUNNEL. See Thames Tunnel, south-east of Europe, and the contiguous 

TUNQUIN, or ToNauiN, kingdom, parts of Asia and Africa. The Turks, 
India beyond the Ganges. Formerly or Turkmans, were originally a tribe of 
independent, but at ])resent compre- Huns, who about the 7th century began 
bended in the Cochin-Chinese empire, to raise a new empire in Asia. About 
Tunquin, together with Cochin-China, 800, issuing from an obscure retreat, they 
Cambodia and Siampa, anciently formed obtained possession of a part of Armenia, 
part of the Chinese empire, but in called from them Turcomania; but in the 
the 13th century, they threw oflp the 13th century, being harassed in their 
yoke. The Tunquinese princes gradu- new possessions by other Tartar tribes, 
ally assumed a greater degree of inde- retreated to Asia Minor. Their domi- 
pendence, and about 1553 subdued nions were united under Othman, or 
Cochin-China. About 1774 a revolt Osman, who assumed the title of sultan, 
began, and after a sanguinary warfare of and established his empire at Prusa, in 
28 years, terminated with leaving the Bithynia, about 1300. 
empire as it at present exists. Tunquin His successors extended their con- 
was finally conquered by Chaimg Shaung, quests over the adjacent parts of Asia, 
the Cochin-Chineseemperor.about 1800, Africa, and Europe. Adrianople was 
and has ever since been ruled by a vice- taken by them as early as 1360. The 
roy, delegated from the seat of govern- succeeding reign was that of Bajazet I., 
ment. See Cochin-China. which is memorable in Turkish history. 

TUNSTALL, Cuthbert, bishop, di- See Bajazet. In 1453 Constantinople 

vine, and statesman, born about 1474, was taken from the Greeks, and became 

died 1559. the capital of the Turkish empire. See 

TURBINE, an hydraulic wheel of this Constantinople. 

name, recently invented by M. Fourney- The following is a list of the emperors 

ron, and first noticed in England about of Turkey from this time : — 

1838. It is worked by water pressure, Mahomet II 1451 

and is stated to have excited much Bajazet II 1481 

interest in Germany. It is said, that a Selim 1 1512 

turbine, only thirteen inches in diameter, Solyman I 1520 

worked on an axle, under a vertical Selim II 1566 

pressure of water of 1 18 yards, revolved Amurath III 1574 

2300 times in a minute, and expended Mahomet III. ...» 1595 

only 46 grains troy of water per second ; Achmet 1 1603 

yet reahzed a power which, estimated Mustapha I I6l7 

in steam^ would be equal to that of 60 Osman, or Othman II I6I8 

horses. Mustapha I., restored 1623 

TURENNE, a renowned French Amurath IV 1623 , 

m 



TUS 8S3 TYR 

Ibrahim 1640 duke till it became extinct in l737j when, 

Mahomet IV 1649 by arrangements between France and 

Solyman II 1687 Austria, their place was filled by the 

Achmet II I691 Duke of Lorraine, who was raised to the 

Mustapha II I695 imperial throne. Upon the flight of the 

Achmet III 1/03 grand duke, in 1799, Tuscany was erect- 
Mahomet V 1730 ed by the French into the kingdom of 

Osman, or Othman II 1754 Etruria, but in 1807 was transformed 

Mustapha III 1757 into an appendage to the crown of Italy. 

Achmet IV., or Abdul Hamed. . . 1774 In 1814 it was restored, and Ferdinand, 

Selim III 1789 the grand duke, returned to his dorai- 

Mustapha IV 1807 nions. 

Mahomet VI 1808 TUSSER, Thomas, author of " Five 

Mahmoud II 1808 Hundred Good Points in Husbandry," 

Abdul Medjid 1839 died 1580. 

After the battle of Poltava, in 1709, TWINING, Rev. Thomas, transla- 
and the retreat of Charles XII. of Swe- tor of "Aristotle's Poetics," died 1804. 
den into Turkey, the czar, Peter the TYCHO Brahe. See Brahe. 
Great, advanced against the Turkish TYLER, Wat, the author of the re- 
frontier; he was, however, obliged to bellion in the reign of Richard II., killed 
sign the treaty of Pruth, which stipu- 1381. 

lated the surrender of Azoph and some TYNDALE, translator of the Bible, 

other fortresses. The Turks have since for publishing of which he was burned 

experienced many reverses, and recent at Augsburgh, 1536. 

events, particularly the loss of Greece in TYNEMOUTH Castle and Pri- 

1828, and the cession of large tracts of ory, Northumberland, built 700. 

territory to Russia, since that time, have TYRE, the principal city of Phoenicia, 

shown the instability of their power in and the most celebrated emporium of 

Europe. See Greece, and Russia. the ancient world, was founded by a 

1832. Commencement of hostilities colony from Sidon, the most ancient of 

with Mehemet Ali, for an account of the Phoenician cities, about a.c. I690. 

which, see Egypt, and Syria. The commerce and navigation of Tyre, 

1839. July 1, Sultan Mahmoud If. probably attained their maximum from 
died, in the 54th year of his life, and about . a.c. 650. At that period the 
the 31st of his reign ; and was succeeded Tyrians were the factors and merchants 
by his son, Abdul Medjid, born April of the civilized world. Tyre was be- 
20, 1823. Dec. 21, the first grand sieged and taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 
council held at Constantinople, for the a.c. 572. It was also attacked by 
purpose of discussing a new code of Alexander the Great, and taken a.c. 
laws, the Code Napoleon to form the 332. 

basis of the new legislation. In the time of the Romans it conti- 

1840. July 15, the convention be- nued still a mighty city, and during the 
tween England, Austria, Russia, and first centuries of the Christian era, was 
Prussia, for settling the affairs of Tur- distinguished for its zeal in the cau^ of 
key and Egypt, signed at London. Christianity. During the crusades, it 

TURKEY or Levant Company, became the subject of contest between 

incorporated 1581; confirmed by char- the Saracens and Christians. In 1289 

ter 1605 ; abolished by 6 Geo. IV. c. 33. it fell finally into the hands of the former, 

TURNER, Dr. William, the first since which time it appears that its ruin 

EngHsh botanist, died about 1550. may be dated. All that now'remains is 

TURNER'S Company, London, in- a small village, called Sour, consisting 

corporated 1604. of about 60 families, who live on the 

TURNPIKE. See Toll. produce of their little grounds and a 

TUSCANY, grand duchy, Italy, was trifling fishery. 

in the possession of the Romans between TYROL, mountainous district of the 

700 and 800 years, until overrun by the Austrian empire, formed in the earliest 

barbarians in the 5th century. In the ages part of the ancient Rhaetia. In the 

13th century, the continued divisions disorders that followed the downfall of 

led to the ascendency of the Medicis. the Roman empire, it was divided into 

This family ruled with the title of grand a number of petty lordships, which all 

5 o 



UNI 



854 



UNI 



acknowledged the supremacy of the an- 
cient princes and dukes of Bavaria. On 
the fail of the house of Guelf, in the 12th 
century, the Tyrolese became subjects 
of the empire. In the contests of the 
French revolution, it was invaded by 
Buonaparte, but the treaties of peace in 
1797 and in 1801, left Tyrol in the un- 



disturbed possession of the Austrians. 
It was overrun by the French and Ba- 
varians in 1805 ; and by the treaty of 
Presburg was given to Bavaria. In 180^ 
it was ceded to Italy, but was restored 
to Austria in 1814. 

TYRWHITT, Thomas, English 
writer, born 173Q, died 1786. 



U. 



UDINA, Giovanni da, born 1494, 
died 1564; celebrated for having been 
the reviver of stucco work. 

UKRAINE, country, south-east of 
Russian-Poland, was the scene of re- 
peated invasions, of which that by 
Charles XII. of Sweden in 1709, ter- 
minated in the fatal battle of Poltava. 

ULLOA, poN Antonio, mathema- 
tician, born 1716, died 1795. 

ULM, town, kingdom of Wirtemburg, 
is well known in the wars of Germany. 
After the battle of Blenheim in 1704, it 
sustained a siege ; in 1800 it was the 
scene of military manoeuvres, and in 
1805, the errors of General Mack led to 
the surrender of an Austrian army. In 
1802, Uhn was ceded to Bavaria, and in 
1810 it was transferred to the kingdom 
of Wirtemburg. 

ULYSSES, king of Ithaca, the son 
of Laertes, and father of Telemachus, 
was one of those heroes who contributed 
most to the taking of Troy; he flourished 
A.c. 1149. 

UMMERAPOORA, (called by the 
natives Amarapura, or the city of the 
immortals,) for some time the capital of 
the Burman empire, was built in 1783, 
with the materials of the houses (chiefly 
wood) which were transported from Ava, 
the ancient capital, to which the seat of 
government was restored in 1819. 

UNCTION, the act of anointing, or 
rubbing with oil, was practised by the 
ancient Christians in the first century, 
in compliance with the precept of St. 
James, chap. v. Extreme unction in 
the Romish church was in common use 
in 450. 

UNIFORMITY, Act of. See Act. 

UNITED Provinces. See Hol- 
land. 

UNITED Service Cl •?, instituted 
1828. 

UNITED States of America con- 



sisted originally of colonies from Great 
Britain and Ireland, which have been, 
established at different periods and under 
various circumstances. The settlement 
and progressive growth of the separate 
colonies extends from 1607 to 1776, over 
a period of 170 years. Of the 13 colonies, 
whose delegates signed the declaration of 
independence, 12 were settled in the 17th 
century, and others underwent alterations 
before the establishment of the Union, 
as follows: — Virginia, settled 1607. 
New York, by the Dutch, 1614 ; occu-- 
pied by the English 1664. Plymouth, 
1620 ; incorporated with Massachusetts 
in 1692. Massachusetts, 1628. New 
Hampshire, 1623. New Jersey, by the 
Dutch, 1624; occupied by the English 
in 1664. Delaware, by the Dutch, 1627 ; 
occupied by the English in 1664. Some 
Swedes settled here in 1638, but they 
were conquered by the Dutch, and most 
of them left the country. Maine, 1630;, 
united with Massachusetts in 1677, 
afterwards erected into an independent 
state in 1820. Maryland, 1633. Con- 
necticut, 1635 ; settled with Massachu- 
setts. New Haven, 1637; united with 
Connecticut in 1662. Providence, 1635 i 
Rhode Island, 1,638, united and called 
Rhode Island, 1644. North Carolina, 
1650; a distinct colony in 1729. South 
Carolina, 1670. Pennsylvania, 1682. 
Georgia, 1733. In 1630 the number of 
English colonists in North America did 
not exceed 4000;, in I66O, it was not 
less than 80,000, and had therefore in- 
creased twenty-fold in the short space of 
30 years. In 1701 the population of the 
colonies is estimated to have been about 
262,000. 

After a long struggle with the diffi- 
culties of their situation, by patient per- 
severance and industry they began to 
flourish and increase in wealth and 
population. In these circumstances, they 



UNI 



835 



UNI 



fefecame involved in the disputes with the 
mother country, which terminated in 
their separation. The Americans formed 
a congress, which, in 1776, disclaimed 
all dependence on the mother country. 
The French king entered into an alliance 
with them in 1778-, and the colonies> 
powerfully assisted by France, were suc- 
cessful. In 1781 the contest was finally 
closed by the surrender of Cornwallis, 
at Yorktown, to the combined French 
and American forces under Washington 
and Rochambeau, October 10. In the 
following year, a treaty was concluded 
between Holland and the United States; 
and after long protracted negotiations, 
a definitive treaty of peace with Great 
Britain was signed September 23, 1/83. 
Denmark, Spain, Sweden, and Russia, 
had previously recognised the United 
States as a sovereign power. 

In consequence of the public debt 
and distress brought on by the war, the 
country was becoming a prey to anarchy, 
when a convention, composed of dele- 
gates from the several states, met at 
Philadelphia, May 1787, for the purpose 
of revising the articles of Confederation> 
and, under the presidency of Washing- 
ton, agreed on a federal constitution 
September l7, to be proposed to the 
people in state conventions, which was 
the basis of the federal government esta- 
blished in 1789. The states subsequently 
admitted into the union were, Vermont, 
separated from New York, 1791; Ten- 
nessee, from North Carolina, 1796; 
Kentucky, from Virginia, 1799; Ohio> 
formed from lands north-west of the 
Ohio, which had been ceded to the 
general government by the states to 
which it belonged, 1802; Louisiana, 
from Louisiana purchase, 1812; Indiana, 
from North-west Territory, 1816; Mis- 
sissippi, from Georgia cession, 1817 5 
Illinois, from North-west Territory, 
1818; Alabama, from Georgia cession, 
1819; Maine, separated from Massa- 
chusetts, 1820; Missouri, set off from 
Louisiana purchase, 1820. Since then 
the following territories have been added 
to the Union: Florida, 1821; Michigan, 
Arkansas, and Columbia ; Wisconsin 
Territoiy, 1826; Iowa Territory, &c. 

During the reign of Buonaparte, in 
order to counteract the imperial decrees 
and British orders in council, the Ame- 
rican government laid an embargo, pro- 
hibiting the exportation of every article 
from the United States (Dec. 1807), and 



thus entirely annihilating theilr foreign 
commerce. At the same time, all trade 
and intercourse with France and England 
were prohibited by act of congress. In 
June, 1812, war was declared against 
Great Britain, and was continued, with 
various success, for three years, during 
which the Americans attempted, without 
success, the conquest of Canada, and 
the British were repulsed in several 
attacks upon the maritime cities. The 
successes of the Americans by sea were 
more brilliant. Peace was finally con- 
cluded at Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. 

The change in European affairs, pro- 
duced by the peace of Paris in 1815, and 
the events of the American war, contri^- 
buted to introduce a considerable change 
in the policy of the American govern- 
ment. Since that period, foreign poli- 
tics have had little influence in the 
country ; manufacturing industry has 
been developed to an astonishing degreej 
and taken under the protection of the 
government ; internal improvements — 
the construction of roads and canals — 
have been pushed with wonderful vigour ; 
the acquisition of Florida in 1821 has 
given a more secure southern boundary 
to the republic ; new states have been 
admitted into the Union^ and years of 
peace and prosperity have developed the 
resources of the country. 

1841. The line of boundary in the 
north-eastern quarter of the United 
States, between the state of Maine and 
the British provinces of New Brunswick 
and Lower Canada, has been, for some 
years, a subject of elaborate negotiation, 
and is not yet settled. The excited feelings 
of the border inhabitants, together with 
the destruction of the Caroline steamer, 
threaten to become a subject of serious 
national controversy. 

INAUGURATION OF PRESIDENTS OP 
THE UNITED STATES. 

George Washington, two terras, eight 
years, 1789—1793. 

John Adams, one term, four years, 1797- 

Thomas Jefferson, two terms, eight 
years, 1801—1805. 

James Madison, two terms, eight 
years, 1809—1813. 

James Monroe, two terms, eight years^ 
1817—1821. 

John Quincey Adams, one term, four 
years, 1825. 

Andrew Jackson, tv/o terms, eight 
years, 1329—1833. 

Martin Van Buren, March 4, 1837* 



UNI 



836 



UTR 



UNIVERSITY, London. The plan 
of this mstitution began to be enter- 
tained by Mr. (now Lord) Brougham, 
about 1816, and it was begun under his 
auspices. The funds for the erection of 
the building and for the other expenses of 
the establishment, were raised by shares 
of £100 each, the proprietors of which 
were formed into a joint stock company. 
In December, 1825, a council was elected 
by the shareholders to conduct the affairs 
of the institution, among whom were 
found the names of some of the most 
distinguished noblemen and gentlemen 
in the kingdom. 

During the year 1826, a piece of 
ground was purchased at the expense of 
£30,000 in Gower-street, Bedford-square. 
By the end of February, 1827, the whole 
of the 1500 shares having been filled up, 
on April 20, 1827, the first stone was 
laid, with the usual ceremonies, by his 
royal highness the duke of Sussex. A 
special general meeting of proprietors 
was held at the Crown and Anchor 
Tavern in the Strand, on May 30, 1827, 
when Leonard Horner, Esq., F.R.S., was 
installed with the title of warden. 

1828. The university was opened for 
the reception of students, after which 
introductory lectures, as preparatory to 
the several courses, were delivered by 
the professors. 

1834. Application having been made 
to the government for a charter of in- 
corporation, the privy council heard Dr. 
Lushington in support of the applica- 
tion, and Sir Charles Wetherell in oppo- 
sition, April 25 and 26. 

1835. Dec. 2. A special general meet- 
ing of the proprietors was held to con- 
sider a proposal of government to incor- 
porate the university as a college, and 
" to grant similar charters of incorpora- 
tion to such other bodies as may apply 
for them ; and to create a board of men, 
eminent in science and literature, to 
be termed ' The London University,' 
whose duty would be to examine all can- 
didates from such incorporated colleges, 
and grant degrees, except degrees in 
divinity." After some discussion, the 
proposition of government was assented 
to by the proprietors assembled. 



1840. Feb. 26. Annual meeting of the 
proprietors of University College. It 
was stated that the number of pupils, 
during the session, was 1 005, and the 
amount of fees paid £14,162. 

UPHAM, Edward, bookseller, at 
Bath, author of " Rameses," an Egyp- 
tian tale, and " Karmath," an Arabian 
tale, &c., died Jan. 24, 1834. 

UPHOLDERS' Company, London, 
incorporated 1627. 

URAL, or OuRAL Mountains, a 
lofty and extensive range, which forms 
the country north of Asia and Russia in 
Europe. On the banks of the river 
Holwa, which flows from the Ural, a 
battle was fought in 1472, the conse- 
quence of which was, that these coun- 
tries fell under the dominion of Russia. 
This range is rich in mineral products. 
The first working of the mines in the 
Ural range began near the river Nizza in 
the year 1623. Latterly they have been 
very productive. See Gold. 

URBINO, town, Italy, States of the 
Church, was the birthplace of the fa- 
mous Raphael. It surrendered to the 
Austrians, July 10, 1799. 

URUGUAY Republic, South Ame- 
rica. See Banda, Oriental. 

USHER, James, archbishop of Ar- 
magh, theological writer, born 1581, 
died 1656. 

USURY, an unlawful contract upon 
the loan of money, to receive the same 
again with exorbitant increase. It has 
been restrained by various statutes, viz., 
in 1275 and 1341. By statute 12 Anne, 
St. 2. c. 16, 1714, all contracts for taking 
more than five per cent, per annum in- 
terest, are in themselves totally void. 
This has been continued, except with 
regard to bills of exchange. See Bills. 

UTRECHT, city, kingdom of Hoi- 
land. The university was founded in 
1630. The Union of Utrecht was formed 
by Holland, Utrecht, Zealand, Friesland, 
and Guelderland,Jan. 22, 1579, by which 
the republic of Holland was constituted. 
Overyssel joined in 1580, and Groningen 
in J 594. The treaty of Utrecht was 
signed by Spain, July 13, 1713. The 
town surrendered to the French, Jan. 18, 
1795, but was afterwards restored. 



V AC 



837 



VAN 



V. 



VACCINATION, or Vaccine Ino- 
culation, partially introduced by Dr. 
Jenner in 1796, and first communicated 
to the world in his treatise, published in 
June, 1798, entitled, " An Inquiry into 
the Causes and Effects of the Variolse 
Vaccinae," &c. The result of his farther 
experience was also brought forward in 
subsequent publications in the course of 
the two succeeding years, and experi- 
ments afterwards made by him in con- 
nection with Dr. Pearson, Dr. Willan, 
and others. Dr. Jenner received £10,000 
for the discovery from parliament, 1802. 
A public society called the "National 
Vacchie Establishment " for the pro- 
motion of it was instituted in 1809- 
The following facts from the reports, at 
different periods, will evince the proper 
estimate to be formed of the practice. 

1829. The correspondence of the esta- 
blishment with various parts of the 
world, is stated to warrant the conclu- 
sion, that there is no increase in the pro- 
portion of cases of small-pox after vacci- 
nation, and that the efficacy of the vaccine 
lymph is not weakened or deteriorated by 
transmission through any number of sub- 
jectsin the courseof any numberof years. 

1831. The estabhshment has fur- 
nished the means of protection to the 
army and navy, to every county in Eng- 
land and Scotland, to Ireland, to the 
colonies, and to several of the capitals 
of Europe; and nearly 12,000 of the 
poor of the metropolis and its immediate 
neighbourhood were vaccinated in the 
course of the year. 

1840. The act 3 and 4 Vict. c. 29, 
passed this year, is designed to extend 
the practice of vaccination, and conse- 
quently to diminish as far as possible 
the mortality occasioned by small-pox. 
From the records of the registrar-gene- 
ral's office it appears, that the number 
of deaths by smallpox in the two years 
and a half ending December 31, 1839, 
were 30,000, being on an average about 
12,000 per annum. The above act will 
prevent these evils, by prohibiting inocu- 
lation with the small-pox, and making 
provision for the extension of gratuitous 
vaccination with the cow-pox to persons 
of every class. 



VAILLANT, Francis, the African 
traveller, died 1824. 

VALCKNAER, Louis Caspar, 
Dutch philologist and critic, born 1715, 
died 1785. 

VALENCIA, province east of Spain, 
was early conquered by the Romans, 
and, at a subsequent date, by the Goths, 
from whose hands it fell into those of 
the Moors. The latter established" the 
kingdom of Valencia in 7l3, and re- 
tained it under several vicissitudes of 
fortune until 1238, when it was united 
to Arragon. It continued to preserve 
its privileges till the early part of the 
18th century, when it was obliged to 
conform to the laws of Castile. The 
ca])ital of the same name was taken by 
the earl of Peterborough in 1705, and 
lost again two years after. In 1811 
it was taken by the French under 
Suchet. 

VALENCIENNES, city, France, de- 
partment of Nord, belonging to the 
Netherlands until 1677, when it was 
taken by the French. It was l)esieged 
by the allies from May 23 to July 14, 
1793, when the French garrison sur- 
rendered it to the combined army under 
the command of the duke of York. It 
was retaken by the French 1794. 

VALERIUS Flaccus, author of the 
"Argonauts," lived in the first century 
of the Christian era. 

VALERIUS Maximus, author of 
" Anecdotes of Great Men," flourished 
in the first century of the Christian era. 

VALMONT De Bomare, J. C, na- 
turalist, born 1731, died 1807. 

VALOIS, Henry De, French writer, 
born 1603, died I696. 

VALTELINE, lordship, Lombardo- 
Venetian kingdom. On July 20, 1620, 
there was a general massacre of the pro- 
testants in this territory. 

VANCOUVER, George, English 
navigator, born 1750, died 1798. 

VANDALS, originally a Gothic na- 
tion, first began to be troublesome to the 
Romans in the reign of M. Aurelius and 
Lucius Verus, about 166. Began their 
kingdom in Spain 412, passed into 
Africa, and took Carthage, which began 
their kingdom in that quarter, 439, 



VAN 



S38 



VEN 



became masters of Sicily 454 ; their king- 
dom finished by Belisarius 634. 

VANDER-MONDE, the mathema- 
tician, born 1735, died 1796. 

VANDERVELDE, Adrian, cele- 
brated painter, born 1639, died 1672. 

VAN Diemen's Land, island in the 
Southern Ocean, separated from New 
Holland by Bass' Straits. It was dis- 
covered by Tasman in 1633, and Capt. 
Cook called here in 1777 for supplies. 
It has been since visited by different 
navigators, and latterly British colonies 
have been established here. For a long 
period this island was thought to be a 
peninsula of the vast territory of New 
Holland, its insularity being only de- 
monstrated in 1798 by Mr. Surgeon 
Bass and Lieutenant Flinders. 

1804. It was regularly taken posses- 
sion of by the English, with a view of 
forming a penal settlement for persons 
convicted in Sidney, and was originally 
dependent on New South Wales. After 
various surveys of the river Derwent, the 
present site of Hobart Town was decided 
upon for head-quarters. In 1813, Lieu- 
tenant-colonel Davy arrived from Eng- 
land as lieutenant-governor ; and it was 
about this time that the importance and 
value of the colony began to be de- 
veloped. About 1821 the tide of emi- 
gration set in from England, and the 
natural consequence was an extension of 
the colony within itself in every shape. 

1825. Van Diemen's Land was de- 
clared by the king in council indepen- 
dent of the colony of New South Wales, 
the chief authority being vested in a 
lieutenant'governor and council inde- 
pendent of the control of the ruling 
powers at Sidney. The statute 9 Geo. 
IV. c. 83, 1828, continued by 2 and 3 
Victoria, c. 70.— Aug. 24, 1839, pro- 
vides for the government of New South 
Wales and Van Diemen's Land, and 
empowers the local legislatures to make 
rules for the better administration of 
justice. 

The commerce of Van Diemen's Land 
is very considerable, and is rapidly in- 
creasing. The customs duty collected 
in the colony exceed £71,000 a-year, 
and the whole ordinary revenue is about 
£100,000, The arrivals in 1835 were 
234 ships, burden 55,833 tons. 

VANDYCK, Sir Anthony, portrait 
painter, born at Antwerp 1599, died 1641 . 

VANE, Sir Henry, (the younger,) 
a statesman, born 1612, beheaded 1662. 



VAN EYCK, Hubert, paihter> 
founder of the Flemish school, born 
1366, died 1426. 

VAPOUR Cave, at Pyrmont, dis- 
covered to have similar effects to the 
Grotto del Cane in Italy, and the Poison 
Valley in Java, 1733. 

VARILLAS, Ant., historian, born 
1624, died I696. 

VARRO, Terentius, author of " De 
Re Rustica," died a.c. 28, aged 88. 

VASCO De Gama. See Gama. 

VATER, John Severinus, an emi* 
nent philologist, born 1771, died 1826. 

" VATICAN, the name of a celebrated 
palace at Rome, erected by different archi- 
tects at different eras. It was begun about 
the end of the fifth, or the beginning of 
the sixth century, and rebuilt, increased, 
and altered by various pontiffs, from that 
period down almost to the present time. 
The library was founded in 1448. 

VATTEL, the author of the " Law of 
nations," died 1767. 

VAUBAN, MareschalSeb., French 
engineer, and improver of the art of forti- 
fication, died 1707, aged 74. 

VAUGELAS, Claud, French writer, 
born 1585, died 1650. 

VEGETIUS, the author " De Re 
Militari," flourished in the fourth cen- 
tury. 

VELLIUS Paterculus, author of 
the " History of Rome," lived in the first 
century of the Christian era. 

VELLUM, invention of the art of 
writing upon skins, ascribed to Eumenes, 
king of Pergamus, the contemporary 
with Ptolemy Philadelphus, who began 
to reign A.c. 281. 

VENDEE, La, department west of 
France, memorable for the resistance 
made to the republican army in 1793, 
1794 and 1795. La Vendee was also the 
scene of some sharp fighting in 1815, 
and again in 1832, when, excited by the 
duchess of Berri, it resisted the govern- 
ment. See Berri. 

VENICE, a city of Italy, and a long 
time the capital of a territory of the 
same name. The first inhabitants were 
the Veneti. They were conquered by 
the Gauls, and made a kingdom about 
a.c. 356; conquered for the Romans by 
MarceUus, 221. The city had its origin 
when Attila, afterwards king of the 
Huns, ravaged the north part of Italy, 
the inhabitants retired into the islands of 
the Gulf of Venice, on which the city 
was founded in 421. 



VER 



839' 



VET 



The government, at first democratic, 
fell progressively into the hands of the 
aristocracy, the official head of the exe- 
cutive power first bearing the title of 
doge or duke in 697- About 1247 the 
government became a settled aristocracy, 
which was the period of the greatest 
relative power of the Venetians. In 
1508 the territorial possessions of the 
republic were threatened by the formi- 
dable coalition, well known under the 
name of The League of Cambray, and 
Venice was forced to cede to Spain her 
possessions in the kingdom of Naples. 

After the French revolution, the re- 
public observed a cautious neutrality. 
But nevertheless the state was over- 
turned in 1797, by the treaty of Campo 
Formio. It remained subject to Austria 
till 1805, when it was annexed to the 
French kingdom of Italy ; but in 1814 
it returned definitively under the power 
of Austria, and with its neighbouring 
territory it was constituted a govern- 
ment and delegate of the Lombardo- 
Venetian kingdom. 

VENN, Henry, divine, bom 1725, 
died 1797. 

VENTILATORS first invented by the 
Rev. Dr. Hales, 1740. 

VERDE IsLtANDS. See Cave de 
Verde. 

VERMONT, one of the United States, 
North America, was originally claimed 
by New Hampshire acd New York ; and 
its political condition was, for a consi- 
derable time unsettled ; but the people, 
preferring to have a separate government, 
formed a constitution in 1777, which 
was organised in 1788, and in 1791 
"Vermont was admitted into the Union. 

VERNET, Joseph, a celebrated ma- 
rine painter, born 1712 died 1789- 

VERNON, Admiral, British naval 
commander who took Porto Bello, died 
1757, aged 73. See Porto Bello. 

VEROCCHIO, Andrew, a Floren- 
tine, who first found out the method of 
taking likeness in plaster of Paris, born 
1432, died 1488. 

VERONA, ancient city, Lorabardo- 
Venetian kingdom.* Julius Caesar esta- 
blished a colony here. On the decline of 
the empire, it experienced the fate of the 
other towns in the north of Italy. It 
was taken by Charlemagne in 774; be- 
came subsequently a free town ; fell, in 
the course of time, under the sway of 
leading families; and in 1405, was 
\mit^d to the territorial possessions of 



Venice. With these it enjoyed many 
ages of peace and tranquillity, until 
1796, when Italy was invaded by the 
French. It was then added to the king- 
dom of Italy. In 1814 it was ceded to 
Austria, and in 1822 the members of the 
holy alliance met here to deliberate oa 
the aflFairs of Europe. 

VERONESE, Paolo^ celebrated Ita- 
lian painter, bom 1532, died 1588. 

VERSAILLES, town, France, depart- 
ment of Seine and Oise, has been long 
the occasional residence of the court. 
Louis XIII. built a hunting seat here in 
1630, which Louis XIV. enlarged into a 
magnificent palace. It was the usual 
residence of the kings of France till 1789^, 
when Louis XVI. and his family were 
removed from it to Paris. 

VERTOT, author of the " History of 
the Roman Republic," died 1735. 

VESALIUS, AND.REW, anatomist, 
born 1514, shipwrecked 1564. 

VESPASIAN, Titus Flavius, the 
Roman emperor, conquered the Isle of 
Wight 43. Began the first Jewish war 
66 ; died 79. 

VESPUCCIUS, Ambrico, a Floren- 
tine, discoverer of the West Indies, and 
who by art and contrivance has assumed 
the honour of giving his name to the 
New Continent, to the disparagement of 
the diseoveFer, Columbus, died after 
1497. 

VESTA, planet, discovered by Dr. 
Olbers, March 29, I807. 

VESUVIUS, volcanic mountain, south 
of Italy, eight miles south south-east of 
Naples. It is nearly 30 miles in circuit at 
the base, and about 3700 feet high. The 
eruption in the year 79, under Titus, was 
accompanied by an earthquake, which 
overturned several cities, particularly 
Pompeii and Herculaneum, and proved 
fatal to Pliny the naturalist: 250,000 peo- 
ple were destroyed. The following are 
the dates of the principal eruptions from 
that period: a.d 203, 272, 472, when 
all Campania was destroyed; 512, 685, 
993, 1036, 1043, 1048, 1136, 1506, 1538; 
at Puzzoli, 1631, 1632, when 4000 per- 
sons and a large tract of land was de- 
stroyed ; 1660, 1682, 1694, 1701, 1704, 
1712, 1717, 1730, 1737, 1751, 1754, 1760, 
1766, 1767, 1770, 1771, 1779, 1785,1786, 
1787, 1794, 1810, 1814, 1816, 1819i and 
partial ones in 1838 and 1839. The per- 
manent effect of the eruptions has been 
to lower the height of the summit. 
VETERINARY Art was attended to 



VIE 



840 



VIN 



by the ancients. Xenophon is the oldest 
veterinary writer on record. In Eng- 
land, until the reign of George I., the 
medical care of horses was confided en- 
tirely to the farriers. In the early part 
of the 18th century the art was revived. 
A veterinary college was established at 
St. Pancras, near London, in 1792, since 
which time a great number of veterinary 
surgeons have been dispersed in the 
army and throughout the country, to 
our great national advantage. 

VICE-CHANCELLOR of Eng- 
land, office of, created 1813. 

VICTORIA, Alexandrina, queen 
of England, was born at Kensington, 
May 24, 1819; attained her majority 
May 24, 1837. Her coronation was ce- 
lebrated June 28, 1838. See Corona- 
tion. 

1840. Feb. 10. The marriage of her 
majesty with Prince Albert was solem- 
nised at St. James's Chapel. The day 
was celebrated in the metropolis and 
throughout the country by a general 
holiday and illumination. 

June 10. Attempted assassination of 
her majesty, by a young man named 
O.xford. See Oxford. Nov. 21. The 
Queen gave birth to a daughter at Buck- 
ingham Palace, at two p.m. The chris- 
tening of the infant Princess Royal took 
place Feb. 10, 1841, (the anniversary of 
the queen's marriage,) in the throne- 
room of Buckingham Palace. The king 
of the Belgians was present on the occa- 
sion. The duke of Wellington officiated 
as sponsor on the part of the duke of 
Saxe Coburg and Gotha, who was pre- 
vented from being present. The other 
sponsors were the Queen Dowager, the 
duchess of Gloucester, the duchess of 
Kent, the king of the Belgians, and the 
duke of Susse.T. The Queen Dowager 
named the royal child — " Victoria Ade- 
laide Mary Louisa." 

VICTUALLING Office instituted 
Dec. 10, 1663. 

VIDA, a modern Latin poet, died 
1566. 

VIENNA, (Vindobona of the Ro- 
mans,) city, capital of Austrian empire, 
was long the head quarters of a Roman 
legion. In 791 Charlemagne attached 
it to his dominions. It was captured in 
1484, by the Hungarians, under their 
king Matthias, who resided in it till his 
death, after which it was restored to 
Austria. In 1529 the Turks destroyed 
the suburbs. In 1633 it was attacked 



by the Turkish army, but repulsed under 
the government of Sobieski. In 1805 
Vienna surrendered to the French, but 
was given up by the peace of Presburg. 
In 1809 it again surrendered to the 
French, but was restored on the conclu- 
sion of peace, in 1813. 

VIETA, eminent French mathemati- 
cian, died 1603. 

VILLA Franca, town, Italy, king- 
dom of Piedmont and Sardinia. It was 
taken by the French in 1705, by the 
French and Spaniards in 1744, and by 
the French in 1792. 

VILLARS, Marshall, French gene- 
ral, died 1734, aged 79. 

VINCE, Rev. S., the astronomer, died 
1822. 

VINCENNES, town, France, depart- 
ment Seine. Its castle, built in a re- 
mote age, was a country residence of the 
royal family, but since Louis XIV. re- 
moved the court to Versailles, it has 
been used as a state prison. It was here 
that the unfortunate duke d'Enghien was 
shot in 1804. 

VINCENT, Sir John Jervis, Earl 
St. a distinguished naval officer, was 
born at Meaford, in Jan. 1735. In April 
1766 he was made post-captain; rear- 
admiral of the blue, Dec. 1790; vice- 
admiral, April 1794; admiral, Feb. 1799; 
and admiral of the fleet, July, 1821. 
Tiie celebrated battle off Ca])e St. Vin- 
cent took place Feb. 14, 1797. Soon 
after this, Sir John Jervis was created a 
peer, by the title of Baron Jervis of 
Meaford, and Viscount and Earl St. Vin- 
cent. He died 1823, aged 89. 

VINCENT, St., island. West Indks, 
one of the windward Caribbees. The 
original inhabitants were Caribs, a war- 
like race, supposed to have been a colony 
from North America. It was long a 
neutral island ; but at the peace of 1763, 
the French agreed that the right of it 
should be ceded to the English. This 
was followed by the reduction of the 
island by the French, who restored it in 
1783. It was almost desolated in 1812, 
by an eruption of the Souffrier moun- 
tain, which had continued quiet for nearly 
a century before. 

VINCENT, William, D.D. head 
master of Westminster school, died 1811. 

VINCI, Leon Da, celebrated Italian 
painter, born 1452, died at Paris in the 
arms of the king of France, 1520. 

VINER, Richard, English divine, 
and author of the " Abridgment of 



VOL 



841 



VUL 



English Law," in 24 vols, folio, died 
1757. 

VINTNERS' Company, London, in- 
corporated 1437. 

VIOLINS, invented about 1477, and 
introduced into England by Charles II. 

VIRGIL, or PuBLius Virgilius 
Maro, the most excellent of all the 
Latin poets, was the son of a potter of 
Andes, near Mantua, where he was born, 
A.c. 70. He studied first at Mantua ; 
then at Cremona, Milan, and Naples ; 
whence, going to Rome, he acquired the 
esteem of the greatest wits and most 
illustrious persons of his time. He turn- 
ed his attention to pastoral ; and his first 
performance, entitled " Alexis," is sup- 
posed to have been written a.u.c. 709. 
The celebrated eclogue, entitled "PoUio," 
was composed a.u.c. 714. His yEneid 
was written when he was in his 45th year. 
He died at Brundusium, A.c. 19. 

VIRGINIA, one of the United States 
of North America. The first permanent 
English settlement formed in America 
was in 1607, on James river, in this 
state. In l66l the laws of England 
were adopted as provincial laws. The 
colonists suffered great injury in 1673, 
from the Dutch squadron which ravaged 
the coast, and also from insuaections, 
which broke out in 1675 and 1676. In 
1754 Colonel Washington surprised and 
took Fort du Quesne; but was after- 
wards obliged to yield to superior force. 
Virginia showed great opposition to the 
arbitrary measures of the British go- 
vernment in 1765 and 1769. The con- 
stitution of this state was formed in 1776, 
and amended by convention Jan. 14, 1830. 

VISCOUNT, the first in England, 
Feb. 12, 1440. 

VISIGOTHS. See Goths. 

VITRUVIUS, the Roman architect, 
flourished a.c. 135. 

VOLCANIC Island formed in the 
Mediterranean, off the coast of Sicily, 
Sept. 1831. Discovery of a new group 
of volcanic islands about 180 miles to 
the west of Valparaiso, February 12, 1839. 

VOLNEY, Count, author of the 
" Ruins of Empires," born 1757, died 
1820. 

VOLTA, Alessandro, whose dis- 
coveries in physical science are among 
the most important of the last century, 
was born at Como, Naples, Feb. 18, 1745. 



Having finished his studies, he was ap- 
pointed, in 1774, to a professorship in 
his native city ; and, in 1779, to one at 
the university of Pavia, which, during a 
quarter of a century, was the theatre of 
his labours and his glory. At the end 
of this period, 1804, he was permitted 
to retire, on condition that he should 
continue to give some lectures every 
year. Volta's principal discoveries and 
inventions were as follows : — The per- 
petual electrophorus ; a description of 
which he wrote in June 1775. The vol- 
taic pistol and lamp, invented in 1777- 
The eudiometer in the same year. The 
voltaic pile, 1800. See Galvanism. He 
died March 1827.. 

VOLTAIRE, Francis Arouet De, 
the celebrated French author, was born 
at Paris, Feb. 20, 1694, and flourished in 
the reign of Louis XIV. He had early 
imbibed a turn for satire ; and, for some 
philippics against the government, was 
imprisoned almost a year in the bastile. 
When about 18 he pubhshed " The 
League," by which the author gained 
only enemies and mortification. His 
" Lettres Philosophiques," abounding 
in indecent witticisms against religion, 
having been burnt, and a warrant being 
issued for apprehending the author in 
1733, Voltaire withdrew. His tragedy 
of " Mahomet " was first acted in 1741. 
"Merope," played two years after, 1743, 
gave an idea of a species of tragedy, of 
which few models had existed. Through 
the interest of Madame d'Etiole, after- 
wards marchioness of Pompadour, he 
was appointed a gentleman of the bed- 
chamber in ordinary, historiographer of 
France, and in 1746 became a member 
of the Academy of Sciences. In 1749 
the king of Prussia gave Voltaire an 
invitation to live with him, which he 
accepted in August 1750. He after- 
wards retired to the castle of Ferney in 
France, about a league from the lake of 
Geneva. Wearied at length, however, 
with his situation, he came to Paris about 
the beginning of the year 1778, where 
he wrote a new tragedy called " Irene," 
He died in 1780, in his 86th year. 

VOSS, J. H., the German translator 
of the "Ihad and Odyssey," died 1826. 

VOSSIUS, Isaac, Greek scholar, 
born 1618, died 1688. 
VULGATE Bible. See BiBLE,p.lOO. 



5 p 



WAL 



84-2 



WAL 



w. 



WAGER OF Battle, old law of, re- 
pealed 1819. 

WAITHMAN, Robert, alderman, 
and one of the representatives of the city 
of London. When he became of age, he 
entered into business as a linen-draper, 
and commenced his political career about. 
1792. In 1818 he obtained his election 
as one of the representatives in parlia- 
ment of the city of London. In 1820 
he attained the honour of the shrievalty; 
and in October, 1823, he was chosen 
lord mayor. In 1826 he was re-elected 
as member for the city, and continued 
to obtain his re-election without diffi- 
culty. He died Feb. 6, 1833, aged 70. 

WAKEFIELD, Rev. Gilbert, di- 
vine and critic, born 1756, died 1801. 

WAKEFIELD, Priscilla, author 
of " Mental Improvement," &c., born 
1751, died 1832. 

WALACHIA, or Wallachia, pro- 
vince European Turkey, was unknown 
in authentic history until its invasion 
and conquest by the Romans, in the 
reign of Trajan. On the decline of the 
empire, it alternately fell into the pos- 
session of the Greek emperors and the 
barbarians. In the 13th and 14th cen- 
turies it was in some degree subject to 
Hungary. It was ceded to the Turks 
by the treaty of Belgrade in 1739, and 
remained sul)ject to the Porte till the 
breaking out of the Greek insurrection, 
when it was for a short time occupied 
by the Russians, but was restored to the 
Turks by the treaty of Adrianople in 
1829- 

WALCHEREN, island, kingdom of 
Belgium, province of Zealand, was taken 
by the British in July, 1809, with a view 
to the destruction of the ships and arsenal 
at Antwerp ; but abandoned December 
following. 

WALDENSES, a sect of reformers, 
who derived their origin from Peter 
Waldo, a merchant of Lyons. About 
1160 he began to oppose the Roman 
church, and to instruct the multitude in 
the doctrines and precepts of Christianity. 
After his death, in 1179. the Waldenses 
were scattered aliroad in many parts of 
Italy, France, and Germany; but one 
of their principal divisions occupied the 



valleys of Piedmont. In most of their 
retreats, popish vengeance pursued them, 
with but few intervals of respite, for a 
long succession of years. The first 
general attack was made on them about 
1400. Another massacre was the con- 
sequence of a bull, published by Inno- 
cent VIII., 1487. In 1561 a fierce and 
formidable attack was made on the valley 
by the Piedmontese forces. In 1655 a 
more determined and systematic effort 
was made by a combined force of Sa- 
voyards, French, and Germans, under 
the command of the Piedmontese gene- 
ral, the marquess di Piannezza. At this 
period the government of England was 
in the hands of Oliver Cromwell, who 
afforded them his protection. The next 
persecution of the Waldenses was that 
of 1685, when the duke of Savoy threw 
into prison 14,000, v.ho had, in simple 
reliance on his good faith, put them- 
selves into his power. Again the pro- 
testant governments of Europe interfered. 
From thfs period the Waldenses conti- 
nueil to exist and to increase in numbers 
and strength in Piedmont. From 1800, 
when that country submitted to France, 
till 1814, the Waldenses were placed on 
the same footing with other subjects, 
and emerged from the state of slavery 
under which they had groaned for ages. 
Though far from enjoying the privileges 
to which they are entitled, they are, at 
length, allowed a reluctant and restricted 
toleration. 

WALES, principality. Great Britain, 
anciently subdivided into petty states, 
but now wholly incorporated with Eng- 
land. When Julius Csesar invaded Bri- 
tain, A.c. 54, this country was called 
Cambria, and inhabited by Siiures, Di- 
raetae, and Ordovices. Upon the retire- 
ment of the Romans, intestine feuds 
convulsed and rent this province. 

In 843 Roderic the Great united the 
states into one principality, and ruled 
over his new kingdom. He was fol- 
lowed by a line of Welsh princes, who 
were continually at war among them- 
selves. During the continuance of these 
domestic feuds, in 1091, the sul)jugation 
of Wales was effected, by the enterprising 
spirit of Robert Fitzhamon, a Norman 



WAL 



843 



WAR 



baron. This was the origin of a new 
and iinusu'5,1 government, named that of 
the lords marchers. From this time the 
history of Wales, as an independent 
nation, hastens to a close; and at the 
death of Llewellyn ap Gryffydh in 1282, 
it may be said to have become extinct. 

The entire conquest of the principality 
was completed by Edward I. in 1282 ; but 
his policy permitted the enjoyment of as 
much freedom as was consistent with 
English laws. His humane intentions 
were, however, frustrated by the despotic 
lords marchers, whose power continued 
until the 27th of Henry VIH., when sub- 
stantial relief was afforded to this op- 
pressed district, by a statute which esta- 
blished the administration of the laws 
upon a more solid and unimpeachable 
foundation, and was the original of what 
was called the great session of Wales. 
This system of judicature continued in 
operation until the year 1831, when the 
Welsh jurisdiction was totally abolished, 
and the counties attached to the Oxford 
and western circuits, according to the 
convenience of position, and included 
henceforth in the great sessions of Eng- 
land and Wales. See England. 

WALES, New South, British co- 
lony, established on the eastern coast of 
Australia, or New Holland, so named by 
Captain Cook who discovered it in 1770. 
The first penal settlement was formed 
at Botany Bay in 1788. See Botany 
Bay. But as neither the bay nor the land 
afforded shelter to commerce, orders 
were immediately given for the removal 
of the fleet to Port Jackson, and on Feb- 
ruary 7, a regular form of government 
was established at Sidney Cove. 

The boundary of the New3 South 
Wales territory extends coastwise between 
the parallels of lat. 36° and 28° S., or 
about 500 miles along the sea-shore. 
The portion within whicli land may be 
selected was fixed by a government order, 
dated Sidney, October 1829, and com- 
prised 34,505 square miles, or 22,083,200 
acres. The British settlements in this 
quarter contain the towns of Sidney, the 
capital ; Paramatta, Windsor, Liverpool, 
Newcastle, &c. The settlements in Van 
Diemen's Land were also formerly in- 
cluded in New South Wales. See Van 
Diemen's Land. 

Since the establishment of the colony, 
many expeditions have been undertaken 
with a view to explore the inteiior, par- 
ticularly under the direction of Major 



Mitchell, the surveyor-general of the co- 
lony, in 1835, 1836, and 1838. At Port 
Philip a town named Melbourne has been 
founded at the north eastern angle of the 
bay, and is rapidly increasing. 

1840. The statute 3 and 4 Victoria, 
c. 62, Aug. 7, declares that it shall be 
lawful for her majesty, by letters patent, 
to erect into a separate colony any islands 
which now are, or which hereafter may 
be, comprised within, and be depen- 
dencies of, the colony of New South 
Wales, &c. 

WALKER, Rev George, author of 
the " Petition for acknowledging Ame- 
rican Independence," which Burke said 
he would rather have been the author of 
than of all his own compositions, died 
1807, aged 72. 

WALKER, Sir Patrick, F.R.S., 
Ed. F. L. S., a zealous entomologist, who 
possessed the most extensive entomolo- 
gical collection in Scotland, died 1838. 

WALL, William, divine, born 1646, 
died 1728. 

WALLACE, Sir William, eminent 
Scotch general and patriot, born 1276, 
executed 1305. 

WALLER, Edmund, English poet, 
died 1687, aged 81. 

WALLIS, John, mathematician and 
divine, born 1616, died 1703. 

WALMER Castle, Kent, built 1539. 

WALPOLE, Horace, earl of Ox- 
ford, author of the " Castle of Otranto," 
&c., died 1797, aged 80. 

WALPOLE, Sir Robert, earlof Ox- 
ford, born 1674 ; committed to the Tower 
1712 ; took his seat in the house of 
peers, Feb. 11, 1741-2; died 1745. 

WALSINGHAM, Sir Francis, the 
statesman, died 1590. 

WALTHAM Abbey, built 1062 j 
cross built 1292. 

WALTON, Brian, bishop of Chester, 
editor of the Polyglot Bible, died 1661. 

WALTON, Isaac, " the common 
father of all anglers," and the biogra- 
pher of Dr. Donne, Sir Henry Wotton, 
Hooker, and Herbert ; and author of the 
'* Complete Angler, or Contemplative 
Man's Recreation." He was born 1593 ; 
died 1683. 

WALWORTH, lord mayor of Lon- 
don, who killed Wat Tyler with the city 
mace, 1381. 

WARBECK, Perkin, the pretender 
to the English throne, executed Nov. 
1499. 

W A RBURTON, William, a learned 



WAS 



844 



WAT 



English bishop, was born at Newark, in 
Nottinghamshire, Dec. 24, 1698. The 
first pubhcation which rendered him 
afterwards famous, appeared in 1736, 
under the title of the "Alliance between 
Church and State." The " Divine Lega- 
tion of Moses" was- first pubhshed in 
Jan, 1737-8. In 1754 he was appointed 
one of his majesty's chaplains in ordi- 
nary, and in the next year was presented 
to a prebend in the cathedral of Durham. 
In 1760 he was advanced to the bishopric 
of Gloucester. He was the author of 
many other valuable works. He died in 
1779, in his 81st year. 

WARDROBE, Great, in Scotland- 
yard, London, established 1485. 

WARSAW, city, capital of Poland. 
Praga, one of its suburbs, is memorable 
for the assaults made on it in 1794, by 
the Russians under Suwarrow, who, in 
November took it by storm, massacred 
the inhabitants, and nearly reduced it to 
ashes. In 1796 they delivered the city 
up to the king of Prussia. In 1806 the 
French occupied this place ; and by the 
treaty of Tilsit, the city, with this part of 
Poland, was given to Saxony, to be held 
under the title of the duchy of Warsaw. 
The Russians, however, overran it in 
1813, and took possession of the city. 
In 1833, after the memorable struggle of 
the Poles for hberty, it fell entirely 
under the power of Russia. 

WARTON, Rev. Dr. Joseph, author 
of the " Essay on the Life and Writings 
of Pope," &c. died 1800. 

WARTON, Rev. Dr. Thomas, au- 
thor of the " History of English Poetry," 
&c. died 1790. 

WARWICK, market town, Warwick- 
shire. Its origin may be referred to the 
Saxon heptarchy, when Warremund, a 
Mercian chief, founded a fortress here. 
It was destroyed by the Danes, and 
restored about 913 by Ethelfleda, the 
daughter of king Alfred. After the 
Norman conquest the town was encom- 
passed with walls, and the castle enlarged 
and rebuilt. This edifice is one of the 
most complete and magnificent examples 
of the baronial architecture of the mid- 
dle ages. In the reign of Edward I. the 
fortifications were repaired by Guy Beau- 
champ, earl of Warwick; and in tlie 
civil war, under Charles II., the castle 
was garrisoned for the parliament. 

WASHINGTON, George, the cele- 
brated commander of the American 
army, was bom in 17.32, in Virginia. In 



1755 he served as a volunteer in the un- 
fortunate expedition of General Brad- 
dock. When the disaffection of the 
Americans to the British government had 
become genera], he was appointed a dele- 
gate from Virginia to the congress which 
met at Philadelphia on October 26, 
1774, and soon after to the command of 
the American army. He was at length 
raised to the presidency of the congress, 
in which important character he contri- 
buted greatly to the success, and finally 
to the independence of his country. 
Washington resigned the presidency in 
1796, after having published a farewell 
address to his countrymen. From this 
time till the month of July, 1798, he lived 
in retirement at his seat of Mount Ver- 
non. He died Dec. 14, 1799, in his 
68 th year. 

WASHINGTON, city and capital of 
the United States. The foundation of 
the north wing was laid in the presence 
of General Washington in 1798, and that 
of the centre in 1818. The city was 
incorporated by an act of congress, 
passed on May 3, 1802. Washington was 
taken by the British, and the principal 
buildings destroyed by fire, Aug. 24, 
1814. 

WATCHES invented at Nuremberg, 
in Germany, 1477 ; first used in astro- 
nomical observations 1500. Watches 
first brought to England from Germany 
1597; spring pocket ones, invented by 
Hooke, 1658. 

WATER, formerly considered as a 
simple elementary substance, in the 18th 
century was found to consist of 85 parts 
of oxygen gas, and 15 of hydrogen gas. 
The experiments which led to this dis- 
covery were made in 1776, by M. M. 
Macquer andSigaud de la Fond; in 1781, 
by Dr. Priestly and Mr. John Warltire ; 
and in 178.3, by M.M. Lavoisier, De la 
Place, Watt, &c. 

Supply of Water. — London was 
very ill supplied before the New River 
water was introduced into the city. 
Water was first conveyed to London 
by leaden pipes, 21st Henry III. 1237. 
It took near 50 years to complete it ; 
the whole being finished, and Cheapside 
conduit erected, in 1285. An engine 
was erected at Broken-wharf, to convey 
water by leaden pipes, 1594. 

The New River was brought to Lon- 
don from Amwell, in Hertfordshire, at 
an immense expense, by Sir Hugh Mid- 
dleton, in 1614. See New River Cut. 




©H®. ^^!m^IHIIW(S'T@M. 




Xaitorr, ■ Biatiahe^ ty JDmmas S^riJ. taiemosler Saw: 



'^^ 



WAT 



845 



WAT 



The city was supplied with its water, by 
conveyances of wooden pipes in the 
streets, and small leaden ones to the 
houses. The New River company was 
incorporated 1620. 

The water companies of London, and 
the houses and buildings supplied by 
them in 1834, were — 

The New River. . . 70,140 
The East London . 4d,421 
The West Middlesex . 16,000 
The Chelsea . . . 13,892 
The Grand Junction . 8,780 
The Lambeth . . . 16,682 
The South London . . 12,046 
The South wark . . 7,100 
The average per day supphed by the 
whole is 28,774,000 gallons. 

WATERFORD, city, Ireland, in the 
province of Munster. The foundation 
is attributed to the Danes, and dated 
879. Richard H. was crowned here 
1399 ; and in the reign of Hemy VIL 
the city was augmented and considerable 
privileges bestowed upon it. The see 
of Waterford was established some time 
in the 11th century. The cathedral with 
an organ of the value of 1200 guineas 
was destroyed by fire, Oct. 25, 1815. 

WATERLAND, Daniel, English 
divine and writer, born 1683, died 1740. 
WATERLOO, village, Belgium, cele- 
brated for the signal victory obtained by 
the British under the duke of Welling- 
ton, with their allies, over the French 
under Buonaparte, June 18, 1815. In 
this well-known battle, the day was ob- 
stinately contested by some of the finest 
troops, headed by two of the most cele- 
brated generals the world has ever pro- 
duced. During the battle, the duke of 
Wellington presented himself in person 
in situations of the greatest danger, and 
repeatedly led on his own troops, ex- 
claiming, " We must not be beat ; what 
would they say in England?" At seven 
o'clock in the evening, and at a critical 
time, when the day was almost lost, on 
the arrival of Prussian reinforcements 
the whole line of battle was ordered to 
move forwards, while the duke in person 
led on the centre. The attack was irre- 
sistible. " All is lost !" issued from all 
parts of the French army ; they fled in 
all directions; and the emperor with his 
suite galloped off the field. This impor- 
tant battle terminated the military career 
of Buonaparte, as well as the contest 
which had for many years desolated Eu- 
rope. 



WATERLOO Bridge. See Bridge, 

p. 129. 

WATERMAN'S and Lighterman's 
Company, London, incorporated 1550. 

WATERSPOUT, an extraordinary 
and very formidable phenomenon fre- 
quently observed at sea, and sometimes, 
though more rarely, seen on land. A 
terrific one burst upon Mount St. John, 
in Cumberland, Aug. 23, 1749. A very 
destructive one, occurred near Aix, in 
the department of Mount Blanc, France, 
Julys, 1809- A waterspout burst on the 
Clidagh mountains, county of Kerry, in 
Ireland, by which a large district was 
torn up, and nine persons lost, Aug. 4, 
1831. 

WATER- WORKS. See Water. 

WATSON, James, tried for assault- 
ing a patrol on the night succeeding the 
Spafields riots, in 1816, and acquitted, 
Jan. 21, 1817: tried for high treason 
in connection with these riots, and ac- 
quitted June 16, 1817. See Spafields. 

WATSON, Richard, a distinguished 
British prelate, was born at Haversham, 
in Westmoreland, in August, 1737. He 
was admitted a sizar of Trinity College, 
Cambridge, in November, 1754, where 
he greatly improved himself in Greek 
and Latin, and made considerable pro- 
ficiency in mathematics and natural phi- 
losophy. In 1764 he was unanimously 
elected professor of chemistry on the 
death of Dr. Hadley. In 1771 he was 
made regius professor of divinity, and 
in 1782 he obtained the bishopric of 
Llandaff. During the whole course of 
his hfe Bishop Watson continued the 
strenuous advocate for civil and religious 
liberty. He died July 4, 1816, highly 
respected for the integrity of his political 
career, and bequeathing to his succes- 
sors a handsome fortune. 

WATT, James, celebrated engineer 
and improver of the steam-engine, born 
1735, died 1819. See Steam-engine. 
M. Arago, in a recent communication, 
says of him, " There are few inventions, 
among those so admirably combined in 
our present steam-engines, which are 
not the development of some of the ori- 
ginal ideas of Watt. In addition to his 
principal inventions he proposed ma- 
chines without condensation, in which, 
after having acted, the steam is dispersed 
in the air. The operation of the prin- 
ciple of expansion in machines, with 
several cylinders, was also one of his 
projects. He suggested the idea of 



WEI 



pistons, which should be perfectly steam- 
tight, although composed exclusively of 
metal, and of the indicator, a small appa- 
ratus so constructed that it accurately 
exhibits the state of the steam, in rela- 
tion to the position of the piston," &c. 

WATTS, Dr. Isaac, a learned and 
eminent dissenting minister and poet, 
was born at Southampton in 1674. In 
1690 he was sent up to London for 
academical education under the tui- 
tion of the Rev. Thomas Rowe ; and 
in 1696 was himself engaged as tutor 
to the son of Sir John Hartopp, hart., 
at Stoke Newington. He began to 
preach in 1 698 ; and after officiating 
as an assistant to the Rev. Dr. Isaac 
Chauncy, he succeeded to his pastoral 
charge in 1702, and continued to preside 
over that church as long as he lived. 
He died in 1748. His " Lyric Poems," 
his " Psalms and Hymns," and his 
" Divine Songs for Children," are a suf- 
ficient proof of his poetical talents. His 
" Logic and Philosophy" have been 
also much admired. 

WAX Chandlers' Company, Lon- 
don, incorporated 1484. 

WAYNFLETE, William, prelate 
and statesman, died I486. 

W^EAVERS' Company, London, in- 
corporated 1164. 

WEBBE, Samuel, musical com- 
poser, born 1740, died 1817. By a 
course of self-education, he made himself 
master of the Latin, French, Italian, Ger- 
man, and Hebrew languages. 

WEDGEWOOD,JosiAH, whose skill 
in the manufacture of the finer earthen- 
wares gave birth to an important branch 
of commerce, both foreign and domestic, 
died 1795, aged 64. See Thermo- 
meter. 

WEEVER, John, author of "Ancient 
Funeral Monuments of Great Britain," 
died 1632. 

WEIGHTS AND Measures. The 
balance was used from the remotest an- 
tiquity. The principal standards used 
in the ancient world were, the cubit of 
the Jews, from which their other mea- 
sures of length, capacity, and weight were 
derived ; and the foot of the Greeks and 
Romans. In England, a standard of 
lineal measure was introduced by Henry 
I., who ordered that the yard should be 
made of the exact length of his own 
arm, and that the other measures of 
length should be raised upon it. This 
standard was more fully established in 



846 . WES 

12'7 in the reign of Henry III., and re- 
gulated in 1492 in the reign of Henry 
VII.,' and it has been since maintained 
without any sensible yariation. In 1742 
the Royal Society had a yard made, from 
this standard, a copy of which, made in 
1760, having been examined by a com- 
mittee of the house of commons, was 
declared by the act 5 Geo. IV. c. 74, 
June, 1824, to be the standard of lineal 
measure in Great Britain, from and after 
May 1, 1825, subsequently extended to 
Jan. 1, 1826. 

The measures of capacity were found 
to be, at the period of passing the late 
statute, in the greatest confusion ; and 
a considerable change has consequently 
been made in them. The wine gallon 
formerly amounted to 231 cubic inches, 
the corn gallon to 268 "8, and the ale 
gallon to 282. But these are superseded 
by the imperial gallon, which contains 
277274 cubic inches, or 277i very 
nearly. The statute above mentioned, 
5 Geo. IV. c. 74, continues in force with 
some modifications by 4 and 5 Will. IV. 
c. 49, and 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 63, Sept. 9, 
1835. This last act abolishes all local 
or customary measures, prohibits the 
practice of selling by heaped mea- 
sure, &c. 

WELLS, city and bishop's see, So- 
merset, stands at the base of the Mendip 
Hills, near the source of the river Ax. 
Here Ina, king of Wessex, in 704, 
founded a collegiate church. In the 
reign of Edward the Elder, it was made 
the see of a bishop. In 1007 John de 
Villula removed the see to Bath : this 
circumstance gave rise to disputes, but 
by the mediation of the bishop, it was 
decided that the episcopal title should, 
in future, include both cities. The ca- 
thedral church, which is situated at the 
eastern extremity of the city, is a mag- 
nificent cruciform edifice, chiefly in the 
decorated pointed style. 

WENTW^ORTH. See Strafford. 

WERNER, the author of the " Wer- 
nerian System of Geology," born 1750, 
died 1820. 

WESLEY, Rev. John, founder of 
the sect of Methodists, was bom in 1703. 
In 1713 he was entered a scholar at the 
Charterhouse, and became a fellow of 
Lincoln-college, Oxford, about 1725; 
took the degree of master of arts in 1726, 
and was joint-tutor with the Rev. Dr. 
Hutchins, the rector. While at college 
he associated with a few of hia fellow- 



WES 



students, in a more than common strict- 
ness of religious life, by which they 
acquired the appellation of Methodists. 
In 1735 he embarked for Georgia, to 
preach the gospel to the Indian nations 
in the vicinity of that province. He 
returned to England in 1737. He 
preached his first field-sermon at Bristol, 
on Api'il 2, 1738, from which time his 
disciples have continued to increase. In 
1741 a serious dispute took place between 
him and Mr. Whitfield, in consequence 
of which they separated. Mr. Wesley 
chiefly resided, for the remainder of his 
life, in the metropolis, occasionally tra- 
velling through every part of Great Bri- 
tain and Ireland, establishing congrega- 
tions in each kingdom. He died March 
2, 1791. See Methodists. 

WEST, Benjamin, artist, born 1738, 
died 1820. 

WEST, Dr. Gilbert, translator of 
Pindar's Odes, died 1756. 

WEST, James, the antiquarian, died 
July 2, 1772. 

WESTHAM Abbey, Essex, founded 
1154. 

WESTMINSTER, city, Middlesex, 
the residence of the monarch, the seat of 
the parliament and of the high courts of 
justice, and constituting with London 
and Southwark, the metropolis of the 
British empire. On the dissolution of 
its abbey, in 1541, Henry VIII. erected 
it into archbishopric. It had, however, 
only one prelate, for Edward VI. soon 
after dissolved it ; and the abbey is now 
only a collegiate church. 

WESTMINSTER Abbey was built 
by Ethelbert of Kent, on the site of a 
temple of Apollo 914; rebuilt 1065; 
again rebuilt 1269; made collegiate 1560; 
towers built 1732 ; north porch repaired 
1750; injured by fire July 17, 1803; 
complete restoration commenced 1810. 

WESTMINSTER Hall, built by 
William Rufus, 1098 ; rebuilt 1399, by 
Richard II.; roof repaired 1748; the 
scaffolding erected for the trial of the 
rebels sold by the duke of Ancaster for 
£400, Sept. 13, 1748. The hall beau- 
tified and repaired 1782 : went through 
a general .repair in 1802 at the expense 
of £13,000. 

WESTMINSTER Medical So- 
ciety, estal)lished 1773. 

WESTMINSTER School founded 
1070; again by Queen Elizabeth 1560. 
WESTMINSTER, Matthew of, 
ancient historian, died about 1380. 



847 W H A 

WESTON, Rev. Stephen, author 
of the "Conformity of the European and 
Oriental Languages," died 1830. 

WESTPHALIA, formerly a circle 
of Germany, containing a duchy of the 
same name. This duchy, belonging in 
former ages to the dukes of Saxony, was 
in the 11th century transferred to the 
archbishop of Cologne. On the secu- 
larization of 1802, it was made over to 
Hesse-Darmstadt. At the peace of Lune- 
ville, all the parts of Westphaha on the 
west of the Rhine were ceded to France ; 
and in I8O6, when the confederation of 
the Rhine was formed, the circle itself 
was suppressed. In 1808 the French 
emperor erected the remainder into a 
kingdom, in favour of his brother Je- 
rome. After the battle of Leipsic, in 
1813, this new kingdom was overrun by 
the allies, and the government over- 
thrown. The territory now belongs to 
Prussia. 

WEXFORD, town, Ireland, province 
Leinster, founded by the Danes. On 
May 4, 1170, the English wrested the 
town from the Danish occupants, after a 
spirited siege of four days. Cromwell 
besieged this place in 1649, and having 
obtained admission through the treachery 
of James Stafford, put the garrison, con- 
sisting of 2000 soldiers, with Sir Edward 
Butler the governor, inhumanly to death. 

WHALE. The balaena mysticetus of 
Linnaeus, or the common whale, now 
rarely found except within the Arctic 
circle, at a former period was not unfre- 
quently met with on our coasts. One 
was driven ashore in the Humber, 1570; 
one on the coast of Norfolk, 1751 ; one 
near Berwick, 1752; 13 were driven 
ashore in a storm on the coast of Eng- 
land, Feb. 1762 ; one was killed above 
London Bridge in Sept. 1781; one 19 
feet long was killed at Execution Dock, 
Aug. 1796 ; one was killed at Hull, 
Nov. 1797 ; another in the Thames, 
Sept. 1799; and another at Leith the 
same month; one exhibited to the popu- 
lace near London Bridge, March 1 809 ; 
several were driven on the beach at 
Lewis, Scotland. April 25, 1832. 

WHALE Fishery. The Norwegians 
occasionally captured the whale before 
any other European nation. The Bis- 
cayans were the first people who prose- 
cuted the whale fishery as a regular 
commercial pursuit. They carried it on 
with great success in their own seas in the 
r2th, 13th, and 14th centuries. In 1261 



WHA 



848 



WHI 



a tithe was laid upon the tongues of 
whales imported into Bayonne, they 
being then a highly esteemed species of 
food. In 1388 Edward III. relinquished 
to Peter de Puayanne a duty of £6 ster- 
ling a whale, laid on those brought into 
the port of Biarritz, to indemnify him 
for the extraordinary expenses he had 
incurred in fitting out a fleet for the 
service of his majesty. The whales gra- 
dually became less numerous in the Bay 
of Biscay, and at length ceased almost 
entirely to frequent that sea. 

The voyages of the Dutch and English 
to the Northern Ocean, in the 16th cen- 
tury, laid open the haunts of the whale 
in that quarter. When in its most 
flourishing state, towards the year 1680, 
the Dutch whale fishery employed about 
260 ships, and 14,000 sailors. 

The English whale fishery was origi- 
nally carried on by the Muscovy com- 
pany and other associations, whose efforts 
were unsuccessful. But the legislature 
having resolved to support the trade, 
granted, in 1732, a bounty of 20s. a ton 
to every ship of more than 200 tons 
burden engaged in it. This premium 
being insufficient, it was raised, in 1749, 
to 40s. a ton, when a number of ships 
were fitted out. 

The late war having entirely annihi- 
lated the Dutch whale fishery, in conse- 
quence of the encouragement given by 
the government of England, it was after- 
wards prosecuted with greater success 
than at any previous period. At the 
termination of the war, in 1815, there 
were 134 valuable ships and about .5800 
seamen engaged in the Northern fishery, 
and about 30 ships and 800 men in that 
to the South. Since then the fishery 
has greatly fallen off", and in 1830, of 87 
ships that sailed for Davis's Straits, no 
less than 18, or 22 per cent, of the 
whole, were totally lost. 

WHARTON, John, English divine 
and historian, died 1694. 

WHARTON, Philip, Duke of, 
declared a traitor, April 3, 1729; died 
May 31, 1731. 

WHARTON, Richard, F.R.S., was 
a barrister-at-law, and was elected mem- 
ber of parliament for the city of Durham 
1802 — 6, 1807 — 12. He was sometime 
chairman of the Committee of Ways and 
Means ; and afterwards joint secretary 
of the treasury. He was the author of 
" Observations on the Authenticity of 
Bruce's Travels in Abyssinia," 1800, 



4to., and other works. He died Oct. 21, 

1828. 

WHARTON, William, the astrono- 
mer, born 1667, died 1752. 

WHEAT. See Corn Laws, 

WHEELWRIGHTS' Company, in- 
corporated 1670. 

WHIG, a name of reproach given by 
the court party to their antagonists for 
resembling the principles of the Whigs, 
or conventiclers in Scotland about 1 678. 
See Tories. 

WHISTON, William, an eccentric 
English divine and philosopher, was 
born in 1667. He became chaplain to 
Dr. More, bishop of Norwich, in 1694 ; 
and in this situation he published his 
first work, entitled a " New Theory of 
the Earth," &c. In the beginning of 
the 18th century he was made Sir Isaac 
Newton's successor, in the Lucasian 
professorship of mathematics at Cam- 
bridge ; he also published several scien- 
tific works, explanatory of the New- 
tonian philosophy. About 1710 he was 
known to have adopted Arian principles, 
and he was deprived of his professorship 
and banished the university. On his 
expulsion from Cambridge he settled in 
London, where he continued to write 
and propagate his sentiments. He died 
in 1762, at the age of 95. 

WHITAKER, Rev. J., author of the 
" History of Manchester," &c., bom 
1735, died 1808. 

WHITBREAD, Samuel, eminent 
political character, died by his own hand, 
when in a state of mental derangement, 
July 6, 1815. 

WHITBY, Rev. Daniel, author of 
the " Paraphrase and Commentary on 
the New Testament," born 1638, died 
1726. 

WHITE, Henry Kirke, the dis- 
tinguished youthful poet, died in St. 
John's College, Cambridge, I8O6, aged 
21. 

WHITE, Gilbert, naturahst, born 
1720, died 1793. 

WHITER, Rev. Walter, author of 
" Etymologicon Magnum," died 1832. 

WHITFIELD, George, founder of 
the sect of Calvinistic Methodists, was 
born 1714, and entered at Pembroke 
College, Oxford. Here he distinguished 
himself by his regular attention to re- 
ligious duties. Having made himself 
universally known in England by hia 
labours, he embarked for America in 
1739. After a long course of peregrina- 



WIC 



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tion he returned to England, and erected 
two very extensive buildings for public 
worship at Tottenham-court Road and 
Moorfields. In America, however, which 
always engaged much of his attention, 
he was destined to finish his comse; and 
he died at Newberr)% about 40 miles 
from Boston in New England, in 1770. 
See Methodists. 

WHITGIFT, Archbishop of Can- 
terbury, born 1530, died 1603. 

WHITEHALL, Westminster, built 
by Cardinal Wolsey 1545; injured by 
fire 1690; consumed Jan. 4, 1697-8; 
gateway pulled down and carried to 
Windsor, 1748. 

WHITEHEAD, Paul, the poet, who 
bequeathed his heart to Lord de Spenser, 
as a testimony of gratitude, and which 
bis lordship deposited in a magnificent 
mausoleum at his seat. West Wycombe, 
Bucks, died 1774. 

WHITSUNTIDE, festival instituted 
813 

WHITTAKER, Rev. T. D., antiqua- 
rian, born 1759, died 1822. 

WHITTINGTON, Sir Richard, 
rose from a low station, and was thrice 
lord mayor of London. He died in 1377. 

WICKLIFFE, John, the celebrated 
English reformer, was born about 1324, 
in the parish of WycliflF, near Richmond, 
in Yorkshire. He was educated at Ox- 
ford, first in Queen's and afterwards in 
Merton College. In 1361 he was chosen 
master of Baliol Hall, and in 1365, 
constituted warden of Canterbury Col- 
lege, afterwards Christchurch. In 1367 
he was ejected by the regulars; the eject- 
ment was confirmed by the pope, which 
gave rise to his opposition to the papists. 
About 1370 he published a defence of 
Edward III. against the pope, which was 
the cause of his introduction at court. 
He was presented by the king to the 
rectory of Lutterworth in Leicestershire, 
and in 1375 he obtained a prebend in 
the church of Westbury in Gloucester- 
shire. In 1377 a bull was sent over to 
the archbishop of Canterbury and the 
bishop of London, ordering them to 
secure this arch-heretic, and lay him in 
irons ; but protected by John, duke of 
Lancaster, he eluded the prosecution. 
In 1382 he published "Sixteen Conclu- 
sions," in which he ventured to ex])ose 
the grand article of transubstantiation. 
These being condemned by the chan- 
cellor of Oxford, he was expelled the 
university. He now retired to his living 



at Lutterworth, where he finished his 
translation of the Bible. In 1383 he was 
suddenly struck with a palsy ; a repeti- 
tion of which put on end to his life in 
December 1384. 

WIELAND, C. M.,the German poet, 
born 1733, died 1800. 

WIGHT, Isle of, county, ftants. 
In the beginning of the fifth century it 
was conquered by the Saxons ; was 
afterwards annexed to the kingdom of 
Wessex; but in 7S7 it was captured by 
the Danes. King John retired hither to 
make preparations for renewing the war 
with his barons, after they had compelled 
him to sign Magna Charta, It was 
taken by the French, July 13, 1377. 

WILBERFORCE, the eminent phi- 
lanthropist and promoter of the aboli- 
tion of the slave-trade, was born Aug. 
24, 1759, at Hull; entered St. John's 
College, Cambridge, where he graduated 
B.A. 1781, M.A. 1788. In 1780 he was 
returned as one of the representatives of 
his natiA'^e town ; and, at the election of 
1784, he was re-elected. It was at the 
particular solicitation of Mr. Clarkson 
that he was first induced to interest him- 
self on the subject of slavery. See 
Slavery. Mr. Wilberforce was elected 
without opposition, for the county of 
York, at the elections of 1790, 1796, 
1802, and 1806, and, after a severe con- 
test, at the election of 1807. In 1812 
he retired from the representation of 
Yorkshire, and was elected for Brara- 
ber. He finally retired froin his senatorial 
duties in 1825. He was the author of 
several works, particularly an " Appeal 
to the Religion, Justice, and Humanity of 
the Inhabitants of the British empire, in 
behalf of the Negro-slaves in the West 
Indies." He died July 29, 1833, aged 
73 ; and was interred in Westminster 
Abbey, on August 3. The funeral, which 
was a public one, was attended by a 
considerable number of the most dis- 
tinguished public characters. In 1841 
a statue of him, by Joseph, was placed 
in the abbey on the north side near the 
transept, forming one of the ornaments 
of that venerable cathedral. 

WILKES, John, member of parha- 
ment for Aylesbury, and author of a 
reputed libel on the ministry in 1763, 
for which he was prosecuted. April 30, 
he was arrested by order of the secretary 
of state, which began the controversy 
between him and the administration, 
relative to seizure of papers, &c., and led 
5 Q 



WIL 



850 



WIL 



to the abandonment of general warrants 
on the part of government. He died Dec. 
26, 1797, aged 70. 

WILLIAM I., of England, originally 
duke of Normandy, a descendant of 
Canute, born 1027 ; invaded England 
1066; was crowned at Westminster, 
Dec. 29, 1006; died at Hermentrude, 
near Rouen, in Normand}^, 10S7 ; was 
buried at Caen. 

WILLIAM II., son of the preceding, 
born 1057; crowned at Westminster 
Sept. 27, 1087 ; was killed by accident 
as he was hunting in the New Forest, 
by Sir Walter Tyrrel, Aug. 1100, aged 
43 ; was buried at Winchester. 

WILLIAM III., i)rince of Orange, 
born Nov. 4, 1650; created stadtholder, 
Julys, 1672; married the princess Mary 
of England, Nov. 4, 1677 ; landed with 
his army at Torbay, in England, Nov. 4, 
1688 ; was crowned with his queen, 
April 11, 1689; died March 8, 1702; 
was buried at Westminster. 

WILLIAM IV., fourth son of George 
III., born Aug. 21, 1765 ; entered the' 
navy, under the late Admiral Rodney, 
Dec. 29. 1780 ; was created duke of 
Clarence, May'20, 1789; married Princess 
Adelaide LouisaTheresa Caroline Amelia, 
eldest daughter of George Frederick 
Charles, late duke of Saxe Weiningen, 
July 11, 1818; succeeded his brother, 
George IV., June 26, 1830; was crowned 
Sept. 8, 1831 ; died at Windsor, Jime 
20, 1837; was buried in St. George's 
chape), Windsor. 

WILLIAM OF Malmsbury, English 
historian, flourished 1140. 

WILLIAM OF PoiCTiERS, first trou- 
badour, died 1126. 

WILLIAMS, George, M.D., fellow 
of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, re- 
gius professor of botany, keeper of the 
RadclifFe library, and one of the dele- 
gates of the university press. Died 
Jan. 17, 1834. 

WILLIAMS, Helen Maria, a lady 
of some celebrity as a writer, author of 
" Sketch of the Politics of France ;" 
" Sketches of the State of Manners and 
Opinions in the French Republic." She 
died Dec. 15, 1827. 

WILLIAMS, Rev. Dr. Daniel, 
founder of the library in Red-cross street, 
died 1716. 

WILLIAMS, Sir Charles Han- 
BURY,^ English historian and poet, died 
1759. 

WILLIAMS, Rev. John, late emi- 



nent missionary to the South Sea islands, 
was born about the year 1792. After 
being designated to the work under the 
patronage of the London Missionary 
Society, he became actively engaged in 
the mission to the South Sea, in 1817; 
he discovered the island of Rarotonga in 
1823. See Rarotonga. After labour- 
ing with great success for 18 years among 
these islanders, Mr. Williams returned 
to England in 1835 in order to recruit his 
health. Here he suggested the idea of pur- 
chasing a competent vessel to be engaged 
in the same service, and, when his health 
should permit, of embarl^ing again for 
the Southern Ocean. As soon as he had 
made this known, which was about 1836, 
the plan was patronised by many bene- 
volent and influential individuals, and 
was ultimately attended with success. 
He embarked for the South Sea in 1838, 
and was massacred at the island of Erro- 
roanga, one of the New Hebrides, on 
Nov. 20, 1839. 

WILLIS, Dr. Thomas, eminent 
English physician, &c., died 1675. 

WILLOUGHBY, Francis, English 
natural historian, died 1672. 

WILLS, to demise lands, were first 
permitted under restrictions, by Henry 
VIII. ; all real property was also subject 
to the same regulations generally at the 
Restoration. The statute 1 Vict. c. 26, 
July 3, 1837, entitled an "act for the 
amendment of the laws with respect to 
wills," repeals the statutes of wills, 32 
Hen.VIII. c. 1, and 34 and 35 Hen. VIII. 
c. 5, and 22 of the statute of frauds, 
29 Car. II. c. 3, &c. This important 
statute, founded on the report of the 
real property commissioners, has etf'ected 
several useful alterations in the old law 
of testamentary disposition. It has ma- 
terially simplified and rendered uniform 
the former intricate and diversified rules 
of execution of various forms of wills. 

WILMOT. See Rochester. 

WILNA, city, Russia, in Lithuania. 
It is the see of a Greek metropolitan 
and a Catholic bishop. Its university, 
established in 1570, was new-modelled 
by the Russian government in 1803. 
Wilna was entered by the French, June 
28, 1812. The French were driven from 
it by the Russians, Dec. 10, 1812. 

WILSON, the American ornitholo- 
gist, died Aug. 23, 1813. 

WILTON, borough, Wiltshire, is of 
great antiquity. In 871 a most sangui- 
nary battle was fought here between 



WIN 



851 



WIN 



King Alfred and the Danes. In 1003 it 
was burnt by Sweyn, king of Denmark, 
who laid waste all the western counties 
of England. In 1579 it was visited by 
Queen Elizabeth, and, in 1603, the court 
resided here for a short time. 

WILTSHIRE, inland county of Eng- 
land. Dviring the Saxon heptarchy, it 
was included in the kingdom of Wessex. 
In the seventh century, a contest for 
power occurred between the kings of 
Wessex and Mercia. In 1003 Sweyn, 
king of Denmark, ravaged the southern 
part of this county, plundered and de- 
stroyed the towns of Wilton and Sarum, 
and, in 1017, Edmund Ironside van- 
quished the Danes on the south-western 
borders of the county, and subsequently 
defeated their king, Canute, at Sherston, 
westward of Malmsbury. 

WINCH, Nathaniel, an excellent 
British botanist, author of " An Essay 
on the Geographical Distribution of 
Plants through the Counties of Northum- 
berland, Cumberland, and Durham;" 
and of a very elaborate " Flora of Nor- 
thumberland and Durham," died 183S. 

WINCHCOMB Monastery, Glou- 
cestershire, founded 800. 

WINCHESTER, city, county South- 
ampton, was founded at a period of re- 
mote antiquity; was called by the Britons 
Caer Gwent, or White City. The Ro- 
mans styled it Venta Belgarura ; the 
Saxons gave it the name of Wintance- 
astre, now altered into Winchester. 
Vortigern, about 448, made Winchester 
his metropolis ; and, after the conquest 
of this part of the island by Cerdric, it 
became the capital of the kingdom of the 
West Saxons. After the Norman con- 
quest, Winchester was frequently the 
residenceof the sovereign, and here took 
place the coronation of William Rufus. 
King John held a parliament or great 
council at Winchester in 1203, and his 
son Henry, afterwards Henry III., was 
born here. The parliamentary general. 
Sir William Waller, took possession of 
the castle, but towards the end of 1643 
it was recaptured by the royalists. 

WINDHAM, William, statesman 
and orator, born May 14, 1750, died 
June 4, 1810. 

WINDOWS. Before the use of glass 
became general, which was not till 
towards the end of the 12th centurj"-, 
the windows of Britain seem generally 
to have been composed of paper, pro- 
perly prepared with oil The window- 



tax was first enacted, I696; increased 
Feb. 5, 1746-7 ; again 1763-1778 ; again 
commuted for a tax on tea, Oct. 1, 1784 ; 
increased 1797; again, 18(>2 and 1808; 
and reduced 1823. By 3 Victoria, cap. 
17, any window or lights which any 
person shall have made or opened since 
April 5, 1835, under the provisions of 
4 and 5 Will. 4. c. 73, are still exempt 
from duty. Agreeable to the act, 3 Vict, 
passed June 6, 1840, houses having not 
more than seven windows, are entirely 
exempt from the duty on windows. 

W^INDSOR, Berks, owes its impor- 
tance, and probably its origin, to the 
royal castle or palace, which has been 
the favourite residence of some of our 
most distinguished sovereigns. The 
Norman conqueror kept the festival of 
Whitsuntide here in 1071. Henry I. 
enlarged Windsor Castle considerably, 
and built a chapel, where, in 1122, he 
celebrated his marriage with his second 
queen, Adelais of Lorrain. Additions 
were made to the fortifications by Henry 
III. Edward III. was born here. In 
the civil war between Charles I. and the 
parliament, Windsor Castle was garri- 
soned by the troops of the latter, and in 
1648 it became the prison of the mis- 
guided monarch. Charles II. caused 
the castle to be well repaired and richly 
furnished. George III. frequented Wind- 
sor more than his immediate predeces- 
sors, and, under his direction, St. George's 
chapel was completely repaired ; and 
George IV. made great improvements. 
The new gateway, which is called King 
George IV.'s, was externally completed 
in 1826. Other improvements, projected 
in his reign, were continued in the reigns 
of W^illiara IV. and Victoria. Prince 
Albert's new riding-house was completed 
in 1841. 

W^INE. The art of expressing and 
fermenting the juice of the grape appears 
to have been practised from the remotest 
antiquity. The wines of Lesbos and 
Chios among the Greeks, and the Faler- 
nian and Cecuban among the Romans, 
have acquired an immortality of renown. 
Wine was first made in England 1140; 
in Flanders in 1276. Port — the wine 
most commonly used in England — is 
produced in the province of Upper Douro, 
in Portugal ; and is shipped at Oporto, 
whence its name. The Oporto wine- 
company was founded in 1756, during 
the administration of the Marquis Pom- 
bal. The entire and absolute disposal of 



WOL 



852 



WOO 



the wines raised in this district was 
))laced in the hands of the company ; 
who were further authorised to fix the 
prices to be paid for them to the culti- 
vators, to prepare them for exportation, 
and to fix the price at wliich they should 
be sold to foreigners. In 1833, 2,596,530 
gallons of port were retained for con- 
sumption in the United Kingdom. The 
Ojjorto company was abolished by a de- 
cree, dated Lisbon, May 30, 1834. 

WIRE, invented at Nuremberg 1351. 
Wire mills were invented in Germany, 
1563. The first erected at Skeen, by a 
Dutchman, 1663. 

WIRTEMBERG, or Wirtemburg, 
kingdom, Germany, forms part of the 
old circle of Suabia; was erected into a 
kingdom by Napoleon in 1805, who 
made great additions to it by the terri- 
tories taken from Austria. In 1813 the 
allies having engaged to serve the king, 
received his support to invade France. 

WISHART, George, martyr, died 
1546. 

WISTAR, Gaspar, celebrated Ame- 
rican anatomist, l)orn 1761, died 1818. 

WITCHCRAFT. The belief that cer- 
tain persons were endowed with super- 
natural power, and that they were as- 
sisted by invisible spirits, is very ancient. 
Witchcraft was universally believed in 
Europe till the l6th century, and even 
maintained its ground with tolerable 
firmness till the middle of the 17th. In 
the reign of Henry VII., a woman was 
executed for this supposed crime by the 
sheriff of Devon ; 600 were executed 
for it in France, 1609 ; Grandiere, a priest 
of London, was burnt for bewitching a 
whole convent of nuns, 1634; 20 old 
women were executed in Bretagne, 1654 ; 
five persons were burnt as witches at 
Paisley, in Scotland, 1697; and nine 
were burnt in Poland, 1775. 

WITHERING, William, M.D., au- 
thor of " Botanical Arrangement," &c., 
born 1741, died 1799- 

WITHERSPOON, John, an eminent 
American divine, born 1722, died 1794. 

WITNESSES. See Examination 
OF Witnesses. 

WOAD, IsATis, or Glastrum, a 
plant from which the dyers obtain blue 
colouring matter: first cultivated in Eng- 
land 1582; the fi.xing of this .colour 
discovered 1753. 

WOLCOT, Dr., who assumed the 
name of Peter Pindar, the author of 
" Odes," &c., born 1738, died 1819. 



WOLFE, James, a celebrated British 
general, was born at Westerham, Kent, 
in 1726. In 1758 he was present as a 
brigadier- general at the siege of Louis- 
burg. The fame which he here acquired 
pointed him out as the most proper per- 
son to command the army destined to 
attack Quebec, where he gallantly fell 
September 13, 1759. 

WOLLASTON, William Hyde, 
M.D., an eminent philosopher, was born 
Aug. 6, 1766. He received his acade- 
mical education at Caius College, Cam- 
bridge, where he proceeded, M.B., 1787, 
and M.D. 1793. He first settled at Bury, 
St. Edmund's, where he commenced 
practising as a physician ; but with so 
little success that he left the place in dis- 
gust, and removed to London. Although 
almost every branch of science occupied 
him at different times, chemistry was that 
to which he seemed to have been most 
ardently devoted. He invented a very 
ingenious method of determining the 
properties and constituents of very mi- 
nute quantities of matter. Dr. Wollas- 
ton was elected a fellow of the Royal So- 
ciety in 1793, and was elected second 
secretary, Nov. 30, I8O6. His commu- 
nications to the " Philosophical Transac- 
tions" which were very numerous, com- 
menced in 1797, and terminated in 1820. 
He was also the author of numerous 
scientific communications to the Royal 
Society, &c. He died December 22, 
1828. 

WOLSEY, Thomas, celebrated eccle- 
siastic and statesman, is said to have 
been the son of a butcher at Ipswich. 
He studied at Magdalen College, Oxford, 
where he became acquainted with the 
learned Erasmus ; and in 1500 became 
rector of Lymington in Hampshire ; he 
was afterwards made chaplain to King 
Henry VIII. Having gradually acquired 
an entire ascendency over the mind of 
that monarch, he successively obtained 
several bishoprics, and at length was 
made archbishop of York, lord high 
chancellor of England, and prime mi- 
nister ; and was for several years the 
arbiter of Europe. Pope Leo X. created 
him cardinal in 1515 As his revenues 
were immense, his pride and ostentation 
were carried to the greatest height. His 
ambition to be pope, his exactions, and 
his political delay of Henry's divorce, 
at length occasioned his disgrace. He 
died in 1530. 

WOOD, Anthony, eminent anti- 



woo 



853 



WRE 



quarian, author of the " History and 
Antiquities of Oxford," was born 1632, 
died l6y5. 

WOODFALL, William, printer, the 
first man who reported the parhainentary 
debates from memory, and who reported 
them on the night of the proceedings. 
He died Aug. 1, 1803. 

WOOLLEN Manufactuue. This 
has always ranked as an important 
branch of national industry; and, until 
it was recently supplanted by the cotton 
manufacture, was decidedly the most 
important in England. Before the 10th 
century there are no notices of the manu- 
facture ; and from the 10th to the 13th 
they are but few and imperfect. It is 
certain, however, that the manufacture 
of broad cloths was established soon 
after the year 1200. Edward HL invited 
over Flemish weavers, fullers, dyers, and 
others, and shortly after, or in 1337, an 
act was passed prohibiting the wear of 
any cloths made beyond sea, and inter- 
dicting the export of English wool. 
Foreign wool began to be imported in 
small quantities in the 13th century. 

The manufacture was early introduced 
into Yorkshire, In 1533 an act was 
passed, 34 and 35 Henry VIII. c. 10, 
enacting that none shall make coverlets 
in Yorkshire, but inhabitants of the city 
of York. It was enacted, nearly at the 
same period, that the manufacture should 
be restricted in Worcestershire, to Wor- 
cester and four other towns. Norwich 
soon after became the principal seat of 
this branch of the manufacture. In 1614 
a great improvement took place in the 
woollen manufacture of the west of Eng- 
land, by the invention of what is called 
medley or mixed cloth, for which Glou- 
cestershire is still famous. 

Towards the end of the I7th century, 
the value of the wool shorn in England 
was estimated at £2,000,000 a year. The 
value of the woollen manufactured goods 
now annually produced in England and 
Wales is said to be £18,000,000. 

WOOLWICH, Kent, situated on the 
southern bank of the Thames, owes its 
present importance to a dock constructed 
in 1512 in the reign of Henry VIII., 
said to be the most ancient establishment 
of the kind in England. In the reign 
of George I. a foundry for cannon was 
erected on Woolwich Warren, from which 
circumstance originated the foundation 
of the arsenal, and the institution of the 
Royal Mihtaiy Academy in 1741, which. 



with other establishments connected with 
the army and navy, have raised the town 
to a state of great prosperity. Woolwich 
arsenal, stores, &c., were burnt to the 
value of £200,000, May 20, 1802; white 
hemp storehouse burnt down July 8, 
1813. For an account of casting at the 
arsenal see Cannon. 

WORCESTER, city, England, was 
destroyed during the early invasion of 
the country by the Danes; and in 894, 
it was rebuilt by Ethelred the son-in-law 
of Alfred the Great. A royal castle was 
erected here shortly after the Norman 
conquest. The city suffered in the con- 
tests which occurred in the reigns of 
John, Henry III., Henry IV^ &c. In 
the civil war under Charles I. it was 
garrisoned by the royahsts. After the 
execution of Charles I., the ill- concerted 
expedition of Charles II. was terminated 
by the victory gained over his forces by 
Ohver Cromwell near this place, August 
22, 1651. 

WORKSOP, market town, Notting- 
hamshire. In 1460 a battle took place 
here between the forces of the duke of 
York and those of the duke of Somerset, 
which ended in the defeat of the latter. 

WORMS, city of Hesse Darmstadt. 
Here Luther appeared before the diet in 
1521. It was taken by the French in 
1689, and again in 1792, but restored 
in 1794. 

WOUVERMANS, Philip, an emi- 
nent Dutch painter, born 1620, died 1668. 

WRAXALL, Sir Nathaniel, author 
of the "History of France," died 1831. 

WRAY, Daniel, Enghsh antiqua- 
rian, died 1783. 

WRECK. See Shipwrecks. 

WREDE, Field-Marshal, Prince, 
celebrated general and minister of state, 
hereditaty councillor and inspector-gene- 
ral of the kingdom of Bavaria, was born 
at Heidelberg in 1767. In 1805 he 
served with the army against Austria. 
At the head of the Bavarian array he 
entered France in 1814, and, when peace 
was concluded, he was elevated to the 
rank of prince. He died December 12, 
1838. 

WREN, Sir Christopher, one of 
the most eminent architects of his age, 
was born in 1632. He studied at Wad- 
ham College, in Oxford, where he took 
the degree of master of arts in 1653. In 
1657 he was made professor of astro- 
nomy at Gresham College, London, 
which he resigned in ) 660, on his being 



YAR 



854 



YOR 



chosen to the Savilian professorship of 
astronomy in Oxford. He was next year 
created doctor of laws ; and in 1G63 was 
elected fellow of the Royal Society. In 
1665 he travelled into France, to ex- 
amine the most beautiful edifices there, 
when he made many curious observa- 
tions In 1663 he was made surveyor- 
general of his majesty's works ; and 
from that time had the direction of a 
great number of public edifices. He 
built the theatre at Oxford, St. Paul's 



cathedral, the monument, &c. He died 
in 17'23. 

WYATT, James, architect, died Oc- 
tober 1813. 

WYCHERLY, William, poet, born 
1640, died Jan. 1, 1715-16. 

WYKEHAM, William of, eminent 
English prelate, bishop of Winchester, 
founder of New College, Oxford, died 
1404. 

WYNDHAM, Sir William, states- 
man, born 1687, died 1740. 



X. 



XAVIER, Francis, Baron De 
Zach, author of the astronomical work 
entitled "Recueil," born 1754, died 1833. 
XENOCRATES, a celebrated Grecian 
philosopher, born at Chalcedon in the 
95th Olympiad. He was a disciple of 
Plato, and supported the credit of the 
Platonic school by his lectures, his writ- 
ings, and his conduct. He lived to the 
first year of the 1 l6th Olympiad, or the 
82d of his age, when he lost his life by 
accidentally falling, in the dark, into a 
reservoir of water, 

XENOPHON, an illustrious philo- 
sopher, general, and historian, was born 
at Athens 82d Olympiad. He entered 
the army of Cyrus, and after his death, 
acquired great glory by the prudence 
and firmness with which he conducted 
back the army through the midst of 
innumerable dangers, into their own 
country, an account of which is related 
by him in his "Retreat of the Ten Thou- 
sand." He died at Corinth in the first 
year of the 105th Olympiad. 

XERES De La Frontera, town, 
Spain, province of Andalusia. On a plain 



adjoining to this town the famous battle 
between the Moors and Goths was fought 
in 711, in which the Goths were com- 
pletely defeated, and their empire over- 
turned. 

XIMENES. Cardinal De, bishop 
of Toledo and prime minister of Spain, 
was born at Torrelaguna, in Old Castile, 
in 1437. He erected a famous univer- 
sity at Alcala; and in 1499 founded the 
college of St. Ildephonso. In 1507 Pope 
Julius II. gave him the cardinal's hat, 
and King Ferdinand V. entrusted him 
with the administration of affairs. In 
1509 he extended the power of Spain 
by taking the city of Oran in the king- 
dom of Algiers. King Ferdinand dying 
in 1516, left Cardinal Ximenes regent 
of his dominions ; and the Archduke 
Charles, who was afterwards the Em- 
peror Charles V., confirmed that nomi- 
nation. During his administration he 
vindicated the rights of the people and 
of the crown against the exorbitant power 
of the nobility, but afterwards fell into 
disgrace. He died in 151", in his 81st 
year. 



Y. 



YARMOUTH, sea-port, Norfolk, in 
the reign of William I. was a royal de- 
mesne. In 1583, at the time of the 
alarm from the Spanish armada, a castle 
stood in the middle of the town. In 
1664, in the reign of Edward VI., when 
a rebellion against the government took 
place in Norfolk, under Ket, the insur- 
gents furiously assaulted this place, but 
they were repulsed. Not far from the 
jetty a naval pillar was erected in 1817, 
in commemoration of Admiral Lord 
Nelson. 



YELLOW Fever raged in the West 
Indies with uncommon mortality in 1794; 
at Santa Cruz, Teneriffe, 1200 died of 
it, February, 1811. 

YEOMEN OF the Guards, first in- 
stituted Oct. 30, 1485. 

YORK, county, England. After the 
invasion of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons, 
it formed the principal part of the king- 
dom of Deira, but the Britons retained 
the sovereignty, till about 560, when, in 
617, Deira was united with the northern 
kingdom of Bernicia, under the name of 



YOR 



^5 



YPR 



Northumbria. This kingdom, after un- 
dergoing various revolutions, was ra- 
vaged by the Danes, under Inguar and 
Hubba in 867, and sul)sequently colo- 
nised by that people. The Danes in- 
vaded ^liis part of the country in 993, 
and again in 1093. In 1138, Yorkshire 
was ravaged by the Scots under their 
king, David I., who, however, was com- 
pletely defeated at Northallerton. In 
1347 David II., of Scotland, having made 
an incursion into Yorkshire, was, on his 
retreat, defeated and taken prisoner at 
Ne\iirs Cross, near Durham. During 
the conflicts between the royal houses 
of Lancaster and York, battles were 
fought at Wakefield and Towton. The 
civil war, under Charles I., commenced 
in Yorkshire, by the unsuccessful attempt 
of the king to gain possession of Hull 
in 1642. Subsequently battles were 
fought at Guisborough, Selby, and 
Marston Moor. 

YORK, city and archbishopric, county 
of York, is very ancient. The emperor 
Adrian resided here in 124 ; Severus 
died in this city in 212. Here also the 
emperor, Constantius Chlorus, died in 
307. In 1138 David L, of Scotland, 
besieged York, but was repulsed by a 
body of forces commanded by the bishop 
of Durham. In the beginning of the 
reign of Richard I. a terrible massacre 
of the Jews took place in this city. In 
1252 Alexander III., of Scotland, came 
to York, with a large retinue, to cele- 
brate his nuptials with the daughter of 
Henry III. Parliaments were held here 
in 1297, 1298, 1299, 1314, 1318, 1322, 
1328, 1332, 1335, and 1336. Richard II. 
in 1389, visited York to settle some dis- 
putes between the ecclesiastics and the 
civic magistrates. The city having been 
made a royal garrison, was besieged in 
1644 by Sir Thomas Fairfax, and after 
the battle of Marston Moor, York was 
surrendered to the parliamentarians. In 
this city was ratified the treaty of com- 
promise between the English pai-liament 
and the Scottish army, Jan. 1, 1645. 

York was made the see of a bishop 
under Pauhnus, who converted the Nor- 
thumbrians to Christianity in 627. The 
cathedral church, a most magnificent 
structure, dedicated to St. Peter, was 
erected principally in the 13th and 14th 
centuries. The building having been 
destroyed by fire in the reign of Stephen, 
it was partly re-erected by Archbishop 



Roger, about 1170; but the principal 
part of the existing structure was built 
in the reign of Edward I., the nave being 
begun at that period, but it was finished 
about 1330, by Archbishop Mellow. 
Archbishop Thoresby rebuilt the choir 
in 136l,andin 1370, the central to w;er was 
also rebuilt. A richly ornamented stone 
screen separates the nave from the choir, 
which last mentioned beautiful portion of 
the building narrowly escaped entire de- 
struction, in consequence of its being set 
on fire, Feb. 2, 1829, by Jonathan Martin, 
who being arrested, a judicial investiga- 
tion of the affair took place, when it ap- 
peared that he was insane, and he was 
consequently consigned to Bedlam for 
hfe. In 1832 the damage occasioned 
by the fire had been completely repaired, 
and the choir restored in exact confor- 
mity with its former appearance, under 
the direction of Mr. Srairke. On May 
20, 1840, another fire, broke out which, 
entirely destroyed the roof of the nave, 
and a considerable portion of the south- 
west tower. 

YORK, New. See New York, 
p. 674. 

YORKE, Philip, earl of Hardwicke,. 
born 1690, died 1764. 

YORKE, Philip, second earl o£ 
Hardwicke, author of "Athenian Let- 
ters," born 1720, died 1790. 

YOUNG, Arthur, the agriculturist^ 
author of the " Farmer's Calendar," &e.,, 
died 1820. 

YOUNG, Dr. Edward, the distin- 
guished author of the "Night Thoughts,"' 
was born at Ujjham in Hampshire, in* 
1684. He was matriculated into All- 
Souls College, Oxford. His poem, 
called " The Last Day," was published 
in 1704. This was soon after followed 
by " The Force of Religion, or Van- 
quished Love," which introduced him to 
the best society. In 1730 he obtained 
the living of Welwyn in Hertfordshire. 
After publishing sevej-al other poems, he 
died at Welwyn, April 12, 1765, regretted 
by all, and was buried under the altar- 
])iece of that parish church. 

Y'PRES, town, kingdom of Belgium. 
In 1793 and 1794 it was exposed to bom- 
bardment from both French and allies. 
It surrendered to the French under Mo- 
reau, June 17, 1794, with 6000 men and 
100 cannon, &c. It remained in their 
hands until the overthrow of Buonaparte 
in 1814. 



Z I N 



856 



ZUI 



Z. 



ZACH, Baron De, a celebrated as- 
tronomer of Hungary, born 1754, died 
1833 

ZARAGOSA. See Saragosa. 

ZEALAND, New, in the Pacific 
Ocean, discovered by Tasman in 1642, 
by many supposed to make part of the 
southern continent till 1770, when the 
country was circumnavigated by Captain 
Cook, who found it to consist of two 
large islands, called by the natives Tavai 
and Eaheinomauwe. In 1814 a mission 
was commenced in New Zealand, which, 
in 1819, was visited by Mr. Marsden, 
under the patronage of the church mis- 
sionary society, when a tract of land, 
consisting of 13,000 acres, was pur- 
chased from one of the chiefs, and the 
missionaries were settled on it. in 1832 
four church mission stations had been 
established, and the natives were under 
a regular course of education. In 1839 
the New Zealand company was instituted, 
under the auspices of which a promising 
colony has been established. The first 
vessel with settlers reached Port Nichol- 
son, Feb. 1, 1840. The islands are now 
under British sovereignty. 

ZENO, founder of the sect of the 
Stoics, was born about a.c 300. He 
died at the age of 98, and the Athenians, 
at the request of Antigonus, erected a 
monument to his memory in the Cera- 
micum. 

ZEPHANIAH,the prophet, flourished 
A.c. 641. 

ZEUXIS, a celebrated painter of an- 
tiquity, flourished about a.c. 400. 

ZIMMERMAN, John George, 
M. D., author of " Solitude," born 1728, 
died 1795. 

ZINC, or Spelter, a metal of a bril- 
liant white colour, with a shade of blue. 
The word zinc occurs, for the first time, 
in the writings of Paracelsus, who died 
in 1541 ; but the method of extracting 
it from its ores was not known till the 



early part of the last century. Zinc is 
produced in the province of Yunan, in 
China, and, previously to 1820, large 
quantities of it were exported from that 
empire to India, the Malay Archipelago, 
&c. But about that time the free traders 
began to convey European spelter (prin- 
cipally German) to India cheaper; and 
it has entirely supplanted the latter in 
the Calcutta market. 

ZINZHIS Khan. See Genghis 
Khan. 

ZINZENDORFF, Count Nicholas 
Lewis, founder of the Hernhutters, or 
sect of Moravian co-operatives, who lived 
together in common at Hernhutt, died 
1748, aged 70, 

ZODIAC, Signs of the, invented 
by Anazimander, a.c. 547. 

ZOOLAS, or Zoolus, a numerous 
and powerful tribe of Caffres on the 
east coast of South Africa. In 1824 a 
small English colony was founded at Port 
Natal, with full encouragement from 
Chaka, the CafFre chief. See Natal. 

ZOOLOGICAL Society, formed in 
1826; incorporated 1829. Gardens, Re- 
gent's-park, instituted 1826; improved 
in 1830 and 1831. 

ZOROASTER, the founder of the 
religion of the Magi, flourished 1066. 

ZOSIMUS, author of the "History 
of the Roman Emperors," flourished 
A.c. 400. 

ZUINGLIUS, Ulricus, an able and 
zealous Swiss reformer, was born at 
Wildehausen in 1487, and ofiiciated as 
preacher at Zurich from the beginning 
of 1519 to 1523; he preached not only 
against indulgences, but against other 
articles of the Romish church. He dif- 
fered from Luther on the subject of 
church government, which caused a dis- 
pute with his countrymen. Both sides 
had recourse to arms ; when Zuinglius, 
who began as a preacher, died in arms 
as a soldier, in 1531. 



the end. 



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